Unit-II

If you are in Europe or Asia and using a mobile phone, then most probably you are using
GSM technology in your mobile phone. It is widely used mobile technology across the
world.
What is GSM?
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. Important facts about the
GSM are given below −
 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
 GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is
implemented globally.
 GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25
kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and
1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850
MHz and 1900 MHz.
 GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.
 GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique
for transmitting signals.
 GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to
120 Mbps of data rates.
 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210
countries throughout the world.
 GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other
streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.
Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
 Improved spectrum efficiency
 International roaming
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)

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  High-quality speech
 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services
 Support for new services

CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various
signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth.
The technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone
systems, bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.
CDMA Overview
Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency
multiplexing. In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire
duration. The basic principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish among
the different users.
Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation (DS-CDMA),
frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a signal is generated
which extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is used to perform this
action. Using a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other, it is possible to select a
signal with a given code in the presence of many other signals with different orthogonal
codes.
How Does CDMA Work?
CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each voice
packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate between calls
and theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the maximum
number of calls somewhat lower than this value.
In fact, many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be modulated
on the same carrier to allow many different users to be supported. Using different orthogonal
codes, interference between the signals is minimal. Conversely, when signals are received
from several mobile stations, the base station is capable of isolating each as they have
different orthogonal spreading codes.
The following figure shows the technicality of the CDMA system. During the propagation,
we mixed the signals of all users, but by that you use the same code as the code that was
used at the time of sending the receiving side. You can take out only the signal of each user.

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CDMA Capacity
The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are −

 Processing Gain
 Signal to Noise Ratio
 Voice Activity Factor
 Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are separated
by code. This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and interference.
In addition, neighbouring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So,
CDMA capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell, multiplied by
no cell. But it is not that simple. Although not available code channels are 64, it may not be
possible to use a single time, since the CDMA frequency is the same.
Advantages of CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of users.
It has the following advantages −
CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other words,
a user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the signal
latter. All signals must have more or less equal power at the receiver
Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time (a
chip or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make
decisions at the bit level.
Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals
from the two base stations.
Transmission Burst − reduces interference.
Disadvantages of CDMA
The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −
 The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or
may cause interference.
 Time synchronization is required.
 Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
 As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs constant
tight power control. This can result in several handovers.

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TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication
technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its
technology divides a signal into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.

TDMA Overview

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an

accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital
mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval.
In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used
for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The
mobile system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.
In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is
assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after
user ‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and
larger by the burst communication.

FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue multiple
access methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that
each conversation is carried on a different frequency.
FDMA Overview
In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to minimize
crosstalk between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one person, and it will
received by identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in the
first generation of analog mobile phone.

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Advantages of FDMA
As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay spread,
it offers the following advantages −
 Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases the
capacity.
 It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
 Equalization is not necessary.
 An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily
incorporated.
 Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for
synchronization and framing.
Disadvantages of FDMA
Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks as well, which are listed
below −
 It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity depends
on the signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
 Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
 Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and
therefore increases the cost.
Wireless Networking
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless networks. They
generally use radio waves for communication between the network nodes. They allow
devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network coverage.

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Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using wireless distribution

techniques.
 Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading over a metropolitan
area.
 Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs and personal
networks.
Advantages of Wireless Networks

 It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system since the devices
need not be connected to each other.
 Accessing network devices from any location within the network coverage or Wi-Fi
hotspot becomes convenient since laying out cables is not needed.
 Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.
 New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since they needn‟t be wired to
the present equipment. Also, the number of equipment that can be added or removed to
the system can vary considerably since they are not limited by the cable capacity. This
makes wireless networks very scalable.
 Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it reduces the equipment and
setup costs.
Examples of wireless networks

 Mobile phone networks

 Wireless sensor networks
 Satellite communication networks
 Terrestrial microwave networks
Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks that use high-frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices within a limited area forming LAN (Local
Area Network). Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within this limited area
such as home, school, campus, office building, railway platform, etc.

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Components of WLANs
 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected to
the wireless LAN. Each station has a wireless network interface controller. A station can
be of two types −
o Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP)
o Client
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories −
o Infrastructure BSS
o Independent BSS
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Types of WLANS
WLANs, as standardized by IEEE 802.11, operates in two basic modes, infrastructure, and ad
hoc mode.
 Infrastructure Mode − Mobile devices or clients connect to an access point (AP) that in
turn connects via a bridge to the LAN or Internet. The client transmits frames to other
clients via the AP.
 AdHoc Mode − Clients transmit frames directly to each other in a peer-to-peer fashion.
Advantages of WLANs
 The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at greater ease than wired LANs.
 The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
 Installation and setup are much easier than wired counterparts.
 The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

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Disadvantages of WLANs
 Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
 Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors.
So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
 WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

Bluetooth wireless technology

Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology intended to
replace the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security.
Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets,
which is a local area network with a very limited coverage.
History of Bluetooth
WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure based services through a
wireless carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate wirelessly with one
another without an established infrastructure has led to the emergence of Personal Area
Networks (PANs).
Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 defines the standard for PANs to enable
communication between mobile phones using low power and low cost radio
interfaces.
In May 1988, Companies such as IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba joined Ericsson to
form the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a defacto
standard for PANs.
IEEE has approved a Bluetooth based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and Physical layer
applications.
Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio
Frequency (RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to generate
radio waves in the ISM band.

The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its special features.
Bluetooth offers a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and
communicate with each other.
Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth enabled
device, almost everywhere in the world, can be connected with Bluetooth enabled
devices.

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 Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten
meters has paved the way for several usage models.
Bluetooth offers interactive conference by establishing an adhoc network of laptops.
Bluetooth usage model includes cordless computer, intercom, cordless phone and
mobile phones.
Piconets and Scatternets
Piconets
Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through short
range devices known as Piconets. Bluetooth devices exist in small ad-hoc configurations
with the ability to act either as master or slave the specification allows a mechanism
for master and slave to switch their roles. Point to point configuration with one master and
one slave is the simplest configuration.
When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another, this is called
a PICONET. A Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered around a single master.
The device that initializes establishment of the Piconet becomes the master.
The master is responsible for transmission control by dividing the network into a series of
time slots amongst the network members, as a part of time division multiplexing scheme
which is shown below.

The features of Piconets are as follows −

Within a Piconet, the timing of various devices and the frequency hopping sequence of
/individual devices is determined by the clock and unique 48-bit address of master.
Each device can communicate simultaneously with up to seven other devices within a
single Piconet.
Each device can communicate with several piconets simultaneously.
Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices
enter and leave piconets.
There is no direct connection between the slaves and all the connections are essentially
master-to-slave or slave-to-master.
Slaves are allowed to transmit once these have been polled by the master.
Transmission starts in the slave-to-master time slot immediately following a polling
packet from the master.

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 A device can be a member of two or more piconets, jumping from one piconet to
another by adjusting the transmission regime-timing and frequency hopping
sequence dictated by the master device of the second piconet.
It can be a slave in one piconet and master in another. It however cannot be a master in
more than once piconet.
Devices resident in adjacent piconets provide a bridge to support inner-piconet
connections, allowing assemblies of linked piconets to form a physically extensible
communication infrastructure known as
Scatternet.
A scatternet is a type of Bluetooth network that is formed by the interconnection between two
or more individual Bluetooth networks, called piconets. The devices in the scattered should
be Bluetooth enabled so that they can communicate wirelessly over a short range of within
10m radius using ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio waves.
In a scatternet, there must be at least two piconets. The nodes in a scatternet may be of three
types −
 Master Node − It is the primary station in each piconet that controls the communication
within that piconet.
 Slave Node − A slave is a secondary station in a piconet that communicates with the
master for data transfer. There can be a maximum of 7 slaves in a piconet.
 Bridge Node − It is a node in a piconet, whether a master or a slave, that acts as a slave in
another piconet. A bridge connects the individual piconets to form the scatternet.
The following diagram shows a scatternet formed by two piconets. Here, the bridge is a slave
node in both the piconets, that communicates with the individual master nodes of the
connected network.

Spectrum

Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
band at 2.4 to 2.485 GHZ, using a spread spectrum hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal
rate of 1600 hops/sec. the 2.4 GHZ ISM band is available and unlicensed in most countries.

Range

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Bluetooth operating range depends on the device Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1
meter or 3 feet Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of
10 meters or 30 feet Class 1 radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of
100 meters or 300 feet.

Data rate

Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate for Version 2.0
combined with Error Data Rate.
Wireless multiple access protocols
Multiple access protocol- ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD

What is a multiple access protocol?

When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the data link
control is enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated path to communicate
or transfer the data between two devices. In that case, multiple stations access the channel
and simultaneously transmits the data over the channel. It may create collision and cross talk.
Hence, the multiple access protocol is required to reduce the collision and avoid crosstalk
between the channels.

For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher asks a
question, all the students (small channels) in the class start answering the question at the same
time (transferring the data simultaneously). All the students respond at the same time due to
which data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is the responsibility of a teacher (multiple
access protocol) to manage the students and make them one answer.

Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the different
process as:

A. Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In
random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any
station control another station. Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station
transmits the data frame. However, if more than one station sends the data over a channel,
there may be a collision or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be
lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.

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Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on
the channel.

o Aloha
o CSMA
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA

ALOHA Random Access Protocol

It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared
medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network
simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.

Aloha Rules

1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple
stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha

Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure Aloha. In pure
Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the channel is
idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost. When any
station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's
acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the
station waits for a random amount of time, called the back off time (Tb). And the station may
assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame until all the
data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.

1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.

2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.

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As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared channel and
transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at the
same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the
receiver end. At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall
on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will suffer damage. If the
new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both
frames are completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the data frame.

The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume
that signals propagate at 3 × 108 m/s, we find

Tp = (600 × 105 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.

Now we can find the value of TB for different values of K .

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(a). For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|generate a random number with a
value of 0 or 1. This means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2), based on the
outcome of the random variable.

(b). For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on
the outcome of the random variable.

(c). For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14
ms, based on the outcome of the random variable.

(d). we need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to 10.

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is
the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces?

(a) 1000 frames per second (b) 500 frames per second (c) 250 frames per second.

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

(a)If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1

frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case S = G× e−2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent).
This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only 135 frames out of 1000
will probably survive.

(b)If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The load
is (1/2). In this case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent).This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that only 92 frames out of 500 will
probably survive. Note that this is the maximum throughput case, percentage wise.

(c) If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond. The load
is (1/4). In this case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means that the
throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38 frames out of 250 will probably survive.

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Slotted Aloha

The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's deficiency because pure Aloha
has a very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided
into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared
channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is
allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of
the slot, the station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.
However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning
of two or more station time slot.

1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.

2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha is S = G *
e ^ - 2 G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.

Example :-A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200
kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces

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(a). 1000 frames per second (b). 500 frames per second (c). 250 frames per second.

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

(a). If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond. The load is
1. In this case S = G× e−G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means that the throughput is
1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames. Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

(b). If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The load
is (1/2). In this case S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This means that the throughput
is 500 × 0.0303 = 151.Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.

(c). If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond. The load
is (1/4). In this case S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means that the throughput
is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49 frames out of 250 will probably survive.

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a
channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the
station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the shared
channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and keep
track of the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon
as the channel is idle.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data,
each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the
data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the
channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-

Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p
probability) random time and resumes the frame with the next time slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station before
the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the channel is inactive,
each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.

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CSMA/ CD

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data
frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it first
senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it
transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is
successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the
CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data
transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.

How CSMA/CD works?

 Step 1: Check if the sender is ready for transmitting data packets.

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 Step2: Check if the transmission link is idle?
Sender has to keep on checking if the transmission link/medium is idle. For this it
continously senses transmissions from other nodes. Sender sends dummy data on the link.
If it does not receive any collision signal, this means the link is idle at the moment.If it
senses that the carrier is free and there are no collisions, it sends the data. Otherwise it
refrains from sending data.
 Step3: Transmit the data & check for collisions.
Sender transmits its data on the link. CSMA/CD does not use „acknowledgement‟ system.
It checks for the successful and unsuccessful transmissions through collision signals.
During transmission, if collision signal is received by the node, transmission is stopped.
The station then transmits a jam signal onto the link and waits for random time interval
before it resends the frame. After some random time, it again attempts to transfer the data
and repeats above process.
 Step4: If no collision was detected in propagation, the sender completes its frame
transmission and resets the counters.

Example
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the maximum propagation time
(including the delays in the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming signal,
as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum size of the frame?

Solution

The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs. This means, in the worst case, a station
needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum size of the
frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of the
frame for Standard Ethernet.

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CSMA/ CA

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier

transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the
channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the
data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own
and one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared
channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal.
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:

These are three types of strategies:

1. InterFrame Space (IFS) – When a station finds the channel busy, it waits for a period
of time called IFS time. IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a
frame. Higher the IFS lower is the priority.
2. Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots. A station which is
ready to send frames chooses random number of slots as wait time.
3. Acknowledgements – The positive acknowledgements and time-out timer can help
guarantee a successful transmission of the frame.

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B. Controlled Access Protocol

In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to find which
station has the right to send. It allows only one node to send at a time, to avoid
collision of messages on shared medium. The three controlled-access methods are:
1. Reservation
2. Polling
3. Token Passing
Reservation
 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending
data.
 The time line has two kinds of periods:
1. Reservation interval of fixed time length
2. Data transmission period of variable frames.
 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and each
station has one slot.
 Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot 1. No
other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
 In general, ith station may announce that it has a frame to send by inserting a 1 bit
into ith slot. After all N slots have been checked, each station knows which stations
wish to transmit.
 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that order.
 After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
 Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.

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The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five slot reservation
frame. In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In the
second interval, only station 1 has made a reservation.

Polling
 Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the teacher, a
controller sends a message to each node in turn.
 In this, one acts as a primary station (controller) and the others are secondary
stations. All data exchanges must be made through the controller.
 The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected
for granting access.
 Although all nodes receive the message but the addressed one responds to it and
sends data, if any. If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent
back.
 Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high dependence on
the reliability of the controller.

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Efficiency
Let Tpoll be the time for polling and T t be the time required for transmission of data.
Then, Efficiency = Tt/ (Tt + Tpoll)
Token Passing
 In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in
form of ring and access of stations is governed by tokens.
 A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from one
station to the next in the some predefined order.
 In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in the
ring whereas in case of Token bus, each station uses the bus to send the token to
the next station in some predefined order.
 In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has a frame
queued for transmission when it receives the token, it can send that frame before
it passes the token to the next station. If it has no queued frame, it passes the
token simply.
 After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself)
to send the token to their neighbours and the other N – 1 stations to send a frame,
if they have one.
 There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or insertion of
new station, removal of a station, which need be tackled for correct and reliable
operation of this scheme.

Performance
Performance of token ring can be concluded by 2 parameters:-
1. Delay, which is a measure of time between when a packet is ready and when it is
delivered.So, the average time (delay) required to send a token to the next station
= a/N.
2. Throughput, which is a measure of the successful traffic.
Throughput, S = 1/ (1 + a/N) for a<1
and
S = 1/ {a (1 + 1/N)} for a>1.
Where N = number of stations
a = Tp/Tt
(Tp = propagation delay and Tt = transmission delay)

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C. Channelization Protocols
It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared channel to be
shared across multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes. It can access all the
stations at the same time to send the data frames to the channel.

Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time, distance and
codes:

1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Comparison between OSI (Open System Interconnection) and TCP/IP Suite

When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are
missing from the TCP/IP protocol. The application layer in the suite is usually considered to
be the combination of three layers in the OSI model.
The OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers but the layers of the
TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and
matched, depending on the needs of the system. The term hierarchical means that each upper
level protocol is supported by one or more lower level protocols.
Layers in the TCP/IP Suite
The four layers of the TCP/IP model are the host-to-network layer, internet/network layer,
transport layer and the application layer. The purpose of each layer in the TCP/IP protocol
suite is detailed below.

The above image represents the layers of TCP/IP protocol suite.

Physical Layer

TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the physical layer. It supports all of the
standard and proprietary protocols.
 At this level, the communication is between two hops or nodes, either a computer or
router. The unit of communication is a single bit.
 When the connection is established between the two nodes, a stream of bits is
flowing between them. The physical layer, however, treats each bit individually.

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The responsibility of the physical layer, in addition to delivery of bits, matches with what
mentioned for the physical layer of the OSI model, but it mostly depends on the underlying
technologies that provide links.

Data Link Layer

TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data link layer either. It supports all of
the standard and proprietary protocols.
 At this level also, the communication is between two hops or nodes. The unit of
communication however, is a packet called a frame.
 A frame is a packet that encapsulates the data received from the network layer with
an added header and sometimes a trailer.
 The head, among other communication information, includes the source and
destination of frame.
 The destination address is needed to define the right recipient of the frame because
many nodes may have been connected to the link.
 The source address is needed for possible response or acknowledgment as may be
required by some protocols.
LAN, Packet Radio and Point-to-Point protocols are supported in this layer

Network Layer

At the network layer, TCP/IP supports the Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet Protocol (IP)
is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

 IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.

 Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be
duplicated.
IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they
arrive at their destination.

Transport Layer

There is a main difference between the transport layer and the network layer. Although all
nodes in a network need to have the network layer, only the two end computers need to have
the transport layer.
 The network layer is responsible for sending individual datagrams from computer A
to computer B; the transport layer is responsible for delivering the whole message,
which is called a segment, from A to B.
 A segment may consist of a few or tens of datagrams. The segments need to be
broken into datagrams and each datagram has to be delivered to the network layer for
transmission.
 Since the Internet defines a different route for each datagram, the datagrams may
arrive out of order and may be lost.

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  The transport layer at computer B needs to wait until all of these datagrams to arrive,
assemble them and make a segment out of them.
Traditionally, the transport layer was represented in the TCP/IP suite by two protocols: User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
A new protocol called Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) has been
introduced in the last few years.

Application Layer

The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.
The application layer allows a user to access the services of our private internet or the
global Internet.
Many protocols are defined at this layer to provide services such as electronic mail file
transfer, accessing the World Wide Web, and so on.
The protocols supported in this layer are TELNET, FTP and HTTP.
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) in Mobile Computing

WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-
browsers and it enables the access of internet in the mobile devices. It uses the mark -up
language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML is defined as XML 1.0
application. It enables creating web applications for mobile devices. In 1998, WAP
Forum was founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose aim was to
standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols. WAP protocol was resulted by
the joint efforts of the various members of WAP Forum. In 2002, WAP forum was merged
with various other forums of the industry resulting in the formation of Open Mobile
Alliance (OMA).
WAP Model:
The user opens the mini-browser in a mobile device. He selects a website that he wants to
view. The mobile device sends the URL encoded request via network to a WAP gateway
using WAP protocol.

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The WAP gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP URL request and
sends it over the internet. The request reaches to a specified web server and it processes the
request just as it would have processed any other request and sends the response back to the
mobile device through WAP gateway in WML file which can be seen in the micro-browser.
WAP Protocol stack:

1. Application Layer:
This layer contains the Wireless Application Environment (WAE). It contains mobile
device specifications and content development programming languages like WML.
2. Session Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It provides fast connection
suspension and reconnection.
3. Transaction Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). It runs on top of UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) and is a part of TCP/IP and offers transaction support.
4. Security Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Transaction Layer Security (WTLS). It offers data integrity,
privacy and authentication.
5. Transport Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Datagram Protocol. It presents consistent data format to
higher layers of WAP protocol stack.

Data broadcasting
Broadcasting in computer network is a group communication, where a sender sends data to
receivers simultaneously. This is an all − to − all communication model where each sending
device transmits data to all other devices in the network domain.
The ways of operation of broadcasting may be −
 A high level operation in a program, like broadcasting in Message Passing Interface.
 A low level networking operation, like broadcasting on Ethernet.
Broadcasting is shown in the following figure −

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Advantages of Broadcasting
Broadcast helps to attain economies of scale when a common data stream needs to be
delivered to all, by minimizing the communication and processing overhead. It ensures better
utilization of resources and faster delivery in comparison to several unicast communication.
Disadvantages of Broadcasting
Broadcasting cannot accommodate a very large amount of devices. Also it does not allow
personalisation of the messages according to the individual preferences of the devices.

Mobile IP
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that
allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures
that the communication will continue without user‟s sessions or connections being dropped.
Terminologies:
 Mobile Node (MN):
It is the hand-held communication device that the user caries e.g. Cell phone.
 Home Network:
It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs to as per its assigned IP
address (home address).
 Home Agent (HA):
It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected
 Home Address:
It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home network).
 Foreign Network:
It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its home
network).
 Foreign Agent (FA):
It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node is currently connected. The
packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers it to the
mobile node.
 Correspondent Node (CN):
It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.
 Care of Address (COA):
It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away from its
home network.

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Working:
Correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contains correspondent
node‟s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reaches to the home
agent. But now mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign
network. Foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets
should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the foreign
agent by the process of tunnelling.
Tunnelling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a
mechanism called encapsulation.

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