CE 255

Theory of Structures

Dr.-Ing. J. W. Ampofo
 CE 255 – THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Chapter 1- The Conjugate Beam Method

Proposed by Professor Mueller-Breslau in 1865, the Conjugate Beam Method is a

slightly modified form of the Moment-Area Method (Chapter 2). Conjugate Beam
is defined as the imaginary beam with the same dimensions as that of the original
beam but load at any point on the conjugate beam is equal to the bending moment at
that point of the original beam divided by EI. The Conjugate Beam Method is an
engineering method used to find the slope and deflection of beams.
There are two theorems related to the conjugate beam

Theorem 1

The slope at a point in the real beam is equal to the shear at the corresponding point
in the conjugate beam.

Theorem 2

The displacement of a point in the real beam is equal to the moment at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.

The two theorems follow from the equations of internal loading and beam theory.

If the intensity of loading on a beam is w, V the shear force and M the bending
moment then

𝑑𝑉
= 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑤 𝑑𝑥 (1.1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀
But 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑋

𝑑2𝑀
= 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = ∫ (∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (1.2)
𝑑𝑥 2

If 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are slope and deflection at a point on the beam, then from the beam theory

𝑑𝜃 𝑀 𝑀
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (1.3)
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑦
But 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦 𝑀 𝑀
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ∫ [∫ 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 (1.4)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Comparing equations (1.1) and (1.3)

𝑉 = ∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑥

𝑀
𝜃=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
𝑀
We see that if the load w is replaced by , then the shear V corresponds to the
𝐸𝐼

slope 𝜃.

Similarly, comparing eqns. (1.2) and (1.4)

𝑀 = ∫ (∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑀
𝑦 = ∫ [∫ 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
𝑀
We see that if the w is replaced with then the bending moment corresponds to the
𝐸𝐼

deflection
Conjugate Beam Supports

When the conjugate beam is drawn, it is important that the shear and moment
developed in the conjugate beam correspond to the slope and displacement
conditions in the real beam.
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

1. Draw the Bending Moment Diagram for the given beam.

𝑀 𝑀
2. Construct the conjugate beam with the loading, Remember that when the
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑀
diagram is positive the loading is upwards and when the diagram is
𝐸𝐼

negative, the loading is downwards.

3. Use the equations of equilibrium to solve for the reactions of the conjugate
beam.
4. Solve for the shear and moment at the points or points where the slope and
displacement are desired. If the values are positive, the slope is counter
clockwise and the displacement is upward.

Example of how a real beam is transformed into a conjugate beam

Area Properties

The area properties are well known for triangular and rectangular areas. For
parabolic curves, we have
Example 1.1

Determine the slope and deflection at B of the cantilever below EI=constant

Solution

First draw the bending moment diagram. We note that for this case. The diagram can
be drawn without first calculating the reactions

𝑀
Next, draw the conjugate beam and load it with the diagram, remembering that
𝐸𝐼
𝑀
loading is downward because the diagram is negative.
𝐸𝐼
Cut a section through the beam near B and consider the free body diagram to the left
of the section.

For the vertical equilibrium of forces, we have

1 𝑃𝐿
𝑉+ ∗ ∗𝐿 =0
2 𝐸𝐼

𝑃𝐿2
𝑉=−
2𝐸𝐼

The rotation 𝜃𝐵 of the real beam

𝑃𝐿2
𝜃𝐵 = −
2𝐸𝐼

The minus sign means that it is a clockwise rotation.

Taking moments about a point at the section

 1 𝑃𝐿 2
𝑀+ ∗ ∗𝐿∗ 𝐿 =0
2 𝐸𝐼 3

𝑃𝐿3
𝑀=−
3𝐸𝐼

The deflection

𝑃𝐿3
𝑦𝐵 = −
3𝐸𝐼

The negative sign indicates that deflection is downward.

Example 1.2

Calculate the maximum deflection of the simply supported beam loaded with udl of
intensity w.

Solution

The determination of reactions and drawing the bending moment diagram is trivial
and left as an exercise for the student
 𝑀
 Construct and load the conjugate beam with the diagram
𝐸𝐼

 Calculation of Reactions
We note that the loading is symmetrical and therefore each support will take
half of the total load. The total load is equal to the area under the parabola.
1 2 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿3
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = ∗ ∗𝐿∗ =
2 3 8𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

For the given system, we know that the maximum deflection occurs at mid-span. We
therefore make a section at the mid-span of the beam and compute the initial
moment.
 3 𝐿 3𝐿
𝑥̅ = ∗ =
8 2 16

Taking moments at a point on the section, we have

𝑊𝐿3 𝐿 𝑊𝐿3 3𝐿
𝑀+ ∗ − ∗ =0
24𝐸𝐼 2 24𝐸𝐼 16

𝑊𝐿3 3𝐿 𝐿
𝑀= ( − )
24𝐸𝐼 16 2

5𝑊𝐿4
=−
384𝐸𝐼

Max deflection
5𝑊𝐿4
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑)
384𝐸𝐼
Example 1.3

For the simply supported beam below, determine the deflection at C and the
maximum deflection.

Solution

The maximum moment occurs under the load, with a value

3
𝑀 =2×6× = 4𝑘𝑁𝑚 (Student should confirm this by calculating reactions)
6+3

Conjugate Beam and Loading

Reactions
 ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

1 1 1 1 90
9𝑅𝐵 = ( ∗ 4 ∗ 6 ∗ 4) + ( ∗ 4 ∗ 3 ∗ 7) =
𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
10
𝑅𝐵 =
𝐸𝐼
1 1 10 8
𝑅𝐴 = ( ∗ 4 ∗ 9) − =
𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

Bending moment at C

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

8 1 1
𝑀𝐶 + ∗ 6 − ( ∗ 4 ∗ 6) ∗ 2 = 0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2
48 24 24
𝑀𝐶 = − + =−
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
24
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝐶 = (downward)
𝐸𝐼
Maximum Deflection

We note that the maximum deflection

 Occurs near mid-span

 Occurs where the slope of the elastic curve or shear force is zero

The maximum deflection occurs between A and C, therefore we calculate the shear
force at a section x from support A.

At a section x metres from A, The intensity of load y can be calculates using similar
triangles

𝑦 4 2
= →𝑦= 𝑥
𝑥 6 3

Summing vertical forces,

8 1 1 2
𝑉(𝑥) + − ∗ 𝑥∗ 𝑥=0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2 3

8 𝑥2
𝑉(𝑥) + − =0
𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼

8 𝑥2
𝑉(𝑥) = − +
𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
At maximum deflection, 𝑉(𝑥) = 0

𝑥2 8
=
3𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

𝑥 2 = 24 → 𝑥 = 4.899𝑚

8 1 1 4.899 4.899
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗ 4.899 + ∗ ∗ ∗ 4 ∗ 4.899 ∗
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2 6 3
−26.13
=
𝐸𝐼
26.13
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 4.899𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴
𝐸𝐼

BEAMS OF VARIABLE RIGIDITY

The conjugate beam can be also be used to calculate the slope and deflection of beam
of variable rigidity. This is illustrated in the example below.

Example 1.4

Calculate the slope and deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam of Example
1.1 if the moment of inertia (2nd moment of area) varies as shown below.
Solution

The fact that the beam has variable rigidity has no effect on the bending moment
diagram.

We note that, using similar triangles, the moment at C is -PL/2

When loading the conjugate beam, the moments between A and C are divided by
1 1
and those between C and B are divided by . This gives the following
2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

loaded conjugate beam.

The slope at B is the shear force at B, the total load on the beam.

𝜃𝐵 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶

+ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵)
 1 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝐿 1 𝑃𝐿 𝐿
= −[ ( + )∗ + ∗ ∗ ]
2 2𝐸𝐼 4𝐸𝐼 2 2 2𝐸𝐼 2

3𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3 5𝑃𝐿3

=− − =−
16𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼

𝑦𝐵
= −(𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
+ 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐵

Since the centroid of the trapezium is not known the trapezium can be divided into

a. 2 triangles
b. A triangle and a rectangle

And their moments combined – the principle of superposition

Moment of trapezoidal load using 2 traingles

1 𝑃𝐿 𝐿
Trapezium is divided into an upper triangle of area ∗ ∗ and the distance of
2 2𝐸𝐼 2
2 𝐿 𝐿
its centroid from B is ∗ +
3 2 2
 1 𝑃𝐿 𝐿 2 𝐿 𝐿 −5𝑃𝐿3
Theref6re 𝑀𝑖𝑢 = − ∗ ∗ ( ∗ + ) =
2 2𝐸𝐼 2 3 2 2 48𝐸𝐼

1 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 1 𝐿 𝐿
And a lower triangle of area ∗ ∗ with distance of centroid from B ∗ +
2 2 4𝐸𝐼 3 2 2

1 𝑃𝐿 𝐿 1 𝐿 𝐿 −𝑃𝐿3
Therefore 𝑀𝑖𝐿 = − ∗ ∗ ( ∗ + ) =
2 4𝐸𝐼 2 3 2 2 24𝐸𝐼

Total moment 𝑀𝑖 = 𝑀𝑖𝑢 + 𝑀𝑖𝐿

−5𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3
= −
48𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

−7𝑃𝐿3
=
48𝐸𝐼

Alternatively we may calculate the moment of the trapezoidal load using a rectangle
and a triangle

Following the same procedure as before

1 𝑃𝐿 𝐿 2 𝐿 𝐿 −5𝑃𝐿3
𝑀𝑖𝑢 = − ∗ ∗ ( ∗ + )=
2 4𝐸𝐼 2 3 2 2 96𝐸𝐼
 𝑃𝐿 𝐿 1 𝐿 𝐿 −3𝑃𝐿3
𝑀𝑖𝐿 = − ∗ ( ∗ + )=
4𝐸𝐼 2 2 2 2 32𝐸𝐼

Total Moment 𝑀𝑖 = 𝑀𝑖𝑢 + 𝑀𝑖𝐿

−5𝑃𝐿3 3𝑃𝐿3
= −
96𝐸𝐼 32𝐸𝐼

−14𝑃𝐿3
=
96𝐸𝐼

−7𝑃𝐿3
48𝐸𝐼

As we see, two methods yield the same results.

Finally we calculate the moment of the triangular load between C and B

about B.

1 𝑃𝐿 𝐿 2 𝐿
𝑀2 = − ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
2 2𝐸𝐼 2 3 2

𝑃𝐿3
=−
24𝐸𝐼
Deflection at B

𝑦𝐵 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2

−7𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3
=
48𝐸𝐼
− 24𝐸𝐼

−9𝑃𝐿3
=
48𝐸𝐼
 EXERCISES

P1.1

Determine the slope and deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam below

P1.2

For the beam below, calculate the maximum deflection within the span A-B

P1.3

Calculate the rotation just to the left and just to the right of B. Compute the deflection
at D
 CHAPTER 2

THE MOMENT-AREA METHOD

The Moment-Area Method was developed by Otto Mohr in 1868 and presents
powerful tool for finding the deflection of structures subjected primarily to bending.
Its ease of finding deflections of statically determinate structures makes it ideal for
solving statically indeterminate structures, using compatibility of displacements.

THEORETICAL BASIS

We consider the length AB of abeam in its undeformed state (page 22). From the
diagram, we note.

1. AB is the original unloaded length of the beam and A’B’ is deflected position
of AB when loaded.
2. The angle subtended at the centre of arc A’OB’ is Ө and is the change in slope
from A’ to B’
3. PQ is a very short length of the beam, measured as dS along the curve and dx
along the x-axis
4. dӨ is the change in slope from P to Q and is also the angle subtended at the
centre of the arc dS.
5. M is the average bending moment over the portion dx between P and Q.
6. The distance ∆ is known as the vertical intercept and is the distance from B’
to the produced tangent to the curve at A’ which crosses under B’ at C. It is
measured perpendicular to the undeformed neutral axis.
 MOHR’S FIRST THEOREM (Mohr 1)

Noting that the angles are small and measured in radians, we have

𝑑𝑆 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑆
𝑅=
𝑑𝜃

From the Euler-Bernoulli Theory of Bending, we know

1 𝑀
=
𝑅 𝐸𝐼
𝑀
Hence 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑆
𝐸𝐼

But for small deflections, the chord and arc length are similar, i.e. 𝑑𝑆 ≈ 𝑑𝑥, giving

𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

The total change in slope between A and B is thus

𝐵 𝐵
𝑀
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝐴 𝐸𝐼

𝐵
𝑀
𝑑𝜃𝐵𝐴 = 𝜃𝐵 − 𝜃𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

𝑀
[𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒]𝐴𝐵 = [𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚]
𝐸𝐼 𝐴𝐵

Usually the beam is prismatic and so E and I do not change over the length AB,
whereas the bending moment M will change thus

1 𝐵
𝜃𝐴𝐵 = ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝐴
 𝑀
[𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚]
𝐸𝐼 𝐴𝐵
[𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒]𝐴𝐵 =
𝐸𝐼

This is Mohr’s First theorem (Mohr 1)

 The change in slope between any two points on an elastic curve is equal to the
area of the bending moment diagram between the points divided by EI.

MOHR’S SECOND THEOREM (Mohr II)

From the diagram we can see that

𝑑∆= 𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝜃
𝑀
But 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

𝑀
Therefore 𝑑∆= ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

And for the portion AB, we have

𝐵 𝐵
𝑀
∫ 𝑑∆ = ∫ ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝐴 𝐸𝐼

𝐵
𝑀
∆𝐵𝐴 = [∫ ∗ 𝑑𝑥 ] 𝑥̅
𝐴 𝐸𝐼

𝑀
= 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐵
𝐸𝐼

This can be interpreted as

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑀
[ ] = [𝑀 ] ∗[ ]
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝐵𝐴 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 ( ) 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝐸𝐼 𝐵𝐴 𝐸𝐼 𝐵𝐴
This is Mohr’s second theorem and may be stated as:

 For an originally straight beam subjected to bending moment, the vertical

intercept between one terminal and the tangent to the curve of another terminal
𝑀
is the first moment of the diagram about the terminal where the intercept is
𝐸𝐼

measured.

Two crucial things must be noted from this definition;

1. Vertical intercept is not deflection. It is the distance from the deformed

position of the beam to the tangent of the deformed shape of the beam at
another location
Thus
∆≠ 𝛿

2. The moment of the curvature diagram must e taken about the point where the
vertical intercept is required. That is

∆𝐵𝐴 ≠ ∆𝐴𝐵
Example 2.1

For the cantilever beam shown, find the slope and deflection at B

Solution
 For Mohr 1,

𝑀
[𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒]𝐴𝐵 = [𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚]
𝐸𝐼 𝐴𝐵

1 𝑃𝐿
𝜃𝐵 − 𝜃𝐴 = ∗𝐿∗
2 𝐸𝐼

But 𝜃𝐴 = 0

𝑃𝐿2
Therefore 𝜃𝐵 =
2𝐸𝐼

In this case, because the tangent from A is horizontal, the vertical intercept ∆𝐵𝐴 is
equal to the deflection S at B

𝑀
Since the intercept is measured at B, the first moment of the diagram must be
𝐸𝐼

taken from this point

Thus from Mohr II, we have

1 𝑃𝐿 2𝐿
∆𝐵𝐴 = ( ∗ 𝐿 ∗ ) ∗
2 𝐸𝐼 3

And so the deflection at B is

𝑃𝐿3
𝛿𝐵 =
3𝐸𝐼

Example 2.2

For the following simply supported beam, calculate the slope at A using Mohr’s
theorems

Solution

In the Moment-Area Method, the deflected shape diagram is used to identify

relationships between vertical intercepts and slopes
The key to the solution here is that we calculate ∆𝐵𝐴 using Mohr II but from the
diagram we see that we can use the formula 𝑆 = 𝑅𝜃 for small angles

∆𝐵𝐴 = 𝐿𝜃𝐴

∆𝐵𝐴⁄
Once we know ∆𝐵𝐴 from Mohr II, we can find 𝜃𝐴 = 𝐿
𝑀
To calculate ∆𝐵𝐴 using Mohr II, we need the diagram
𝐸𝐼
 2 𝐿 2𝐿
𝑎= ∗ =
3 3 9
𝐿 1 2𝐿 5𝐿
𝑏= + ( )=
3 2 3 9

Thus from Mohr II

1 2𝐿 2𝑃𝐿 5𝐿 1 𝐿 2𝑃𝐿 2𝐿
∆𝐵𝐴 = ∗ ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗ ∗
2 3 9𝐸𝐼 9 2 3 9𝐸𝐼 9

10𝑃𝐿3 2𝑃𝐿3 12𝑃𝐿3

= + =
243𝐸𝐼 243𝐸𝐼 243𝐸𝐼

4𝑃𝐿3
=
81𝐸𝐼

But ∆𝐵𝐴 = 𝐿𝜃𝐴

∆𝐵𝐴⁄
𝜃𝐴 = 𝐿

4𝑃𝐿3
=
81𝐸𝐼
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR FINDING DEFLECTIONS

To find deflection at any location x from a support, use the following relationships
between slopes and vertical intercepts.

1. Use Mohr II to find the slope at the support

2. For the location x and from the diagram we have
𝛿𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝜃𝐵 − ∆𝑋𝐵

MAXIMUM DEFLECTION

We know that the maximum deflection occurs at a slope 𝜃 = 0

To find where the slope is zero

1. Calculate slope at some point, say support A, using Mohr II

2. Using Mohr I determine at what distance from the point of known slope (𝜃𝐴 )
the change in slope (Mohr I), 𝑑𝜃𝐴 equals the known slope, (𝜃𝐴 )
3. This is the point of maximum deflection since
𝜃𝐴 − 𝑑𝜃𝐴 = 𝜃𝐴 − 𝜃𝐴 = 0

Example 2.3

For the following beam of constant EI

a. Determine 𝜃𝐴 , 𝜃𝐵 and 𝛿𝐶
b. What is the maximum deflection and where is it located?
The first step is to draw the bending moment diagram and draw the deflected shape
diagram with slopes and tangents as indicated.

Slopes at A and B

2 1 4 1
𝐸𝐼∆𝐴𝐵 = ( ∗ 2) ( ∗ 2 ∗ 53.4) + (2 + ) ( ∗ 4 ∗ 53.4)
3 2 3 2

4 20
= 53.4 ( + ) = 427.2
3 3

Therefore ∆𝐴𝐵 = 427.2⁄𝐸𝐼

But ∆𝐴𝐵 = 6𝜃𝐵

427.2
6𝜃𝐵 =
𝐸𝐼
71.2
Therefore 𝜃𝐵 =
𝐸𝐼

Similarly for the slope at A

2 1 1 1
𝐸𝐼∆𝐵𝐴 = ( ∗ 4) ( ∗ 4 ∗ 53.4) + (4 + ∗ 2) ( ∗ 2 ∗ 53.4)
3 2 3 2

16 14
= 53.4 ( + ) = 534
3 3

∆𝐵𝐴 = 534⁄𝐸𝐼
But ∆𝐵𝐴 = 6𝜃𝐴

89.2
Therefore 𝜃𝐴 =
𝐸𝐼

Deflection at C

To find the deflection at C, we use the vertical intercept ∆𝐶𝐵 and 𝜃𝐵

From the diagram above

𝛿𝐶 = 4𝜃𝐵 − ∆𝐶𝐵

From the bending moment diagram and slope at B

1 4
𝐸𝐼𝛿𝐶 = 4 ∗ 71.2 − ( ∗ 4 ∗ 53.4) ( ) = 142.4
2 3
142.4
Therefore 𝛿𝐶 =
𝐸𝐼
MAXIMUM DEFLECTION

The first step in finding the maximum deflection is to locate its position. We know
two things;

1. Maximum deflection occurs where there is zero slope

2. Maximum deflection is always close to the centre of span

Based on these facts, we work with Mohr I to find the point of zero slope which will
be located between B and C, as follows.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜃𝐵 − 0 = 𝜃𝐵
𝑀
Since we know that the change in slope is also the area of the diagram we need to
𝐸𝐼
𝑀
find the point x where the area of the diagram is equal to 𝜃𝐵
𝐸𝐼

𝑥 1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝐸𝐼(𝜃𝐵 − 0) = (53.4 ∗ ) ∗ ∗ 𝑥
4 2

𝑥2
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝐸𝐼(𝜃𝐵 ) = (53.4 ∗ )
8

71.2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜃𝐵 = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐸𝐼
 71.2 𝑥2
𝐸𝐼 ( ) = 53.4 ∗
𝐸𝐼 8

𝑥 2 = 10.66

𝑥 = 3.265𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵

𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝜃𝐵 − ∆𝑋𝐵

3.2652 3.265
𝐸𝐼𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.265 ∗ 71.2 − (53.4 ∗ )∗
8 8

= 155

155
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐸𝐼
APPLICATION TO STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

 Moment-Area Method for Built-in-Beams

A beam is said to be built in or encastre when both ends are rigidly fixed so
that the slope at the ends remain horizontal

It follows that, if EI is constant

 Change in slope from end to end is zero and Mohr I gives

∑ 𝐴𝑖 = 0
 The vertical intercept are zero at both ends and Mohr II gives

∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑥̅𝑖 = 0

Where 𝐴𝑖 are the areas under the bending moment diagram and 𝑥̅𝑖 the distances of
the centroids to the end where the intercepts are being measured.

It is convenient to show the bending moment diagram to any load such as below as
the algebraic sum of 2 parts – one due to loads, treating the beam as simply supported
and the other due to end moments, introduced to bring the slope back to zero.
Mohr I states that the sum of the areas, positive and negative is zero

𝐴1 − 𝐴2 = 0 → 𝐴1 = 𝐴2

And Mohr II gives

𝐴1 𝑥̅1 = 𝐴2 𝑥̅2

These equations can be used to solve for the unknown fixed-end moments 𝑀𝐴 and
𝑀𝐵 . We illustrate this by the following examples.
Example 2.4

For the built-in beam shown, determine the end moments and the deflection under
the load (maximum deflection)

Solution

The bending moment diagram is of the form

Due to symmetry, 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀

Draw the free moment and fixed moment diagrams

From Mohr I, the area of the free moment diagram is equal to that of the fixed
moment diagram

𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 ∗ =𝑀∗𝐿
2 4
𝑃𝐿
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑀 =
8

Since 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀 , application of Mohr II s redundant, However for

unsymmetrical loading, 𝑀𝐴 ≠ 𝑀𝐵 and a second equation is obtained from Mohr II
to solve for the two unknowns 𝑀𝐴 , 𝑀𝐵
Deflection

Taking moments at C where the intercepts is measured

1 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 1 𝐿 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 1 𝐿
𝐸𝐼∆𝐶𝐴 = ( ∗ ∗ ) ∗ ∗ − ( ∗ ) ∗ ∗
2 2 4 3 2 2 8 2 2

𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3

= − =−
96 64 192

𝑃𝐿3
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∆𝐶𝐴 = −
192𝐸𝐼

Note that the same results are obtained measuring the intercept ∆𝐴𝐶
 APPLICATION TO INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES – USE OF
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION AND DISPLACEMENT
COMPATIBILITY

Generally, we can use the principle of superposition to separate indeterminate

structures into primary and reactant structures.

For the built-in beams of the previous section, the primary structures is the statically
determinate simply-supported beam with the given load (Free moment) and the
reactant structure is the simply-supported beam loaded with the moment reactions
(Fixed Moments).

 For these structures, we can calculate the deflections at a point for which the
deflection is known for the original structure.
 We then use compatibility of displacement to equate the two calculated
deflections to the known deflection of the original structure.
 Doing so will yield the redundant reaction chosen for the reactant structure.

Once this is known, all other load effects (bending moment, shear force, deflections
and rotations) can be calculated. We illustrate this in the following example:

Example 2.5

For the propped cantilever shown, determine the maximum deflection.

Solution

The system is statically indeterminate to the first degree so one of the reactions must
ne release to obtain a statically- determinate primary structure. There are 2
possibilities – either the moment at A or the reaction at B. Let’s settle for the latter.

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 + 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑅𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡

In the final structure we know that the deflection at B,𝛿𝐵 , must be zero as it is a roller
support. Therefore from the bending moment diagram that results from the
superposition of the primary and reactant structures, we calculate 𝛿𝐵 in terms of RB
and solve 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝐵 = 0δ

From the deflected shape and bending moment diagram of the primary structure.

1 1 3 4096
∆𝐵𝐴 = 𝛿𝐵𝑃 = ∗ (−256) ∗ 8 ∗ ( ∗ 8) = −
𝐸𝐼 3 4 𝐸𝐼

and from those of the reactant structure

1 1 2 512
∆𝐵𝐴 = 𝛿𝐵𝑅 = ∗ ∗ 8𝑅𝐵 ∗ (−256) ∗ 8 ∗ ( ∗ 8) = 𝑅
𝐸𝐼 2 3 3𝐸𝐼 𝐵
The displacement compatibility at B gives

4096 512
𝛿𝐵 = 𝛿𝐵𝑃 + 𝛿𝐵𝑅 = − + 𝑅 =0
𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼 𝐵

512
𝑅 = 4096
3𝐸𝐼 𝐵

𝑅𝐵 = 24 𝑘𝑁

With 𝑅𝐵 known, we can draw the final bending moment diagram by adding the
BMDs of the primary and reactant structures

LOCATION OF THE MAXIMUM DEFLECTION

Assume the maximum deflection is at a location x from support B. The slope at the
maximum deflection is zero. This means that between B and x, the slope changes by
 𝑀
𝜃𝐵 and therefore by Mohr I, the area of the diagram between 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 and B is equal
𝐸𝑖

to 𝜃𝐵 .
𝑀
To calculate the required area of the diagram, it is convenient to use the primary
𝐸𝑖

and reactant diagram rather than the final diagram.

1 1 4
𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐵𝑋 = − ∗ 4𝑥 2 ∗ 𝑥 + ∗ 24𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 = − 𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2
3 2 3
1 1 256
𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐵 = − ∗ 256 ∗ 8 + ∗ 8 ∗ 24 ∗ 8 =
3 2 3

𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐵𝑋 = 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐵

4 256
− 𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 =
3 3

4𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 + 256 = 0

𝑥 = 3.37

1 3 1 2
𝐸𝐼𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − ∗ 4 ∗ 3.372 ∗ 3.37 ∗ ∗ 3.37 + ∗ 24 ∗ 3.372 ∗ ∗ 3.37
3 4 2 3

= 177.2
 177.2
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐸𝐼

EXERCISE

P2.1

For a simply-supported beam of span L with a concentrated Load P at mid-span,

shows that the deflection under the load is

𝑃𝐿3
𝛿=
48𝐸𝐼

P2.2

For a simply-supported beam of span L loaded with UDL of intensity w, show that
the mid-span deflection is

5𝑊𝐿4
𝛿=
384𝐸𝐼

P2.3

Apply Mohr’s Theorem to calculate the end moments of the built-in beams below.
P2.4

Assume a simply-supported beam as a primary structure for the propped cantilever

loaded with UDL as shown below. Use the appropriate displacement compatibility
to calculate the moment at A.

P2.5

Find the maximum deflection in span AB and the deflection at C in terms of EI

 CHAPTER 3

CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND THE THREE MOMENT EQUATION

A beam is used to be continuous when supported on more than 2 supports.

Continuous beams are statically indeterminate. The intermediate supports of a
continuous beam are always subjected to some bending moment. The analysis of a
continuous beam is similar to that of fixed end beam.

The bending moment diagram of a continuous beam, under any set of loading, may
be drawn in two stages:

1.) By considering the beam as a series of discontinuous beams (with simple

supports) and drawing the bending moment diagram for the given loads, (Free
Moment Diagram).
2.) By superimposing the Free Moment diagram to the end moments (Fixed
Moment Diagram)
 In Fig 3.1, ABC is a continuous beam in which

𝐿1 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵

𝐿2 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶

𝐼1 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝐵

𝐼2 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐵𝐶

𝑀𝐴 = 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐴

𝑀𝐵 = 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐵

𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐶

𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝐵

𝐴2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐵𝐶

Fig 3.2 shows the deflected shape. Draw a tangent to the deflected shape (Elastic
curve) at B meeting the vertical through A at D and the vertical through C at E.

We note that
 ℎ𝐴 ℎ𝐶
tan 𝜃 = =− … … … … … 𝑒𝑞. 3.1
𝐿1 𝐿2

From Mohr II

1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 2𝐿1
ℎ𝐴 = ∆𝐴𝐵 = [(𝐴1 𝑥̅1 + 𝑀𝐴 ∗ ∗ ) + (𝑀𝐵 ∗ ∗ )]
𝐸𝐼𝑖 2 3 2 3

1 6𝐴1 𝑥̅1 𝑀𝐴 𝐿21 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿1 2

= ( + + )
6𝐸 𝐼1 𝐼1 𝐼1

ℎ𝐴 1 6𝐴1 𝑥̅1 𝑀𝐴 𝐿1 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿1

= ( + + ) 𝑒𝑞 3.2
𝐿1 6𝐸 𝐼1 𝐿1 𝐼1 𝐼1

ℎ𝐶 1 6𝐴2 𝑥̅2 𝑀𝐶 𝐿2 2𝑀𝐵 𝐿2

= ( + + ) 𝑒𝑞 3.3
𝐿2 6𝐸 𝐼2 𝐿2 𝐼2 𝐼2

Substituting eq. 3.2 and eq 3.3 in eq 3.1 we obtain

𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐴1 𝑥̅1 𝐴2 𝑥̅2
𝑀𝐴 + 2𝑀𝐵 ( + ) + 𝑀𝐶 = −6 ( + )
𝐼1 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐿1 𝐼2 𝐿2

This is known as the three Moment Equation

If the moment of inertia of the beam is constant, the equation reduces to

𝐴1 𝑥̅1 𝐴2 𝑥̅2
𝑀𝐴 𝐿1 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀𝐶 𝐿2 = −6 ( + )
𝐿1 𝐿2

The Three Moment Equation was derived by CLAPEYRON in 1857 and relates the
unknown reactant moments to the free bending moment diagram for each two
consecutive spans of a continuous beam. By writing this equation for each adjacent
pair of spans, a sufficient number of equations are obtained pair of spans, a sufficient
number of equations are obtained to solve for the unknown moments.

Example 3.1

A continuous beam ABCD, simply supported at A, B, C and D is loaded as shown

below. Find the support moments and draw the bending moment and shear force
diagram.

Solution

Draw the continuous beam as a series of simply-supported beams and draw the free
moment diagram EI is constant.
The degree of redundancy is 2 - 𝑀𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝐶

We consider the first 2 spans, AB and BC

And calculate the terms 𝐴1 𝑥̅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 𝑥̅2 in the three moment equation. The moment
𝐴1 𝑥̅1 is taken at A and 𝐴2 𝑥̅2 is taken at C. The moments are taken at the exterior
supports and NEVER at the middle supports. The areas 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 are each divided
into two as indicated by the dotted lines so that the centroids of the resulting triangles
can be easily located.

1 2 1 1
𝐴1 𝑥̅1 = ∗ 12 ∗ 2 ∗ ∗ 2 + ∗ 12 ∗ 4 (2 + ∗ 4)
2 3 2 3

= 16 + 80 = 96

1 2 1 1
𝐴2 𝑥̅2 = ∗ 9.6 ∗ 3 ∗ ∗ 3 + ∗ 9.6 ∗ 2 (3 + ∗ 2)
2 3 2 3

= 28.8 + 35.2 = 64

We can now write the three moment equation for span AB

𝐴1 𝑥̅1 𝐴2 𝑥̅2
𝑀𝐴 𝐿1 + 2𝑀𝐵 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀𝐶 𝐿2 = −6 ( + )
𝐿1 𝐿2

We note that the continuous beam has a simple support at A, i.e. 𝑀𝐴 = 0

96 64
0 + 2𝑀𝐵 (6 + 5) + 𝑀𝐶 ∗ 5 = −6 ( + )
6 5
 22 𝑀𝐵 + 5𝑀𝐶 = −172.8

Next, we move to spans BC and CD

In calculating 𝐴1 𝑥̅1 , we note that while 𝐴1 is the same area 𝐴2 shown in the spans
AB and BC, the moment is taken at the same point. For spans AB, BC the moment
was taken at C while for the present spans, it is taken at B.

1 2 1 1
𝐴1 𝑥̅1 = ∗ 9.6 ∗ 2 ∗ ∗ 2 + ∗ 9.6 ∗ 3 (2 + ∗ 3)
2 3 2 3

12.8 + 43.2 = 56

2 4
𝐴2 𝑥̅2 = ∗ 4 ∗ 6 ∗ = 32
3 2

We now write the 3 Moment Equations, noting that the unknown moments are
now 𝑀𝐵 , 𝑀𝐶 and 𝑀𝐷 . However, 𝑀𝐷 is zero because D is an exterior simple supports

56 32
𝑀𝐵 ∗ 5 + 2𝑀𝐶 (5 + 4) = −6 ( + )
5 4

5𝑀𝐵 + 18𝑀𝐶 = −115.2

The Equations (a) and (b) are solved simultaneously to obtain

𝑀𝐵 = −6.84𝑘𝑁𝑚
 𝑀𝐶 = −4.48 𝑘𝑁𝑚

REACTIONS

With the support moments, calculated, the reactions can be calculated from the
simply-supported beams as follows:

Considering span AB

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

6𝑅𝐴 − 9 ∗ 4 + 6.84 = 0

36 − 6.84
𝑅𝐴 = = 4.86 𝑘𝑁
6

𝑅𝐵 𝐿 = 9 − 4.86 = 4.14 𝑘𝑁
Span BC

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

5𝑅𝐵 𝑅 − 6.84 − 8 ∗ 3 + 4.48 = 0

𝑅𝐵 𝑅 = 5.27 𝑘𝑁

𝑅𝐶 𝐿 = 8 − 5.27 = 2.73 𝑘𝑁

Span CD

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

6𝑅𝐷 − 3 ∗ 4 ∗ 2 + 4.48 = 0

𝑅𝐷 = 4.88 𝑘𝑁
 𝑅𝐶 𝑅 = 3 ∗ 4 − 4.88 = 7.12 𝑘𝑁

𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵 𝐿 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅 = 4.14 + 5.27 = 9.41 𝑘𝑁

𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶 𝐿 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅 = 2.73 + 7.12 = 9.85 𝑘𝑁

The bending moment diagram can be drawn by superimposing the free moment
diagram on the fixed moment diagram.

The shear force diagram can be constructed from the reactions of the simply-
supported beams.
CONTINUOUS BEAM WITH OVERHANG

If a continuous beam has an overhang that end remains statically determine since the
support moment is known. No additional equation needs to be formulated due to the
overhang.

For the above beams, we have only one redundant moment, 𝑀𝐵 , A is an end simple
support, 𝑀𝐴 = 0 , and at C we observe that 𝑀𝐶 = −𝑃𝐿3 , the negative sign indicating
a hogging moment.

For such a structure, we first formulate the three moment equation involving 𝑀𝐴 , 𝑀𝐵
and 𝑀𝐶 and substitute the known values of 𝑀𝐴 and 𝑀𝐶 .

CONTINUOUS BEAM WITH FIXED END SUPPORT

For a continuous beam with fixed end supports, end moments are developed at the
supports. The rotation at the fixed end does not take place and the support moment
is required to be calculated.
In order to analyse such as beam by the Theorem of Three Moment, an additional
equation is required for each fixed end. In such a case, whenever an exterior support
is fixed, an additional imaginary span of length zero with no loads is appended to
the end.

In formulating equation 2 in the above sketch, all terms involving the appended zero
length span are zero.

Thus for span BC and CC’

Three Moment Equation

𝐴1 𝑥̅1
𝑀𝐵 𝐿1 + 2𝑀𝐶 (𝐿1 + 0) = −6 ( + 0)
𝐿1

𝐴1 𝑥̅1
𝑀𝐵 𝐿1 + 2𝑀𝐶 𝐿1 = −6
𝐿1
Example 3.2

For the continuous beam with constant EI, determine the supports moments and
draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams.

𝐴𝐼 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝐼 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵

𝐴1 𝑥̅1 = 0

1 1 1 2
𝐴2 𝑥̅2 = ∗ 24 ∗ 3 (2 + ∗ 3) + ∗ 24 ∗ 2 ∗ ∗ 2
2 3 2 3

= 108 + 32

= 140
3 Moment Equation:

140
2𝑀𝐴 (5) + 𝑀𝐵 (5) = −6 ( )
5

10𝑀𝐴 + 5𝑀𝐵 = −168

Spans AB and BC

2 1
𝐴1 𝑥̅1 = 36 ∗ ∗ 3 + 24 (3 + ∗ 2)
3 3

= 160

2 5
𝐴2 𝑥̅2 = ∗ 5 ∗ 31.25 ∗
3 2

= 260.42

3 Moment Equation

160 260.42
𝑀𝐴 (5) + 2𝑀𝐵 (5 + 5) + 𝑀𝐶 (5) = −6 ( + )
5 5

5𝑀𝐴 + 20𝑀𝐵 + 5𝑀𝐶 = −504.5

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝐶 = −10

∴ 5𝑀𝐴 + 20𝑀𝐵 = −454.5

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠 (1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2) 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦

𝑀𝐴 = −6.21 𝑘𝑁𝑚

𝑀𝐵 = −21.17 𝑘𝑁𝑚
 Reactions

Left Free Body Diagram

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

5𝑅𝐴 + 21.17 − 6.21 − 20 ∗ 2 = 0

5𝑅𝐴 = 40 − 21.17 + 6.21

𝑅𝐴 = 5 𝑘𝑁

𝑅𝐵 𝐿 = 20 − 5 = 15 𝑘𝑁

Right Free Body Diagram

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

5
5𝑅𝐶 + 21.17 − 10 − 50 ∗ =0
2

5𝑅𝐶 = 125 + 10 − 21.17

 𝑅𝐶 = 22.77 𝑘𝑁

𝑅𝐵 𝑅 = 50 − 22.77 = 27.23 𝑘𝑁

𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵 𝐿 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅 = 15 + 27.23

= 42.23 𝑘𝑁
 EXERCISES

P3.1

Analyse the propped cantilever beam below and draw the bending moment and shear
force diagrams. EI is constant.

P3.2

Analyse the fixed beam with internal hinge and draw the bending moment diagram
EI=constant.
P3.3

For the continuous beam below, use the three moment theorem to calculate the
unknown moments and draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams.
 CHAPTER 4

DEFLECTION BY ENERGY METHODS

Energy Methods belong to a class of procedures employing the Principle of

Conservation of Energy to determine the deflections of structures. To this class
belong, among others,

 The STRAIN ENERGY METHODS

 The PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
 CASTIGLIANO’S METHOD

In this course, we shall limit ourselves to the principle of virtual work.

4.1 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

 A virtual displacement is an imaginary displacement imposed on a
structure, compatible with the boundary conditions.
 Virtual Force is a set of imaginary forces in equilibrium

The work done by the real force during virtual displacement or the work done by the
virtual force during real displacement is called virtual work.

 For virtual work to be done, either the displacement or force must be virtual.
Both cannot be real nor can both be virtual.
The Principle of virtual work states that:

 A body is in equilibrium if, and only if the virtual work of all forces acting on
the body is zero

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VIRTUAL WORK

When a structure deforms, work is done both by the applied loads moving through
a displacement, as well as by the internal stresses moving through corresponding
strains (increase in strain energy) in the structure.

Thus when virtual displacements or forces are causing virtual work, we have:

𝛿𝑊 = 0

𝛿𝑊𝐼 − 𝛿𝑊𝐸 = 0

𝛿𝑊𝐼 = 𝛿𝑊𝐸

Where;

 Virtual work is denoted 𝛿𝑊 and is zero for a body in equilibrium

 External Work done is 𝛿𝑊𝐸 , and
 Internal Work is 𝛿𝑊𝐼

The Material can be linear or non-linear

The external virtual work is

𝛿𝑊𝐸 = ∑(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)

The internal virtual work is the work done by the internal forces on their
corresponding virtual displacements.
We shall consider only the axial forces N and moment M among the internal forces.
The effects of shear and torsion are insignificant.

For a length 𝑑𝑥 of a member under constant axial load N and constant moment M,
with extension 𝑑𝛿 and rotation 𝑑𝜃, the internal virtual work.

𝛿𝑊𝐼 = 𝑁𝑑𝛿 + 𝑀𝑑𝜃

𝑊𝐼 = ∫ 𝑁 𝑑𝛿 + ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝜃
THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

In the Virtual Work Method, also called the Unit Load or Dummy Load Method,
two sets of loading are considered.

SET 1: Structure subjected to actual external loads or temperature changes

SET 2: Unit Load acting on , structure. This is a fictitious or dummy load introduced
for the purpose of calculating the displacements in the structure. The unit load is
placed at the point of the structure and in the direction where displacement is
required.

Impose the displacements due to the first set (real loadings) as virtual displacement
for the unit load. The virtual work done by the unit load.

𝑊𝐸 = 1 ∗ ∆

Where ∆ is the real displacement being sought

1 ∗ ∆= ∫ 𝑁1 𝑑𝛿 + ∫ 𝑀1 𝑑𝜃

Where ∆ , 𝑑𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

And 1, 𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

Using Hooke’s Law (Refer to Fig 4.1)

𝑁𝑝
𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸𝐴
𝑀𝑝
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
Where:

𝑁𝑝 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠)

𝑀𝑝 − 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠

𝑁𝐼 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑀𝐼 − 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑝
∆= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐼

From trusses, the bending effects are negligible and

𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝
∆= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐴

Since the axial forces in truss members are constant the above simplifies to
𝑛
𝑁𝐼𝑖 𝑁𝑝𝑖
∆= ∑ 𝐿𝑖
𝐸𝐴𝑖
𝑖=1

Where the summation goes over the number of members

For the beam and for many frames, the axial effect on displacements is very small
and can be omitted; Thus
𝐿 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑝
∆= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐸𝐼

In most cases, for statically determinate structures, the moment diagrams 𝑀𝐼 and 𝑀𝑝
can be drawn without writing the equations. The Integral ∫ 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑝 𝑑𝑥 can be
computed graphically.
 𝐿 𝐿
∫ 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑀𝑝 𝑀𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝜂
0 0

𝐴∗ 𝜂
∴ ∆=
𝐸𝐼
Example 4.1

Use the unit load method to calculate the mid-span deflection and the slope at the
supports of a simply-supported beam loaded with UDL of intensity w.

Solution

Method 1: Integration

Set1 Loading

𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝑥 2
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑥−
2 2

Set 2 loading

1 𝐿
𝑀𝑖 = 𝑥 ; (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ )
2 2
Due to symmetry, the integration can be performed over half the span and the results
multiplied by 2.
𝐿
2
1 𝐿 2 1 𝑤𝐿𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
∆= ∫ 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 𝐸𝐼 2 2 2
0

𝐿
2
2 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 3
∆= ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 4 4
0

𝑳
𝟐 𝑤𝐿𝑥 3 𝑤𝑥 4 𝟐
= [( − )]
𝐸𝐼 12 16 𝟎

2 𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿4
= [ − ]
𝐸𝐼 96 256

𝑤𝐿4 1 1
= ( − )
𝐸𝐼 48 128

5𝑤𝐿4
=
384𝐸𝐼

Method 2 – Graphical (Preferred)

Set 1 Loading
Set 2 loading

Due to symmetry we can deal with the diagrams up to mid-span and double the
results

2∗𝐴∗ 𝜂
∴ ∆=
𝐸𝐼

2 𝐿 𝑤𝐿2 5 𝐿 1
=2∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
3 2 8 8 4 𝐸𝐼
 5𝑤𝐿4
=
384𝐸𝐼

To calculate the rotation or slope at the support, we apply a unit moment to support
A and draw the 𝑀𝐼 diagram

1 2 𝑤𝐿2 1
𝜃𝐴 = ∗ ∗𝐿∗ ∗
𝐸𝐼 3 8 2

𝑤𝐿3
=
24𝐸𝐼
Example 4.2

For the frame below, determine the vertical deflection at node D. EI is constant for
all members

Solution

For the set 1 loading, let’s use the principle of superposition letting the UDL and
concentrated load act independently.

For the systems on the right, the bending moment diagrams can easily be drawn.
𝐸𝐼 ∆𝐻
𝐷 = 80 + 10 + 20 = 110

110
∆𝐻
𝐷=
𝐸𝐼
Example 4.3

For the truss above, determine the following:

a. The vertical deflection of node 5

b. The rotation of member 1-5
c. The change in distance between nodes 2 and 3

Solution

Sub questions (a), (b) and (c) all make use of the same set 1 Loading. The axial
forces in the members must be determined for the given external loading.
 a. To calculate the vertical deflection of node 5, put a vertical unit load at node
5 and calculate the axial forces in all members.

Now make and compute the following table

Member Length(L) Area (A) 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝐿/𝐴

1-3 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 P 0
2-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A -1 -2P PL/A
4-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 -P 0
1-2 𝐿 ⁄2 A -1 -P PL/2A
1-5 𝐿√2⁄2 𝐴√2/2 √2 √2P 2PL/A
3-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 -P 0
3-4 𝐿√2⁄2 𝐴√2/2 0 √2P 0
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝐿 7𝑃𝐿
∑ =
𝐴 2𝐴

Therefore Vertical deflection of node 5

7𝑃𝐿
∆𝑣5 =
2𝐸𝐴
(b) We need to subject member 1-5 to a unit moment. Since trusses do not take
moments at the joints, we use a couple (pair of equal but opposite forces) at the ends
of member 1-5 to produce a unit moment. The force at each end, F, is calculated as

𝐿√2
𝐹∗ =1
2

2 √2
𝐹= =
√2𝐿 𝐿

To calculate the rotation of member 1-5, replace the column containing 𝑁𝐼 in (a)
with those above and compute the last column in the table as follows:
 Member Length(L) Area (A) 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝐿/𝐴
1-3 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 P 0
2-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A -2/L -2P 2P/A
4-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 -P 0
1-2 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 -P 0
1-5 𝐿√2⁄2 𝐴√2/2 √2/L √2P 2P/A
3-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 -P 0
3-4 𝐿√2⁄2 𝐴√2/2 0 √2P 0
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝐿 4𝑃
∑ =
𝐴 𝐴

4𝑃
∆1−5 =
𝐸𝐴

(c) The nodes 2 and 3 either approach each other or move away from each other.
The unit loads (P=1) act at nodes 2 and 3 along the line joining them but directed
opposite each other. The forces are self-equilibrating and produce no reactions.
 Member Length(L) Area (A) 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝐿/𝐴
1-3 𝐿 ⁄2 A −√2/2 P −√2PL/4A
2-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A −√2/2 -2P √2PL/2A
4-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A 0 -P 0
1-2 𝐿 ⁄2 A −√2/2 -P √2PL/4A
1-5 𝐿√2⁄2 𝐴√2/2 1 √2P √2PL/A
3-5 𝐿 ⁄2 A −√2/2 -P √2PL/4A
3-4 𝐿√2⁄2 𝐴√2/2 0 √2P 0
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑝 𝐿 7√2 𝑃𝐿
∑ =
𝐴 4𝐴

7√2 𝑃𝐿
∆2−3 =
4𝐴

Since the value is positive, the nodes approach each other as indicated.
 EXERCISES

P4.1

Use the unit load method to calculate the vertical deflection at D

P4.2

Calculate the slope at A and the deflection at C

P4.3

For the cantilever truss, calculate the vertical deflection at joints 5 and 3. EA=80,000
kN for all members.