General Biology 1-Module 2:The Basic Unit of Life

The Cell Membrane

A cell’s membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. These molecules look like a
tadpole. It has a head end facing the inside and outside of the cell, and tail end
facing each other.

There are 3 different structures that are made of proteins embedded within the
phospholipid bilayer.

1. CHANNELS- these are special tube-like structures that allows large

molecules to enter the cell. Color the channel red, phospholipid yellow and
molecules green. Some channels are always open, some are open and shut, some
are 1 way and some are 2 way. State if the channels on the pictures are open or
shut?

2. MARKERS- these serves as a nametag of the cell. All your cells have a
protein nametag that says that they are belong to your body. If the cell doesn’t
have your nametag, the white blood cells (your army soldiers) won’t recognize and
will destroy it. Color the markers orange and the phospholipids layer yellow.

3. RECEPTORS- these are the special sensing structures. They are like the
cells eye, ears, and mouths. They communicate to the inside what’s going on the
outside. They are kind of like blobs with antennas. Color the receptor violet and
the phospholipid layer yellow.

Cell membrane
The Cell Membrane

Cell membrane has two functions: first, to be a barrier keeping the

constituents of the cell in and unwanted substances out and, second, to be a gate
allowing transport into the cell of essential nutrients and movement from the cell
of waste products

Structure of Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is made up of two layers that are composed of

phospholipid bilayer. The bilayer is formed by the arrangement of phospholipids
in a manner that their head regions (which are hydrophilic) face external
environment as well as the internal cytosolic environment. The (hydrophobic) tails
of these phospholipids face each other. Forces underlying the formation of this
bilayer are electrostatic, van der Waals, non-covalent interactions, and hydrogen
bonds. This unusual arrangement of hydrophilic and hydrophobic layers doesn’t
allow nucleic acids, amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and ions to pass
through the bilayer.

Following are the various parts of the cell membrane:

Phospholipid bilayer
Phospholipid bilayer is a double layer made up of phospholipid molecules. These
molecules are like a tadpole. It has a head and a tail. The phospholipid head is a
hydrophilic (water-loving) because they interact with water outside and inside the
cell. The phospholipid tail is a hydrophobic (water-repelling) that is made up of
fatty acids, they hate and repel water.

Integral Membrane Protein

Integral proteins are the proteins of the cell membrane which are
completely embedded in the bilayer of phospholipids and have hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions. The region touching the hydrophobic tails are ought to be
hydrophobic region whereas the region of the protein exposed to the watery
environment are the hydrophilic regions. Their main function is to allow the polar
and big molecules to pass across the membrane which are restricted by the
phospholipid bilayer. They act as the gate for making the transportation either
active or passive easier. All transmembrane protein or the protein involve in
transportation of molecules are Integral Membrane Protein but not all Integral
Membrane Protein are transmembrane protein.

Integral Membrane Proteins are the following:

Channel Proteins/ Transport Proteins
Channel Proteins are integral proteins that are a transmembrane protein.
They are a special arrangement, tube-like structures of amino acids which is
embedded in the cell membrane providing a hydrophilic passageway for water and
large molecules. These molecules move to an area of high concentration to an area
with lower concentration. Some channel proteins are always open. It is called
nongated channel protein. It is needed whenever the balance of water and ions
must be assisted by the constant passage of water and ions into or out of the cell.
Another type of channel protein is the one that opens and shut which is called
gated channel protein. It remains closed until it receives a special chemical or
electrical signal to open. Channel proteins on the surface of nerve cells reacts to
electrical signals created by the flooding of ions through the membrane next to
them. As they open, ions spill through and continue the electrical disturbance.
This passes a s signal very quickly through the body. Some channel proteins have
also a 1- or 2-way process.

Marker Proteins/ Glycoproteins/ Cell Recognition Protein

Marker proteins are integral membrane protein but not a transmembrane
protein. They have carbohydrates in them that extend across the cell membrane
and serve to identify the cell. The immune system uses these proteins to identify
friendly cells from foreign cell invaders. They serve as a nametag which is unique
as fingerprints. These proteins play a very important role especially in organ
transplant. If the marker proteins on a transplanted organ are different from
those of the original marker proteins of organ, the body will reject the organ and
trait it as a foreign invader which will then be attacked by the white blood cells to
protect the body.

Receptor Proteins
There are two types of receptor protein, Membrane receptors associated
with signaling are all integral membrane proteins that can transmit signals
through the lipid bilayer, while other receptors are known to be peripheral
membrane protein

Peripheral Membrane Protein

Peripheral proteins are only located in the inner or outer surface of the
phospholipid bilayer like floating iceberg. Receptor Proteins are peripheral
membrane protein.

Receptor Proteins (Intracellular Proteins)/ Extrinsic Proteins

Some other type of receptor proteins is classified as a Peripheral Membrane Protein. They
are like blobs with antennas made up of carbohydrates. They can bind to the
corresponding ligands to initiate signaling pathways because they have a special sensing
structure. They communicate to the inside of the cell about what is happening outside the
cell. They serve as the eyes, ears and mouth of the cell.

How cell membrane allows substances to pass through?

Essential and continuous parts of the life of a cell are the taking in of nutrients and
the expelling of wastes. All of these must pass through the cell membrane. Transport may
occur by diffusion and osmosis across the membrane. It can also occur when a vesicle
attaches to the cell membrane from the inside and then opens to form a pocket, expelling
its contents to the outside. This may be called exocytosis. The cell membrane may also
envelope something on the outside and surround it, taking it into the cell. This may be
called endocytosis or phagocytosis. There are also processes where molecules move across
a membrane from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration, and this
requires a source of energy to "pump" the molecules uphill in concentration. Such
processes are called active transport.
 General Biology 1 Quarter 1 – Module 3:
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotes are simple, small cells, whereas eukaryotic cells are complex,
large structured and are present in trillions which can be single celled or
multicellular. Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-defined nucleus but DNA
molecule is located in the cell, termed as nucleoid, whereas eukaryotic cells have a
well-defined nucleus, where genetic material is stored. Based on the structure and
functions, cells are broadly classified as Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic Cells are the most primitive kind of cells and lack few features as
compared to the eukaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cells have evolved from prokaryotic
cells only but contain different types of organelles like Endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi body, Mitochondria etc., which are specific in their functions. But features
like growth, response, and most importantly giving birth to the young ones are the
commonly shared by all living organisms.

In the following content, we will discuss the general difference between the
two types of cells. As these ‘cells’ are considered as the structural and functional
unit of life, whether it’s a single cell organism like bacteria, protozoa, or
multicellular organisms like plants and animals.

COMMON MISTAKES AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Eukaryotes can be unicellular- Many people think that eukaryotes are all
multicellular, but this is not the case. While prokaryotes are always unicellular
organisms, eukaryotes can be either unicellular or multicellular. For example, most
protists are single celled eukaryotes.

Even though prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, they DO contain

genetic information. Prokaryotes generally have single circular chromosomes
where they store their genetic information.

Though they sound negative, bacteria are very important, though they
cause diseases they also play significant roles which are beneficial for mankind.
Some of these roles are the following:
a. Decomposers
b. Ancient producer of oxygen
c. Aids in digestion
d. Help in Nitrogen Cycle
e. Vector for genetic engineering purposes
 Bacteria are classified under prokaryotic organism. It is separated from
plants and animals which have eukaryotic cell for several reasons. Read the
selection below and be ready to differentiate prokaryotic from eukaryotic organism.

Generalized structure of Prokaryotic cell consists of the following:

a. Glycocalyx: This layer

function as a receptor, the
adhesive also provide
protection to the cell wall.

b. Nucleoid: It is the location of

the genetic material (DNA),
large DNA molecule is
condensed into the small
packet.

c. Pilus: Hair like

hollow attachment present on
the surface of bacteria, and is
used to transfers of DNA to other cells during cell-cell adhesion.

d. Mesosomes: It is the extension of the cell membrane, unfolded into

the cytoplasm their role is during the cellular respiration.

e. Flagellum: Helps in movement, attached to the basal body of the

cell.
 f. Cell Wall: It provides rigidity and support for the cell.

g. Fimbriae: Helps in attachment to the surface and other bacteria

while mating. These are small hair-like structure.

h. Inclusion/Granules: It helps in storage of carbohydrates, glycogen,

phosphate, fats in the form of particles which can be used when
needed.

i. Ribosomes: Tiny particles which help in protein synthesis.

j. Cell membrane: Thin layer of protein and lipids, surrounds

cytoplasm and regulate the flow of materials inside and outside the
cells.

k. Endospore: It helps cell in surviving during harsh conditions.

In terms of peptidoglycan present in the cell wall, prokaryotes can be
divided into Gram-positive and Gram -negative bacteria. The former
contains a large amount of peptidoglycan in their cell wall while the
latter have the thin layer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Eu means ‘new,’ and karyon means ‘nucleus,’ so these are the

advanced type of cells found in plant, animals, and fungi. Eukaryotic
cells have a welldefined nucleus and different organelles to perform
different functions within the cell, though working is complex to
understand.
 This kind of cells are found in algae, fungi, protozoa, plants, and
animals and can be single-celled, colonial or multicellular. Among
them, fungi and protists (algae and protozoa) are the major kingdoms.

The general structure of Eukaryotic cells contain:

a. Nucleus: Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus where
DNA (genetic material) is stored, it helps in the production of
protein synthesis and ribosomes also. The chromosome is
present inside the nucleus, which is surrounded by the nuclear
envelope. It is a bi-lipid layer and controls the passage of ions
and molecules.

b. Cytoplasm: It is the location where other organelles are located,

and
other metabolic activities of the cell also take place here.

c. Mitochondria: It is called ‘the powerhouse of the cell,’ and is

responsible for making ATP. Mitochondria has its own DNA and
ribosomes.

d. Chloroplast: These are found in algae and plants, it is one of

the most important organelles in the plant which helps in
converting energy sunlight into chemical energy through
photosynthesis. They resemble mitochondria.
e. Golgi body: It consists of a stack of many flattened, disc-shaped
sacs known as cisternae. The exact nature of Golgi varies, but it
helps in the packaging of materials and in secreting them.

f. Lysosomes and Vacuoles – The most important function of

Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus is the synthesis of g.
Lysosomes, which helps in digestion of intracellular molecules with the
help of the enzyme called hydrolase.

g. Vacuoles are the membrane-bound cavities containing fluid as

well as
solid materials, and they engulf materials through endocytosis.

h. Endoplasmic Reticulum: It transport lipids, proteins, and

other materials through the cell. They are of two types of
smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

i. Appendages: Cilia and Flagella are locomotory attachments,

helps in the movement of a cell towards positive stimuli. Cilia
are shorter than flagella and numerous.

j. Cell Wall: Cell Wall provides shapes, rigidity, and support to the
cell. Compositions of the cell wall may vary of different
organisms but which can be of either cellulose, pectin, chitin or
peptidoglycan.

k. Cytoplasmic Membrane/Plasma Membrane: It is a thin

semipermeable, surrounding the cytoplasm, it acts as the
barrier of the cell which regulates entry and exit of the
substances inside and outside the cell. This layer is made up of
two layers of phospholipids embedded with proteins. In Plant
cell, this layer is present below the cell wall whereas in the
Animal cell it is the outermost layer.

l. Ribosomes: Though small in size but are present in numbers,

they help in protein synthesis. Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes
which are further divided into two subunits which are 40S and
60S (S stands for Sedverg unit).

m. Cytoskeleton: It is supporting framework of the cells, which is

of two types Microtubules and Microfilaments. Microtubules
have a diameter of about 24 nanometers (nm), made up of a
protein called tubulin, while Microfilaments has a diameter of
6nm, made of the protein called actin. Microtubules are the
largest filament and Microfilament the smallest one.
 Difference between Prokaryotic Cells and
Eukaryotic Cells

KEY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND EUKARYOTIC

CELLS

Following are the substantial difference between Prokaryotic Cells and

Eukaryotic Cell:

1. Prokaryotic cells are the primitive kind of cell, whose size varies from
0.5-3µm, they are generally found in single-cell organisms, while Eukaryotic cells
are the modified cell structure containing different components in it, their size
varies from 2-100µm, they are found in multicellular organisms.

2. Organelles like mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi body, endoplasmic

reticulum, cell wall, chloroplast, etc. are absent in prokaryotic cells, while these
organelles are found in eukaryotic organisms. Though cell wall and chloroplast are
not found in the animal cell, it is present in the green plant cell, few bacteria, and
algae.

3. The main difference between Prokaryotic cells and the Eukaryotic cell
is the nucleus, which is not well defined in prokaryotes whereas it is well
structured, compartmentalized and functional in eukaryotes.

4. Cell organelles are present which are membrane-bound and have

individual functions in eukaryotic cells; many organelles are absent in prokaryotic
cells.
5. In prokaryotes, the cell division takes place through conjugation,
transformation, and transduction but in eukaryotes, it is through the process of
cell division.

6. The process of transcription and translation occurs together, and

there is a single origin of replication in the prokaryotic cell. On the other hand,
there are multiple origins of replication and transcription occurs in nucleus and
translation in the cytosol.
 7. Genetic Material (DNA) is circular and double-stranded in
Prokaryotes, but in Eukaryotes, it is linear and double-stranded.

8. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually; commonly Prokaryotes have a

sexual mode of reproduction.

9. Prokaryotes are the simplest, smallest and most abundantly found

cells on earth; Eukaryotes are larger and complex cells.

What I Have Learned

1. Prokaryotic cells have no membrane bound organelles making their

structure simple and unicellular.

2. The best example of prokaryotes are bacterial cell.

3. Eukaryotic cells have true nucleus that is why they have membrane
bound organelles.

4. Their structure is multicellular and more complex, the examples are

plant and animal cell.
 Prokaryotic cells
(Abandoned house
)
In prokaryotic cells, pro means ‘old’ but they are still
important in many aspects. It’s anlike
abandoned
house, itsdolbut it has still value because
you can
renova
te it.
In prokaryotic
ells,
c they lack few organelles
. It’s
like an abandoned house,
lacksit of things.

In prokaryotic cells
, there is no nuclues
(which
control everything)
. It’s like an abandoned
house, there is no people to guard
tocontrol
and
everything inside the house.

Eukaryotic cells
(Modern house
)
In eukaryotic cells, eu means ‘new’. Its like a modern
house,itsnew and innovative design.

In eukaryotic cells, many organelles are present.

It’s like a modern house, there
lotare
of things
that you can see.

In eukaryotic cells has true nuclues that is why

they have membrane bound organelles. It’s like
a moder
n house, there are people who living
and the parents (which the role is like a
nucleus) who control everything inside the
house.

Module:4- Understanding the Unit of Life

This time you will learn the different cell types of plants and
animals together with their specific functions they performed. The cells of
living things are different. Most cells are specialized to performed one
specific function. Groups of cells performing special life functions are
called tissues.

The following are some human cells and its functions:

1. Blood cells – red, white blood cells and platelets floating in liquid
plasma
 2. Nerve cells – also called neuron .Cells with fiber which conduct
impulses. It consist of a cell body, axon and dendrites.
3. Skeletal muscle cells – also called striated muscle cells because of
their striped appearance when viewed under a compound
microscope.
4. Ova or egg cells sex cells – Female sex cells produced by the ovaries.
5. Sperm cells –Male sex cells produced by the testes.

Figure 2. Different animal cells

Tissues are group of similar cells which perform a definite functions.

These are several kinds of tissues in animals:

1. Epithelial tissues. These are made up of closely-packed cells

arranged in flat sheet. It forms lining of various cavities and tubes
in the body such as lining of the small intestine which secretes
digestive substances and absorbed products of digestion. This
tissue is specialized to form the covering or lining of all internal and
external body surface. Some has special functions of absorption,
secretion, excretion, sensation and respiration.

Fig.3. Types of Epithelial tissues

2. Connective tissues hold parts of

the body together, such as bones.
The long tough fiber that hold bones onto other bones are called
ligaments, forming joints, while the tissues which hold muscle to
bone are called tendons. Cartilage is another type of connective
tissue, which has widely spaced cells. Blood is regarded as
 specialized form of connective tissue because it originates in the
bones and has some fibers. Blood is compose of red blood cells,
white blood cells and platelets.

Fig. 4. Different types of connective tissues

3. Muscle tissues are for movement in animals.

a. Involuntary-muscles not under our conscious control.

Example. The muscles in your stomach move even if we do
not let them do so and the action cannot be stopped either.
This type of muscle is also called visceral or smooth
muscle.

b. Voluntary muscle – made up of long fibers and they move

our bones. It is striated in appearance. We can control them
at will. Example. We can raise our legs if we wish. This type
of muscle is called skeletal muscle, since they are attached
to the bones.

c. Cardiac muscle is a special type of muscle that make up our

heart. It is an involuntary muscle that is striated in
appearance.

Figure 5. Types of
muscle cells
 4. Nerve tissues it carry electrical and chemical signals and impulses
from the brain and central nervous system to the periphery, and
vice versa. This tissues are made up of specialized cells called
neurons. Brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of nerve
tissue.

Types of neurons

1. Motor neurons/efferent

a. Accept nerve impulses from the Central Nervous System

b. Transmit them to muscles or glands

2. Sensory Neurons/ afferent

a. Accept impulse from sensory receptors

b. Transmit them to CNS

3. Interneurons/association

a. Convey nerve impulse between various parts of the CNS

Fig. 6. A typical neuron

Plant Tissues
A tissue is composed of a group of vegetative cells with one or more
specific functions.

1. Meristematic tissues are tissues responsible for the production of

new cells. It is compose of immature cells and regions of active in
 cell division. It have small, thin cell walls and rich in cytoplasm.
Found in the growing tips of roots and stems.

2. Permanent tissues. These are composed of mature and

differentiated cells. Cells of this tissue have lost their ability to
divide and they have specialized structure to perform
specific functions. These are derived from
meristematic tissues.

Kinds of Meristems

1. Apical meristems. Found at the tips of stems and

roots and are mainly responsible for the increase in
length of stems and roots.

2. Lateral meristems. Found in the sides or periphery

of roots and stems. Responsible of the increase in
width or diameter of stems or roots.

Fig.7. image of meristems

Kinds of Permanent Tissues

1. Simple permanent tissue – consist of only one type of cells ( eg.

Parenchyma)

2. Complex permanent – consist of more than one type of cells ( eg.

Xylem and phloem)

Simple Permanent tissues

1. Epidermis. This is an external tissue which consist of a single layer

of living cells. It serves as the protective outer covering of the leaves,
young roots and young stems. It produce cutin to protect plants
against loss of water.

2. Parenchyma. This is an internal tissue and consist of living cells

with thin cell wall. Found in the soft parts of roots, stems, leaves
and flowers. Most of the chlorophyll of leaves are in the cells of
parenchyma tissue. It is where photosynthesis occurs. The
functions of parenchyma of stems and roots is food manufacturing
and food storage. Ex. Fleshy tissues of fruits and vegetables.

3. Collenchyma. This is also an internal tissue. The collenchyma cells

are structurally similar to parenchyma cells except that their walls
are irregularly and compactly arranged. The collenchyma is a
strengthening or supportive tissue and functions to store food.

4. Sclerenchyma. Also an internal tissue consist of thick-walled, dead

cells . The cells have uniformly thick heavily lignified secondary
 walls. They function mainly for support. Plant fibers are
sclerenchyma cells. Found also in stone cells of chico fruit and in
seed coat of coconut shells.

Fig. 8. Plant tissues present in plants.

Complex Permanent Tissues

Vascular tissues

1. Xylem – primarily functions for the transport of water and dissolved

substances upward in the plant body.

2. Phloem – primary functions in the transport of organic material

such as carbohydrates and amino acids.

Module: 5- Cell Modification

The cell is the fundamental unit of life. For it to cater its other tasks and
functions the cell has to undergo modification. Cell specialization
(or modification or differentiation) is a process that occurs after cell division
where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can
perform their function efficiently and effectively.

Types and Examples of Cell Modifications

 1. Apical Modification

• A type of cell modification that is found on the apical surface of the cell

Pseudopods
• These are temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and
some other eukaryotic cells.
• Bulge outward to move the cell in order to engulf the prey

Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia are usually short, hair - like

Structures that move in waves
• Flagella are long whiplike structures
• Formed from microtubules

Villi and Microvilli

• These are finger-like projections that

arise from the epithelial layer in some
organs.
• They help to increase surface area for
faster and more efficient adsorption
• Microvilli are smaller projections
• They arise from the cell’s surface that
also increase surface area allowing faster
and more efficient absorption

Extra-Cellular Matrix (ECM)

• It is a compound secreted by the cell on its apical surface

• Cell wall is the extra cellular structure in plant cells that distinguishes
them from animal cells
• Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in animal cells

2. Lateral Modification

• A type of cell modification that is found on

the basal surface of the cell

Gap Junction
 • It is also known as communicating
junctions
• Closable channels that connect the
cytoplasm of adjoining animal cells

Tight Junction

• It acts as barriers that regulate the

movement of water and solutes
between epithelial layers
• It prevents leakage of the ECF

Adhering Junction

• It anchors junction on the lateral

surface of the cell
• It is similar to the anchoring junction of the basal surface of the
cell

4. Basal Modification

• A type of modification that is found on

the basal surface of the cell.

Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes

• The anchoring junction on the

Basal surface of the cell
• Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and
Extracellular matrix components such as
the basal lamina that underlie epithelia
• Primarily composed of keratin, integrins
and cadherins
 The cell has three types of modification: namely apical modification,
lateral modification and basal modification. Apical modification occurs at the
top part of the cell. Examples of these are the microvilli, cilia, stereocilia and
flagella. Lateral modification happens at the sides of the cell. The tight
junction, adhering junction, gap junctions, desmosomes are the good example
of it. Basal modification occurs at the bottom part of the cell. The basal folding
and hemidesmosomes are the best examples of this type of modification.

Other specialized modifications include the development of a nerve cells,

muscle cells, red blood cells and sperm cells. In plants, some identified
specialized cells include the root hairs and the guard cells.

Specialized Animal Cell

Animal cells are specialized in many ways. Red blood cells are specialized to
transport oxygen. Cells specialized to produce proteins are found in the
pancreas. Pancreatic cells also possess large number of other organelles
needed for protein export, including a well-developed golgi apparatus and
clusters of storage vacuoles loaded with enzymes.

The human ability to move is the result of the specialized structure of muscle
cells. Skeletal muscle cells are packed with fibers arranged in a tight, regular
pattern.

Specialized Plant Cell

The guard cell is an example of a specialized plant cell. It monitors the plant
internal condition, changing their shape according to those conditions.

Module-6: Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a repeating sequence of cellular growth and division during
the life of an organism. A cell spends 90 percent of its time in the first three
phases of the cycle, which are collectively called interphase. A cell will enter
the last two phases of the cell cycle only if it is about to divide. The five phases
of the cell cycle are summarized below:
 1. First growth (G1) phase. During the G1 phase, a cell grows rapidly and
carries out its routine functions. For most organisms, this phase
occupies the major portion of the cell’s life. Cells that are not dividing
remain in the G1 phase. Some somatic cells, such as most muscle and
nerve cells, never divide. Therefore, if these cells die, the body cannot
replace them.
2. Synthesis (S) phase. A cell’s DNA is copied during this phase. At the end
of this phase, each chromosome consists of two chromatids attached at
the centromere.
3. Second growth (G2) phase. In the G2 phase, preparations are made for
the nucleus to divide. Hollow protein fibers called microtubules are
rearranged during G2 in preparation for mitosis.
4. Mitosis. The process during cell division in which the nucleus of a cell is
divided into two nuclei is called mitosis. Each nucleus ends up with the
same number and kinds of chromosomes as the original cell.
5. Cytokinesis. The process during cell division in which the cytoplasm
divides is called cytokinesis.

Control of the Cell Cycle

If a cell spends 90 percent of its time in interphase, how do cells
“know” when to divided? How is the cycle controlled? Just as traffic lights
control the flow of traffic, cells have a system that controls the phases of the
cell cycle. Cells have a set of “red light-green light” switches that are regulated
by feedback information from the cell. The cell cycle has key checkpoints
(inspection points) at which feedback signals from the cell can trigger the next
phase of the cell cycle (green light). Other feedback signals can delay the next
phase to allow for completion of the current phase (yellow or red light).
1. Cell growth (G1) checkpoint. This checkpoint makes the decision of
whether the cell will divide. If conditions are favorable for division and
the cell is healthy and large enough, certain proteins will stimulate the
cell to begin the synthesis (S) phase. During the S phase, the cell will
copy its DNA. If conditions are not favorable, cells can typically stop the
cell cycle at this checkpoint. The cell cycle will also stop at this
checkpoint if the cell needs to pass into a resting period. Certain cells,
 such as some nerve and muscle cells, remain in this resting period
permanently and never divide.

2. DNA synthesis (G2) checkpoint. DNA replication is checked at this point

by DNA repair enzymes. If this checkpoint is passed, proteins help to
trigger mitosis. The cell begins the many molecular processes that are
needed to proceed into mitosis.

3. Mitosis checkpoint. This checkpoint triggers the exit from mitosis. It

signals the beginning of the G1 phase, the major growth period of the
cell cycle.

When Control Is Lost: Cancer

Certain genes contain the information necessary to make the proteins that
regulate cell growth and division. If one of these genes is mutated, the protein
may not function, and regulation of cell growth and division can be disrupted.
Cancer, the uncontrolled growth of cells, may result. Cancer is essentially a
disorder of cell division. Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s
control mechanisms.
Some mutations cause cancer by over-producing growth-promoting
molecules, thus speeding up the cell cycle. Others cause cancer by inactivating
the control proteins that normally act to slow or stop the cell cycle.

Module 7: Mitosis And Meiosis

?Cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events a eukaryotic cell undergoes

during division. It is a series of events in which a cell grows, prepares for division,
and divides to form two daughter cells. The cell cycle may be divided into two
stages:
interphase and cell division.

Interphase is the stage during which the cell does not divide, it merely
grows. The cell may spend as much as 90% of the cell cycle in this stage. The
chromosomes double or replicate itself because DNA molecule contained in the
chromosome produces exact copy of itself. DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid which
carries genetic information. It has three parts: the G 1 or the first gap, S or
synthesis phase and G2 or second gap. During G1 cells grow. The S is the period of
DNA synthesis or replication. The G2 stage represents a period of rapid cell
growth to prepare for cell division.

Chromosomes are threadlike structure of DNA and protein that contains genetic
information.
 There are two types of cells in the body- diploid and haploid. What is the
difference between a diploid and haploid cell? A diploid cell contains two
complete sets of (2n) of chromosomes. Skin, blood, muscle cells (called somatic
cells) and diploid. A haploid cell contains half the number as diploid cell (n)
meaning they contain only one set of chromosomes. Humans for example are
diploid, they have complete set of chromosomes. We inherited one set from the
father and another set from the mother. Thus, humans have 2n = 46
chromosomes, where n = 23, or the haploid number of chromosomes.

How does a cell maintain its number of chromosomes? Mitosis plays a significant
role in this process. Mitosis is the process of cell division which produces diploid
cells. Its purpose if for cell growth, repair for damaged tissue and there are four
stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Imagine mitosis
as a graceful “dance” of choreographed chromosomes, centromere, spindle
microtubules, nuclear membrane, and the nucleus. Chromosomes appear on stage,
have partner, align in the middle and suddenly separate from each other with the
active and lively participation of the other members of the dance. It takes place in
the nucleus of the cell. The nucleus can be considered the stage.