Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

Unit – 5 Modern Physics

Chapter – 22 Semiconductor Devices

PN Junction

When a P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an N-type semiconductor, the junction is

formed which is called the PN junction. The PN junction leads to the invention of diode
transistors and Integrated circuits (I.C).

Depletion region and potential barrier

When the p-type semiconductor is joined

with an N-type semiconductor charge carrier
diffuses as spreads from the high
concentration region to the low
concentration region. So, the free electrons
from N-region diffuse into P-region and
combine with the hole to get neutralized.
Similarly, the holes from the P-region diffuse into the N-region and combine with electrons
to get neutralized.

The P-region near the junction is left with an immobile negative ions and the N-region near
the junction with an immobile positive ions due to the electron-hole recombination. So, a
thin layer around the junction becomes depleted of the free charge carriers. This region is
called the depletion region.

Due to the presence of different charges near the junction, there establish an electric field
across the junction directed from N-region to P-region. This field produces a potential
difference called barrier potential, which further prevent the diffusion of charges through
this barrier.

Semiconductor diode (P-N junction diode)

A device forward by connecting P-type semiconductor with N-type

P N
semiconductor called P-N junction diode. It has two terminals
namely an anode and cathode. Anode refers to the p-type region
and cathode refers to the N-type region. The symbolic
representation of the P-N junction diode is given below. Fig. Symbol of PN Junction diode

Biasing of P-N junction diode

The process of connecting an external battery source (i.e. applying a potential difference)
across the P-N junction diode for its operation is called biasing of the P-N junction. There are
two types of biasing.

1. Forward biasing 2. Reverse biasing

1
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

1. Forward biasing

A diode is said to be forward biasing if its p-side is connected to the positive terminal and N-
side is connected with the negative terminal of the battery source.

Fig: Forward biasing

In forward biasing the positive and negative terminal of the battery repels the hole towards
the free electron towards the Junction. These free electrons and holes at the junction
combine with each other which reduces the width of the depletion region hence the
potential barrier, also decreases. When this forward voltage just exceeds barrier potential,
the free electrons of N-region pass through the junction. So in forwarding biasing, current
flows through the diode.

In forward biasing, flow of current inside the diode is due to majority charge carriers. Diode
offers very low resistance called forward resistance.

2. Reverse biasing

A diode is said to be reverse biasing if its p-side is connected to the negative terminal and N-
side is connected with the positive terminal of the battery source.

In reverse biasing the electrons and holes are attracted by the respective terminals of the
battery source, so they are pulled away from the junction. So the width of the depletion
region increases, hence barrier potential also increases and free electrons cannot pass
through the junction. So there will be no electric current flowing through diode. However
some minority charge carriers may cross the junction from P-region and small negligible
flow of current could be there.

In reverse biasing, diode offers very high resistance called reverse resistance.

V-I Characteristics of a junction diode

2
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

The graph shows the relation between bias voltage and circuit current of a Junction diode
called Characteristics of a Junction diode. These are of two types.

1. Forward bias characteristics 2. Reverse bias characteristics

1. Forward bias characteristics

It is a graph showing the variation of circuit current with forwarding biasing voltage. The
forward voltage is gradually increased in steps and corresponding milliammeter reading is
noted. A graph is plotted then between voltage and current. Practically current doesn’t flow
until the barrier potential is overcome. When a forward voltage exceeds the barrier
potential the current increases rapidly.

The forward voltage beyond which the diode currents increases rapidly is known as knee
voltage (Vk). For Germanium diode Vk = 0.3 V, for Silicon diode Vk = 0.7 V

2. Reverse bias characteristics

It is a graph showing the variation of circuit

current with reverse biasing voltage. The reverse
biasing voltage is gradually increased in steps and
corresponding microammeter readings are noted.
The reverse current remains very small over a
long range, increasing very slightly with increasing
bias voltage. Then at one point, current is
suddenly rises sharply. This voltage when the
reverse current suddenly increases sharply is
called the breakdown voltage (VB).

Avalanche breakdown

The reverse biased voltage across the diode accelerates the minority charge carriers in
depletion region. These carriers gain sufficient kinetic energies to ionize the atoms by
collision, so that electrons are ejected out from the covalent bonds. These electrons further

3
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

accelerate to sufficiently large velocities to be able to ionize other atom. This creates a chain
reaction such that large no. of electron-hole pair formed. The cumulative effect of this chain
reaction is called avalanche breakdown. During this breakdown, huge amount of heat
energy is generated due to collision between electrons. As a result, diode will burnout and
useless.

Rectification

The process of conversion of ac into dc is called rectification. A device that is used to convert
ac into dc is called a rectifier.

When the P-N junction is forward biased it offers low resistance hence current will flow
through it. But when reverse biased, it offers high resistance and no current flows through
it. This property of the P-N junction is used for the rectifier.

There are two types of rectifiers. 1) Half wave rectifier 2) Full wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier

It is the rectifier which converts only

half cycle of ac into dc. The input ac is
applied across the primary of a
transformer. The secondary is
connected in series with the junction
diode D and load resistance RL.

Operation: The ac voltage across

secondary winding AB changes
polarities after every half cycle. Fig: Half wave rectifier

During positive half cycle of input a.c., end A becomes positive. So, the diode D is forward
biased and current flows through load resistor RL.

During negative half cycle, end A becomes negative. So, the diode D is now reverse biased
and therefore no current flows through load resistor RL.

In this way, current flows through RL always in same direction only. The output across load is
pulsating dc.

Full-wave rectifier

It is the rectifier that is used to convert the full cycle of AC into DC. There are two types of
full-wave rectifiers. They are a) Central tapped full wave rectifier b) Bridge Rectifier

4
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

a) Central tapped full wave rectifier

The circuit diagram of the full-wave rectifier is shown in the figure below in which the AC is
applied across the primary coil of the transformer and the secondary coil is connected to the
diodes D1 and D2. The load resistance RL is centrally tapped from the middle of the
secondary coil.

Fig: Output and Input voltage in a central tapped full-wave rectifier

Fig: Center tapped full wave rectifier

Operation:

During the positive half cycle, end A becomes positive & end B becomes negative. The diode
D1 is forward biased, so it conducts current whereas the diode D2 is reverse biased, so it
does not conduct current. Current through load resistor flows from D to C.

During the negative half cycle, end A becomes negative & end B becomes positive. The
diode D1 is reversed biased, so it does not conduct current whereas the diode D2 is forward
biased, so it conduct current.

In both cases, current passed through load resistor RL. The half cycle is rectified by D1 and
the next half cycle is rectified by D2. The waveform of input and output voltage are as shown
in fig.

b) Bridge Rectifier

It consists of 4 diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 in form of a Wheatstone bridge. The AC input is
applied across the primary coil of the transformer and the ends of the secondary coil are
connected to the two opposite ends A and C of the network and load resistance R is
connected across the two remaining ends B and D is shown in the figure below:

Fig: Bridge rectifier

Fig: Output and Input voltage in a central tapped full-wave rectifier
5
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

Operation:

During the positive half cycle: A becomes positive & C becomes negative, so diodes D1 and
D3 are forward biased, so they conduct current. Whereas diode D2 and D4 are reversed
biased, so they do not conduct current. The current flow through AD1BRLDD3CA.

During the negative half-cycle: A becomes negative & C becomes positive so diodes D2 and
D4 are forward biased, so they conduct current. Whereas diode D1 and D3 are reversed
biased, so they do not conduct current. The current flow through CD2BRLDD4AC.

In this way in both cycle unidirectional current flow through load resistance.

The waveform of input and output voltage in the case of the bridge rectifier is shown in the
figure.

Filter circuit

The output of a rectifier is pulsating dc which is not a pure dc. The presence of fluctuation in
the output is undesirable and therefore must be removed from the rectifier output. The
circuit between rectifier and load to convert pulsating dc into steady dc is called filter circuit.

The filter circuit consists of passive elements like inductor, capacitor, resistor or their
combination. The filtering action depends upon on the basic electrical properties of these
passive elements.

In inductor, for ac, XL∞L but for dc, XL=0. This shows that the inductor offers a high
resistance for ac and it offers a low resistance for dc. Hence, it allows dc to pass through it
but it blocks ac.

Whereas in capacitor, for ac, XL∞(1/L) but for dc, XL=∞. This shows that the capacitor offers
a low resistance for ac and it offers an infinite or very high resistance for dc. Hence, it allows
ac to pass through it but it blocks dc.

Example: π-filter

It consists of two capacitors and an inductor connected in the form of Greek letter π as
shown in fig.

6
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

Capacitor C1 bypasses appreciable amount of ac component to the ground, while dc

component are blocked. So dc moves towards inductors L, which allows to pass through it
and blocks the ac component which cannot be bypassed by capacitor C1. Another capacitor
C2 bypasses the remaining ac component, which could not he blocked by inductor L. As a
result, only dc component is available at the output.

Fig: Filtered output

Fig: π-filter

Zener Diode

Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode which operates in the

reverse breakdown region without damage and has very sharp breakdown
voltage. For forward biased condition, it works as an ordinary PN
junction diode. Fig: Zener diode
symbol
Zener breakdown: In Zener diode, the depletion layer
is very narrow. When the reverse voltage is increased,
the electric field at the junction also increases and
becomes very strong. Due to this, electrons are pulled
out of covalent bonds and large no. of electron-hole
pairs are formed. Then reverse current rises steeply.
This effect is called Zener breakdown.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

Fig: V-I characteristics of Zener diode

Voltage regulation is the ability of circuit to

maintain constant output whatever be the
fluctuation occurs in input voltage of load
resistance. The circuit or device used to
regulate voltage is called voltage regulator.
It is connected between filter and load
resistor of a power supply to obtain
constant output voltage. Fig: Zener diode as voltage regulator

Fig. shows the circuit diagram of Zener diode voltage regulator.

7
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

A resistor Rs connected in series with the diode limits the current through the circuit. For
proper operation, input voltage must be greater than the Zener voltage (V in>Vz), which
ensures that the Zener diode operates in reverse breakdown region.
𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑧
Current through Rs, I = 𝑅𝑠

Here, I = Iz + IL, where Iz = Zener current & IL = load current

And Vz = VL = Vout i.e., output voltage

Regulation with varying input voltage: (i) When Vin increases, the input current I also
increases. This will also increase the voltage drop across Rs. Consequently, current through
Zener diode Iz increases without affecting load current IL and thus VL remains constant.

(ii) (i) When Vin decreases, the input current I also decreases. This will also decrease the
voltage drop across Rs. Consequently, current through Zener diode Iz decreases without
affecting load current IL and thus VL remains constant.

Logic gate

An electronic circuit that gives a logical decision as an output signal due to the result of one
or more inputs is called a logic gate. A logic gate has one or more inputs but only one
output. The input and output states are on and off i.e., on for 1 and off for 0.

1) OR gate

The logic gate whose output is high(1), if any or all inputs are high, is called OR gate. If A and
B are two inputs for the OR gate then a logic symbol of the OR gate is given by,

Symbol of OR gate

Explanation:

(i) When A = 0, B =0. Both diodes are earthed, i.e. they do not conduct. Hence output across
R = 0, Y = 0.

(ii) When A = 0, B =1. D1 is earthed, so it do not conduct. But D2 is forward biased, so it

conducts. Hence, output Y = 1.

(iii) When A = 1, B =0. D1 is forward biased, so it conducts. But D2 is earthed, so it do not

conduct. Hence, output Y = 1.

8
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

(iv) When A = 1, B =1. Both diodes are forward biased, so both conducts. Hence, output Y =
1.

2) AND gate

A logic gate whose output is high (1) only if all of its input is high is called AND gate. If A and
B are two inputs for AND gate then a logic symbol of AND gate is given by

Symbol of AND gate B

Explanation:

(i) When A = 0, B =0. Both diodes are earthed. They gets forward biased and conducts
current. But both diodes are grounded. Hence output Y is also grounded, i.e. Y = 0.

(ii) When A = 0, B =1. D1 is forward biased but earthed. But D2 is non-conducting. Hence,
output Y = 0.

(iii) When A = 1, B =0. D1 is non-conducting. But D2 is forward biased but earthed, Hence,
output Y = 0.

(iv) When A = 1, B =1. Both diodes are non-conducting. Hence, output Y = 1.

3) NOT gate

It is a single input and single output gate whose output is high if its input is low and vice-
versa. Its symbol is

Symbol of NOT gate

NOT gate formed from transistor

Explanation:

(i) When A = 0, base is earthed, so base emitter junction is non-conducting. Hence base
current Ib and collector current Ic are zero. So, transistor is in cut-off mode. Hence, output Y
= 1.

9
 Notes by: Raji Bajracharya (RB) sir -CCRC

(ii) When A = 1, the base emitter junction is forward biased. So, the transistor conducts. The
transistor is in saturation stage. Hence, output Y = 0.

4) NOR gate

When the output of the OR gate is connected with the NOT gate then such obtained gate is
called the NOR gate. It gives high output if all of the inputs are low its symbol is.

Symbol of NOR gate

5) NAND gate

When the output of AND gate is connected to the input of the NOT gate then such obtained
gate is called the NAND gate. It gives high output if any one or all of the inputs are low. The
symbol of it is

Symbol of NAND gate

NAND gates as universal gates

The NAND gate is a universal gate because from it,

all other gates are formed.

10