OF

ELEMENTS
ELECTROMAGNETI
324
sum o travelli
of two travelling waves
FIELD,
the
The equation (8.52) represents
becomes
directions. Real part
opposite cos (ot + Br)
((ot- Br) + B
E, (t) =A 853
cos

is
and imaginary part +B sin (wt + Bx)
A sin (wt Br)
-

E, ()= (854
cases of
They are special
Eyh (x-vt) +/2 (r+ t) considered.
variation is
sinusoidal time
when intensity of a uniform plane waae.
Example 8.1 The electric fieldwave is propagating in the 1, directiomgir is
direction. The at
7500 V/m in the 1,
Find: (a) the wave length, (6) thefrequency, (C) the a
frequencyof2 x 10' rad/s.
period, (d) the amplitude of H. in air
Solution. 7500 cos (2 x 10't- ßr)
E, =

E8.854x 10 " F/m Ho=47x 107 H/m

3x 10
(a) - 2 x 10°/2) = 0.943 m
2X0 =318.3 M Hz
(b)
() 2f= 2
106
() T 318.3 = 3.142 ns

shall exist.
(d) 3 7 7 2, E, and H, components
10"t-Br)
H377=19.9 A/m H=199 cos (2 x
Example 8.2 Given E (x, t) = 10' sin (6 x 10* t- Bx) 1, V/m infreespac
sketch the wave at t = 0 and at timne t, when it has travelled /1 clongthex-urs
Find B and A.
Solution. E (x, ) = 10° sin (6 x 10° t-Bx)1,
-10 sin (Br-6x 10°t)1,
-10 sin B(r-vg )1y
B- 6x10*
3 x 1O8 rad/m

=Tm and
T
ime for - 2 1 262 x 10s.
4x6x10
 MAGNETIC WAVES
ELECT
325

is shown in Fig. 8.8.

The sketch

10

A/4 n/2
3 /4

10 W t 0 t=t1

Fig.8.8 Wave propagation.

Example 8.3 An electricfield is represented by
E, 10cos (6n. 10° t-Bx) 1,
ispropagating through a lossless medium having 4, = 1 ande, = 78 at a frequency
of 300 M Hz. Find : (a) the various parameters associated with the wave, (b) the
Correspondingmagnetic field H.
Solution. The phase cornstart

B-=@vue =6t 10* 178 4oey =55.5 rad/m

1
B VAE V78 4 0.3396 x 10 m/s
A =0.1132 m

IntrinsicImpedance n =377 V=42.69 2

E, =10cos (6T 10* t-Bx) 1,
Propagation is in x direction, E, component produces H, component,
orsolve V x 3B
E=-equation (8.34).
=0.234 cos (6n 10't-55.5x) 1
ample 8.4 Alossless dielectric medium has o=0, 4,=1,and e, =4. An
eleectrotmagti c wave hasmagneticfield components expressed as
H=-0.1 cos (ot-z)1,+0.5 sin (ot-z) 1yA/m
(h )phase constant B, (6) angular velocity, (¢) the wave impedance,
onents of electricf intensity of the wave.
 326 ELEMENTS OF
ELECTROMAGNET
1, t, =4
FIELDS
Solution. Given d =
0, *H, =

a=0 for lossless dielectric

of H, we can find BdirectlvvR
(a) Looking at the equation B-1 tad/m
as H=Hm COs
(0o-B2) ype
(b) B=o vu e
= o v4,e V4,e, =V4 =40
V
3 x 10" m/s
being velocity of light =
U 1x3X10 1,5 x10 rad/s
2 2

(c) Wave impedance n=^ b0T ohm

sin (ot-z) 1, A/m
(d) H=-0.1 cos (ot-z) 1,+0.5
and has components of H
direction
The wave is travelling in z
- 1, and 1, directions, H, and H respectively, varying w.r.t. z. Forfindig
ding
for lossless medium
use Maxwell's equation
a
E we

VxH=EOE (=0

1 1y 1
VxH=
Ox dy aHy1,+
dz

H, H, H
VxH= 0.5 cos (wt -z) 1, -0.1 sin (ot- z) 1y

E (x H) dt =sin (ot-2) 1,+cos(o-2)1

V/m
E=94.12 sin (ot -z) 1, + 18.83 cos (ot-z) 1,
The problem can also be solved directly as discussed in Sec 8.2
and
equations (8.32) and (8.38) for a lossless medium. The components or
e of
H which gives propagation in a particular direction governs the rule
the
ExH. In a lossless medium we have given onefield,

other can be calculated.

Given H=-0.1 cos (ot -2) 1, +0.5 sin (ot -z) 1, A/m
- H1,+H1, Donent

and the propagation is in z direction, i.e., 1, direction. With Hj

in-1, direction, E, component will be in 1, direction.

 E C T R O M A G N E T I C
WAVES 327

H.component in 1, direction so Eg component will be in 1, direction,

so

E=nH 1,+nH,1, =n H,1,+7 H, 1,

E 94.25-sin(ot-z)1, +18.85 cos (ot-z) 1, V/m
in a lossless
Example 8.5. A untform plane wave with E E, 1, propagates
=

nle medium, E, =4,4,=1,0=0 in the xdirection. Assume that E, is sinuso

simp V/m at
al zith a frequency
of 100 MHz and has a maximum value of +10
=0and r=m.
t and .
(a) Write the instantaneous expression of Efor any
instantaneous expressionfor H.
(b) Write the
locations where Ey is positive maximum when
(c) Determine the
t10.
Solution. We calculate

21t x10 ad/m

B-o C 3x10
find the instantaneous expression for
(a) Using cos ot as reference, we
E to be
E(t, )=E,1,=10 cos (21 10-Bx +v) 1
Since E, equals +10 when the argument of the cosine function
that is
equals zero (maximum value)
27t10-Br+y=0 i at t=0 and m

v-Br5a
Thus E (x, t) =
10" cos 2 10-x+

-10c2 0-
from the problem with a
It is possible to write the expression directly
shiftofm in x direction.
0) The phasor expression for H is

H-H1
103
Hence H(x, t)=60T
ih-]m
328 ELEMENTS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIBIELDS
(c) At t= 10"s, we equate the argument of the
cosine
t 21 Tt to make E, a positive maximum
sine function to
functio

2 1o'(1075-
we get
x=
X 8 or n=0,1.2 Xm>0

Examining this result we note that wave length in the given medium ic

Hence the positive maximum value of E, occurs att

Eand Hfields are shown in Fig. 8.9.

A
(m)
=(m)-

H (x, 0)= Ex(x, O¥n1

E(x. 0)= 10 cos
Fig. 8.9. E and H fields of a uniform plane wave at t= 0.
8.3 POLARIZATION
In electromagnetic fields,say that wave is polarized in a particula
we
way depernding on the direction of E vector. For example, for a plane w
travelling z direction,
in E, =0 and with the of E, and E, mx
components
and directions
y respectively (Fig. 8.10),
(8.55)
E=E, 1,+E, 1y
With E, Emx sin cot and E,= Eym sin ot
=
on a plane
at any point
constant, E = VE + E,, the length of the vector will vary from 0 toEa

one direction and 0 to - Emax in other direction [Fig. 8.10(a)]., vector

always lies along the straight line PP" shown and the wave is sad to
linearly polarized.
 TAOMAGNETIC WA WAVES
331

V
Aering only E, component of E varying w.r.t.r
(8.76)
Cons

VxE= 1 as derived earlier (8.30) and

(8.35)]
Ee-1,Y E,
ubstituting (8.62)

jopH=-1,yE, e""
corresponding to E,
H h a sH . c o m p o n e n t

H E (8.7)
intrinsic
impedance
So the

H (8.78)
Substituting ytrom (8.71)

V (8.79)

quantity.
nis a complex
With Ey E e j(at-pr) 8.70)
The magnetic field becomes

H,- i-
The electric and magnetic fields are no longer in time phase.
The factor causes an exponential decrease in amplitude with in
Creasing valueofx;n is a complex quantity in the first quadrant, so in the
lassy dielectric the electric field leads the magnetic field in time phase.

Example 8.6 For a lossy dielectric material having ,=1, &,=48,

20 S/m, calculate the attenuation constant, phase constant and intrinsic
mpeadance at afrequency of 16 GHz.

Solution.=- 20 x102 = 0.47

08 2t 16 x10 x.48 x 8.854

Y-joaE V1- (8.71)

 332 ELEMENTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
TIC FIE
FIELDS
=j 2n 16x.10" V4nx 10x 48 x 8.854 x10 7

= 2323.25 V1.0966 /-24.23 xvi-j047

2432.88 77.89° = 510.4 +j 2378.7 m

510.4Np/m
B 2378.7 rad/m
The intrinsic impedance

n Vo+joe

N1
47tX 107 1
V1-0.47
48 x 8.854x 107

54.377
1.0966/-24.23
n 51.93 /12.12° 2
Theelectric field (E) leads the magnetic field (H)by 12.12° at every
point.

8.5 cONDUCTORS AND DIELECTRICS

In
electromagnetics, materials are divided roughly into two classes:
conductors
dielectrics orinsulators.
The dividing line between two classes is not sharp and some meda
are considered as conductors in one
part of radio frequency range, ana a
dielectric (with loss) in another
part of the range.
In the Maxwell's equation
VxH=g E+joe E, the
ratiois therefore justthe ratio of cona
tion current
density to displacement current density in the mediunt r
"
good conductors
»1 over entire radio frequency range. For
g
dielectrics «1in the radio frequency range.
 GNETIC WAVES
CTROMAGa 333
ELECT

The term
i s referred to as the loss
tangent (similar to loss tangent
of a capacitor), or dissipation factor. In practice, following obser-
i n
c a s e

attosare true

O d conductors G and e are nearly independent of frequency.

For dielectrics o and e are functions of frequency, but the
is often constant over the frequency
r a tiia
o range of interest.
Rased on the value of o r we can approximate the relations f o

ion constant, phase constant and intrinsic impedance for con-

dielectric materials.
and
ductors
WAVE
PROPAGATION IN GOOD DIELECTRICS
8.6
For good dielectrics

<<1
E

we may write
V 1.20 (8.80)
by using binomial theorem

(1+x" = 1+ nx+ 2+ (-1)(n-2) 3 , (8.81)

2! 3!
Equations (8.75) and (8.76) then become

V1-
a=V (8.82)

B-/V .V 2 w + 1

B-e 1+ 8 oe
(8.83)

E sIs the
mountof loss (due to
phas
the phase shift for a perfect dielectric. The effect of small

ndand Bißincreases. conductivity) is to add a second term in ß equationn

 ELEMENTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
334 FIELDS

Velocity of wave v=
E1

1- 8.A
i s the velocity of the wave in the dilectric when the conductiust
ivity is
a small amount of loce
dielectric. The effect of loss is to
zero i.e., in perfect of the wave.
of propagation
reduce slightly the velocity

Intrinsicimpedance n=°V +j0e

j we

n-VE1zo (8.85)

0. The chiefefet
Vis the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric with o
=

of loss is to add a small reactive component to the intrinsic impedance.

The above approximations may be made in the cases where<0.1,

butfor a perfect dielectrics 0.01.

8.7 WAVE PROPAGATION IN A GOOD CONDUCTOR

For a good conductor o >> ®e

The propagation constant y can be written as

Y=jou (o+jwe)
-jouo 1+,
(8.86

Y=vjou
 IETIC WAVES
ELECTROMAGNE 335

=
Vou a /45°
= Vwuo (cos 45+j sin 45)

(1 +) Vuo
2
(8.87)

(8.88)

The velocity of propagation

(8.89)
V
is
The intrinsic impedance of the conductor

n=Viog-iog (8.90)
0+j08

-Vo
In a conductor, a and ß are large. The wave attenuates greatly as it
also large. The velocity of the
progiesses and phase shift per unit length is
wave is small. The intrinsic impedance is small and has a reactive compo-

nent with impedance angle of 45°.

rad/m and
For a good conductor let a =60 Np/m and B=60
30 45 and an E wave is expressed as
E 4e sin (10°t - Bx)1, V/m,
wish to find H. H will be
ewave is propagating in x direction, we
epresented as
H-Hsin(ot-Br-)1
Ho Eg =0.133 A/m

With propagation in x direction and E being in 1, direction, H will be

airection (such that ExH vectors must give propagationdirection).

H--0.133 e0 sin(ot-60:x-)1,A/m.
 336 ELEMENTS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELDs
8.8 DEPTH OF PENETRATION SKIN DEPTH
n a medium of high conductivity, the wave is attenuated as ie.
gresses due to the losses which occur in the medium. In a good Cond.
the rate of attenuation is very great and the wave may penetrate onlya
short distance before being reduced to a negligible small percenta
original strength. A term that has significance is called depthof penetra
tion or skin depth: The depth of penetration, 6, is defined as the depthim
epth in
which the wave has been attenuated to or approximately 37h of tha

original value, Fig. 8.11.

E
1.0

0.368

Fig. 8.11. Field in a conductor, skin depth.

The amplitude of the wave decreases by a factor e , where a is

attenuation
constant, it is apparent that a
distance x which makes ar=l
the amplitude is only 1/e times its value at r 0. This distance is equal to
the depth of penetration. We have
=

ax=1 or að=1,

(8.91)

For a good conductor >1, so

-VV
(8.92)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
337

Ear copper with o = 5.8 x 10' S/m, H =Ho atf= 1 MHz

1
= 6
0.0661
o mm
V 10° x 4mx 107x5.8x10
value at 50 Hz
The same
= 9.35 mmm
Vx 50x 4nx 10 x5.8x 10

At a microwave frequency of 10,000 M Hz, 8= 6.61 x 10 mm, or

about one-eighth the wave length of visible light.

at
All fields in good conductor such as copper are essentially zero
a

than a few skin depths from the surface. Electromagnetic

distances greater
transmitted in the interior of the conductor, it travels
in the
energy is not
conductor merely guides the
regionsurrounding the conductor, while the
At microwave frequencies only
the surface coating of the guiding
waves.
on a piece of glass may be
an
silver coating
conductor is important. A
excellent conductor at these frequencies.
G= 10"* S/m,
Example 8.7.A uniform plane wave in a medium having the
is having a frequency of 10 kHz.
Calculate different
and u =Ho
=80 e
parameters of the wave.
d 10 S/km
Solution.
80 Eo

10 2247>>1
2
x 80 x 8.854 x
10
E 2 10
attenuation constant
The medium is a good conductor, so
a=vnfu o =Vnx
10°x 4Tx 10 x 103
2 t x 10°Np/m
2 x 10 rad/m.
phase constant Ba
intrinsicimpedance 45

= 2x 10 x4x10 103
45°= 2 (1+) ohm

= 1000 m
wave length

21 1010 m/s
velocity of wave v8 2 10
338 ELEMENTS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDs
Example 8.8 For a non-magnetic material having e,=2.25,
2.25, od= 1iri =
10r* S/.
Find ) the loss tangent, (i) attemuation constant, (ii) phase coSYn
(iv) intrinsic impedance for a wave having a frequency of 2.5 MHz.
Hz Ass
Assume the
material to be a good dielectric.
Solution.() loss tangernt
104
=-
Oe 27t x 2.5 x 10°x 2.25 x 8.854 x 10 12320
(i) attenuation constant
a 4Tx10
2.25 x 8.854 x 102
= 0.01256 Np/m
(i) phase constant

B-ove 1+
=27 x 2.5x 10° V4nx 107x 2.25 x8854 x 1012 1+ 8
= 0.07796 rad/m

(iv) intrinsic impedance

-V1
= 47T x 10 1+0320

2.25 x 8.854 x 10
254.35 9.09° ohms
Example 8.9 Find the skin depth 8at a frequency of 1.6 MHz in aluminiun,
where g=38.2 MS/m and u, = 1. Also find the propagation constant and wave
velocity.
Solution.
1
VnfHo x1.6x 1o*x 4Tx 10x382 x10
0.06438 mm
aB=81
T 15.53 x 10+j 15.53 x 10
=
21.96 x 1o 45°m
U= ®8*27*1.6x10 x .06438 x 103
= 647.2 m/s.