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 WAVE SHAPING AND MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

Linear wave shaping: Process by which the shape of a non-sinusoidal signal is

changed by passing the signal through the network consisting of linear elements
Diodes can be used in wave shaping a circuits.

Either limit or clip signal portion--- clipper

shift the dc voltage level of the signal --- clampers

Types of non-sinusoidal input

Step
pulse
square
Ramp input
RL circuit
RL circuit is used for small time constants.
To get a large time constant the inductance value has to be chosen high
Higher inductance value are provided by iron core inductors which are
bigger in size, heavy and costly.

The RC Integrator

The Integrator is basically a low pass filter circuit operating in the time domain
that converts a square wave "step" response input signal into a triangular shaped
waveform output as the capacitor charges and discharges.
A Triangular waveform consists of alternate but equal, positive and negative
ramps. As seen below, if the RC time constant is long compared to the time period
of the input waveform the resultant output waveform will be triangular in shape

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and the higher the input frequency the lower will be the output amplitude
compared to that of the input.

This then makes this type of circuit ideal for converting one type of electronic
signal to another for use in wave-generating or wave-shaping circuits.
RC Differentiator

Up until now the input waveform to the filter has been assumed to be sinusoidal
or that of a sine wave consisting of a fundamental signal and some harmonics
operating in the frequency domain giving us a frequency domain response for the
filter.

However, if we feed the High Pass Filter with a Square Wave signal operating
in the time domain giving an impulse or step response input, the output waveform
will consist of short duration pulse or spikes as shown

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Each cycle of the square wave input waveform produces two spikes at the output,
one positive and one negative and whose amplitude is equal to that of the input.
The rate of decay of the spikes depends upon the time constant, (RC) value of
both components, (t = R x C) and the value of the input frequency. The output
pulses resemble more and more the shape of the input signal as the frequency
increases

RL INTEGRATORS:
The RL circuit may also be used as an integrating circuit. An integrated waveform
may be obtained from the series RL circuit by taking the output across the
resistor. The characteristics of the inductor are such that at the first

instant of time in which voltage is applied, current flow through the inductor is
minimum and the voltage developed across it is maximum.
Therefore, the value of the voltage drop across the series resistor at that first
instant must be 0 volts because there is no current flow through it. As time passes,
current begins to flow through the circuit and voltage develops across the resistor.
Since the circuit has a long time constant, the voltage across the resistor does
NOT respond to the rapid changes in voltage of the input square wave. Therefore,
the conditions for integration in an RL circuit are a long time constant with the
output taken across the resistor.
There are a variety of diode network called clippers that have the ability to-
Clipp off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform. The half wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form
of diode clipper one resistor and diode. Depending on the orientation of the diode,
the positive or negative region of the input signal is- ―clipped off. There are two
general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series configuration is
defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the parallel variety
has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

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Multivibrators

Introduction
The type of circuit most often used to generate square or rectangular waves is the
multivibrator. A multivibrator, is basically two amplifier circuits arranged with
regenerative feedback. One of the amplifiers is conducting while the other is cut
off When an input signal to one amplifier is large enough, the transistor can be
driven into cutoff, and its collector voltage will be almost V CC. However, when
the transistor is driven into saturation, its collector voltage will be about 0 volts.

A circuit that is designed to go quickly from cutoff to saturation will produce a

square or rectangular wave at its output. This principle is used in multivibrators.
Multivibrators are classified according to the number of steady (stable) states of
the circuit. A steady state exists when circuit operation is essentially constant;
that is, one transistor remains in conduction and the other remains cut off until an
external signal is applied.
The three types of multivibrators :

ASTABLE
MONOSTABLE
BISTABLE.
The astable circuit has no stable state. With no external signal applied, the
transistors alternately switch from cutoff to saturation at a frequency determined
by the RC time constants of the coupling circuits.

The monostable circuit has one stable state; one transistor conducts while the
other is cut off. A signal must be applied to change this condition. After a

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period of time, determined by the internal RC components, the circuit will return
to its original condition where it remains until the next signal arrives.
The bistable multivibrator has two stable states. It remains in one of the stable
states until a trigger is applied. It then FLIPS to the other stable condition and
remains there until another trigger is applied. The multivibrator then changes
back (FLOPS) to its first stable state.
1. Astable Multivibrator
A multivibrator which generates square waves of its own (i.e. without any
external trigger pulse) is known as astable multivibrator. It is also called free
ramming multivibrator. It has no stable state but only two quasi-stables (half-
stable) makes oscillating continuously between these states. Thus it is just an
oscillator since it requires no external pulse for its operation of course it does
require D.C power.
In such circuit neither of the two transistors reaches a stable state. It switches back
and forth from one state to the other, remaining in each state for a time determined
by circuit constants. In other words, at first one transistor conducts (i.e. ON state)
and the other stays in the OFF state for some time. After this period of time, the
second transistor is automatically turned ON and the first transistor turned OFF.
Thus the multivibrator will generate a square wave of its own. The width of the
square wave and it frequency will depend upon the circuit constants. Here we
like to describe.

Collector - coupled Astabe multivibrator

Emitter - coupled Astable multivibrator

Figure (a) shows the circuit of a collector coupled astable multivibrator using two
identical NPN transistors Q1 and Q2. It is possible to have RL1 = RL2 = RL = R1 =
R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C. In that case , the circuit is known as symmetrical astable
multivibrator. The transistor Q1 is forward biased by the Vcc supply
throughresistor R2. Similarly the transistor Q2 is forward biased by the

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Vcc supply through resistor R1. The output of transistor Q1 is coupled to the
input of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C2. Similarly the output of transistor
Q2 is coupled to the input of transistor Q1 through the capacitor C1.

It consists of two common emitter amplifying stages. Each stage provides a

feedback through a capacitor at the input of the other. Since the amplifying stage
introduces a 180o phase shift and another 180o phase shift is introduced by a
capacitor, therefore the feedback signal and the circuit works as an oscillator. In
other words because of capacitive coupling none of the transistor can remain
permanently out-off or saturated, instead of circuit has two quasi-stable states (ON
and OFF) and it makes periodic transition between these two states.

The output of an Astable multivibrator is available at the collector terminal of the

either transistors as shown in figure (a). However, the two outputs are 180o
out of phase with each other. Therefore one of the outputs is said to be the
complement of the other.

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Let us suppose that
When Q1is ON, Q2 is OFF and
When Q2 is ON, Q1 is OFF.

When the D.C power supply is switched ON by closing S, one of the transistors
will start conducting before the other (or slightly faster than the other). It is so
because characteristics of no two similar transistors can be exactly alike suppose
that Q1 starts conducting before Q2 does. The feedback system is such that Q1 will
be very rapidly driven ton saturation and Q2 to cut-off. The circuit operation may
be explained as follows.

Since Q1 is in saturation whole of VCC drops across RL1. Hence VC1 = 0 and point
A is at zero or ground potential. Since Q2 is in cut-off i.e. it conducts no current,
there is no drop across R L2. Hence point B is at VCC. Since A is at 0V C2 starts to
charge through R2 towards VCC.
When voltage across C2 rises sufficiently (i.e. more than 0.7V), it biases Q2 in the
forward direction so that it starts conducting and is soon driven to saturation.
VCC decreases and becomes almost zero when Q2 gets saturated. The potential of
point B decreases from VCC to almost 0V. This potential decrease (negative
swing) is applied to the base of Q1 through C1. Consequently, Q1 is pulled out of
saturation and is soon driven to cut-off.
Since, now point B is at 0V, C1 starts charging through R1 towards the target
voltage VCC.When voltage of C1 increases sufficiently. Q1 becomes forward-
biased and starts conducting. In this way the whole cycle is repeated.
It is observed that the circuit alternates between a state in which Q1 is ON and Q2
is OFF and the state in which Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON. This time in each state
depends on RC values. Since each transistor is driven alternately into saturation
and cut-off. The voltage waveform at either collector (points A and B in figure
(b)) is essentially a square waveform with peak amplitude equal to VCC.

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Calculation of switching times and frequency of oscillations:
The frequency of oscillations can be calculated by charging and discharging
capacitances and its base resistance RB.
The voltage across the capacitor can be written as

Vi= intial voltage = VB =-VCC thus the transistors enters from ON to OFF state

Vf = final voltage = VB = -VCC then the resistor enters from OFF to ON state

T1 is ON & T2 is OFF the above equation can be written as

substitute at t=T1, VB1=0 hence this equation becomes

T1=.69RB2C2
The total time period T=.694(RB1C1+RB2C2)
When RB!=RB2=R & C1=C2=C

T=1.39RC
Frequency of free running multivibrator is given by

the frequency stability of the circuit is not good as only the function of the product
of RC but also depends on load resistances, supply voltages and circuit
parameters. In order to stabilize the frequency, synchronizing signals are injected
which terminate the unstable periods earlier than would occur naturally.
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2. Bistable multivibrator

The bistable multivibrator has two absolutely stable states. It will remain in
whichever state it happens to be until a trigger pulse causes it to switch to the
other state. For instance, suppose at any particular instant, transistor Q1 is
conducting and transistor Q 2 is at cut-off. If left to itself, the bistable
multivibrator will stay in this position for ever. However, if an external pulse is
applied to the circuit in such a way that Q1 is cut-off and Q2 is turned on, the
circuit will stay in the new position. Another trigger pulse is then required to
switch the circuit back to its original state.
In other words a multivibrator which has both the state stable is called a bistable
multivibrator. It is also called flip-flop, trigger circuit or binary. The output

pulse is obtained when, and why a driving (triggering) pulse is applied to the
input. A full cycle of output is produced for every two triggering pulses of correct
polarity and amplitude.

Figure (a) shows the circuit of a bistable multivibrator using two NPN transistors.
Here the output of a transistor Q2 is coupled put of a transistor Q1 through a
resistor R2. Similarly, the output of a transistor Q1 is coupled to the base of
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transistor Q2 through a resistor R1. The capacitors C 2 and C1 are known as speed
up capacitors. Their function is to increase the speed of the circuit in making
abrupt transition from one stable state to another stable state. The base resistors
(R3 and R4) of both the transistors are connected to a common source (- VBB). The
output of a bistable multivibrator is available at the collector terminal of the both
the transistor Q1 and Q. However, the two outputs are the complements of each
other.

Let us suppose, if Q1 is conducting, then the fact that point A is at nearly ON

makes the base of Q2 negative (by the potential divider R2 - R4) and holds Q2
off.

Similarly with Q2 OFF, the potential divider from VCC to -VBB (RL2, R1, R3) is
designed to keep base of Q1at about 0.7V ensuring that Q1 conducts. It is seen
that Q1 holds Q2 OFF and Q2 hold Q1 ON. Suppose, now a positive pulse is applied
momentarily to R. It will cause Q2 to conduct. As collector of Q2 falls to zero, it
cuts Q1 OFF and consequently, the BMV switches over to its other state.
Similarly, a positive trigger pulse applied to S will switch the BMV back to its
original state.
Uses:
In timing circuits as frequency divider
In counting circuits,
In computer memory circuits

Bistable Multivibrator Triggering

To change the stable state of the binary it is necessary to apply an appropriate
pulse in the circuit, which will try to bring both the transistors to active region
and the resulting regenerative feedback will result on the change of state.
Triggering may be of two following types:
1. Asymmetrical triggering

2. Symmetrical triggering

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(I) Asymmetrical triggering

In asymmetrical triggering, there are two trigger inputs for the transistors Q1
and Q2. Each trigger input is derived from a separate triggering source. To induce
transition among the stable states, let us say that initially the trigger is applied to
the bistable. For the next transition, now the identical trigger must appear at the
transistor Q2. Thus it can be said that the asymmetrical triggering the trigger
pulses derived from two separate source and connected to the two transistors
Q1 and Q2 individually, sequentially change the state of the bistable.
Figure (b) shows the circuit diagram of an asymmetrically triggered bistable
multivibrator.

Initially Q1 is OFF and transistor Q2 is ON. The first pulse derived from the trigger
source A, applied to the terminal turn it OFF by bringing it from saturation region
to active transistor Q1 is ON and transistor Q2 is OFF. Any further pulse next time
then the trigger pulse is applied at the terminal B, the change of stable state will
result with transistor Q2 On and transistor Q1 OFF.
Asymmetrical triggering finds its application in the generation of a gate
waveform, the duration of which is controlled by any two independent events
occurring at different time instants. Thus measurement of time interval is
facilitated.

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(II) symmetrical triggering

There are various symmetrical triggering methods called symmetrical collector

triggering, symmetrical base triggering and symmetrical hybrid triggering. Here
we would liked to explain only symmetrical base triggering (positive pulse) only
as given under symmetrical Base Triggering.
Figure (c) shows the circuit diagram of a binary with symmetrical base triggering
applying a positive trigger pulses. Diodes D1 and D2 are steering diodes. Here the
positive pulses, try to turn ON and OFF transistor. Thus when transistor Q1 is
OFF and transistor Q2 is ON, the respective base voltages and VB1N, OFF and V
B2N, ON. It will be seen that VB1N, OFF > VB1N, ON. Thus diode D2 is more reverse-
biased compared to diode D1.

When the positive differentiated pulse of amplitude greater than (VB1N, OFF + Vɣ)
appears, the diode D1 gets forward biased, and transistor Q1 enters the active
region and with subsequent regenerative feedback Q1 gets ON, and transistor Q2
becomes OFF. On the arrival of the next trigger pulse now the diode D2 will be
forward biased and ultimately with regenerative feedback it will be in the ON
state.

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ASTABLE MONO STABLE BI STABLE