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•
SICS-
CLASS - X

KOTA (RAJASTHAN)

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 ALLIM®
CONTENTS CAREER INSTITUTE
KOTA (RAJASTHAN)

' ..

Chapter
No.
Topic
II
1. Optics Reflection of Light 1

2. Optics Refraction of Light 27

3. The Human Eye & The Colourful World 55

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 ALLIMI Physics

Optics: Reflection of Light

Optics is the study of the nature

and behaviour of light and other
electromagnetic waves.

'Light is the only thing we

can really see.'

1. Light
Light is a form of energy which excites our sense of sight.
Sources of light
During the day, the primary source of light is the Sun and the secondary
source is the brightness of the sky. Other common sources are flames,
electric bulbs, tube lights (fluorescent tubes), compact fluorescent lamps
(CFLs) and light emitting diodes (LEOs).
2. The nature of light
Light consists of electromagnetic waves (non-mechanical waves) which do
not contain any particles and they do not require any material medium for
their propagation.
(1) The speed of light depends on the nature of medium. In vacuum or free
space, light travel fastest and its speed is 3 x108 m/ s. In air, the speed
is almost same (marginally less), whereas, in glass or water, it reduces How electromagnetic waves
c:
o
considerably. can be distinguished from
....
"Z

;: (2) The wavelength range of visible light is about 4 xl 0-7 m to 7 xl 0-7 m mechanical waves?
~I Electromagnetic waves are able to
(or 0.4 Jlm to 0.7 Jlm or 400 nm to 700 nm)
travel through vacuum - a region
9 (3) Though light does not contain particles, but it carries energy and without any matter. Mechanical
§
momentum. Light is supposed to have massless particles or units called waves require a medium in order to
'photons'. propagate from one location to
another.
(4) Light travels in a straight line in vacuum or in a homogeneous transparent
medium.
(5) Light consists of electromagnetic waves which are transverse in nature.
How electromagnetic waves are produced?
An electromagnetic wave is produced by an oscillating charge which produces
mutually perpendicular oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The direction
of propagation of electromagnetic wave is perpendicular to both electric
and magnetic fields respectively. Hence, it is transverse in nature.
1
_C-BS-E-:-C-la-s-s-X------~----------------------------ALLIM
:I .
<""

If we shake the end of a stick back and forth in still water, we will produce
waves on the surface of the water, Similarly, if we shake an electrically
charged rod to and fro in empty space, we will produce electromagnetic
waves in space (see fig. 1).
We know that moving charge is actually an electric current and a magnetic
field surrounds an electric current. Since, the electric current is oscillating
in this case, an oscillating magnetic field surrounds the electric current.
An oscillating magnetic field, in turn, generates an oscillating electric field
(electromagnetic induction).
The oscillating electric and magnetic fields regenerate each other to make
up an electromagnetic wave , which I:. : (-' ~leS outward from the oscillating
charge. Both electric and magnetic fields move with same speed which
keeps them in perfect balance, regenerating each other as they carry energy
Fig.1 Production of through space (see fig. 2).
electromagnetic waves

Electric
field

Magnetic
field
Light has a dual nature. In some
experiments, it behaves like a
particle, while in others, it behaves
like a wave. propagation
of wave

Fig.2 An electromagnetic wave

4. The electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves exist with a very large range of frequencies. This
continuous range of frequencies is known as the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Which region of the
electromagnetic spectrum will
travel with the fastest speed in
vacuum?
Decreasing frequency, increasing wavelength
All regions have the same speed in
vacuum. The speed of an Visible light spectrum
• i
..c
Our eyes are sensitive to only a very narrow band of electromagnetic j:
electromagnetic wave in vacuum
does not depend on its frequency
and wavelength. spectrum. This narrow band of wavelengths is an aid through which humans ~
.~
can see and it is called visible light spectrum.
~I
~
§
Decreasing frequency, increasing wavelength

5.
• ...
u

Objects ~
Luminous objects ~
The objects which emit their own light are called 'luminous objects'. i'8
How can we see non-luminous Examples: Sun and other stars, lamp, bulb, tube light, candle flame, etc. ~
objects? ~
When the light falls on a non-
Non-luminous objects
The objects which do not emit their own light but only reflect or scatter the ~
luminous object, it reflects a part of ~
~
the light towards us. When this light light which falls on them are called 'non-luminous' objects (or illuminated
reaches our eyes, we can see such objects). ~
an object.
Examples: Table, chair, animals, plants, planets, satellites, moon, etc. l
2
ALLIM-:::~________________________~~~~~~P~hy~s~iC=S
Opaque objects
An object is said to be 'opaque' if it does not allow any light to pass
through it. An opaque object reflects a part of the light falling on it and
remaining part is absorbed by it.
Transparent objects When light falls on a surface or a
An object is said to be 'transparent' if it transmits most of the light falling boundary sepa rating two media,
on it. Only a very small part of light may be absorbed or reflected from it. usually a part is reAected, a part is
We can see clearly an object present behind the transparent object. e.g. a transmitted (refracted) and a part is
plain glass slab is a transparent object (or medium). absorbed.
Translucent objects
An object is said to be 'translucent' if it transmits a part of the light falling
on it that is not sufficient to see clearly an object present behind it.
r7 For a highly polished surface or mirror, most of the light falling on it gets
reflected. For a transparent medium like glass or water, most of the light
falling on it gets transmitted.
Some basic terms
Ray of light: A ray of light is the direction in which light travels.
Beam of light: A bundle of light rays is called beam of light (or light
beam). (a) A convergent beam
Convergent beam: A beam of light in which all the rays move towards a
single point is called convergent beam [see fig.3 (a)].
Divergent beam : A beam of light in which all the rays emerge out from
a single point is called divergent beam [see fig. 3 (b)].
Parallel beam : A beam of light in which all the rays are parallel to each
other is called parallel beam [see fig.3 (c)].

6. Reflection of light
Reflection of light is the process in which light rays meeting the boundary (b) A divergent beam
between two media 'bounce back', to stay in the first me.dium (see fig.4) .
The process of sending back of light rays which fall on the surface of an
object is called reflection of light.
On reflection of light from a surface, the speed, wavelength and frequency
of light do not change. This is because the light stays in the same medium.
But, amplitude and intensity of reflected ray are slightly less than that of
incident ray as some part of energy is absorbed at the surface. (c) A parallel beam
Laws of reflection
Fig.3 Various beams of light
First law
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence,
all lie in the same plane.
8econdlaw
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Reflected ray
Normal
Some basic terms I
Incident ray: The ray of light which falls on the mirror surface is called
incident ray.
Reflected ray : The ray of light which is sent back by the mirror is called
reflected ray.
Point of incidence : The point at which the incident ray falls on the
mirror is called point of incidence.
Normal : A line perpendicular to the surface of mirror passing through
the point of incidence is called normal.
Angle of incidence : The angle made by incident ray with the normal at travel
the point of incidence is called angle of incidence.
Angle of reflection: The angle made by reflected ray with the normal at Fig.4 Reflection of light
the point of incidence is called angle of reflection.
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_C_BS_E_:_C_la_s_s_X______~-----------------------------ALLIM
Regular reflection (specular reflection)
If a parallel beam of light is incident on a smooth plane mirror, the reflected
beam is also a parallel beam. This reflection is called regular reflection
[see fig.S (a)].
Reason : The light rays strike the smooth surface at same angles of
incidence. This is because all the normals are parallel to each other on the
The laws of reflection hold good for smooth surface. Thus, the light rays get reflected atsame angles of reflection.
all kinds of waves. These laws are That is why, the rays of reflected beam remains parallel to each other.
applicable to plane as well as curved
surfaces.
Diffuse reflection (irregular reflection)
If a parallel beam of light is incident on a rough surface or mirror, the rays
of light becomes non-parallel to each other. Such a reflection is called
'diffuse reflection' [see fig.S (b)].
Reason: The light rays strike the rough surface at many different angles of
incidence. This is because all the normals are not parallel to each other on
the rough surface. Thus, the light rays get reflected at many different angles.
That is why, the rays of reflected beam become non-parallel to each other.

You may have observed the image of the sun in the windows of .distant
buildings near the time that the sun is rising or setting. However, the image
Smooth surface of the sun is not seen in the windows of distant building during midday.
(a) Regular reflection Explain it, by drawing appropriate light rays on the given diagram.
Explanation
A ray of light (Ray 1), drawn from the sun's position at 6.30 pm to the
distant window, reflects from the window and travels to the observer's eye
(see fig.6). While a ray of light (Ray 2), drawn from the 12.30 pm sun
position to the window, will reflect and travel to the ground, does not reach
to the distant observer's eye.

Rough surface
Ray 1
(b) Diffuse reflection
Fig.S Reflection through
smooth and rough surfaces

Observer J'"
.Window glass Fig.6 Building concepts 1 t
::;

~--------------------------------------------------------~ 0c:

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When looking outdoors through a glass window at night, why do we 9
sometimes see a double image of ourselves? §
Explanation }
Reflection occurs whenever a ray of light strikes a surface separating two
~
different media. For the glass in a window, there are two such surfaces. 1=
Two 1 The first is the inner surface of the glass, and the second is the outer surface :
reflected (see fig.7). Each of these interfaces results in an image. Thus, we see a ~
rays ~
double image of ourselves.
Outer ~----------~--------------------------------------------~ ~
surface surface When a light ray falls perpendicular on the surface of a mirror, it reverses ~
;:!

its path on reflection. That is, it exactly retraces its path because angle of ~
Fig.7 Building concepts 2 ~
incidence and angle of reflection both are equal t6 zero (see fig. 8). '"~
1
ALLI _______________________________~--------~~P~hy~s~ics
7. Reflection from plane mirrors
A mirror is a highly polished surface used to reflect the light falling on it.
Mirrors are usually made by depositing a thin layer of silver metal on one
side of a plane glass sheet. Li L r = 0
Some basic terms
Object : Anything which gives out light rays either of its own or due to
reflection is called an object.
Point object : An object whose dimensions are negligibly small is called Fig.8 A Ray falling normally
point object. on the mirror retraces its path
Extended object : An object whose dimensions are quite large is called
extended object.
Point Objects .} Symbols used in
Extended Objects t ray diagrams
. Image : An image of an object is formed when light rays coming from the
Object Image
object meet or appear to meet at a point after reflection from a mirror or ----~
""
refraction from a lens.
}!~; "" "" "" ""
Real image : A real image is one formed when the light rays actually
meet at a point and which can be obtained on a screen. It is always inverted.
Virtual image : A virtual image is one formed when the rays do not
actually meet at a point but they appear to meet at a point. Such images
can not be obtained on the screen. It is always erect or upright. (a) Formation of
image of a point object
Image formed by a plane mirr.o r
The properties of image formed by a plane mirrors are (see fig. 9):
(1) The image is virtual and erect. Object Image
A A'

t·"
(2) The distance of image from mirror is equal to distance of object from mirror.
(3) The size of image is exactly equal to the size of object.
·r

(4) The image is laterally inverted. ~--f-~~- - - - ~:

8' ,
Lateral inversion
When an asymmetric object is placed in front of a plane mirror, then the
right side of the object appears to be the left side of image and the left side
of the object appears to be the right side of its image. This change of sides (b) Formation of
of an object seen in the image is called left - right inversion or lateral image of an extended object
inversion. The image is inverted side ways, thus, also called 'side ways Fig.9 Formation of
inversion' (see fig. 10). image by a plane mirror

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS.

If you wish to take a picture of your image while standing 5 m in front of a

plane mirror, for what distance should you set your camera to provide the
sharpest focus?
Which is easier, to read from rough pages or to read from glossy (shiny)
pages? Explain your answer.
ABC l8A
Explain why the reflection of light from a ground glass changes from diffuse
to regular if you spill water on it.
What evidence can prove that frequency of light does not change upon
Fig.l0 Lateral inversion of
reflection ?
image in a Plane Mirror

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_C-BS-E-:-C-I-as-s-X------~-----------------------------ALLIM
8. Reflection from spherical mirrors
A spherical mirror, as the name suggests, has the shape of a section of a
hollow sphere.
A hollow A spherical mirror is a mirror whose reflecting surface is made by the
sphere part of a hollow sphere.
Suppose a hollow sphere has a polished mirror surface on the inside as
well outside. By removing a section of the sphere, a double-sided spherical
mirror is obtained with a concave reflecting surface on one side and a
Convex
mirror convex reflecting surface on the other (see fig. 11).
The concave reflecting surface is curved inwards. The convex reflecting '
surface is curved outwards.
Concave mirror
Concave
mirror A spherical mirror in which the reflection of light takes place at bent-in
surface is called 'concave mirror'.
Concave mirror is also called 'converging mirror'. This is because the
parallel beam of light after reflection, converge at a single point.
Fig.II A spherical mirror Convex mirror
formed from a hollow sphere.
A spherical mirror in which the reflection of light takes place at bulging-out
surface is called 'convex mirror' .
Convex mirror is also called 'diverging mirror'. This is because the parallel
beam of light after reflection appears to diverge from a single point.

1. Take a large shining spoon and look at its inner curved surface. When your
face is quite close to the spoon, you will see your erect and magnified
image. Now, slowly move the spoon away from you. You will see your
inverted and magnified image. As the spoon is moved further away, the
inverted image gradually decreases [see fig.12 (a)).
2. Now, look at the outer curved surface of the spoon. You will see your erect
and diminished image. As the spoon is moved further away, the image
remains erect and its size gradually decreases [see fig. 12 (b)).
Conclusion : The inner curved surface of the spoon acts as a concave
(a) Looking at the inner
mirror. The outer curved surface of the spoon acts as a convex mirror.
surface of a shining spoon .
Some basic terms related to spherical mirrors (see fig. 13).
Centre of curvature : The point in space that represents the centre of i

~
"; " " 'f

the hollow sphere from which the spherical mirror was cut is called ;.
;:"', ' ';
'centre of curvature'. :3'
)~ . ~-
')-) ""i~Y The centre of the hollow sphere from which the spherical mirror is formed ~
'15

}~ r .i · is called 'centre of curvature' . ~

'-')~ . ~I
1': / / / . . J, ~I
Pole (or vertex) : The middle point on the surface of a spherical mirror is ~
d /' "- called 'pole' . §
(b) Looking at the outer
The geometric centre of the curved mirror surface is called 'pole'. u
.~
surface of a shining spoon.
~
Radius of curvature : The radius of hollow sphere from which the mirror
Fig.I 2 Active physics 2 ~
is formed is called 'radius of curvature'. '8
The distance between the centre of curvature and the pole of a spherical i
.f
mirror is called 'radius of curvature'.
~
Principal axis: A line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature ~u
of the spherical mirror is called 'principal axis' . ri
An imaginary line drawn through the pole, perpendicular to the surface of ~
~
the spherical mirror at the pole is called 'principal axis'. ~
1
6
 ALL. ___~__~____~____~~__~__~~__________~P~hy~s~ics
Principal focus :The point on the principal axis where all rays parallel to
principal axis, either converge or appear to diverge after reflection is called
'principal focus' .
Focal length : The distance between the focus and pole of a spherical
mirror is called 'focal length' .
Focal plane : A plane passing through focus and perpendicular to principal Spherical mirror can be thought of as
axis is called 'focal plane'. a portion of a sphere that was sliced
away and then silvered on one of the
Aperture : The diameter of the circular cross-section of the spherical mirror
sides to form a reflecting surface.
is called 'aperture' (AB). It represents the size of the mirror. More the Concave mirror is silvered on the
aperture of a spherical mirror, more will be its size. Thus, it will collect outside of the sphere, so reflection
occurs from the inner surface and
more light forming brighter images,after reflection.
convex mirror is silvered on the inside
of the sphere, so reAection occurs from
Virtual the outer surface.
Real

I I
I I
I I
I I I I
~
f I ~ For concave mirrors, centre of
R R curvature and principal focus are
(a) A concave mirror (b) A convex mirror real. For convex mirrors, centre of
curvature and principal focus are
C ; Centre of curvature ; F ; Principal focus ; P ; Pole or vertex virtual.
f ; focal length ; R ; Radius of curvature ; AB ; Aperture
Fig.13 Basic geometry and terms of concave and convex mirrors

ICHECK YOUR ANSWERS . '

1. Set your camera for 10m; .;the situation is equivalent to standing' 5 m in
front of an open window and viewing your twin standing 5 m beyond the
window.
2. It is much easier to read from rough pages which provide for diffuse
reflection. Glossy pages result in specular reflection and cause a glare (a
shine). The reader may see an image of the light bulb which illuminates the
page.
Real focus
Water fills .in the rough areas and makes the surface smoother causing (a) A concave mirror
,2
regular reflection.
-g
~. 4 The colour of an image is identical to the colour of the object forming the
]' .
image. The fact that the colour is the same is evidence that the frequency
9
§ of light doesn't change up~n reflection.
u

~ 9. Rules to obtain images in spherical mirrors

Concave mirrors
(1) The ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, passes through
the principal focus F of a concave mirror [see fig. 15 (a) on next page]. Virtual focus

(2) A ray passing through the principal focus in a concave mirror, is reflected (b) A convex mirror
parallel to the principal axis [see fig.15 (b) on next page]. Fig .14 Action of concave
mirror and conVex mirror.
(3) A ray passing through the centre of curvature in a concave mirror, is
reflected back along its own path [see fig.15 (c) on next page].

7
_C-BS-E-:-C-la-s-s-X------~-----------------------------ALLIM
Convex mirrors
(I) The ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, appears to diverge
from the principal focus of a convex mirror [see fig.16 (a)].
C
(2) A ray which is directed towards the principal focus in a convex mirror, is
reflededparallel to the principal axis [see fig. 16 (b)].
. (3) A ray directed towards the centre of curvature in a convex mirror, is
reflected back along its own path [see fig.16 (c)].

What happens when a ray is incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards
the pole of the mirror, on a concave mirror or a convex mirror?
Explanation
When a ray is incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards the pole of
the mirror, on a concave mirror or a convex mirror, it is reflected obliquely
such that the incident ray and the reflected ray make equal angles with the
principal axis. This is because the principal axis acts as normal at the pole.
The incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of
incidence (Pole), making equal angles with the principal axis (see fig 17).

Incident ray

Principal axis
(acts as normal at P)

Fig.IS Rules for concave Reflected ray

mirrors to obtain images
(a) Concave mirror

Incident ray

Principal axis -----+-~_-- ......-----4-

(acts as normal at P) F C
F C Reflected ray

(b) Convex mirror

(a) Fig.17 Building concepts 3
The above concept is used as rule no.4 for obtaining images in
spherical mirrors. !
;1
~
(5
F C Sun
rays .~
1. Take a concave mirror and allow the sun
~
rays to fall on it. Take paper and move it ~r

(b) towards the concave mirror till you obtain ~

§
a bright sharp spot of light on it. The spot
Bright

.........
obtained is the image of the sun. Now, spot ?
measure the distance between paper and Piece ~
of paper j
the concave mirror. This distance is an
F C
approximate focal length of the concave Fig.18 Active physics 3 i~
m~oc ~
(c) 2. If this spot is kept on the paper for few minutes, the paper will start burning. ~
This is because the light energy converts to heat energy. ~
Fig.16 Rules for convex
Important: Avoid looking at the Sun directly or its image formed by the ;;::;~
mirrors to obtain images
concave mirror as the intensity of sunlight may damage the eye. i
8
ALLI_------------------------------~------------Ph~y~s~ics
10. Image formation by a concave mirror
A'
~-;~?:
~~.,.. I
I

B'

(a) Object placed (b) Object For a spherical mirror, the line joining
between pole and focus placed at focus the centre of curvature and any point
on the mirror represents the radius of
curvature and it acts as a normal at
that point.

(c) Object placed (d) Object

between focus and center of curvature placed at e
(
/

(e) Object
(D Object
placed beyond C
at infinity Concave mirror can be used as a
magnifier to see a larger image of
Fig.19 Images formed by a concave mirror
an object when it is placed between
Image formation by a concave mirror pole and focus. For example, it is used
as shaving mirror (a magnifier) to see
Position of the I Position of the Size of the Nature of the an enlarged image of the face.
object image I image I image
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
AtF At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between e and F Beyond e Enlarged Real and inverted
Ate AtC Same size Real and inverted
Beyond e Between F and e Diminished Real and inverted
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished, Real and inverted
point-sized

Uses of concave mirrors

(1) Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of
the face.
(2) Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in car head lights, search lights,
hand torches, table lamps, etc. to get powerful parallel beams of light.
(3) Concave mirrors are used in solar power plants t6 produce electricity. Fig.20 Concave mirror as a magnifier

(4) Concave mirrors are used by doctors to concentrate light on body parts
like ears and eyes.
(5) Concave mirrors are also used by dentists to see large images of the
teeth of patients~
9
CSSE: Class X
ALLI

Suppose that lower half of concave mirror's reflecting surface is covered

with an opaque (non-reflecting) material. What effect will this have on the
image of an object placed in front of the mirror?
Explanation
If lower half of concave mirror is obstructed, full image will be formed but
c with reduced brightness. This is because every part of mirror forms complete
image. On obstructing the lower half, half of the light rays are obstructed,
forming less bright image. In this case, the intensity (brightness) of image
will be half of the initial value.
(a) Object placed at
some finite distance 11. Image formation by a con':Jc:· mirror
The image formed by a convex mirror is always behind the mirror, that is,
it is always virtual and erect. Also, the size of image is always diminished,
that is, its size is always smaller than that of the object.

Position of the I Position of the Size of the Nature of the

c object image I image I image
Between infinity Between P and F, Diminished Virtual and erect
and the pol~ P behind the mirror

At infinity At the focus F, Highly diminished, Virtual and erect .

(b) Object at infinity behind the mirror point-sized
r'

Fig.21 Images formed

by a convex mirror
1. Take a plane mirror to observe the image of a distant tree. You may not
see a full-length image of the tree. Try with plane mirrors of different sizes.
You will observe that there is a certain minimum size of the plane mirror to
see the full-length image of the tree. The size of the mirror depends on the
distance between the mirror and the distant object. More the distance of
the object from the mirror, smaller will be the size of the mirror required to
see its full-length image.
· 2. Take a concave mirror to observe the image of a distant tree. You will not
see the image of the tree in the mirror. This is because, to see an image in
a concave mirror, the object should be quite close to the .concave mirror
(between pole and focus).
3. Now, take a convex mirror to observe the image of a distant tree. You will
(a) Plane mirror
always see the full-length image of the distant tree. This is because, in a
. i
convex mirror, a virtual, erect and diminished image of the object is always
;1~
formed for every location of the object. :3'
'0
Uses of convex mirrors .~
Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. i
These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to ~I
F...... --C
...... see traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. ~
Convex mirrors are preferred as rear view mirrors because they always ~ .
.~

give an erect, though diminished image. Also, they have a wider field of ~
~
view as they are curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver Jl
(b) Convex mirror
to view much larger area than would be possible with a plane mirror
[see fig. 22(a) & fig. 22(b)).
1
Fig.22 A convex mirror has wider 12. Sign convention for reflection by spherical mirrors
1
~
field of view as compared to a plane
mirror. While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical mirrors, we follow a ~u
set of sign conventions called the new cartesian sign convention. In this ~
convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin. The principal
axis of the mirror is taken as the x-axis (X'X) of the coordinate system.
~

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1l
-
10
ALL.M __~____~~~~~~~________~____________P_hy~s__
;cs
The conventions are as follows [see fig.23 (a) & (b)] :
(1) The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that
the light from the object falls on the mirror from the left-hand side.
(2) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole
of the mirror. All the distances along XX' axis are measured fromP.
(3) All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x-axis) are
taken as positive while those measured to the left of the origin
(along -x-axis) are taken as negative. Distances along the direction of
(4) Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis incident light are considered
(along + y-axiS) are taken as positive. Distances measured perpendicular 'positive'. Distances measured
opposite to the direction of incident
to and below the principal axis (along - y-axis) are taken as negative.
light are considered 'negative'.
y
Direction of light
~t
~
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~I ~ 'U)
.~ 01

XI ~
C 0.. 0..1 &
X'----'----=--III----1--+---...... X
X
::> F F C
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~
Z 4 ~
Negative Positive Negative Positive
distances Y' distances distances Y' distances
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
Fig.23 The new cartesian sign convention for spherical mirrors

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTSD

1. A real, extended object when placed in front of a mirror, a virtual and

. erect image is formed. Predict the type of mirror if (a) the image is
diminished, (b) the image is exactly same size that of the object, (c) the An object is always put upright (erect)
image is magnified. i.e., above the principal axis. Thus,
height of an object is always taken
2. Is it possible to obtain an image ~etween principal focus and the centre of
positive.
CUlvature of a convex mirror ? r
3. At what location, the image meets the object in case of a concave mirror?
What is the size and the nature of the image at this location ?
13. Formulae related to spherical mirrors
Relationship between radius of curvature and focus
The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half of its radius of curvature.

Mirror formula
If= ~I
In a spherical mirror, the distance of the. object from its pole is called the
object distance (u). The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror
is called the image distance (v).
The relationship between object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the .
focal length (f) is given by mirror formula which is as given below,

I!+!=!I
If image is virtual and erect i.e.,
above principal axis, its height is
v u f taken 'positive'. If image is real and
inverted i.e., below principal axis, its
Magnification (m) height is taken 'negative'.
The ratio of height of image (h 2) to the height of ?bject (hI) is called
'magnification' or 'linear magnification'.

~
~
11
_C-BS-E-:-C-la-s-s-X------~-----------------------------ALLIM
The magnification (m) is also related to the object distance (u) and image
,
distance (v). It can be expressed as:

Im = ~: =-uvl
Also, magnification can be further expressed as, 1m= ~ = 91
A negative sign in the value of the
magnification indicates that the has
image is real. A positive sign in the
value of the magnification indicates
that the image is virtual.

Represents Represents

n
nature of image size of image

Positive Negative
I
' Iml< 1
I
Iml= 1
I
Im l> 1
~ ~ ~ + +
Virtual, Real, Diminished Same size Magnified
erect inverted image image image
Fig.24 Concept of magnification

A spherical mirror produces a magnification of + 1.5; Explain the nature

and size of the image formed by it. Which type of spherical mirror is this?
For concave mirror, 'm' can be Explanation
positive as well as n'egative. Also, Since, the sign of magnification is positive, this means the image is virtual
I m I can be less than" equal to or
and erect. Now, I m I = 1.5, which is greater than one, this means the
greater than one.
image is magnified. ' The spherical mirror in this case is a concave mirror
(a converging mirror) as it produces a virtual, erect and magnIfied image.
Some important points related to spherical mirrors
(a) Concave mirror
(1) Object distance, u = always negative.
(2) Image distance, v = positive, when object is placed between P & F
(virtual and erect image).
v = negative, all other possible cases (real and inverted image).
(3) f = negative, R = negative.
(b) Convex mirror
(1) Object distance, u = always negative.
(2) Image distance, v = always positive (virtual and erect).
(3) f = positive, R = positive.
(4) Image is always diminished.

For convex mirror, 'm' is always

ICHECK YOUR ANSWERS .1
positive and I m I is always less than 1.. (a) A virtual, erect and diminished image is formed in a convex mirror. i
one. This is because it always forms (b) A virtual, erect and same size image is formed in a plane mirror. ij
a virtual, erect and diminished image
(c) A virtual, erect and magnified image is formed in a concave mirror. ~
of the object.
2. No. In case of a convex mirror, the image is always formed ,between its ~
pole and focus. The image is never formed beyond the focus. ~
~
,3. The image meets the object at the centre of curvature (C) i.e., when the ~
object is placed at C, the image is also formed at C. At this location, the ~
image is real, inverted and of same size. ~
i
12
ALLI_ Physics
1~")M34t§J' ABILITY.'
1. A convex mirror used for rear-view on an automobile has a radius of
curvature of 3.00 m. If a bus is located at 5.00 m from this mirror, find the
position, nature and size of the image.
Solution
Given, radius of curvature, R = + 3 m; object distance, u = - 5 m ;
image distance, v = ? ; magnification, m = ?
Now, focal length, f = R/2 = +3/2 m
Mirror formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
-+-=- or -+-=--- or - - - = +-
V u f v (-5) (+3/2) V 5 3
or 1 1 2 _
_=_+_= 3 +_
10 =_ 13 or V=- 15 = + 1.15 m
v 5 3 15 15 13 .
Thus, the image is 1.15 m at the back of the mirror. A plane mirror forms a virtual, erect
and same size image as that of the
Now, magnification, m = h2 = _~ = (+15/13) = +~ = + 0.23 object thus, the magnification of a
hI u (-5) 13 plane mirror is + 1.
The image is virtual, erect and smaller in size by a factor of 0.23.
2. An object, 4.0 cm in size, is placed at 25.0 cm in front of a concave mirror
of focal length 15 0 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen
be placed in order to obtain a sharp image ? Find the nature and the size
of the image.
Solution
Given, object size, hI = + 4 cm ; object distance, u = - 25 cm ;
Focal length, f = -15 cm ; image distance, v = ? ; image size, h z = ?
Mirror formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-+-=- OJ - + - - = - - or =--
V u f v (-25) -15 v 25 15
1 1 1 3~r 5 -2 -75
or --- - - = - or V = - =-37.5cm
v 25 15 75 75 2
The screen should be p~aced at 37.5 cm from the mirror.

Now, magm'f'lcat·lon, m = -h2 = --

v
hI u

or h2=....:~xhl= (-75/2)x(+4)=_~x4 =-6cm

u (-25) 2
The image is real, inverted and enlarged.
An object is placed at 10 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of Radius of curvature of a plane mirror
is infinite. Thus, focal length (f = R/2)
curvature 15 cm. Find the magnification of the image.
of a plane mirror is also infinite i.e.,
Solution
f l'
p one mirror = 00 . __.
Given, object distance, u = -10 cm ; radius of curvature, R = - 15 cm ;
image distance, v = ? ; magnification, m =?
Focal-length, f = -15/2 cm
Mirror formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
-+-=- or -+--= or -=--
v u f v (-10) (-15/2) v 10 15

.1 1 2 3-41
or or v = - 30 cm
v 10 15 30
30
v (-30)
Now magnification m = -- = - - - =-3
, 'u (-10)

13
CBSE: Class X
__----------~INi'M3Uli.
__~~==~._------------ALLI­ ABILITY • •
t. A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave
mirror of radius of curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the mirror
should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image? Describe the
nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the mirror,
how would the screen have to be moved?
Solution
Object moves Given, object distance, u = - 27 cm ; radius of curvature, R = - 36 cm ;
towards object size, hI = +2.5 cm ; image distance, v ::= ? ; image size, h z = ?
the mirror Now, focal length, f = R/ 2 = -36/2 cm = - 18 cm
~

Mirror formula,
1 1 1 or 1 1 1 1 1 1
A' - +- = - - + --=-- or - - -=--
•Image moves · v u f v (-27) (-18) v 27 18
away from 1 1 1 2-3 -1
or - - = -- = - or v = - 54 em
the mirror v 27 18 54 54
Fig.25 Effect on the position of the
Now, magm . 'f'lcat'lon, m =h2- = - -v
image formed when an object is
moved towards a concave mirror. hI U

v (-54)
or h2 = - - xhI = - - - x (+2.5) = - 5 em
u (-27)
The image is real, inverted and enlarged.
<:if" When the candle is moved closer to the mirror, the screen has to be moved
away from the mirror. But, when candle is at a distance less than 18 cm
(Le., less than its focal length) from the mirror, image formed will be virtual
which is not possible to obtain on the screen.
2. A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal
length 15 cm. Give the location of the image and the magnification. Describe
what happens as the needle is moved farther from the mirror.
Solution ·
Given, object distance, u = - 12 cm ; focal length, f = + 15 cm ;
object size, hI = +4.5 cm ; image distance, V = ? ; magnification, m = ?
image size, h z = ?
Object moves
away from Image moves Mirror formula,
the mirror away from
.. the mirror
1 1 1
-+- = - or 1
- +-
1 1
- = -- or 1
-- -
1 := -
1
A
• v u f v (-12) (+15) v 12 15 ..r:

or 1 1
-=-+ -
1 =
4+5
- - =-
9 or v=+(60/9)cm=+6.67em ::;
~
v 15 12 60 60 ~
B p F c .2

Now, magnification, m = -~ = (+~~~)9) = +% = + 0.55 ~,

9
h 5 h2 §
Fig.26 Effect on the position of the Also, magnification, m = ~ or +-= - --"'--
image formed when an object is hI 9 (+ 4.5) .~

moved away from a convex mirror. ~

5
or h2 = + - x (+ 4.5) = + 2.5 cm ~
9 ~
Image is virtual, erect and diminished. i
~
If the needle (object) is moved farther from the mirror, its image moves ~
away from the mirror Le., from pole towards the focus. The image remains ~
virtual and erect but it gradually decreases in size. When the object becomes ~
infinitely far away, the image is formed at the focus and it is a point sized ~
image. But, the image never goes beyond the focus in a convex mirror. ~
1
14
 ALL.M ____________________________________________ Ph~y~s __
ics
NCERT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
-< 1. Define the principal focus of a concave mirror. 8. No matter how far you stand from a mirror, your ·
Ms. The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point image appears erect. The mirror is likely to be
on the principal axis, .at which the incident rays (a) plane (b) concave
parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, actually (c) convex (d) either plane or convex
meet. ADS. Option (d) is correct. A convex mirror always gives
2. The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is a virtual and erect image of smaller size of the object
20 cm. What is its focal length? placed in front of it. Similarly , a plane mirror will
always give a virtual and erect image of same size
ADS. Given, radius of curvature, R = 20 cm
as that of the object placed in front of it. Therefore,
Focal length, f = (1/2) x radius of curvature
the given mirror could be either plane or convex.
or f = (1/2) x R = (1/2) x 20 = 10 em 9. We wish to obtain an erect image of an object,
3. Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged using a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. What
image of an object. should be the range of distance of the object from
Ans. Concave mirror the mirror? What is the nature of the image?
4. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view Is the image larger or smaller than the object? Draw
mirror in vehicles? a ray diagram to show the image formation in this
case.
ADS. Convex mirror is preferred as a rear-view mirror
ADS. The object should be placed between pole and focus
because it always gives an erect, though diminished
to get an erect image. Thus, the range of distance
image. Also, it has a wider field of view as it is
from the mirror will be in between 0 to 15 cm
curved outwards. Thus, convex mirror enables the (or less than 15 cm) i.e., the range is
driver to view much larger area than would be
possible with a plane mirror.
o em - 15 em.
The ray diagram for this is as given below :
5. Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius A'
of curvature is 32 cm. .,-::~ 1
-".
".
.Ans. Given, radius of curvature, R = +32 cm
Focal length, f = (1/2) x radius of curvature
B'
or f = (1/2) x R = (1/2) >< (+32) = +16 em
6. A concave mirror produces three times magnified
(enlarged) real image of an object placed at
10 cm in front of it. Where is the image located? . 10. Name the type of mirror used in the following
situations
ADS. Given, magnification, m = - 3
(a) Headlights of a car.
(negative sign is taken as image is real) ;
(b) Side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle.
object distance = - 10 cm
(c) Solar furnace.
~x Now , m=-~ or v=-mxu Support your answer with reason .
UJ
u
t
~
ADS. (a) Concave mirror.
'0 or v = - (-3) x (-10) =- 30 em
c: Concave mirror is used in the headlights of a vehicle
0
7. The image formed by a concave mirror is observed
i.~I
to be virtual, erect and larger than the object. Where
because it produces powerful and almost parallel
beam of light when the light source is placed at
<? should be? the position of the object? its principal focus.
§
(a) Between the principal focus and the centre of
.g
curvature
~
~
(b) At the centre of curvature

1
1
(c) Beyond the centre of curvature
(d) Between the pole of the mirror and its principal
~ focus
/

.., ADS. Option (d) is correct. When an object is placed

UJ
V)

;:!
¥ between the pole and principal focus of a concave
~ mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect, and larger A bulb placed at the focus of a concave
~
0
than the object. mirror produces a strong, almost parallel beam
i
15
.C-BS-E-:-C-/o-s-s-X----------------.--------------------ALLIM
(b) Convex mirror. 13. An object 5.0 cm in length is placed at a distance
Convex mirror is used in rear-view mirror of a of 20 cm in front of a convex mirror of radius of
vehicle. Convex mirror gives a virtual, erect, and curvature 30 cm. Find the position of the image, its
diminished image of the object placed in front of
nature and size.
it. Because of this , it has a wide field of view. It
ADS. Given, object distance, u = - 20 cm ;
enables the driver to see most of the traffic behind
him. radius of curvature, R = + 30 cm ;
height of object, hI = + 5 cm ;
image distance, v =? ; magnification, m =? ;
height of image, h2 =?
Focal length, f = R/2 = (+30)12 = + 15 cm
F .... --C Mirror formula,
.... --- ---
1 1 1 1 1 1
-+-=-- or - + - - = - -
v u f v (-20) (+15)
1 1 1 3+4 7
or - = - + - = - - = -
v 20 15 60 60
A convex mirror has a wide field of view
(c) Concave mirror. or V "= + 60/7 cm = + 8.57 em
Concave mirrors are converging mirrors. That is (+60/7) 3
why they are used to construct solar furnaces. Now, magm'f'lcat'lon , m = --
v =
" - --=+-
u (-20) 7
Concave mirrors converge the parallel light incident
on them at a single point which is called principal or m= + 0.428
focus. Hence, they can be used to produce a large
h2 3 h2
amount of heat at that point. Also, m = h or +-=--
I 7 (+5)
15
or h2 +- = + 2.14 em
=
7
The image is -located at a distance of 8.57 cm
behind the mirror; it is virtual, erect and diminished
of size 2.14 cm.
A solar furnace placed 14. An object of size 7.0 cm is placed at 27 cm in front
at the focus of a concave mirror of a concave mirror of focal length 18 cm. At what
11. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from distance from the mirror should a screen be placed,
a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Find the so that a sharp, focussed image can be obtained?
position and nature of the image. Find the size and the nature of the image.
ADS. Given, object distance , u = - 10 cm ; ADS. Given, object height, hI = + 7 cm ;
focal length, f = + 15 cm ;
object distance, u = - 27 cm ;
image distance, v =? ; magnification, m =?
Mirror formula, f04 ength, f = - 18 cm ;
image distance, v =? ; image height, h2 =?
1 1 1 or 1 1 1 c
o
-+-=- -+--=-- Mirror formula,
V u f v (-10) (+15)
1 1 1 1 1 1
i
.~I
-+-=- or -+--=--
or .! = ~ + ~ = 3 + 2 = ~ =.! or v = + 6 em V u f v (-27) (-18) 9
v 10 15 30 30 6 §

Now, magm'f'lcat·lon, m = v = - (+6)

-- - - = + 0 .6 or .! = _1___1_ = 3 - 4 _ -lor v = - 54 em "~

u (-10) v 27 18 54 54 f
~
The image is located 6 cm behind the mirror ; (-54) v §
it is a virtual, erect and diminished image. Now, magnification, m = -~ = - (-27) = - 2 ~
12. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is
h h ~
J
+ 1. What does this mean? Also m = -.£ or -2 = _2_ or h = - 14 em 0

'hI (+ 7) 2 ~
ADS. Magnification for a plane mirror is + 1. The positive ~
sign means the image is virtual and erect. The The image is located at a distance of 54 cm in front ~
numerical value (magnitude) 'I' means that the size of the mirror ; it is real, inverted and magnified of
o
J
of the image is exactly equal to the size of the object. size 14 cm.
i
16
ALLIM __________________________________________ ~Ph~y~s~ics

SOLVED EXAMPLES
1.
'i
A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of (a) Focal length, f = R/2 = (+80)12 = + 40 cm
24.0 cm. An object 2.5 cm tall is placed 40.0 cm Mirror formula,
in front of the mirror.
1 1 1
(a) At what distance from the mirror will the image -+-=-
V u f
be formed?
(b) What is the height of the image?
or 1 1 1
Sol. Given, object distance, u = - 40 cm ; -+--=--
v (-450) (+40)
radius of curvature, R = - 24 cm ;
object height, hI = 2.5 em ; 1 1 1 4+45 +49
or -=--+-=--=--
image distance, v =? ; height of image, h2 =? v 450 40 1800 1800
(a) Focal length, f = R/2 = (-24)12 = - 12 cm or v = + 1800/49 cm = + 36.73 em
Mirror formula,

1 1 1
(b) Now, h2 =-~
-+-=- hI U
V u f

1 1 1 or ~ (+1800/49)
or -+--=-- (+1.7) (-450)
v (-40) (-12) .

or h2 4
1 1 1 3 -10 -7 --=+-
or -----=--= (+1. 7) 49
v 40 12 120 120
or v = - 120/7 cm = -17.14 em 4
or h2 = +-x1.7 = + 0.1387 m
49
(b) Magm'f'leat'lon, m = -h
h2 = - v-
3. What is the radius of curvature of a concave mirror
I .,u
that magnifies an object placed 30.0 cm from the
mirror by a factor of +3.0?
or or l (-120/7)
Ans. Given, object distance, u = - 30 cm ;
(+2.5) (-40)
magnification, m = + 3 ;
radius of curvature, R =?
or ~=-~
(+2.5) 7
Magm'f'lcat'lon, m = v
-- or v= - m xu
u
3 .
or h2 = --x2.5 = -1.07 em or v = - (+3) x (-30) = + 90 em
. 7
Mirror formula,
A convex supermarket surveillance mirror has a
radius of curvature of 80.0 cm. A 1.7 m tall 1 1 1
-+-=-
customer is standing 4.5 m in front of the mirror. V u f
(a) What is the location of the customer's image in
the mirror? 1 1 1
or --+--=-
(b) What is the height of the customer's image? (+90) (-30) f
Ans. Given, object distance, u = - 4.5 m = - 450 cm ;
1 1 1 1-3 -2
radius of curvature, R = + 80 cm ; or f ---=--=-
90 30 90 90
object height, hI = + 1.7 m ;
image distance, v =? ; image height, h2 =? or f = -90/2 = - 45 cm
R = 2f = 2 x (- 45) = - 90 em

17
_C_BS_E_:_C_la_s_s_X________________~------------------ALL.M
4. A dancer is applying make-up in a concave mirror. Mirror formula,
Her face is 35 cm in front of the mirror. The image
1 1 1
is 70 cm behind the mirror. Using the mirror -+-=-
V u f
equation, find the focal length of the mirror. What
is the magnification of the image?
or - 1 + -1 = --
1 [using (1)]
Ans. Object distance, u = - 35 cm ; 2u u (-40)
image distance, v = + 70 cm ;
1+2 1
or - - = - - or 3 1
Mirror formula, -=--
2u (-40) 2u (-40)
1 1 1
-+-=- 40x3 .
v u f or u = - - - =-60em
2
1 1 1
or --+--=- Case 2 : For virtual image, magnification, m = + 2
(+ 70) (-35) f

1 1 1 1-2 -1 Magm·f·lcat·lon, m =--

v or v = - m xu
or -=---=--=- u
f 70 35 70 70
or v = -(+2) xu or v = - 2u ----- (1)
or f = -70 em
Mirror formula,
.. . v (+70)
MagmflcatIon m = -- = - - - = + 2 1 1 1
, u (-35) -+-=-
V u f
5. Light from a distant planet is incident on a
1 1
converging mirror. The image of the planet forms or --+- =-1- [using (1)]
on a screen 45.0 cm from the pole of the mirror. (-2u) u (-40)
Find the focal length of the mirror.
-1+2 1 or 1 1
Ans. Given, object distance = - 00 ; or - - = - - -=--
2u (-40) 2u .(-40)
image distance, v = - 45 cm ;
focal length, f =?
or u = - 40 = - 20 em
Mirror formula, 2
1 1 1
7. A concave mirror produces a magnification of 1/2
-+-=- when an object is at 60 cm from it. Where should
v u f
the object be placed so that a virtual image of double
111 the size is formed by the mirror?
or - - + - - = -
(-00) (-45) f Sol. Given, object distance, u = - 60 cm ;
f= -45 em magnification = - 1/2, negative sign taken as a i
6. How far should one hold an object from a concave concave mirror forms a real image.
mirror of focal length 40 cm, so as to get an image
twice the size of the object?
Magm·f·lcat·lon, m =--
v or v = -m xu
u
Sol. Given, focal length, f = - 40 cm; I m I = 2 ·
or v = - (- 1/2) x (- 60) = - 30 cm
object pistance, u =? Mirror formula,
Here, it is not mentioned whether the image is real
1 1 1
or virtual. Since, in a concave mirror, we can obtain -+-=-
V u f
a magnified real or virtual image, thus, we have to
consider both the cases. 1 1 1
or - - + - - = -
Case 1 : For real image, magnification, m = -2 (-30) (-60) f

1 -2-1 3 1
M agm·f·lcat·lon, m = --v or v = - m xu or - = - - = - - = - -
u f 60 60 20
or f = - 20 cm
or v = -(-2) x u or v = 2u ----- (1)

18
.....
 ALLIM ____________________~----------------------P~hy~s~ics
Now, we have to find the object distance (u') when 9. A spherical mirror is to be used to form, on a screen
a virtual image of double size is formed i.e., the 5.00 m from the mirror, an image five times the
magnification, m = + 2. size of the object. (a) Describe the type of mirror
required. (b) Where should the mirror be positioned
M agm'f'leat·lon, m = - -v or v = - m xu relative to the object?
u
Sol. (a) Since, the image is obtained on a screen, it is a
or v = - (+2) x(u') or v = - 2u' ----- (1) real image. Thus, the spherical mirror is a
Mirror formula, coneave mirror (or converging mirror).
(b) Image distance, v = - 5 m ;
1 1 1
-+-=- magnification, m = - 5, negative sign taken as
V u f
a concave mirror forms a real image ;
object distance, u =?
or (-~u ') + ~, ;(-~O) [using (1)1
Magm'f'leat·lon, m = v
--
u
-1+2 1 1 1
or - - = - - or --- v. (-5)
2u' -20 2u' -20 or u = -- = - - = - 1 m
m (-5)
Thus, the mirror should be positioned 1 m away
or u' = - 20 = - 10 em
2 from the object.
8. The height of the real image formed by a concave 10. If an object of height 4 cm is placed at distance of
mirror is four times the object height when the object 12 cm from a concave mirror having focal length
is 30.0 cm in front of the mirror. What is the radius 24 cm, find the position, nature and the height of
of curvature of the mirror? the image.
Sol. Given, object distance, u = - 30 cm Sol. Given, object height, hI = 4 cm;
magnification = - 4, negative sign taken as a object distance, u = -12 cm;
concave mirror forms a real image ; focal length, f = -24 cm;
radius of curvature, R =? image distance, v =?; height of image h2 =?
Mirror formula,
Magm'f'leat'lon, m = --
v or v = - m xu 1 1 1
u 1 ·1 1 -+--=--
-.:..+-=- or v (-12) (-24)
v u f
or v = - (-4) x(-30) or v = - 120 cm
Mirror formula, 1 1 1 1 1
or ; = 12 - 24 or; - 24
1 1 1 1 1 1
-+-=- or --+--=- v = 24 em
V u f (-120) (-30) f
~ -v -24
I Now, magnification m = - = - - = 2
u -12
111 -1-4 1
or - - - - = - or --=-
120 30 f 120 f
or h2 = 2 or h2 = 2hI = 2 x 4 = 8 em
hI
-5
or - - = -
1 or 120
f = - - =-24cm Since v is positive, the image is formed behind the
120 f 5
mirror at the distance of 24 em from the mirror. It
R = 2 f = 2 x(-24) = - 48 em is virtual and has height of 8 em.

19
.C-BS-E-:-C-/o-s-s-X----------------________________----ALLIM
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 8. Which of the following ray diagrams is correct for
1. Which of these statements about electromagnetic the ray of light incident on a concave mirror as
waves is incorrect? shown in figure?
(1) The speed of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum
is independent of its frequency and wavelength.
.... (£ Electromagnetic waves require a material c
medium for their propagation. F
(3) Gamma rays have highest frequency among all
electromagnetic waves.
(4) Radio waves have higher wavelength than the
visible light.
2. Moon and mirror are examples of c
v tl ) luminous objects
(2) transparent objects
(3) translucent objects
4f opaque objects
3. The laws of reflection hold good for
(1) plane mirror only c
(2) concave mirror only F

(3) convex mirror only

Kall mirrors irrespective of their shape
(3) (4)
4. A virtual image is one
9. An erect object is located between a concave mirror
(1) toward which light rays converge but do not pass and its focal point. Its image is
through (1) real, erect, and larger than the object
(2) from which light rays diverge but do not pass (2) real, inverted, and larger than the object
through (3) virtual, erect, and larger than the object
(3) from which light rays diverge as they pass (4) virtual , inverted, and larger than the object
through 10. A point source is to be used with a concave mirror
(4) toward which light rays converge and pass to produce a parallel beam of light. The source
through should be placed
(1) as close to the mirror as possible
5. A parallel beam of light in air is incident on a plane
(2) at the center of curvature
mirror. The beam after reflection, >(
LU

(3) midway between the centre of curvature and ~

:.:;
(1) remains parallel
the focal point ~
o
(2) becomes diverging (4) midway between the centre of curvature and ]
~
(3) follows a parabolic path the mirror .~I

(4) becomes converging 11. Under which of the following conditions a concave 9
§
6. When you stand in front of a plane mirror, your mirror can form a real image larger than the actual
.~

image is object? ?
(1) real, erect, and smaller than you (1) When the object is kept at a distance equal to ~

(2) real, erect, and the same size as you

its radius of curvature. 1
"
(2) When object is kept at a distance less than its ~ .
(3) virtual, erect, and smaller than you focal length. ~
(4) virtual, erect, and the same size as you (3) When object is placed between the focus and
./
LU

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;:!
7. A ball is held 50 cm in front of a plane mirror. The centre of curvature. ~

distance between the ball and its image is

(1) 100 cm (2) 150 cm (3) 200 cm (4) 0 cm
(4) When object is kept at a distance greater than
its radius of curvature.
J
~
g
20
 ALLIM~~__~__~________~~~____~~~~______Ph~y~s~ics
12. At what distance in front of a concave mirror must 21. A convex spherical mirror has a focal length of
an object be placed so that the image and object 12 cm. If an object is placed 6 cm in front of it the
are of the same size? image position is '
(1) a focal length (1) 4 cm behind the mirror
(2) half a focal length (2) 4 cm in front of the mirror
(3) twice a focal length (3) 12 cm behind the mirror
(4) less than half focal length (4) 12 cm in front of the mirror
13. As an object is moved from a distant location toward 22. An erect object is located on the central axis of a
the center of curvature of a concave mirror, its image spherical mirror. The magnification is -3. This
(1) remains virtual and becomes smaller means
(2) remains virtual and becomes larger (1) its image is real, inverted, and on the same side
of the mirror
(3) remains real and becomes smaller
(2) its image is virtual, erect, and on the opposite
(4) remains real and becomes larger side of the mirror
14. In torches, search lights and headlights of vehicles, (3) its image is real, erect, and on the same side of
the bulb is placed the mirror
(1) between the pole and the focus of the reflector (4) its image is real, inverted, and on the opposite
- (2) very near to the focus of the reflector side of the mirror .
(3) between the focus and centre of curvature of 23. Magnification produced by a rear-view mirror fitted
the reflector in vehicles
(4) at the centre of curvature of the reflector (1) is less than one
15. An erect object is in front of a convex mirror at a (2) is more than one
.i
distance greater than the focal length. The image is (3) is equal to one
(1) real, inverted, and smaller than the object (4) can be more than or less than one depending
(2) virtual, inverted, and larger than the object upon the position of the object in front of it
(3) real, inverted, and larger than the object 24. A 10 mm long awl pin is placed vertically in front
(4) virtual, erect, and smaller than the object of a concave mirror. A 5 mm long image of the awl
16. A full-length image of a distant tall building can pin is formed at 30 cm in front of the mirror. The
definitely be seen by using focal length of this mirror is
(1) a concave mirror (1) - 30 cm (2) - 20 cm (3) - 40 cm (4) - 60 cm
(2) a convex mirror 25. A concave mirror forms a real image that is twice
(3) a plane mirror the size of the object. If the object is 20 cm from
(4) both concave as well as plane mirror the mirror, the radius of curvature of the mirror
17. A child is standing in front of a magic mirror. She must be about
finds the image of her head bigger, the middle (1) 13 cm (2) 20 cm (3) 27 cm (4) 40 cm
portion of her body of the same size and that of the True or false
legs smaller. The following is the order of 1. The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the
combinations for the magic mirror from the top: point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in
(1) Plane, convex and concave the same plane.
(2) Convex, concave and plane 2. A highly polished surface, such as a mirror, reflects
)(
UJ
(3) Concave, plane and convex a small part of the light falling on it.
-'"
~'" (4) Convex, plane and concave 3. Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual
and erect.
~ 18. The focal length of a spherical mirror is N times its
] 4. A plane mirror can be used as a magnifier.
radius of curvature where N is
.:! 5. A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved
.~I
(1) 1/4 (2) 1/2 (3) 1 (4) 2 outwards, is called a convex mirror.
<? 19. Rays from the Sun converge at a point 15 cm in 6. The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical
.§
.~
front of a concave mirror. Where should an object mirror is a point called the focus.
I
~ be placed so that size of its image is equal to the ·7. The centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror,
~ size of the object? it lies outside its reflecting surface.
1
-0
(1) 15 cm in front of the mirror
(2) 30 cm in front of the mirror
8. In a concave mirror, when the object is placed at C,
we obtain a virtual and same size image of the object
J-=
o
(3) between 15 cm and 30 cm in front of the mirror at C.
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If)
(4) more th~n 30 cm in front of the mirror 9. A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection,
~ 20. A ·man stands with his nose 8 cm from a concave will pass through the principal focus in case of a
¥ shaving mirror of radius 32 cm. The distance from convex mirror.
~
'I)
o
the mirror to the image of his nose is 10. If R be the radius of curvature of a spherical mirror
i (1) 8 cm (2) 12 cm (3) 16 cm (4) 24 cm and f be the focal length, then R = 2f.
21
_C-BS-E-:-C-/o-s-s-X--------------__.-___________________ ALLIM
Match the column Fill in the blanks
1. The image formed by a plane mirror is ........ ,..... .... .
1. Column-I Column-II inverted.
(1) Ray passing through (a) Passes through 2. A ray passing through the ............................ of a
centre of curvature focus after reflection concave mirror, after reflection, is reflected back
along the same path. "
(2) Ray passing through (b) Form a pOint-sized
principal focus image at the focus 3. The incident and n~flected rays in a spherical mirror
after reflection follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence
(point P), making .................. angles with the
(3) Rays from an object (c) Becomes parallel to principal axis.
at infinite distance the principal axis 4. Concave mirrors are often used as shaving mirrors
after reflection to see a ............... image ofthe face.
(4) Ray parallel to the (d) Retraces its path 5. Large ........ ........ ... ....... ... , are used to concentrate
principal axis after reflection sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
6. Convex mirrors are preferred as rear-view mirrors
2. Column-I Column-II because they have a ........... field of view as
(1) A mirror that can (a) Convex mirror compared to plane mirrors.
form a real image 7. All distances parallel to the principal axis are
measured from the ............. of the mirror.
(2) A mirror that forms (b) Concave mirror
virtual and S. Distances measured perpendicular to and below
diminished image the principal axis (along -y-axis) are taken as

(3) Diffuse reflection (c) Plane mirror 9. The focal length of a convex mirror with radius of
(4) A mirror that forms (d) Rough reflecting curvature 32 cm is ............... .
virtual and same size surface 10. The ratio of the height of the image to the height of
image the object is called .......................... .

Crossword

3 4 5 6

7 8

~
a.

10 i'"
:.:;
'0
11 c:
.2

id
"a.
12 9
§
·9
13
!
~
j
~
J-=
0
;-
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V>
cc
;:!
~

I
0

i
 ALL.M ____________________~--------------------P-h~~-ic-s
Across Down
8. Object which does not allow any light to pass 1. Type of reflection which occurs from rough
through it. surfaces.
2. Object which emits its own light.
9. Radius of curvature of plane mirror.
3. Light consists of ......... ....... waves which are
10. Type of image which cannot be taken on screen transverse in nature.
and appears erect. 4. Line perpendicular to the surface of mirror
12. The only type of mirror capable of forming passing through the point of incidence of light ray.
enlarged as well as diminished images. 5. Ratio of image height to object height.

13. Type of mirror used as rear view mirror in vehicles. 6. Process of sending back of light rays falling on a
surface to stay in the first medium.
-- 14. Real imam~ is always ................ . 7. Size of image formed by convex mirror.
15. Object which transmits a part of light falling on it, 11. In a convex mirror, image cannot be formed
e.g. butter paper beyond its ........ ........ .

Multiple choice questions

True or false
1. True 2 . False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. True
8. False 9. False 10. True
Match the column
I. (1) ~ d ; (2) ~ c ; (3) ~ b ;r (4) ~ a 2. (1) ~ b ; (2) ~ a ; (3) ~ d ; (4) ~ c
Fill In the blanks
1. laterally 2. centre of curvature 3. equal 4. larger
5. concave mirrors 6. wider 7. pole 8. negative
9. 16 cm 10. magnification
Crossword

10
1
7D
..I 9
F
1 N F
M U
I S
N E

23
a
_CB-S-E-:-C-/o-s-s-X------------------------------------ALLIM
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 3. What do you understand by the term 'lateral inversion'
1. Name a physical quantity which does not change related to plane mirrors? What are the other
after reflection. characteristics of image formed in a plane mirror?
2. What angle an incident ray should make with the 4. 'A concave mirror is called a converging mirror
surface on which it strikes to exactly retrace its path while a convex mirror is called a diverging mirror'.
after reflection? Explain, why?
3. A spherical mirror has a real focus. Identify the mirror. 5. Show the following by using appropriate
4. A parallel beam of light falls on a concave mirror. construction in the given figure : (i) the normal
Which type of beam will it produce after reflection? (ii) the angle of incidence (iii) the angle of reflection
5. Define the principal focus of a convex mirror. (iv) the reflected ray.
6. If a ray is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror
then,' which line acts as the normal at the pole? A _ _ _+-_~.
7. A ray of light LM is incident on a mirror as shown in
the figure. The angle of incidence for this ray is the C F
angle between it and the line joining two points in
the figure. Name these two' points.
6. What is the minimum number of rays required for
locating the image formed by a concave mirror for
L-----i~-~
an object. Draw a ray diagram to show the
C F formation of a virtual image by a concave mirror.
7. An object is placed on the principal axis of a
concave mirror as shown in figure. Draw the ray
8. A ray incident on a spherical mirror after reflection diagram to show the formation of image. Also, write
retraces its original path. Identify a point' on the the nature of image formed .
principal axis through which it passes.
9. Why does a ray of light passing through the centre
of curvature of a concave mirror get reflected along C
the same path?
10. A light bulb is placed on the focus of a concave mirror.
Which type of beam will be its reflected beam?
11. Where should an object be placed on the principal 8. Identify the location of object for concave mirror
axis of a concave mirror so that a real image of when (i) the image is highly diminished, formed at
same size is obtained? the focus (ii) the image is highly magnified, formed
12. A spherical mirror is used as rear view mirror in at infinity. Make ray diagram of anyone of the
vehicles. Identify the mirror. above given situations.
13. The outer surface of a hollow sphere of aluminium 9. Give two applications of concave mirror.
l.!l
of radius 50 cm is to be used as a mirror. What will 10. Explain the following: i'0
be the focal length of this mirror? Which type of (i) In solar furnaces, concave mirrors are used. .§
spherical mirror will it provide? (ii) An incident rayon the pole and its reflected i
14. What is the nature of image formed by a concave ray make equal angles with the principal axis. d
mirror if the magnification produced by the mirror 11. A portion of concave mirror is covered by a ~
is + 3? non-reflecting paper. What will be the change in the ~
15. Between which two points of a concave mirror image of an object as compared to the initial one? ?·9
should an object be placed to obtain a magnification 12. In the given figures, locate the image formed by i
of - 3? using appropriate ray diagram of a point object 0 '6
Short answer type questions shown in the figure using la\.VS of reflection. ~
]
1.
~
Write the laws of reflection. Make a figure to show
reflection of light from a plane mirror. I/)

2. In case of diffuse reflection from a rough surface, a c e

o F o p F c ¥
parallel incident beam becomes non-parallel after ~
reflection. Are the laws of reflection valid here? Give 'iO
'1l
reasons. (a) (b) 1·
24
 ALLIM Physics
13. You have to see an erect image of a tall building (c) For the mirror B draw ray diagram for image
using a mirror. Which type of mirror would yo~ formation for object distances 10 em and 20 cm.
select? Draw an appropriate ray diagram to show Numerical problems
the formation of image of the building using the 1. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from the
selected mirror. vertex (pole) of a concave mirror. Its image is ,
14. Why are convex mirrors used as side view mirrors observed at 6 cm from the vertex, calculate the focal
in vehicles? length of the mirror.
15. Using mirror formula, prove that in a plane mirror, 2. A candle is held 3 cm away from a concave mirror
(a) Object distance = Image distance whose radius of curvature is 24 cm. Where is the
(b) Image is of same size and it is virtual and erect. image formed? What is the nature of the image?
Long answer type questions 3. Dentists use small concave mirrors to see the teeth.
1. Draw ray diagrams showing the image formation If a mirror of focal length 3 cm is held at a distance
by a concave mirror when an object is placed of 2 cm from a tooth, what is the magnification of
~
I (a) between pole and focus of the mirror the image?
(b) between focus and centre of curvature of the 4. An object is placed on the axis of a concave mirror
mirror at a distance of 30 cm.The radius of the curvature
1
(c) at centre of curvature of the mirror of mirror is 50 cm. Where is the image formed?
(d) a little beyond centre of curvature of the mirror Also, find its magnification.
(e) at infinity 5. At what distance should an object be placed in front
2. Draw ray diagrams showing the image formation of a concave mirror of focal length 50 cm so that
by a convex mirror when an object is placed an image of triple of its size is formed?
(a) at infinity 6. A concave spherical mirror (R = 2 m) is to be used
(b) at finite distance from the mirror as a shaving mirror. If the shaver is 0.4 m from the
3. Size of image of an object by a mirror having a focal mirror, where is the image? What is its lateral
length of 20 cm is observed to be reduced to 1/ magnification?
3rd of its size. At what distance the object has been 7. Find the size, nature and position of image formed
placed from the mirror? What is the nature of the when an object of size 1 cm is placed at a distance
image and the mirror? Draw ray diagram to show of 15 cm from concave mirror of focal length
image formation forthe above situation. 10cm.
4. It is desired to obtain an erect image of an object, 8. An object is placed at a distance of 8 cm from a
using concave mirror of focal length of 12 cm. convex mirror of focal length 12 cm. Find the
. I
(i) What should be the range of distance of an position and nature of the image formed .
I
object placed in front of the mirror? 9. An object is at a distance of 5 m from a convex
(ii) Will the image be ,smaller or larger than the mirror of focal length 10 cm. Where is the image
object. Draw ray diagram to show the formed and what is its magnification?
formation of image in this case. 10. If an object 5 cm high is placed at a distance of
(iii) Where will the image of this object be, if it is 10 cm from a convex mirror of radius of curvature
'"
'()
Q. placed 24 cm in front of the mirror? Draw ray 30 em, find the nature, position and size of the image.
i.
C>
::;
diagram for this situation also, to justify your Activity based questions
0 answer. Show the positions of pole, principal 1. In the set up shown below, a clear image of a distant
c
~ 0
focus and the centre of curvature in the above object is obtained on the screen. The focal length
I
l
~ ray diagrams. of the concave mirror is
d
'E.
<?
5. Suppose you have three concave mirrors A, Band
§ C of focal length 10 cm, 15 cm and 20 cm. For
.~ each concave mirror you perform the experiment
~ of image formation for three values of object distance
i of 10 cm, 20 cm and 30 cm. Giving reason answer
''85
~
the follOwing:
1 (a) For the three object distances, identify the

~e mirror/mirrors which will form an image of

magnification -1.
¥ (b) Out of the three mirrors identify the mirror which
i
0
would be preferred to be used for shaving
purposes/makeup. (1) 12 cm (2) 24 cm (3) 10 cm (4) 8 cm
i
25
J
_C-BS-E-:-C-/o-s-s-X----------------.--------------------ALLIM
2. Four students A, B, C and 0 carried out 4. A student determines the focal length of a device
measurements of focal length of a concave mirror X, by focussing the image of a far-off object on the
as shown in the four diagrams. screen positioned as shown in the figure given below.

A 8

The device X is a
(1) Convex mirror (2) Concave mirror
(3) Plane mirror (4) Concave lens
5. Out of the four rays shown to fall on the concave
mirror, the incorrect one is
The best result will be obtained by student
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) 0 II
3. In an experiment, the image of a distant object
formed by a concave mirror is obtained on a screen.
To determine the focal length of the mirror, you
need to measure the distance between the
III
(1) mirror and the screen.
(2) mirror and the object.
(3) object and the screen. IV -------1~--~
(4) mirror and the screen and also between the
object and the screen. (1) Ray I (2) Ray II
(3) Ray III (4) Ray IV

Numerical problems
1. f = - 3.75 cm 2. v = + 4 cm, m = 1.33, virtual, erect & magnified 3. m = + 3
4. v = - 150 cm, m = - 5
5. For real image, u = -200/3 cm = - 66.66 cm ; for virtual image, u = - 100/3 cm = - 33.33 cm
6. v = + 0.67 m, m = + 1.67 7. v = - 30 cm, h2 = -2 cm, real, inverted & magnified
8. v = + 4.8 cm, m = + 0.6, virtual, erect & diminished 9. v = + 9.8 cm, m = 0.0196
10. v = + 6 cm, h2 = + 3 cm, virtual, erect & diminished
Activity based questions

26
 ALLIM Physics

Optics : .R efraction of Light

~ -----------------------------=----------~:--------~

'This beautiful photograph

shows raindrops suspended
from the branches of a
flowering plant. The
raindrops act as lenses. They
refract light twice to produce
a real, inverted image of the
flower beyond. '

1. Introduction
Light seems to travel along straight-line paths in a transparent medium.
When light enters from one transparent medium to another, it changes its
direction. This we can recall from our day-to-day experiences. You might
have observed that the bottom of a tank or a pond containing water appears
to be raised. Similarly, when a ~hick glass slab is placed over some printed
matter, the letters appear raised when viewed through the glass slab. You
might have seen a pencil partly immersed in water in a glass tumbler. It
appears to be bent at the interface of air and water. You might have observed
that a lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger than its
actual size, when viewed from the sides. All these day-to-day experiences
are based on a phenomenon called 'refraction'. Objects can absorb light, reflect light,
and transmit light - allow light to
Principle of least time pass through them. Transparent
We all know that light ordinarily travels in straight lines. In going from one materials .transmit almost all the
light striking them, so you can see
place to another, light will take the most efficient path and travel in a objects clearly through them. Only a
straight line. This is true if there is nothing to obstruct the passage of light small amount of light is absorbed and
between the places under consideration. If light is reflected from a mirror, reflected by transparent materials.
the bend in the straight-line path is described by a simple formula. If light is
refracted, as when it goes from air into water, still another formula describes
the deviation of light from the straight-line path. Before thinking of light
with these formulas, we will first consider an idea that underlies all the
formulas that describe light paths. This idea, which was formulated by the
French sdentist Pierre Fennat in about 1650, is called Fennat's principle
of least time. Fermat's idea was this: 'Out of all possible paths that light
might travel to get from one point to another, it travels the path that requires
the shortest time.'
27
CBSE: Closs X
ALLIMI

Imagine that you are a lifeguard at a beach and you spot a person in
~ Lifeguard···········
distress in the water (see fig. 1). You are at point A, and the person is at
~~::::::::::::::::
"A' ••••••••.•••..•. point B. You can run faster than you can swim. Should you travel in a
straight line to get to B in order to reach in least possible time? If not, then
try to give an alternative path to reach the person at B in least possible
Sand· •• '• • • • . . • . . . . . .
time. Also, try to apply this concept for light travelling from air to water.
Water - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Speed of light is less in water than in air.
::::::::::::-HJ~h~~ Explanation
-------------- - -
----------------~- .
~-- If you travel in a straight line from A to B, you have to cover more distance
-----------~---B)== in water where your speed is quite low [see fig.2(a)]. Thus, the time taken
Person in distress to reach the point B is quite large. A little thought will show that a straight-
Fig.1 Building concepts 1 line path would not be the best choice because, if you instead spent a little
bit more time traveling farther on land, you would save a lot more time in
swimming a lesser distance in the water. The path of shortest time is shown
in fig.2(b), which dearly is not the path of the shortest distance. The amount
of bending at the shoreline depends, of course, on how much faster you
can run than swim.

Lifeguard· . • . . . • • • . . Lifeguard· • . • • .• • •..

~:::::::::::::::: ~::::::::::::::::

A
Sand .

More distance, more time Less distance, less time

(a) Since your speed .is less in water (b) Since your speed is less in water
and you are covering more distance and you are covering less distance
More distance, more time
in water, therefore the time taken in water, therefore the time taken
(a) A hypothetical path of light by you to reach point B will be more. by you to reach point B will be less.
A i
...c
':1
Fig.2 Building concepts 1 :B>
Now, light travels at different speeds in different materials. The speed ,g
(5

of light is lower in water as compared to the speed of light in air. It is a 1

common observation that a ray of light bends and takes a longer path ~I
when it enters into water at an oblique angle. But the longer path taken is
8-N
9
actually the path requiring the least time. A straight-line path would take ...v
a longer time to reach the certain point in water while a change in path ?
allows the light to reach the same point in least time [see fig.3(a) & (b)]. ~
Less distance, less time '6
This is because light travels the path that requires the shortest time Le., the ~
(b) Actual path of light
principle of least time. The amount of change in the direction of light J
~
Fig.3 Understanding refraction of (i. e., the bending of light) depends on the speeds of light in air and in
light on the basis of principle of least ~u
water.
time. ~
This bending of light while passing obliquely from one medium to another
~
10
is what we call the process 'refraction'. ~
1
~------------------------------------------------------~
28
ALL.M __ ~~~ ______________________ ~ ____________ P~hy~s __
ics
2. Refraction of light A
When a ray of light travels obliquely from one transparent medium to another,
it bends while crossing the surface separating the two media (see fig. 4).
r:r The phenomenon of change in path of light when it passes from one medium
to another is called 'refraction'.
Some basic terms
Incident ray: The ray of light falling on the surface of a transparent
medium is called 'incident ray' .
Refracted ray : The ray of light which bends after passing through a
transparent medium is called 'refracted ray' . Fig.4 Showing refraction of light
Angle of incidence: Angle made by the incident ray with the normal at
point of incidence is called 'angle of incidence'.
Angle of refraction: Angle made by the refracted ray with the normal at
point of incidence is called 'angle of refraction' .
Cause of refraction : The bending of light takes place when it passes
from one medium to another because speed of light changes .from one
medium to another. Speed of light is different in different media.
Optically rarer medium : A transparent medium in which the speed of
light is more is called 'optically rarer medium' (or simply 'rarer medium').
Optically denser medium: A transparent medium in which the speed of
light is less is called optically denser medium (or simply' denser medium').
Speed of light is maximum in vacuum,
What does not change during refraction of light? it is about 3 x 108 ml s. Speed of
The frequency of light does not change during the refraction of light. The light in air is almost equal to the
speed and wavelength of light change during refraction of light. Also, speed of light in vacuum. Speed of
light in water is 2.25 x 108 m/s.
amplitude and intensity of light decrease slightly during refraction of light Speed of light in ordinary glass is
due to absorption of small amount of light at the surface. 2.0 x 108 m/s.
We know that, speed of any wave, v = VA where 'v' is frequency and 'A' is
wavelength of the wave. As;v' is constant here, thus, v oc A. This means
speed of light is directly proportional to wavelength. If speed decreases,
wavelength also decreases and vice-versa.

.I~: ~ ~: I
. Refraction of light from rarer to denser medium: When ray of light
passes from rarer medium to denser medium, the refracted ray bends
towards the normal at the point of incidence [see fig. 5(a)].
Refraction of light from denser to rarer medium: When ray of light
passes from denser medium to rarer medium, the refracted ray bends .
away from the normal at the point of incidence [see fig. 5(b)]. (a) Rarer to denser medium

r
I
I
I
Angle of incidence is (b) Denser to rarer medium
greater than angle of less than angle of
Fig.S Characteristics
refraction refraction of refraction of light
Li> Lr Li < Lr

29
CBSE: Class X
__----------~~--------------------------ALLI_
A 3. Laws of refraction
(1) The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence and the refracted ray, all lie in the same plane (see fig . 6)
Medium 1 (2) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction
is constant for two given media. The constant is denoted by n 21 and it is
Medium 2 called 'refractive index of medium 2 with respect medium l' (or
simply 'relative refractive index').

B s~n i = constant = n 21 This is called 'Snell's Law'.

sm r
Fig.6 Laws of refraction
Refractive index (n 21 ) depends on :
(1) Nature of pair of media 1 and 2.
(2) Wavelength of the incident light ray. Higher the wavelength, smaller
will be the refractive index and vice-versa, valid in case of a dispersive
medium. For example, refractive index is greater for violet light
A
(shorter wavelength) and smaller for red light (longer wavelength).
Angle of deviation (6)
The angle through which the incident ray of light is deviated from its original
Rarer medium path when it is refracted while passing from one transparent medium to
Denser medium another is called 'angle of deviation' [see fig . 7 (a) & (b)] .
The angle between incident ray and refracted ray is called 'angle of
deviation' .
Relative refractive index of a medium (n 21 )
B
The relative refractive index of a medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is
(a) Here, i > rand 8 = i - r
the ratio of speed of light in medium 1 to the speed of light in medium 2.
A
speed of light in medium 1
or In"" v I
,
n - ----'--------
21 - speed of light in medium 2 V2

Absolute refractive index of a medium

The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in a medium is
called absolute refractive index of medium.

speed of light in vacuum

n = --"-------'''------
speed of light in medium
(b) Here, i < r and 8 = r - i
Where, c = speed of light in vacuum; v = speed of light in medium. 10

Fig .7 Angle of deviation ~

Also, v = -
c 1
or voc - .
;1
n :3'
n '15

Greater the value of 'n', lesser will be the speed of light, medium will be l.~
optically denser. Lesser the value of 'n', greater will be the speed of light, ~I
A medium will be optically rarer. ~
Unit of refractive index: Since refractive index (relative or absolute) is a 53
ratio of two speeds, i.e., ratio of two quantities having same units therefore, .~
Medium 1
In' is a unitless quantity i.e., it has no units. !
o Medium 2 If the ray of light enters ·from medium 1 into medium 2 perpendicular to si
the surface of medium 2, the ray passes undeviated (see fig.B). That is, no i
bending of light occurs. In such a case, angle of incidence is zero, L. i = 0° .2
B and L. r = 0°. According to Snell's Law, ;;~
tlj
all

Fig.8 .A ray falling perpendicular at sini ~~

- .- = n 21 or sinr = sini = sin 0° = ~ = 0
the boundary of two transparent
media passes undeviated.
smr n 21 n 21 n 21 ~
.. L r = 0°
~
Since sin r = 0 1
30
c
ALLIMI Physics
1~")M34ii' ABILITY"
1. Prove using formulae of relative refractive index and absolute refractive
index, Material I Refractive
medium index
Vacuum 1.00
Air 1.0003
Solution
Ice l.31
v Water l.33
(a) By definition, n 21 = --1... --- (1)
V2 Alcohol 1.36
Where, VI and v2 are speeds of light in medium 1 and 2 respectively. Kerosene 1.44
Fused quartz 1.46
v
Similarly, n 12 = ~ ---- (2) Turpentine oil 1.47
VI Glycerin 1.47
Benzene l.50
Crown glass 1.52
Canada Balsam l.53
or In" = n112 I Rock salt
Carbon disulphide
1.54
l.63
(b) By definition, absolute refractive index (n) is given by, Dense flint glass l.65
c Ruby 1.71
n= - Sapphire 1.77
v
Where, c = speed of light in vacuum; v = speed of light in medium Diamond 2.42

c c ·
:. n 2 = - ---- (1) and n1 = - ---- ,(2)
V2 VI

(1 ) n2 = c I v2 or ~ = ~ ---- (3)
(2) => n 1 c I VI n1 V2

VI
Now, n 21 = - --- (4)
V2

From (3) & (4), we get, In~, = n'

n
l An optically denser medium may not
1
possess greater mass density. For
2. Calculate the refractive index of a diamond if the speed of light in the example, kerosene having higher
diamond is 1.24 x 108 m/ s. Speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 10 8 m/ s. refractive index, is optically denser
than water, although its mass density
Solution is less than water.
Given, speed of light in vacuum, c = 3 X 108 ml s ;
speed of light in medium, v = 1.24 X 10 8 ml s ; refractive index, n =?
8
B d f' 'f c 3 X 10 2 42
y e tnt ton, n = ~= 1.24 X 108 = •

Calculate the index of refraction for a substance (In a pair of mediums of

two substances) where the angle of incidence is 30°, the angle of refraction
is 60.0°, and the refractive index of the second substance is 1.5 (Take .J3
= 1. 73).
Solution According to Snell's law,
Given, i = 30° ; r = 60° ; n 2 = 1.5 ; n 1 =? sin i n2
-.- =n 21 = -
Sin r n1
By Snell's law,
or n1 sin i = n2 sin r
n 1 sin i = n 2 sin r this is another form of Snell's law.
n = sinr x n = sin60° x 1.5
1 sini 2 sin 30°

31
_CB-S-E-:-C-la-s-s-X------~-----------------------------ALLIM
= .J3 / 2 x 1.5 = .J3 x 1.5 = 1.73x 1.5 = 2.595 ~ 2.6
1/2
Incident ray 4. Refraction through a glass slab
A N
Let us consider a glass slab bounded by parallel faces XV and X'V'
Air
X n1 y (see fig. 9). A ray of light travelling in air along the path AO gets incident on
the face xv. On refraction into glass, it bends towards the normal NN' and
travels along the path OQ. The refracted ray OQ strikes the surface X'Y'.
Glass At X'V', again refraction takes place, the ray of light bends away from
n2 normal MM'. This ray is called 'emergent ray' and it is parallel to the
incident ray. But, there is a shift from initial path (AO) in the emergent ray
(QB), called 'lateral shift' (d).
r Here, the incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray but the incident ray is
Nt' 2 B laterally displaced.
Emergent
ray Emergent ray is parallel to incident ray: proof
At surface xv (see fig.9), according to Snell's Law,
Fig.9 Refraction through glass slab
sin il sin il VI
- . - =n 21 or - . - = - ---- (1)
S10 r1 S10 r1 V2
Where, VI and v2are speeds of light in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively.
At surface X'V', according to Snell's law,
sin i2 v
-.- = n 12 = - 2 ---- (2)
S10 r2 VI
But, r~ = i2 ---- (3) [Pair of alternate interior angles between parallel lines.]
From \2) and (3) we get,
sm 12 = sin r1 = v2
sin r2 sin r2 VI
VI sin r2
or - = - . - ---- (4)
v2 S10 r1
From (1) and (4) we get,
sm 11 sin r2
-.-
S10 r
=- . - or
S10 r
sin il = sin r2 or IiI = r2 \
1 1

o 0 Thus, 'emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray'.

Fig. 10 Apparent depth of an object 5. Apparent depth
is less than the actual depth when When an object lying inside an optically denser medium is seen from a
seen from air. rarer medium, its depth appears to be less than its real depth. This depth
is called 'apparent depth' (see fig. 10). Apparent depth = AI; real (actual)
depth = ~A. This happens because rays of light from denser medium (like !
water) when enter into rarer medium (like air), they bend away from the ':1
normal and thus, they appear to diverge from a point above the object ~
.where the image of the object is formed. Thus, we see the image of the .2
object (not the actual object) in water which is at lesser depth than the real 1
depth. ~I
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTSIII
~
9
A .. -.--........- .- .--.......... -----. B v
1. If the speed of light were the same in all media, would refraction still occur .:;

when light passes from one medium to another? ~

~
2. Consider the pane of thick window glass in fig .11. When light goes from ~
point A through the glass to point B, will it go in a straight-line path? What i
about light that goes from point A to point C? Will it travel in the straight- ~
line path shown in the figure? If answer is 'no' in any of the above cases, ~
;;
show a possible path on the basis of principle of least time. ~
c u
3. A light ray enters obliquely at an angle of incidence x from glass into water. ~
Fig.II Check your concepts 1 (2) The angle of refraction is y. Which of the option is correct? ~
~
(a) x > y (b) x < y(c) x = y <i
1
32
 ALL.M ______________________________~------------Ph~y~s--ics
r7" A straight stick when immersed partly in water and held inclined to the
surface, it appears to be bent at the point where it enters the water. This
apparent bending of stick is also due to the refraction of light when it
passes from water into air (see fig. 12).

Air
- Water - -I ,- - - - - - -
- - - - - - -1- , - - - - - -
I ,- ....
- - - - - - -1- - , ~~~
. ~ j~'!(:{-
-- \.v %-'
- - - - - - -' - - ",
..

------- :::::~)-

---------~
:::::::::~:
---------------
(a) To the cat on the platform, the
fish looks closer to the surface of
Fig.12 A stick appears bent when placed in water due to refraction of light. water than it really is.
If an object is located in rarer medium and observer is present in a denser
medium, then apparent height is more than the real height. For example,
if a fish in water (denser medium) sees a cat on a platform near the shore,
the fish perceives the cat on the platform to be farther from the water's
surface than it actually is [see fig. 13(b)].

1. . Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with water. With your eye to a Air
side above water, try to pick up the coin in one go. You will not succeed in - Water--I
picking up the coin. - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - -1- - - - - - -
2. Reason: When we view this coin from the outside (see fig .14) , we actually -- - - - - -'-
m
see the image of the coin which is just above the coin (0). If we try to pick
up this coin in one attempt, we will not succeed in picking up the coin. This
is because we will move our hand to pick up the coin at the location of the
image (I) while the coin is located below it. (b) To the fish, the cat seems to be
farther from the surface than it
actually is.
Fig.13 Viewing from one medium
1. Put a coin to the bottom of a large opaque bowl, as shown in fig. 15(a). into another medium creates illusion.
i Stand over the bowl so that you are looking at the coin, and then move
..c:
;1 backwards away from the bowl until you can no longer see the coin over
:3'
'0 the bowl's rim.
.g
2. Stay at that position, and tell your friend to fill the bowl with water, as
~
]1 shown in fig. 15(b). You can now see the coin again because the light is
8-
N
refracted at the water-air interface.
~.
i
~J~ (-9l~
Image
~ Coin Waler . of coin
j
i~
0
~
RI
(a) Bowl is empty,
~~y
(b) Bowl is filled with water, coin is visible to
with water

Coin
~ coin is invisible to you you due to refraction at air-water interface
~ Fig .14 Active physics 1
~
~
It)
~ Fig .15 Active physics 2
l
33
_CB-S-E-:-C-I-ss--X----~~~~~~~~~-------------ALLIM
No, because refraction takes place due to the change in speed of light. If
speed of light were the same in all media, the light would have gone straight
while passing from one medium to another without any deviation.
2. When light goes from point A through the glass to point B, it will go in a
-+---e B straight-line path (see fig. 16). In this case, light encounters the glass
perpendicularly, and we see that the shortest distance through both air and
glass corresponds to the shortest time. When the light ray goes from point
A to point C, it will not travel in the straight line path shown by the dashed
line in the fig. 16. This is because if it did so, it would be spending more
time inside the glass, where light travels more slowly than in air. The light
C will instead take a less-inclined path through the glass as shown in fig. 16.
The time saved by taking the resulting shorter path through the glass is
Fig.16 Ch~ck your answers 1 (2)
more than some extra time required to travel the slightly longer path through
the air. The overall path is the path of least time. The result is a parallel
displacement of the light beam, because the angles in and out are the
same.
3. Option (b) is correct. The glass is denser medium as compared to water;
thus while entering from glass into water,the light ray bends away from the
normal. As a result, angle of reflection (y) is greater than angle of,incidence
(x) i.e., y > x or x < y.
6. Lenses
A lens is a piece of tr~nsparent glass bound by spherical surfaces (see fig. 17).
Convex Lens : A convex lens is a piece of a transparent glass bound by
two bulging out surfaces. It is thicker at the middle and thinner at the
edges. It is also called 'double convex lens' or 'biconvex lens'.
Convex lens Concave lens A convex lens is a 'converging lens' because the light rays after refraction
(Bi-convex lens) (Bi-concave lens) through it, converge to meet at a single point [see fig. 18 (a)].
Concave lens : A concave lens is a piece of transparent glass bound by
two bent-in (or bulging-in) surfaces. This IS thin in the middle but thicker at
the edges. It is also called 'double concave' or 'biconcave lens'.
A concave lens is a 'diverging lens' because the parallel beam of light
rays after refraction through it, appear to diverge from a single point
i
Plano Plano [see fig. 18 (b)] . ~I
convex lens concave lens Basic terms used in lenses 1
11
Optical centre: The middle point of a spherical lens is called its' optical .~
centre'. ~
~I
Principal axis : The line passing through the optical centre of the lens
which is perpendicular to both the faces of the lens is called its 'principal ~
53
axis'. u
.::\

Concavo Convexo Principal focus : The point on the principal axis of a lens where all the ?
rays parallel to principal axis converge or appear to diverge from after ~
convex lens concave lens
i
refraction is called 'principal focus'. i
Fig.17 Different types of lenses
Focal length : The distance between the focus and the optical centre of a ~
~
lens is called its 'focal length' .
~u
A convex / concave lens has two principal foci F1 and F2· F1 is towards left
~
of the lens and from this region, light rays are incident on the lens. F2 is
~
.;:;
towards right of the lens and in this region, light rays are emergent after
~
refraction. 1
34
ALLIM ________________________~----~------------Ph~y-s--ics

2F} Fl 2Fl Fl , ........ 2Fz

2F2
, 2F] F] 2F2

(a) A convex lens (b) A concave lens (a)

Fig.18 Nature of convex lens and concave lens ·

7. Rules to obtain images in spherical lenses

Convex lens
2Fl F2 2F2
(1) A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis, after refraction,
passes through the second principal focus F2 [see fig. 19 (a)].
(b)
(2) A ray of light passing through the first principal focus in a convex lens,
emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction [see fig. 19 (b)].
(3) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens, emerges
without any deviation after refraction [see fig. 19 (c)].
Concave lens
(1) A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, (c)
appear to diverge from the first principal focus F 1 in a concave lens
[see fig. 20 (a)]. Fig.19 Rules for obtaining images
for convex lens
(2) A ray of light appearing to meet at second principal focus F2 in a concave
lens, emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction [see fig. 20 (b)].
(3) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens, emerges
without any deviation after refraction [see fig. 20 (c)].
8. Image formation by ~ convex lens
"
""
""
A'
I , .......
I
I
.... , ....
I
I

(a)

(a) Object placed between (b) Object

optical centre and focus placed at focus Fl

(b)
(c) Object placed (d) Object
between F1 and 2F 1 placed .at 2F 1

F, ~~'
(e) Object (f) Object
placed at infinity (c)
placed beyond 2F 1
Fig.20 Rules for obtaining images
Fig.21 Formation of images in convex lens for concave lens

35
_CB~S~E;:;C~/a;ss~X~~;T________~~::::~~::~~
r:: Image formation by a convex lens
___ ALLIM
Positi~n of the I Posi~ion of the I Si~e of the I Nat~re of the,
object linage Image Image
Between 0 & F 1 On the same side of Enlarged Virtual and erect
Convex lenses are used as magnifiers the lens as the object
in simple microscope, compound At Fl At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
microscope, telescope, etc. Convex
lenses are also used to correct eye Between Fl & 2Fl Beyond 2Fz Enlarged Real and inverted
defect 'hypermetropia' or 'long At 2Fl At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
sightedness' . Beyond 2Fl Between F 2 & 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, Real and inverted
point-sized

A triangular prism is shown in the fig.22(a) . Will the light follow a straight

..
A
--
Triangular prism
-- ..
B
line path to reach from A to B? If not, show a possible path of light to reach
from A to B.
Explanation
(a) Light that goes from point Ato point B will not follow the straight-line path
shown by the dashed line, because too much time would be spent in the
glass. Instead, the light will follow the path shown by the solid line
[see fig.22(b)]- a path that is a bit farther through the air and pass through
a thinner section of the glass to make its trip to point B. By this reasoning,
one might think that the light should take a path closer to the upper vertex
of the prism and seek the minimum thickness of glass. But if it did, the
Triangular prism extra distance through the air would result in an overall longer time of
(b) travel. The path followed is the path of least time.
Fig.22 Building concepts 2 It is interesting to note that a properly curved prism will provide many
paths of equal time from a point A on one side to a point B on the opposite
side (see fig.23). The curve decreases the thickness of the glass correctly to
compensate for the extra distances light travels to points higher on the
surface. For appropriate positions of A and B and for the appropriate
curve on the surfaces of this modified prism, all light paths are of exactly
equal time. In this case, all the light from A that is incident on the glass
surface is focused on point B.
Fig.23 Showing paths of
Joining two such curved prisms (see fig.24), we see that this shape is simply
light rays through a curved prism."
a converging lens or convex lens.

~
~. A
!;1
:3'

~.-4
'5
~
1
~I
(a) Convex lens - 8-
N
o

mum ----------,":;;f
Fig.24 A convex lens is assumed to be made of two curved prisms as shown above. :

i
An object is placed in front of a convex lens and an image is formed at j
some place due to refraction of light by the lens. What happens to the i
image if some portion of the lens is covered by an opaque paper? ~
Explanation ~
If a portion of lens is obstructed, full image will be formed but with reduced ~
(b) Concave lens
brightness. This is because every part of lens forms a complete image. On :8
Fig.25 A lens may be thought obstructing a portion of lens, some of the light rays are obstructed, forming ~
of as a set of blocks and prisms. ~____ b_ri_gh_t_l_·m_a_g_e_·________________________________________~i
le_ss__

36
ALLI_------------------------------~----------P-h-~-ic-s
9. Image formation by a concave lens
The image formed by a concave lens is always on the same side as the
object and it is always virtual and erect. Also, the size of image is always
diminished, that is, its size is always smaller than that of the object.

The minimum distance between a

real object and its real image formed
by a convex lens is 4f i.e, when the
object is placed at 2F 1 and image is
(a) Object placed at formed at 2F 2'
(b) Object at infinity
some finite distance
Fig.26 Formation of images in concave lens

Image formation by a concave lens

Position of the I Posi~ion of the Size of the Nature of the
object Image I image I image
Between infinity Between 0 & F1, Diminished Virtual and erect
& optical centre 0 i.e., same side as
the object
At infinity At the focus F1 Highly diminished, Virtual and erect
point-sized

10. Sign conventions for lens

(I) Optical centre '0' is taken as origin, all the distances along XX' axis are
measured from '0'.
(2) Distance along direction of light is considered positive. A concave lens is used to correct the
(3) Distance measured opposite to the direction of light is considered eye defect 'myopia' or 'short
sightednesr in which a person cannot
negative.
see the nt objects clearly.
(4) Along YY' , the height of object is always taken above principal axis and
it is considered positive. For image, if image is virtual and erect (above
principal axis), the height is positive. If image is real and inverted (below
principal axis), the height is negative.
y
I

Y'
(a) Convex lens
y

For both concave mirror as well as

concave lens, focal length 'f is negative.
X' Similarly, for convex mirror and convex
lens, focal length 'f' is positive.

Y'
(b) Concave lens
Fig.27 The new Cartesian sign convention for lenses

37
_C_BS_E_:_C_la_s_s_X______~-----------------------------ALLIM
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTSIfl
1. A material has a refractive index that increases continuously from top to
bottom. Of the three paths shown in fig.28, which path will a light ray
follow as it passes through the material?
2. Identify the type of lens that can be used as a magnifier.
3. An object is placed to the left of a converging lens. Which of the following
statements are true and which are false?
(a) The image is always to the right of the lens.
(b) The image can be upright or inverted.
(c) The image is always smaller or the same size as the object.
(a)

How can a convex lens or a concave lens can be made using two spheres?
Show it using figures.
Explanation
A lens made by using two spheres which overlap each other is a convex
lens [seefig.29(a)]. When two spheres are kept near ·each other
(not overlapping), the region bounded by the two spheres is a concave lens
[see fig. 29(b)].
(b)
Sphere 2 Sphere 1

(c)
Fig.28 Check your concepts 2 (1) A convex lens A concave lens
(a) (b)
Fig.29 Building concepts 4

A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens, has two spherical surfaces.
Each of these surfaces forms a part of a sphere. The centres of these
spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens. Since there are two
centres of curvature, we represent them as C I and Cz. An imaginary straight
line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens is s:alled its
principal axis.
11. Formulae related to lenses
Lens formula
.~
In a lens, the distance of the object from its optical centre is called the ~
object distance (u). The distance of the image from the optical centre of ~I
the lens is called the image distance (v). ~.
~
The relationship between object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the
focal length (f) is given by lens formula which is as given below, ·i
If the two radii o f curvatures of a lens ~
~

I ~-~ = ~I
are not eq ual, the focal length remains
unchanged whether the light is incident
on first fa ce or the second fa ce.
1
-g
Magnification .E

The ratio of height of image (h z) to the height of object (hI) is called

~
~u
'magnification' or 'linear magnification'.
~
~
I m = ~: 1 -;;:;
~
l
38
 ALL.IIIII_~~~~_~~~~~_~~~..,. ______P_hy_s_ic_s
The magnification (m) is also related to the obie\ct distance (u) and image
distance (v). It can be expressed as: . ,

Im=~=+~1
Also, magnification can be further expressed as, 1m =tk =¥ I
If the two radii of curvatures of a
convex lens are equal, then it is called
'equiconvex lens'. Similarly, if the two
-1. Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards the Sun. Focus the light radii of curvatures of a concave lens
from the Sun on .a sheet of paper [see fig.30(a)]. Adjust the distance between are equal, then it is called
. the paper. Adjust the distance between the paper and the lens by moving 'equiconcave lens' .
the lens towards or away from the paper to get a sharp bright image of the
Sun.
2. When the paper and the lens are held in the same position for some time,
the paper will start burning [see fig.30(b)].
Reason: The convex lens converges the Sun rays at a point which increases
the intensity of light at that point. This increases the temperature of the
Sun rays
paper which causes the burning of the paper.
12. Power of lens
A lens of short focal length bends the light rays more, through large angles.
The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence
of light rays falling on it
The power of a lens is defined as the 'reciprocal of its focal length' .

Ip=~1
Unit of power of lens: Diopter (D) 1 diopter = 1 m-1
c:ir The power of convex lens (converging lens) is 'positive' and power of
concave lens (diverging lens) is 'negative'.
Some important points related to lenses
. (a) Convex lens .,
(a)
(1) u = always negative.
(2) v = -ve, when object is placed between optical centre (0) and
focus (FJ
v = , +ve; for all other possible cases (real and inverted).
(3) f = +ve, power (P) = +ve.
(b) Concave lens
(b)
I(') (1) u = always negative.
'8.
..t:.
(2) v = always -ve (virtual and erect) . Fig.3D Active physics 3
':1
j (3) f = -'-ve, power (P) = -ve.
'"6
.g (4) Image always diminished .
~ Two lenses in contact (lens combination)
~I (a) Net power of the combination (P)
~
~
P = PI +P2
u
';;; (b) Net or effective focal length of the combination (0
~ 111
i -=-+-
'6 f fl f2
'-a (c) Total magnification of the combination (m)
-g
.E
~ m=m I xm 2
~u
c:ir If two thin lenses of equal focal length but of opposite nature are put in (a) (b) (c)
~
contact, the equivalent focal length of combination will be Fig.31 Lens combinations
r8
~I(')

1:
.!. = ~ + ~ = 0 i.e., fe = 00 • Thus, power, P = life = 1/00 = O.
1 fe +f -f
39
_CB_S_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ____~~____________________________ ALLIM
ICHECK YOUR ANSWERS .1
1. As the refractive index is increasing as the light ray goes more and more
deep in the medium, it actually turns more and more towards from the
A'
t-'.... .
I , ........
normal. This is because the ray of light bends towards the normal when it
I , .... enters from rarer medium to denser medium. Thus, fig .28(b) is correctly
I 1\ showing the path of the light ray.
I
2. Convex lens or converging lens can be used as a magnifier. A convex lens
as a simple microscope (magnifier) is shown in the fig.32.
3. Statement (a) is false because image can be to the right or to the left of the
Fig.32 Check your answers 2 (2) converging lens (convex lens). Statement (b) is true, a converging lens can
form a real image which is inverted or a virtual image which is upright.
Statement (c) is false because a converging lens can form magnified image,
same size image or diminished image.
1~")M#;nllJ' ABILlTYII
1. A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At what distance should the
object from the lens be placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm from the
lens? Also, find the magnification produced by the lens.
Solution
A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect image on the same side of the
object.
Image distance v = -10 cm ; focal length f = -15 cm ;
object distance u =?
Lens equation,
1 1 1 1 1 1
A ner:ative sign in the value of the - or - - --= - -
rna gnification indicates that the v u f (-10) u (-15)
image is real and inverted. A positive 1 1 1 2-3 -1
sign in the value of the magnification or =-- -=--=- or u = -30 em
u 15 10 30 30
indicates that the image is virtual and
erect.
Magm'f'lcat'lon, m = -v = - - = -1 = + 0 . 33
(-10)
u (-30) 3
The positive sign shows that the image is erect and virtual. The image is
one-third of the size of the objeCt.
2. A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a
convex lens of focal length 10 em. The distance of the object from the lens
is 15 cm. Find the nature, position ~nd size of the image. Also find its
magnification. !
Solution ;1:3'
Given, height of the object hI = + 2.0 em; focal length f = + 10 em; object '"6
distance u = -15 cm; image distance v =? ; height of the image h2 =? j
Lens equation, ':1
1 1 111 1
or - - - - = - -
!
N
v u f 5?
v (-15) (+10) "

For convex lens, 'm' can be +ve as or

1 1
- - =3-2
1 - - =+1
- or v=+ 30 em !
~

well as -ye. Also, Im I can be > 1 or

v 10 15 30 30 i
<lor = 1. For concave lens, 'm' is M .r. t· h2
. aymnca lon, m = - = - v or h v h +30 (2)
2 = - X 1 = - - x + = - em 4 i
j
always +ve and I m I<1. hI u u -15 .e
The negative sign of h2 shows that the image is inverted and real. A real, ~
inverted image, 4 cm tall, is formed at a distance of 30 cm on the other ~
stde of the lens. ~
~

~-
v +30
Also magnification m= - = - - =-2
, ' u -15

40
 ALLII ____________________________________________P.hy_s__
ks
NCERT QUESTIO~S WITH SOLUTIONS
1. A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into 4. You are given kerosene, turpentine and water. Using
water. Does the light ray bend towards the normal the table given in question 3, find in which of these
or away from the normal? Why? does the light travel fastest.
Ans. The light ray bends towards the normal. This is Ans. The light travels fastest in water as its refractive
because it enters from rarer (air) medium to denser index is least (vex 1/ n), among the three given
(water) medium.
substances.
2. Ught enters from air to glass having refractive index
5. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is
1.50. What is the speed of light in the glass? The
the meaning of this statement?
speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 108 ms- l .
Ans. We know that, absolute refractive index (n) of a
Ans. We know that, absolute refractive index (n) of a
medium is given by,
medium is given by,
c c c c. 1
n =- or v =- n = - or v = - l.e.,
v oc-
v n v n n
Since, the refractive index of diamond is 2.42, this
_ c _ 3x10B _ 8
Thus, Vglass - - - - 15 - 2 x 10 mls suggests that the speed of light in diamond will
nglass .
reduce by a factor 2.42 compared to its speed in
3. Find out, from Table given below, the medium
air.
having highest optical density. Also find the medium
with lowest optical density. 6. Define 1 dioptre of power of a lens.
Ans. 1 dioptre is defined as the power of a lens of focal
Material I Refractive
length 1 metre.
medium index
7. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of
Air 1.0003
a needle at a distance of 50 cm from it. Where
Ice 1.31
is the needle placed in front of the convex lens if
Water 1.33 the image is equal to the size of the object? Also,
Alcohol ,(1.36 find the power of the lens.
Kerosene 1.44 Ans. Given, v = + 50 cm (positive sign is taken because
Fused quartz 1.46 real image in convex lens is formed on . the right
Turpentine oil 1.47 side).
Glycerin 1.47 Since, the image is real and size of the image is

.,., Benzene 1.50 equal to the size of object.

'8..
1.52 :. Magnification, m = -1
i'"
:;;
Crown glass
(; Canada Balsam 1.53 v v
c
0 Now m = +- or -1 = +-
'" Rock salt 1.54 'u
~
U

~I Carbon disulphide 1.63

= - v = - (+50) = - 50
I ~
9
Dense flint glass 1.65
or u
By lens equation,
em

b
.~ Ruby 1.71
~
1
---=-
1 1
Sapphire 1.77 v u f
~..g Diamond 2.42 1 1 1
§
0
-----=-
(+50) (-50) f
~ Ans. Among the media given in the above table, diamond
~
has highest optical density as its refractive index 1 ~ = 2.- or f = + 25 cm = + 0.25 m
~ f 50 25
~
~
is maximum among the given media. Air has least

i
~
optical density as ,its refractive index is minimum
among the given media.
Power, P -.!.
- f -
- 1
+ 0.25
= + 4 Diopter
1
41
_CB_S_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ________________~__________________ ALLIM
8. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 12. Which of the following lenses would you prefer to
2 m. use while reading small letters found in a dictionary?

ADs. Given, focal length = - 2 m (a) A convex lens of focal length 50 cm

(b) A concave lens of focal length 50 cm
(focal length of concave lens is negative).
(c) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm
(d) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm
Power, P =.! =_I_
f - 2.0 Ans. Option (c) is correct.
For reading small letters in a dictionary, a convex
or P = - 0.5 Diopter lens of small focal length is used as it is kept quite
9. Which one of the follOwing materials cannot be used close to the page of the dictionary.
to make a lens? 13. One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black
(a) Water paper. Will this lens produce a complete image of
the object? Verify your answer experimentally.
(b) Glass
Explain your observations.
(c) Plastic
Ans. The convex lens will form complete image of an
(d) Clay object, even if its one half is covered with black
Ans. (d) Clay is not transparent, therefore it cannot be paper. Only the brightness of the image will reduce,
used for making lens. in this case it will be half of the brightness of original
-10. image. It can be understood by the follOwing two
Where should an object be placed in front of a
cases:
convex lens to get a real image of the size of the
(a) Let the upper half of the lens be covered and
ohj~ct?
an object be placed between optical centre and
(a) At the principal focus of the lens
the focus Fl' The light rays from the object falling
(b) At twice the focal length on the lower half of the lens form a virtual, erect
(c) At infinity and magnified image [see fig.(a)]
(b) Let the lower half of the lens be covered and
(d) Between the optical centre of the lens and its
an object be placed between optical centre and
principal focus.
the focus F l' The light rays from the object falling
Ans. When an object is placed at 2F1 in front of a convex on the upper half of the lens form a virtual,
lens, its image is formed at 2F2 on the other side erect and magnified image [see fig.(b)]
of the lens. The image formed is real, inverted,
A'
and of the same size as the object.
Thus, option (b) is correct Le., the object should
be placed at twice the focal length from the optical
centre of the lens.
11. A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have
each a focal length of -15 cm. The mirror and the
(a)
lens are likely to be
A' ......
(a) both concave T .... I!!o.
I ... ~ .....
I ..... ~ ....
I
(b) both convex I
I
I
(c) the mirror is concave and the lens is convex I

(d) the mirror is convex, but the lens is concave

Ans. Option (a) is correct i.e., a concave mirror as well
as concave lens both have negative focal length. (b)

42
~LIM ____________________ ~ ______________________ __
ics
P_hy~s

14. An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from 15. A concave lens of focal length 15 cm fOnTIS an image
a converging lens of focal length 10 cm. Draw the 10 cm from the lens. How far is the object placed
ray diagram and find the position, size and the nature from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
of the image formed. Ans. Given, f = - 15 cm,
Ans. Given, hI = + 5 cm ; u = - 25 cm ; v = - 10 cm (negative sign is taken because the
f = + 10 cm image formed in concave lens is always towards
By lens equation, left)
1 1 1 By lens equation,
~-~=f
1 1 1 1 1 1
---=-
111 v u f or (-10) -~ = -15
or - - - - = - -
v (-25) +10
-1 1 1 1 -3+2 1
111 or - + - = - or =--=-
or - + - = - - 10 15 u u 30 30
v 25 +10
or U = - 30 em
1 1 1 5-2 3
or ---=--=-
v 10 25 50 50 A--....- - -

or v = + 50/3 = + 16.67 em

v +(50/3)
Magnification m = + - =
2
= --
2Fl ,8
,,
, u (-25) 3
30cm
16. Find the focal length of a lens of power -2.0 D.
h2
Now, m=- What type of lens is this?
hI Ans. Given, power, P = -2.0 D
1
Power, P =-f
or
1 1
or f = P = -2 = - 0.5 m = - 50 em
The lens is a concave (or diverging) lens.
17. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power
or h2 = -3.33 em + 1.5 D. Find the focal length of the lens. Is the
preSCribed lens diverging or converging?
The image is real, inverted and diminished.
Ans. Given, power, P ~ +1.5 D
1
Power, P=f

f=!-=_I_= 10 =+~
or P +1.5 15 3
or f = +0.66 m = + 66 em
The lens is a convex (or converging) lens.

43
_CB_S_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ____________________________________ ALLI_
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. A magnifying lens has a focal length of 10 cm. 3. A needle placed at 45 cm from a lens, forms an
(a) Where should the object be placed if the image image on a screen placed at 90 cm on other side
is to be 30 cm from the lens? (b) What will be the of the lens. Identify the type of lens and determine
magnification? its focal length. What is the size of the image, if the
Sol. (a) In case of magnifying lens, the lens is a size of the needle is 5 cm?
converging lens i.e. a convex lens. While using Sol. Since the image is formed on the other side of the
it as a magnifying lens, the image is virtual, erect, lens, it is a real image. Such real image can only be
and magnified. formed by a converging lens or convex lens.
Here, u = - 45 cm, v = + 90 cm,
Here, f = + 10 cm ; v = - 30 cm
f =?, h z =?, hI = 5 cm,
(negative sign of v is taken because in case of
lens, virtual image is formed on the left side) 1 1 1
By lens equation - - - = -
'v u f
By lens formula,

1 1 1 1 1 1
---=- or - '- - - = - -
v u f (-30) u (+10)

1 1+2 3
1 1 1 -1- 3 -4 -2 or - = - - = - or f = + 30 em
or =----=--=-=- f 90 90
u 30 10 30 30 15
Again by calculation also, we got positive value of
or u= -7.5 em f i.e., the lens is a converging lens or convex lens.
So the object must be placed in front of lens at a
h2 V h 90
distance of 7.5 cm from it. Now m=-=+- or -z= - -
, hI u 5 -45
(b) m = + ~ = -30 = + 4 or hz = -10 em
u -7.5
Minus sign indicates that image is real and inverted.
Thus, image is virtual, erect and four times the 4. . An object 8.5 cm tall is placed at 28 cm from a
size of object. convex lens that has a focal length of 12 cm. Find
2. An object 25 cm high is placed in front of a convex the size and location of the image. Describe the
lens of focal length 30 .cm. If the height of real image.
image formed is 50 cm, find the distance between Sol. . Given, hI = 8.5 cm ; u = - 28 em ; f = + 12 cm ;
the object and the image. v =? ; h z =?
Sol. hI = 25 cm, f = + 30 cm, h z = - 50 cm · 1 1 =_
1
By Iensequat lon, ___
m = h2 = -50 = -2 v u f
hI 25
1 1 1
Also, m = +-
v
or -2=+~ or ~ - (-28) = (+12)
u u
or v = - 2u
1 1 1
or -+-=-
1 1 1 1 1 1 v 28 12
Now, ---=- or - - - - - - -
v u f (-2u) u (+30)
1 1 1 7-3 4 1
or - = - - - = - - = - = -
v 12 28 84 84 21
-3 1
or - = - or u = - 45 cm or v = + 21 em
2u 30
:. v = - 2u = - 2(-45) = +90 cm h2 V ~ +21
m = ~ = +~ or (+8.5) -28
Since object and image are on opposite sides of
lens, the distance between object and image or h z = - 6.375 em
d = lui + Ivl = 45 + 90 = 135 em The image is real, inverted and diminished.

44
ALLIM~__~~~~__~~__~__~__~____~____~P~h~~~ic~s
5. A virtual image 35.0 cm tall is formed at 49.0 cm 7. A concave lens is used to form the image of an
from a convex lens. If the object is 25.0 cm tall, object that is 35.0 cm tall and located at 25.0 cm
find (a) the position of the object and (b) the focal from the lens. If the image is 28.0 cm tall, what is
length of the lens. the focal length of the lens?
Ans. Given, h2 = + 35 cm (virtual image is erect, thus, Sol. Given, hI = + 35 cm; v = - 25 cm (negative sign
h2 is taken positive) ; v = - 49 cm (v is taken negative is taken because the·image formed in concave lens
as virtual image is formed on left side) ; is always towards left) ; h2 = + 28 cm (concave lens
hI = + 25 cm ; u =? ; f =? always forms virtual image which is erect , thus ' 2
h
is taken positive) ; f =?
h2 v (+35) (-49)
(a) m = ~ = +~ or (+25) = -u-

or u = 25x49 = _ 35 em (+28) (-25)

35 or (+35) = -u-

(b) By lens equation, .!. -.!. = .!. 25x35 125

v u f or u = =--
28 4
1 1 1
or -----=
(-49) (-35) f 1 1 1
Now ---=-
'v u f
1 1 1 -5+ 7 2
or -=--+- . =--=-
f 49 35 245 245 1 1 1
or - - - - - - -
or f = + 245/2 = + 122.5 em (-25) (-125/4) f
6. An object that is 48.0 em tall is located at 60.0 cm
1 -1 4 -5+4 -1
from a concave lens with a focal length of 40.0 cm. or - = - + -. =--=-
Calculate the size and position of the image. f 25 125 125 125
Describe the image. or f = -125 em
Sol. Given, hI = + 48 em; u = - 60 cm (negative sign 8. A concave lens with a focal length of 180 em is
is taken because the image fonned in concave lens used to form an image that is 75.0 cm tall from an
is always towards left) ; f = -:- 40 cm ; v =? ; h2 =? object which is at 45.0 cm from the lens. What is
the height of the object?
Byens
I ·
equatlon, 1 1 =_
___ 1 Sol. Given , f = - 180 cm ., h 2 = + 75 cm .'
v u f U = - 45 cm ; hI =?

1 1 1 Byens
I ·
equat lon, _1 -_
1 =-
1
or ~ - (-60) = (-40) v u f

1 1 -1 1 1 1
or - + - = - or - -(-45)
--=--
(-180)
v 60 40 v

1 -1 1 -2 - 3 -5 -1 1 i -1
or - = - - - = - - = - = - or - + - = -
v60 40 120 120 24 v 45 180
or v =-24 em 1 1 1 -4-1 -5 -1
or =----=--= -=-
h2 V v 45 180 180 180 36
Now m=-=+-
, hI u or v = - 36 cm
h2 v (+ 75) = (-36)
or ~= (-24) Now , m=-=+- or h1 (-45)
hI u
(+48) (-60)
h = (-45) x (+75)
48x24
or h2 = 60 = + 19.2 em 1 (-36)

The image is virtual, erect and diminished. or hi = + 93.75 em

45
_CB-S-E-:-C-'a-s-s-X--------------~~------------------ALL.M
9. A concave lens has focal length of 20 cm. At what 10. An object 50 cm tall is placed on the principal axis
distance from the lens, a 5 cm tall object be placed of a convex lens. Its 20 cm tall image is formed on
so that it forms an image at 15 cm from the lens? the screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the
Also calculate the size of the image 'formed. lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
Sol. Given, f = -20 cm; hI = 5 cm; v = -15 cm; u =?; Sol. Given, hI = 50 cm; h2 = -20 cm; v = 10 cm; u =?;
h2 =? f =?

1 1 1 h2 v
By lens equation - - - = - m= -=+-
'v u f hI u

.. (-20) = (+10)
(+50) u
1 -20+15 5
u 300 300 or u = 10x50 = -25 em
20
u=-60em.
1 1 1
h2 v Lens equation - = - - -
Since m = - = - 'f v u
, hI U
1 1 1 25 + 10
or - = - - - =
f 10 -25 250
h = 5 x (-15) = ~= 1.25 em.
.. 2 (-60) 4
250
or f = 35 = + 7.14 em
The image is diminished, virtual and erect.

46
 ALL._------------------------------____________~P~hy~s~ic~s
EXE~~ISE # 1
Multiple choice questions 6. The path of a ray of light coming from air passing
1. A ray of light travelling in air falls obliquely on the through a rectangular glass slab traced by four
surface of a calm pond. It will students are shown as A, B, C and D in fig. Which
(1) go into the water without deviating from its path one of them is correct?
(2) deviate away from the normal
(3) deviate towards the normal
(4) tum back on its original path
2. A light ray enters from medium A to medium B as
shown in figure. The refractive index of medium B
relative to A will be

Medium B

Medium A
(l)A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(1) greater than unity (2) less than unity
(3) equal to unity (4) zero 7. A ray of light is incident on one of the parallel faces
3. Figure shows a ray of light as it travels from of rectangular glass slab. It emerges out of the
medium A to medium B. Refractive index of the opposite parallel face making angle of emergence
medium B relative to medium A is (1) equal to angle of incidence.
(2) greater than angle of incidence.
(3) smaller than angle of incidence.
Medium B
(4) equal to zero.
8. A ray of light incident on one of the parallel faces
of rectangular glass slab, emerges out of the
Medium A
opposite parallel face
(1) inclined to the incident ray.
(1) .J3 / 2 (2) .J2 /3
10
'&. (2) along the same straight line as the incident ray.
~ (3) .J1 /2 (4) J2
~
:.:J (3) parallel to the incident ray but laterally displaced.
'0
.~ 4. You are given water, mustard oil, glycerine and (4) gets absorbed into the body of the glass slab and
1.. kerosene. In which of these media, a ray of light
CK
1 does not emerge out of it.
.il
incident obliquely at same angle would bend the
~
N
most?
9. The lateral displacement of an incident ray passing
9
~ out of a rectangular glass slab, for the same angle
.;;
>- (1) Kerosene (2) Water
"IE of incidence
"t (3) Mustard oil (4) Glycerine
II)

".~ 5. A ray of light travelling in a medium falls normally (1) is directly proportional to the thickness of the
0
~
on the surface of ·a nother medium. While entering glass slab.
.f
~ the second medium, it (2) is inversely proportional to the thickness of the ·
~ (1) goes straight into the secord medit.nn without berrling glass slab.
~
~ (2) bends towards the normal
~
(3) is independent of the thickness of the glass slab.
~
1;:j (3) bends away from the normal
<i (4) none of the above options is correct.
1 (4) does not enter the second medium at all.
47
_CB_S_E_:_C_lo_s_s_X______________-.___________________ ALLIM
10. Beams of light are incident through the holes A and 15. When an object is placed in front of a convex lens,
B and emerge out of box through the holes C and the image formed
D respectively as shown in the figure. Which of the (1) is always virtual (2) is always real
following could be inside the box? (3) may be real or virtual (4) is always erect
.-------,
(1) A concave lens 16. A convex lens forms a virtual image of an object
(2) A convex lens placed at a distance of 20 cm it. The focal length
of the lens must be
(3) A rectangular glass slab --..-4-
(1) greater than 20 cm.
(4) A prism
(2) greater than 10 cm, less than 20 cm.
11. To the cat on the bank of a lake, where will a fish (3) less than 20 cm.
appear to be? (4) infinite.
(1) At its actual position in water. 17. An object is placed before a concave lens. The
(2) Above its actual position in water. image formed
(3) Below its actual position in water. (1) is always inverted
(4) Floating in air directly above its actual position. (2) is always erect
12. A convex lens (3) is always real
(4) may be erect or inverted
(1) is thicker at the edges than at the middle.
18. Which of the following can make a parallel beam of
(2) has uniform thickness all through.
light when light from a point source is incident on it?
(3) is thicker at the middle than at the edges. (1) Concave mirror as well as convex lens
(4) is called a diverging lens. (2) Convex mirror as well as concave lens
13. Which of the following ray diagrams is correct for (3) Two plane mirrors placed at 90° to each other
th~ t~y of light incident on a lens shown in fig.? (4) Concave mirror as well as concave lens
19. A thin lens and a spherical mirror, each has a focal
length of + 25 cm. This means
(1) (2) (1) Both are convex.
(2) Both are concave.
(3) The lens is convex and the mirror is concave.
(4) The lens is concave and mirror is convex.
20. Which of the follOWing statements is true?
(1) A convex lens has 4 dioptre power having a focal
(3) (4)
length 0.25 m.
(2) A convex lens has -4 dioptre power having a
14. A beam of light is incident through the holes on side
focal length 0.25 m. t
AB and emerges out of the holes on the other face
(3) A concave lens has 4 dioptre power having a ~
CD of the box as shown in the fig. Which of the :=l
Cl

focal length 0.25 m. '0

follOWing could be inside the box? .j
(4) Both (2) and (3). ~
A D True or false "'I

10----111----1
9'-- - - - t - - - I
1. A light ray bends towards the normal when it travels ~
8---.----1 obliquely from a denser to a rarer medium.
9
7----t---I 1:
6---.---1 "01

5----111----1 2. The frequency of light is different in different media. ~

4-----111----1
3,----111----1
2'----.---111----1
3. When a light ray enters from water into the glass, it i
1 speed decreases. 1-g
o
B C 4. All the refracting surfaces, whether plane or curved, .E
(1) Concave lens obey the laws of refraction. ~
~
(2) Rectangular glass slab 5. The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed ~
~
(3) Prism of light in a medium gives the absolute refractive .a
~
(4) Convex lens index of that medium. -G;
'i
1
48
ALLI_------------________~--------------------P-h~~-ic-s
6. A double concave lens is bounded by two spher;r?1 9. A lens of power - 2.5 D has a focal length of
surfaces, curved outwards. .. .......... m and the lens is .............. .
7. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of 10. A concave lens of very short focal length causes
a lens will emerge without any deviation. . ...................... divergence than the one with
8. A'convex lens always forms a virtual and erect image. longer focal length.
9 One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black Crossword
paper. This lens p-oduces a complete image of the d:>ject.
10. The power of a rectangular slab is zero i.e., its focal 4

length is infinite.
I--
6
Match the column I--
1. Column-I Column-II rg- I - - 9 10 11 1
f-- '---.........................&........;......1---1
(A) Ratio of speeds of light (p) Concave lens
in two media f-- 12 ~ ~ 13 II
(B) Ray passes undeviated (q) Convex lens P4 I--
(C) Divergence of rays (r) Refractive I-- ~ I--
index I-- ~

(D) Convergence of rays (s) Ray through L....- ~

optical centre
15
2. Column-I ,Column-D
(A) A lens that can form a (p) Convex lens Across
real imaqe 4. Bending of light rays while passing obliquely from
(B) A lens that forms virtual (q) Concave lens one transparent medium to another.
and diminished image 6. Lens which can form real as well as virtual images.
(C) Incident ray is parallel to (r) Denser 9. Ratio of speed of light in one medium 1 to another
emerqent rav medium
medium 2 is called .................... refractive index
(D) A substance in which (s) Rectangular
of medium 2 with respect to medium 1.
speed of liqht is less qlass slab
13. Lens used for diverging the incident light rays.
Fill in the blanks
14. Angle thro~gh which inddent ray bends from its origi-
1. Light travels the fastest in ................ with the
nal path during refraction is called angle of
highest speed of .................. m/s.
2. A light ray travelling obliquely from a denser 15. Transparent medium in which speed of light is more
medium to a rarer medium bends ............ from the is called optically .................... medium.
normal. Down
The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of 1. When viewed from a rarer medium, an object in denser
angle of refraction is .............. , for the light of a medium is actually ............. where it appears to be.
given colour and for the given pair of media. 2. Characteristic of light which varies directly with the
The value of the refractive index for a given pair of speed of light in a medium.
media depends upon the ............. of light in the 3. Colour which deviates the most from its path during
two media. refraction.
In case of a rectangular glass slab, the refraction 5. Characteristic of light which does not change on re
takes place at both air-glass interface and glass-air fraction of light.
interface. The emergent ray is .................. to the 7. Depth at which an d:>ject appears to be inside an optically
direction of incident ray. denser medium when seen from a rarer medium.
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which 8. On passing through a glass slab, light ray suffers
one or both surfaces are spherical, forms a ........... . from .................... shift.
10. Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to that in a medium
A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal
is called its ............... ..... refractive index.
axis, after refraction from a convex lens, passes
11. Speed of light is maximum in .................... .
through the .................. on the other side of the lens.
12. Unit of optical power of a lens.
Power of a lens is the ............. of its focal length.
49
_C_BS_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ____________________________________ ALLIM

Multiple choice questions

True or false
1. False 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. True 8. False 9. True 10. True
Match the column
1. (A) - r ; (B) - s ; (C) - P ; (0) - q 2. (A) - p ; (B) - q ; (C) - s ; (0) - r
Fill in the blanks
1. vacuum ; 3 x 108 2. away 3. constant 4. speed 5. parallel
6. lens 7. principal focus 8. reciprocal 9. - 0.40 ; concave 10. higher
Crossword

50
 ALLIM ____________________________________________Ph.y_s__
ics
EXERCISE # 2
Very short answer type questions 7. What kind of lens can be used as a magnifier? Draw
1. If light traveled at the same speed in glass and in a ray diagram for it.
air, would glass lenses alter the direction of light rays? 8. Draw the ray diagram to represent the nature,
position and relative size of the image formed by a
2. What is the relation between wavelength of light ray
convex lens for the object placed at 2 Fl '
incident on a glass and the refractive index of glass?
9. Draw a ray diagram to show a real, diminished
3. How does the angle at which a ray of light strikes a image formed by a convex lens.
pane of window glass compare with the angle at 10. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of image
which it passes out the other side? of an object by a concave lens when the object is
4. A red light and blue light enter a rectangular glass placed between infinity and optical centre of the lens.
block normal to its surface at the same time. Strictly Long answer type questions
speaking, after passing through the block, which 1. Why does a light ray, incident on a rectangular glass
pulse exits first? slab immersed in any medium, emerges parallel to
5. Does the refraction of light make a swimming pool itself? Explain using a diagram. Prove it using
seem deeper or shallower? Snell's law.
2. Draw ray diagrams shOWing the image formation
6. When the lens of a slide projector is half covered,
by a convex lens when an object is placed
what happens to the image on the screen?
(a) between optical centre and focus of the lens .
7. What kind of lens can be used to produce a .real (b) between focus and twice the focal length of the
image? lens
8. What kind of lens can form a (i) Virtual, erect, (c) at twice the focal length of the lens
diminished image? (ii) Virtual, erect, magnified (d) at infinity
image? (e) at the focus of the lens
9. Which lens has greater power, a convex lens of focal 3. Define power of a lens. What is its unit? How are
length 10 cm or a convex lens of focal length 20 power and focal length related? One student uses
cm? a lens of focal length + 50 cm ahd another of
10. What is the power of a concave lens of focal length - 50 cm. What is the nature of the lens and its power
25cm? used by each of them?
4. (a) It is desired to obtain an erect image of an object,
Short answer type questions
using a convex lens of focal length 20 cm.
1. State the two laws of refraction. Make figure. (i) What should be the range of distance of the
It')

~ 2. Prove the relation n 21 = n 2/n 1 . object from the lens?

~ 3.
0>
:.::; Prove that n 12 x n 23 x n 31 = 1. (ii) Will the image be bigger or smaller than the
'0
c object?
..g 4. If you place a glass test tube in water, you can see
~ the tube. If you place it in clear soyabean oil, you
(iii) Draw a ray diagram to show the image
':'
•!.I formation in this case .
may not be able to see it. What does this indicate
~ (b) One half a convex lens of focal length 20 cm is
53 about the speed of light in the oil and in the glass?
t covered with a black paper.
.~

if
What about their refractive indices?
,.- (i) Will the lens produce a complete image of
5. Explain with the help of a diagram, why a pencil
~..g partly immersed in water appears to be bent at the
the object?
c (ii) How will the intensity of the image formed
1 water surface.
~ by half-covered lens compare with non-
~
6. If, while standing on a bank, you wish to spear a covered lens?
~~ fish beneath the water surface in front of you, should (iii) Show the formation of image of an object
~
you aim above, below, or directly at the observed placed at 2F 1 of such covered lens with the
~
.;:;
fish to make a direct hit? Explain. help of a ray diagram .
'i
1
51
_C_BS_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ________________~__________________ ALLIM
5. State the law of refraction of light that defines the Activity based questions
refractive index of a medium with respect to the 1. Four students showed the following traces of the path
other. Express it mathematically. How is refractive of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass
index of any medium' A' with respect to a medium slab. The trace most likely to be correct is that of
'B' related to the speed of propagation of light in student
two media A and B? State the name of this constant
when one medium is vacuum or air.
The refractive indices of glass and water with respect
to vacuum are 3/2 and 4/3 respectively. If the
speed of light in glass is 2 xI 0 8 m/s, find the speed
fllYZIY
. ABC 0

of light in (i) vacuum, (ii) water. (I)A (2) B (3) C (4) 0

Numerical problems 2. Out of the four set-ups shown for carrying out the
1. An object is placed at 5 cm in front of a lens and an experiment to trace the path of a ray of light through
image is formed 10 cm behind the lens. What type a rectangular glass slab, the best set-up is
of lens is it, and what is the value of its focal
length? •
2. An object placed at 50 cm from a lens produces a • •
virtual image at a distance of 10 cm in front of the
A B
lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
3. An object is placed at a distance of 7 cm from a
convex lens which forms an image magnified three • •
• •
times. What is the focal length of the lens?
1>~i'!i;!~il;J.i~\ ~f i'~!I I~'~I!:i:l~r~1
4. An object which is placed at 10 cm in front of a lens
c D
forms a real image three times magnified. Where
is the image formed? What is the focal length of the (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) 0
lens? 3. Parallel rays from a distant tree incident on a convex
5. An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of lens form an image on the screen. This is correctly
10 cm from a convex lens of focal length 20 cm. represented in the figure:
Find.the position, nature and size of the image.
6. An object 5 cm high is held 25 cm away from a
converging lens of f = + 10 cm. Find the position
and size of the image formed. Is the image real or
virtual?
7. An object 10 cm long is placed at distance of
A B
15 cm from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
Find the position and size of the image .
8. An object of size 3 cm is placed at 14 cm in front of
a concave lens of focal length 21 cm. Describe the
image produced by the lens. What happens if the
object is moved farther from the lens?
The focal length of a concave lens is 10 cm. What
c o
should be the object distance in order that the image
is 1/5th of size of the object. Where is the image?
What is its lateral magnification?
(1) A (2) B . (3) C (4)0
10. A thin lens has a focal length of - 25 cm. What is
the power of the lens and what is its nature?

52
 ALLIM ____________________~--------------------P-h~~-ic-s
4. Three students measured the focal length of a 5. In an experiment to determine the focal length of a
convex lens using parallel rays from a distant object. convex lens, a student obtained a sharp inverted
All of them measured the distance between the lens image of a distant tree on the screen behind the lens.
and the inverted image on the screen. Student A . She then removed the screen and looked through
saw a sharp image on the screen and labelled the the lens in the direction of the object. She will see
distance as fl' Student B 5awa slightly larger blurred (1) an inverted image of the tree at the focus of the
image on the screen and labelled the distance as lens.
f2. Student C saw a slightly smaller blurred image
(2) no image as the screen has been removed
on the screen and labelled the distance as f3. The
(3) a blurred image on the wall of the laboratory
relation between the three measurements would
most likely be (4) an erect image of the tree on the lens

(1) fl = f2 = f3
(2) fl < f2 < f3
(3) fl < f3 < f2
(4) fl < f2 and fl = f3

Numerical problems
1. convex; + 3.33 cm 2. f = - 12.5 cm
~ 3. For virtual image, f = + 10.5 cm ; for real image, f = + 5.25 cm
~ Cl
:.:;
o
4. v = + 30 cm ; f = + 7.5 cm
c:
..g
5. v = - 20 cm; h2 = + 8 cm ; image is virtual, erect & magnified
~
':1 6. v = + 50/3 cm = 16.67 cm ; h2 = -10/3 cm = - 3.33 cm ; real
&N~ -
9
7. v = + SO cm ; h2 = - 20 cm
b· 8. v = - 8.4 cm ; h2 =+1.8 cm ; virtual, erect & diminished. As the object is moved away from the lens, the
? virtual image moves towards the focus of the lens (but never beyond F) and gradually diminishes in size.
~c:..g 9. u = ~ 40 cm; v = - 8 cm; m = +1/5 10. P = - 40; concave
o
§ Activity based questions-
>
~
./
W
II)

'"
)!
¥
~
r;;
~
1
53
~C~BS~E~:~C~~~s~s~X~ __________________________________ ALLIM

I rnfJ01'tlM'lt Nottw

i
.rl
----------------------------~------------------~---t
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'0
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1
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1
54
ALLIM Physics
The Human Eye & The COlourful World

'Eyes are most amazing

optica.l instruments. In fact,
as you read this sentence,
you are probably unaware of
the thousands of pieces of
visual information that your
eyes are gathering each
second. Any defect of eyes
can be corrected by using
appropriate lenses. '

1. The human eye

Components and structure
(1) The eye has a nearly spherical shape. The eye ball has a diameter of
about one inch (nearly 2.3 em). The front portion is more sharply cUlved
and it is covered by a thin, transparent, protective membrane called
'cornea'. It is this portion which is visible from the outside.
(2) Behind cornea, there is a liquid called 'aqueous humour' and behind
that, there is a crystalline 'lens'. Between the aqueous humour and the
lens, there is a muscular diaphragm called 'iris', which has a small hole
in it called 'pupil'.
(3) The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material which is hard in
the middle and gradually becomes soft towards the edges. The curvature
of the lens is altered by the 'ciliary muscles' to which it is attached.
(4) The space between lens and the retina is filled with another liquid called
'vitreous humour' .
(5) The light entering the eye forms an image on the 'retina' which is a Pupil appears black because any
delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells. It light falling on it goes into the eye
contains about 125 million receptors called 'rods' and 'cones' which and there is no chance of light coming
receive the light rays and about one million optic nerve fibres which out of it from inside:
transmit the information to the brain.
(6) The region on the retina where the 'optic nerve' enters the eye ball is
called the 'blind spot'. It is insensitive to the light, that is, any image
formed at this spot is not visible.
(7) The macula lutea, also called 'yellow spot' is the central part of the
retina responsible for sensing fine detail and for looking straight ahead.
It has high concentration of nerve endings and it is slightly raised. Its
function is to form a very clear image, by sending a large number of
electrical signals to the brain.
(8) 'Sclera' or 'sclerotic' is the outermost covering of eye and it is made of
white fibrous tissue. 'Choroid' is a grey membrane attached to sclera.
55
_C-BS-E-:-C-la-s-s-X------~-----------------------------ALLIM

- - - Iris ---"""'!'ii~'
At the junction of the optic nerve and
the retina, there are no sensory cells,
____ Pupil ---Wi!-
so no vision is possible at that spot. ~-- Cornea - -......,tWi
This is called the 'blind spot'. Aqueous humour
Ciliary muscles
......- - - - Sclera ----~~.;"" . ." .....iIlIlI1IlIiijIi(tl!l!"

Vitreous humour - - - "

Fig.1 The human eye
Working of eye
(1) When the light enters the eye from air, most of the bending of light
occurs at cornea. Some additional bending is done by the lens so as to
form an inverted, real image of the object on retina.
(2) When the eye is focused on a distant object, the ciliary muscle relaxes
allowing ligaments to increase tension on the lens and cause it to flatten
i.e., the lens becomes thin or less curved. In this case, the focal length of
the eye lens has its maximum value which is equal to its distance from
the retina. The parallel rays coming into the eye from the distant object
are focused on the retina and we see the object clearly.
The iris is that part of the eye which (3) When the eye is focused on a closer object, the ciliary muscle contracts,
gives it its distinctive colour. When allowing the lens, by virtue of its elasticity, to become more curved i.e.,
we say that a person has green or the lens becomes thick. In this case, the focal length of the eye lens
brown eyes, we refer actually to the decreases. The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length in such a way that
colour of the iris. image is formed on the retina and we see the object clearly.
(4) The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate
electrical signals. These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information
so that we perceive objects as they are i.e., the brain makes an inverted 0.0

image formed on the retina again erect (or upright). '&.

...:
~I
Role of iris ""E
Iris controls the size of the pupil and therefore, helps in regulating the '~t
amount of light entering the eye through a variable aperture (the pupil). In ~
low intensity of light, iris expands the pupil to allow more light to enter into ~
the eye. When the light is very bright, iris contracts the pupil and the pupil 1
~

becomes very small, thus, only a small amount of light enters into the eye. 5
§
::r:
'"
..<:
'7

How does the focal length depend on the curvature of eye lens? When is §
the eye lens thin? When is it thick? ?
Explanation
Outer coat of the eye called sclera
is white. It is tough so that it can
The change in the curvature of eye lens changes its focal length. When we
look at a distant object, the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the lens is then i
1
protect the interior of the eye from thin and the focal length of the eye lens is more (about 2.3 cm). Finally, the ~.E
accidents.
image is formed on the retina and we can see the distant object clearly. ~
When we look at objects closer to eye, the ciliary muscles contract, so that ~~
the eye lens becomes more rounded in shape i.e., becomes thick. The :
focal length of the eye lens decreases so as to bring light from the nearby ~
objects into focus on the retina. 1~

56
 Physics

You might have experienced that you are not able to see objects clearly for
some time when you enter from bright light to a room with dim light. Why?
Explanation
The pupil of an eye acts like a variable aperture whose size can be varied
with the help of the iris. When the eyes are exposed to bright light, the iris
contracts the pupil to allow less light to enter the eye i.e., the size of pupil
is reduced in the bright light. When you enter from bright light to a room Human beings cannot see objects in
with dim light, less amount of light enters in your eyes due to reduced size ultra-violet rays as their retina cells
of the pupil. Thus, you are not able to see objects clearly for some time. are not sensitive to such short
After some time, iris expands the pupil due to dim light and allows more wavelengths that are possessed by
ultra-violet rays.
light to enter the eye and you are able to see things in the room. The pupil
opens completely in dark/ dim light through the relaxation of the iris.

1. Take a white cardboard and mark a thick cross on its left hand side. Mark
a dot on the right side at a distance of 8 cm from the cross. Now, hold the
cardboard at arms' length from your eyes. Close your left eye and look
continuously on the cross. At this moment, both cross and dot are visible.
Move the cardboard slowly towards you but keep your eye on the cross.
You will observe that at a certain point, the dot disappears. At this point,
the image of dot is formed on the blind spot, and hence, it is not visible.
2. The similar activity can be done by keeping your right eye closed and
looking at the round mark. Move the cardboard slowly towards you keeping
your eye on the dot. At some point, the cross disappears. This obViously
means that the image of cross is formed on the blind spot. Nature has provided eyes with

X I~ Bcm
e eyelids to protect from any o bject
entering the eye. Eyelids also shut
out light when not required.

Fig.2 Active physics 1

1. Stand before a mirror in a darkened room for a few minutes. Then tum on
~ a light in the room and observe your pupils in the mirror as they change
size.
You will observe that just after turning the light' on' , your pupil is large in
size and it decreases gradually in size.
Reason: As you were initially standing in a darkened room, iris expands
the pupil so that your eye receive as much light as possible. When you turn
c:
o
on the light, iris gradually contracts the siz~ of pupil so that your eye receive
5
:r: less amount of light.
Q)
...c:
:;; Conclusion: This activity shows that the iris controls the amount of light
;3 In general, young children have a
.1/
entering in our eyes by controlling the size of pupil. greater power of accommodation
I 2. Power of accommodation because they can dearly see objects
that are very dose to them. As we age,
~.~ By contracting or relaxing the ciliary muscles connected to the lens, its the lens in our eye becomes less
shape can be changed such that we can see the nearby as well as the flexible and its ability to accommodate
1 decreases until we are forced to use
. ~ distant objects clearly. This process is called 'power of accommodation'
-£
o
or 'accommodation'. corrective eye lens.
./

~ re= The ability or property of the eye to change the shape of lens so as to see
~
~
~ the object clearly is called' accommodation' .
§ The muscles cannot be strained beyond a limit and thus, an object placed
~
1 too close to the eye cannot be seen clearly.
57

=
_C_BS_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ______~_____________________________ ALLIM
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTSIII
See fig.3 showing two positions of eye in case (a) and case (b). Now, answer

o
the following :
1. In which of the two cases (a) and (b), the eye is viewing at a distant object?
2. In which case, the focal length of eye lens is less?
3. Assuming that in both cases, the eyes are normal, then in which case the
(a) image is formed at the retina?
4. In which case, the ciliary muscles are relaxed?

o
Near point
The nearest point for which the image can be formed clearly on the retina,
is called the 'near point of the eye'.
Least distance of distinct vision
(b)
The minimum distance at which objects can be seen clearly without strain
Fig.3 Check your concepts 1
is called 'least distance of distinct vision or clear vision'. In other
words, the distance of the near point from the eye is called the 'least
distance of distinct vision' .
r:r This distance varies with age; it increases with it because of decreasing
effectiveness of the ciliary muscles and the loss of flexibility of the lens. The
symbol used for least distance of distinct vision is D. Standard value of D for
a young adult with normal vision is 25 cm. For a child of 10 years D is
nearly 7 to 8 cm, for an old man of 60 years D is nearly 200 cm.

1. Move this page slowly toward your face. At a certain position of the page
you will observe that the letters of this page just begin to blur.
2. Hold the page at this position and ask your friend to measure the distance
between the page and your eye using a scale. This distance from the book
Because our eyes are separated by to your eye is your near point.
a few centimeters, each eye sees a Far point
slightly separate image. Our brain The farthest point up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called the
combines the two images into one
'far point' of the eye. For normal eye, far point is at infinity.
and tells us how close or far away
the various objects are present. BUILDING $ ~ 3
Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?
Explanation !
Two eyes provide a wider field of view to us. A single eye has a horizontal ~I
region of view of nearly 150°, but with two eyes it is about 180°. Also, the :;
't
ability to detect faint objects increases with two eyes instead of a single eye. a
~
With a single eye, the world looks flat i.e., two-dimensional. The three- ~ I-

dimensional effect can be experienced with two eyes only. o/S

~
~~~~~~~~==================~6§
.,
J:
..<:

How do we see colours? ~

Explanation .~
~
Our retina has a large number of light-sensitive cells having shapes of rods ~
Bees have some retina cones which and cones. The rod-shaped cells respond to the intensity of light with different ~
are sensitive to ultra-violet rays, degree of brightness and darkness. In dim light, the rods are sensitive but .~
"'2
which have wavelengths shorter than the cones are not. But the rods cannot distinguish between various colours. ~
that of the violet light. Thus, bees can It is the cone-shaped cells which respond to colours. They are active only in ~
see objects in ultra-violet rays and bright light and make colour perception possible. The cones are sensitive ~u
can recognise colours.
to red, green and blue light to different extents. When a particular colour ~
like red, falls on the retina, it mainly stimulates the red colour sensitive S
cones than the other kinds of cones. ~

58
ALLIM ______________________________~------------P~hy-s--ics
Colour blindness
Some people do not possess some cone cells that respond to certain specific
colours only. This is a genetic disorder called 'colour blindness'. The
persons who cannot distinguish between certain colours but can see well
are called 'colour blind'.
The defect of eye due to which a person cannot distinguish between certain
colours is called 'colour blindness' .
Driving license for vehicles is not
Cataract issued to colour blind persons.
Usually, colour blind persons cannot
The cn;stalline lens of some people in old age becomes hazy or even opaque
distinguish between red and green
due to development of membrane over it. This defect is called 'cataract' colours.
which leads to decrease or loss of vision of the eye. Cataract can be removed
by performing surgen; to restore clear vision.
3. Defects of vision and their correction
Myopia (Near sightedness)
A person suffering from this defect cannot see distant objects clearly. This
is because the maximum focallengfh is less than distance between the lens
and the retina. The parallel rays coming from the distant object focus short
of the retina [see fig. 4(a)]. The cilian; muscles are fully relaxed in this case
and any strain in it can only further decrease the focal length which is of no
help to see distant objects.
Reason (a) A myopic eye

This defect arises because the power of eye lens is too Breat, due to the
decrease in focal length of the eye lens. This may arise due to either
excessive curvature of the cornea or elongation of the eye ball.
Hypermetropia (Far-sighted ness )
A person suffering from Hyp~rmetropia cannot see clearly the objects closer
to the eye. The least distance of distinct vision is quite larger than 25 cm
for that person and the person has to keep the object inconveniently away (b) A hypermetropic eye
from the eye. Thus, the image is not formed at the retina if an object is Fig.4 Defects of eyes
kept at about 25 cm away from the eye. The rays are focused behind the
retina [see fig. 4(b)].
Reason
This defect arises because either .the focal length of the eye lens is too
great or eye ball becomes too short. Due to this, light rays from nearby
objects cannot be brought to focus on the retina to give a clear image.

ICHECK YOUR ANSWERS . '

1. The eye is viewing at a distant object in case (b) because in this case the eye
lens is thin.
The retina ofa chick has mostly cones
The focal length of the eye lens is less in case (a) because the lens is more and only a few rods. As the cones
.rounded (or curved). are sensitive to bright light only, the
chicks wake up with sunrise (dawn)
For a normal eye, the image is always formed at the retina whether it is and sleep by the sunset (dusk).
viewing a closer or distant object. Thus, in both the cases, image is formed
at the retina. ·
In case (b), cilian; muscles are relaxed when the eye lens is thin and eye is
viewing a distant object.
59
CBSE: Class X
ALLI_

What type of corrective lens would you suggest for the following eye defects
and why?
(a) Myopia (b) Hypermetropia
Explanation
(a) In myopia, a person cannot see the distant object clearly i.e., the far
(a)
point of a myopic eye is located at some finite distance from the eye.
Far point of
Let this distance be 'x'. Now, the parallel beam from distant object
does not form an image on the retina [see fig.5(a)]. Instead, a diverging
beam from the far point forms a clear image onJhe retina [see fig.5(b)].
Thus, if we make the parallel beam from the distant object to become
a diverging beam using an appropriate lens, a clear image of the distant
object can be formed on the retina. We know that a parallel beam can
be made diverging easily by using a diverging lens i.e., a concave lens
(b) (see fig. 6). Thus, for myopia, a concave lens is used as a corrective lens.
Fig.5 Building concepts 5 r·--~

~ To be convert~ ~
~ ~ t· · · }: ~~
---------.

---+ moa : ~ ~
Parallel beam Divergent beam L_:'-'
Can be possible
using a concave lens .
Fig.6 Corrective lens for myopia
: ::::.-=- (b) In hypermetropia, a person cannot see the closer object clearly, the
near point of a hypermetropic eye is located at a distance greater than
25 cm from the eye. Let this distance be 'y'. Now, the divergent beam
from a point 25 cm away from the eye does not form an image on the
(a) retina [see fig. 7(a)]. Instead, a diverging beam from the near point located
at a distance greater than 25 cm forms a clear image on the retina
[see fig.7(b)]. Thus, from fig. 7, we can see that if we make the more
divergent beam from the object placed at 25 cm to become a less
divergent beam as in fig.7(b) using an appropriate lens, a clear image
of the nearby object can be formed on the retina. A more divergent
beam can be made less divergent easily by using a converging lens i.e. ,
a convex lens (see fig. 8). This is simply like making a more positive
number to become less positive by adding a negative number to it.
(b)
Thus, for hypermetropia, a convex lens is used as a corrective lens.
Fig.7 Building concepts 5 ,\

~
Tobeconver~ed l\
~ ~-:::::= i i :;
't
~a V 5
"0
U
More angle, more Less angle , less Can be possible Q)

>-
divergent beam divergent beam using a convex lens 06

~
Fig .8 Corrective lens for hypermetropia c:

~----------------------------------------------------------~ ~
Calculations for corrective lens for myopia ~
As discussed above , myopia is corrected by using a concave lens (diverging §
lens) which increases the focal length in order to bring the image of the
object back on the retina itself. §
Let a person can see clearly to a distance 'x' only (see fig. 9). If we apply :o~
x lens equation to the lens, then we have u = - 00 and v = -x. ::
Fig.9 Correction f~r a myopic eye .E
1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
By lens formula, - - - = - or o
v u f -x - 00 f /'

or f= - x ~

Ir ~ T~ - ~I
~
~
cO
And , power is given by,
!
('x' is always taken + ve, 'x' and If' are in metres) i
60
 ALLIM ______________________________~------------P-hy-s--;cs
Calculations for corrective lens for hypennetropia
Hypermetropia can be corrected by using a convex lens (converging lens)
which decreases the focal length in order to focus the image of a nearby
object at the retina. Thus, a person can see the object clearly. Let 'y' be
the minimum distance at which the person can see the object clearly.
e.::-----
I --_
Let the near point of a person having hypermetropia be at y distance I
I
(see fig. 10) from the eye (y> 25 cm). If we apply lens equation to the lens, I
I
then we have u = - 0.25 m and v = - y. I I 25 cm
14
1 1 1 y
-----
-y - 0.25 f Fig.l0 Correction for
a hypermetropic eye
or 1+ ~ ok- ~I
1 1 1 1
Also, power, P = - = -- - - = 4 --
f 0.25 y y
('y' is always taken + ve, 'y' and 'f' are in metres)
Presbyopia
Rather than resulting from a change in the shape of the eyeball, the inability
to see objects that are close to you can also occur because the lens loses its
flexibility. This condition is known as presbyopia. As you age, the lens
often loses its flexibility and cannot become round enough to create clear
images of near objects.
Presbyopia can occur in conjunction
The defect that arises due to ageing in which a person cannot read with myopia or hypermetropia. If one
comfortably and distinctly without corrective eye glasses is called already wears glasses to correct
for myopia, as presbyopia occurs,
'presbyopia' .
the bifocal lenses can be used to
Reason accommodate both conditions.

The power of accommodation of the eye decreases with ageing. For most
"

of the people, the near point recedes, this means, the least distance of
distinct vision increases. This phenomenon arises due to the gradual
weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing flexibility of the crystalline eye
Ii')

q. lens.
;,
-c

~
Due to ageing, usually a person can see the distant objects clearly. This is
~
""5
't
. because, the rays from a distant object are less diverging as compared to
a
(5
u the rays from a near object. Thus, the lens can still focus rays from distant
.,
-c
>-
o/l
objects on the retina. To cause the more sharply diverging rays from a
! near object to be focussed on the retina, the lens has to become quite
0::
C

15 round to shorten its focal length. Since the lens has lost its flexibility
.,
J:
-c
'T (or elasticity), it cannot become quite round to focus the light rays from the
Sometimes, a person may suffer from
~
•11
near object. Thus, he/she cannot see the near object clearly. both myopia and hypermetropia .

~
Such people often use bifocal lens.
Correction
Commonly, the upper portion of
~ Presbyopia is literally an "old-age vision" and it is due to a reduction in bifocal lens is a concave lens (used
.~
0 for distant vision) and the lower
-g accommodation ability. The cornea and lens together,are not able to bring
; nearby objects into focus on the retina. The symptoms are the same as
portion is a convex lens (used for
-=
0 reading purpose).
~
;:!
with hypermetropia or farsightedness, and the condition can be corrected
al
.r,
with converging lens i.e., convex lens.
~ r:ir These days, it is possible to correct the defects of vision by using' contact
~g lenses'.
61

D
_CB_S_E~:_C_la_ss__X__
. ---r;;;;;;~~~.----------------ALLIM
':"'M34t1fJ' ABILITY"
1. The far point of a myopic person is SO cm in front of the eye. What is the
focal length and power of the lens required to enable him to. see very
distant objects clearly?
Solution
Here, x = SO cm = O.S m.
Focal length, f = - x = - O.S m (A concave lens).
Refracting edge
Power, P = T= -~.S = -1.25 dioptres.
Angle of Refracting 2. The near point of a hypermetropic person is 75 cm from the eye. What is
prism face the focal length and power of the lens required to enable the person to
read clearly a book held at 25 cm from the eye?
Solution
Here, y = 75 cm = 0.75 m

l _ = 100 _100 = 4_i =~

! =_l__ ! =_l___
f 0.25 y 0.25 (0.75) 25 75 3 3
or f=+(3/S)=+O.375m

I S
Fig .11 A triangular prism Power, P =f ="3 = + 2.67 dioptres.

4. Refraction of light through a prism

Prism (triangular prism)
In a triangular prism, there are two triangular base and three rectangular
lateral surfaces (refracting faces) [see fig. II]. These surfaces are inclined
to each other at some angle. The angle between its two lateral surfaces is
known as the angle of the prism.
Let the incident ray be PQ, QR be the refracted ray and RS be the emergent
ray (see fig.12). The ray PQ enters from air to glass at the first refracting
surface AB. The light ray after refraction, bends towards the normal
Angle
of prism (refracted ray QR). At the second surface AC, the ray QR enters from glass
to air and bends away from the normal after refraction. The emergent ray '0

Angle of '8.
RS is not parallel to the incident ray PQ due to the peculiar shape of prism. ~
Incident deviation >-1
-0

ray The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray is called ~
Emergent :; .
'angle of deviation (0)' . 't
ray is
-0
5. Dispersion of white light by a prism U
Q)
..r::.
>-

p
If a beam of white light is made to fall on one face of a prism, the light i
emerging out from the other face of prism consists of seven colours namely §:5
s
Violet (V), Indigo (I), Blue (B), Green (G), Yellow (Y), Orange (0) and Red ~
t-;-
(R). The deviation suffered by the red light is minimum and for the violet §
light, it is maximum (see fig. 13). .11

Fig.12 Refraction of
The phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colours is ~
. light through a prism
called 'dispersion of light' . ~. ~
o·
-g
Reason
~
The wavelengths of different colours of light are different and the refractive -£S?
index of glass is different for different wavelengths. Higher the wavelength, ---~
~
lower will be the refractive index and thus, lower will be the deviation and %
vice-versa. Thus, deviation of red light is low as its wavelength is large. §
Similarly, deviation of violet light is high as its wavelength is small. ~
g
62
ALLI. ______________________________~------------Ph-y-s--ics

White w_~'f--~ . Red

light . Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue The beautiful, sparkling colours
produced by ice crystals on a small
Indigo branch of a tree in winter, the vibrant
'. Violet colours of a rainbow, and the brilliant
Hashes of colour you see when light
passes through diamonds, all these
are examples of the phenomenon
Fig.13 Dispersion of white light through a prism known as 'dispersion'.

When a beam of white light enters a glass prism, which has nonparallel
Violet ·
sides, the rainbow of colours exiting the prism is a testimonial to the
light Red
dispersion occurring in the glass. Suppose a beam of white light enters a light
rectangular slab of material with parallel sides. When the beam exits the
other side, travelling in the same direction as the original beam, is there
any evidence of dispersion?
Explanation
Due to dispersion, light at the red end of the spectrum exhibits a larger
angle of refraction on entering the glass slab as compared to the light at
the violet end (see fig. 14) . All colours of light return to their original direction
of propagation as they refract out back into the air. As a result, the outgoing
beam is white. But the net shift in the position of the violet light along the
edge of the glass slab is larger than the shift of the red light, so one edge
of the outgoing beam has a bluish tinge (border) to it, whereas the other
edge has a reddish tinge. The coloured edges of the outgoing beam of
white light are evidence of dispersion.
Initially, it was a matter of debate, whether the prism itself creates colours
in some way or it only separates the colours already present in white light.
Reddish
Sir Isaac Newton settled the issue by performing a simple experiment. He tinge
put another similar prism, but in an inverted position, and let the emergent,
Fig. 14 Building concepts 6
separated beam fall on the second prism. The resulting emergent beam
was found to be white light (see fig. IS). The first prism separated the
white light into its component colours, which were recombined by the inverted
prism to give white light. Thus, white light itself consists of colours which
can be separated by the prism.

Although the phenomenon of

dispersion has been observed for
thousands of years, it was Sir Isaac
Newton who, in 1666, initiated the
first systematic study of dispersion.

Fig. 15 Newton's classic experiment on dispersion of white light

63
_C_BS_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ______~____________________________ ALL.M
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTSIfl
1. In the fig. 16, a white light is incident on a triangular prism. Name the
colour which is at third position from the top on the screen.
2. If a ray of light falls on a rectangular glass slab, why do we not see the
dispersion of light?
3. Suppose all colours of light are travelling in glass. Which colour has maximum
speed in glass? Which colour has minimum speed in glass?
6. The Rainbow
The rainbow is the nature's most spectacular display of the spectrum of
white' light. The required conditions for the appearance of the phenomenon
Fig.16 Check your concepts 2 (1) are that Sun be shining in one part of the sky and the rain be falling in
opposite part of sky. The observer's back is towards the Sun.
The common bright rainbow known as the 'primary rainbow' is a colour
band, having red on the outside and violet on the inner side, seen as circular
arcs. Primary rainbow is formed due to two refractions and one internal
reflection (partial) of light falling on raindrops.
(1) A ray of sunlight enters a single raindrop at a point A (see fig. 17) near
the top and first refraction of light takes place along. with dispersion
(splitting) of light into its spectrum colours, violet being deviated most
and red the least.
(2) Arriving at the opposite side of drop, each colour is internally reflected
into the liquid. Reaching the surface at lower boundary, each colour is
again refracted into the air. The second refraction increases (widens)
the dispersion already produced at the first.
(3) It is found that the violet ray emerges at an angle of 40° relative to
incoming sunlight and red light emerges at an angle of 42°. For other
colours, angles lie in between these two values.
Fig.17 Rainbow : The sun rays Formation of the rainbow
incident ona water drop get refracted The large number of raindrops in sky especially just after rain makes a
twice and reflected internally by a prominent rainbow. The red light from topmost drop 1 (see fig. 18) and
drop.
violet light from lowermost drop 2 reaches the observer's eye. The violet
. light from drop 1 and red light from drop 2 are directed at a level above
and below the observer's eye respectively. Thus, the observer sees a rainbow .,.,
with red colour on the top and violet on the bottom. An intermediate drop ]-
3 is also shown from which blue light reaches the observer's eye. In this ;1
}
way, we can see all the seven colours of rainbow in a hollow circular arc "3

which is making an angle of 40° and 42° at our eye. l

u
Il
....
~

White light
White light

Sometimes, a fainter 'secondary

rainbow' with colours reversed is also
seen along with primary rainbow. At
very high altitudes from an
aeroplane, the rainbow can be seen
as complete circles. .... ::';'"

'.',.::' . ,~/.O
.
. ~ .~

Fig.18 Formation of a rainbow

64
ALLIM ____------------------------__~------------P~hy~s--ics
7. Atmospheric refraction
The refraction of light caused by the earth's atmosphere due to variable
refractive index of air at different zones is called' atmospheric refraction' .
Twi n kli ng of stars
Twinkling of stars can be seen on a clear night. This is due to atmospheric Apparent
refraction of light coming from the stars (star light). As the star light enters position of star

*
into the earth's atmosphere, atmospheric refraction takes place due to
gradually changing refractive index of the air. Since the physical conditions Star
,
of the refracting medium (earth's atmosphere) are not stationary, star light ,
flux (luminous flux) entering the eye of an obsetver continuously fluctuates. ,
This means luminous energy reaching our eyes per second from the star
increases and decreases with time. Thus, the star sometimes appears brighter ,
and at some other times fainter, causing the 'twinkling of stars' .
Star appears slightly higher than its actual position
As the star light enters the earth's atmosphere, it undergoes refraction
continuously before it reaches the earth's surface. This refraction occurs
due to the gradually changing refractive index of air. As the star light enters
from rarer medium to comparatively denser medium, it bends more and
more towards the normal as it is reaching the earth's surface (see fig. 19).
Thus, apparent position of star is slightly higher than its actual position
when it is viewed from the earth's surface. Also, this apparent position is .... ~
not stationary but it changes with time because of variable physical conditions '
of the refracting medium (earth's atmosphere). Fig.19 Apparent star position
due to atmospheric refraction
BUILDING *' ~,' 7
Why do planets not twinkle?
Explanation
The apparent size of stars is very small as compared to apparent size of
planets. Thus, the star may be considered as a 'point sized' source of light
and the planet as an 'extended source' of light. So,the planet can be
considered as a collection of large number of 'point sized' sources of light,
such that the dimming effect of some 'point sources' is nullified by the Apparent
brighter effect of the other 'point sources'. The variable atmospheric position of sun ~.!."~
conditions are unable to create variations in light flux from planet entering ----~-- _ - -- -- ~ - -~~"r~
Horizon I
our eye and thus, planets do not twinkle.

Delayed sunset and advanced (early) sunrise

The sun is visible before actual sunrise and after actual sunset because of
atmospheric refraction. Actual sunrise means the 'sunrise on actual crossing
of the horizon by the sun'. The refractive index of air with respect to free
space or vacuum is 1.00029 (-1.0003). Due to this, sunlight bends towards Earth's atmosphere

the surface of Earth because of refraction. Thus, the sun appears to be Fig.20 Effect of atmospheric
refraction at the sunrise or sunset
raised above the horizon when it is slightly below the horizon (see fig.20).
The apparent shift in the direction of sun is about 1/20 and corresponding
time difference between actual and apparent sunrise (or sunset) is about
2 minutes. Thus , sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before
. actual.sunrise
and about 2 minutes after actual sunset.
65
_CB_S_E_:_C_~_s_s_X ______~____________________________ ALLIM
8. Scattering of light
The process in which the light rays are deflected by the particles of the
medium through which they pass is called scattering of light.
Tyndall effect
When rays of light fall on the fine particles of a colloidal solution, the path
of the beam is visible due to the scattering of light by the colloidal particles.
This phenomenon is called 'Tyndall effect'.
cJF The scattering of light as it passes through a medium containing small
particles is called 'Tyndall effect' .
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering
particles. Very fine particles scatter shorter wavelengths (colours at violet
Tyndall effect is observed when aRne
beam of sunlight enters a room end) by greater amount as compared to the light having longer wavelengths
through a small hole and the light (colours at red end). If the size of particles is quite large, then, the scattered
get scattered from the smoke or dust light is almost white.
particles present in the room; when
sunlight passes through a canopy of
a dense forest, tiny water droplets
present in the air scatter the light.
1. Place a strong source (S) of white light at the focus of a converging lens (LJ
This lens provides a parallel beam of light. Allow the light beam to pass
through a transparent glass tank (T) containing clear water. Allow the beam
of light to pass through a circular hole (C) made in a cardboard. Obtain a .
sharp image of the circular hole on a screen (M) using a second converging
lens (L2), as shown in fig.21. Dissolve about 200 g of sodium thiosulphate
(hypo) in about 2 L of clean water taken in the tank. Add about 1 to 2 mL
of concentrated sulphuric acid to the water.
M

:;
't
a
The 'danger' signals are made of red T ~
u
colour because red colour is scattered :"
..<:;

Fig.21 Active physics 4

least by the air particles, smokp or
fog due to its longer wav"',~ngth . 2. You will find fine microscopic sulphur particles precipitating in about 2 to 3 ~o
Hence, red colour can be seen in the minutes. As the sulphur particles begin to form, you can observe the blue ~
same shade even at the large
light from the three sides of the glass tank. This is due to scattering of short ~
distance. ~
wavelengths by minute colloidal sulphur particles. 9bserve the colour of .~

the transmitted light from the fourth side of the glass tank facing the circular l
ho!s. It is interesting to observe, at first, the orange red colour and then ~
.~
blight crirr"'?n red colour on the screen. -g

3. This activity demonstrates the scattering of light that helps you to understand ~
~
/
the bluish colour of the sky and the reddish appearance of the Sun at the ~
;:!
sunrise or the sunset. We conclude that very fine particles scatter mainly ¥
shorter wavelength light (blue light) and longer wavelength light (red light)
.
i
~
gets transmitted. 1
66
 ALL._========~~~~~~~~~~~~
BUILDING t· x'J'~" 8
__________ · P_hy~s_;c_s

Why sky appears blue?

Explanation
The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size
quite smaller as compared to the wavelength of the visible light. These
particles scatter the light having shorter wavelengths at the violet or blue
end more than the light having longer wavelengths at the red end. Thus, Sun appears white
when the sunlight passes thr,o ugh the earth's atmosphere, the fine particles "I.;
-:@~
present in air scatter the blue colour more strongly in comparison to the ;'1"

red colour. The scattered blue light falls on our eyes. Thus, the sky appears
blue.
Sun appears red
Colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset ,,1,/
..:@~--+-~~
At the sunrise or sunset, the sun is near the horizon. Ught reaching the eye ;'1"

of an observer travels a larger distance through the atmosphere. Thus,

most of the blue light and shorter wavelength rays are scattered away by
Fig.22 Sun appears reddish at
the air particles. Hence, the light that reaches the eye of an observer is of morning and evening, it appears
white at noon.
longer wavelengths (of red end). Thus, the sun appears reddish atsunrise
or sunset (see fig. 22).
Sun looks white at noon
At the noon, the light has to travel a comparatively shorter distance through
the atmosphere before reaching the eye of an observer. Thus, only a very
little amount of blue or violet light is scattered away. Hence, the sun at
noon looks almost white (see fig. 22).
"

Clouds are generally white

The clouds are generally white because the larger particles like dust and Rectangular
water drops scatter light of all colours, almost equally and all the colours glass slab
i
..c reach our eyes equally and combine to form white light.
;,
~

~ ICHECK YOUR ANSWERS

8
"1 Dispersed narrow,
7allelbeam
(5

~ 1. Since the prism as shown in fig .16 is inverted thus, ' the colour violet is at
....
!"" the top while colour red is at the bottom. So in seven colours starting from
top (V I B G Y 0 R), the colour blue is on third position from the top.
If a ray of light falls on a rectangular glass slab, the dispersion of light takes
place but the emergent beam is a very narrow and parallel beam Eye
Fig.23 Check your answers 2 (2)
(see fig.23). Thus, when this narrow beam enters in our eye, it converges
at a single point and we see white light instead of separated colours.
We know that in any transparent medium, speed of light is given by,
c 1
V=- i.e., VOC-.
n n
Since, refractive index for red colour is least among the seven colours of
light, speed of red colour light is maximum in glass. Refractive index of
violet colour is maximum, thus its speed is minimum in glass.
67
h
 ______________________________~____ ALLI_
~C~BS~E~:~C~/a~s~s_X

----------------------------------------------~----------~
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't

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CI) •
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-----------------------------------------------------------~

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1
68
 ALLIM ____________________________________________P.hy_s__
ics
NCERT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
~ 1. What is meant by power of accommodation of the 7. The least distance of distinct vision for a young adult
eye? with normal vision is about
ADS. The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length (a) 25 m
is called power of accommodation. (b) 2.5 cm
2. A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects (c) 25 cm
beyond 1.2 m distinctly. What should be the type (d) 2.5 m
of the corrective lel)s used to restore proper Ans. Option (c) is correct.
vision? The least distance of distinct vision is the minimum
Ans. To correct this defect of vision, he must use a distance of an object to see clear image. It is
concave lens. 25 cm for a young adult with a normal vision.
3. What is the far point and near point of the human 8. The change in focal length of an eye lens is caused
eye with normal vision? by the action of the
Ans. The far point of a human eye with normal vision (a) pupil
is at infinity while the near point is at 25 cm from (b) retina
the eye. (c) ciliary muscles
4. A student has difficulty reading the blackboard while (d) iris
sitting in the last row. What could be the defect Ans. Option (c) is correct.
the student is suffering from? How can it be By relaxation or contraction of ciliary muscles, the
corrected? curvature of the eye lens changes which eventually
ADS. The student is suffering from eye defect 'myopia'. changes the focal length of eye lens.
This defect can be corrected by using concave lens. 9. A person needs a lens of power -5.5 dioptres for
5~ The human eye can focus objects at different correcting his distant vision. For correcting his near
distances by adjusting the fo~allength of the eye vision he needs a lens of power + 1.5 dioptre. What
lens. This is due to is the focal length of the lens required for correcting
(a) presbyopia. (i) distant vision, and
(b) accommodation. (ii) near vision?
II')

~ (c) near-sightedness.
Jl
-0
ADS. (i) Focal length f is given by,
1
~
(d) far-sightedness .
~
5 Ans. Option (b) is correct. Human eye can change the f =!p
"0
u
!. focal length of the eye lens to see the objects situated
oil
or f=_I_
~ at various distances from the eye. This ability of - 5.5
i
J:
eye is called accommodation. = - 0.1818 m
J.M 6. The human eye forms the image of an object at
9 = - 18.18 em
b its
.~

~ (a) cornea (ii) Focal length f is given by,

.4

~ (b) iris
.~ 1
~ f =-
§ (c) pupil p
~
~ (d) retina 1
~
or f = - -
e ADS. Option (d) is correct. The human eye is like a +1.5
~
= + 0.6667 m
i
II')
camera. Its lens system forms an image on a light-
~ sensitive screen called the retina. = + 66.67 em
1
69

•
CBSE: Class X
__----------------------~------------------ALLI.
10. The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front
of the eye. What is the nature and power of the
14. Why do stars twinkle?
Ans. Twinkling of stars can be seen on a clear night.
lens required to correct the problem?
This is due to atmospheric refraction of light coming
Ans. For myopia, focal length is given by,
from the stars (star light). As the star light enters
f = - x = - 80 cm = - 0.8 m
into the earth's atmosphere, atmospheric refraction
Power P =.!. =_1_ takes place due to gradually changing refractive
, f - 0.8
index of the air. Since the physical conditions of
= - 1.25 dioptres.
the refracting medium (earth's atmosphere) are not
The lens is a concave lens.
stationary, star light flux (luminous flux) entering
11. Make a diagram to show how hypermetropia is
corrected. The near point of a hypermetropic eye the eye of an observer continuously fluctuates. This
is 1 m. What is the power of the lens required to means luminous energy entering the eyes per
correct this defect? Assume that the near point of second from the star increases and decreases with
the normal eye is 25 cm. time. Thus, the star sometimes appear brighter and
Ans. Here, y = 1 m at some other time fainter, causing the 'twinkling
1 1 1 1 1 of stars'.
f 0.25 Y 0.25 1 15. Explain why the planets do not twinkle.
Ans. The apparent size of stars is very small as compared
= 100 _ 1 = 4 - 1 = +3
25 to apparent size of planets. Thus, the star may be
or f = + (1/3) = + 0.3333 m = + 33.33 em considered as a 'point sized' source of light and
the planet as an 'extended source' of light. So, the
Power, P = ~ = + 3 dioptres. planet can be considered as a collection of large
number of 'point sized' sources of light, such that
the dimming effect of some 'point sources' is nullified
t="':':: - by the brighter effect of the other 'point sources'.
I I
I I The variable atmospheric conditions are unable to
I I
I ~I"_..l..--+
create variations in light flux from the planet
I I 25 em
l'ill • entering our eye and thus, planets do not twinkle.
I Y
12. Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the 16. Why does the Sun appear reddish early in the
objects placed closer than 25 cm? morning? ~
Ans. A normal eye is unable to clearly see the objects Ans. In the morning, the sun is near the horizon. Light
;~
~
placed closer than 25 cm because the ciliary muscles reaching the eye of an observer travels a larger ~
5
o
of eyes are unable to contract beyond a certain distance in the atmosphere. Thus, most of the blue ~
limit. If the object is placed at a distance less than
light and shorter wavelength rays are scattered away 06

25 cm from the eye, then the object appears blurred l-

and . produces strain in the eyes.
by the air particles. Hence, the light that reaches i
I
the eye of an observer is of longer wavelengths (of ~
13. What happens to the image distance in the eye ~
red end). Thus, the sun appears reddish at sunrise 9
when we increase the distance· of an object from ~

the eye? or sunset.

~
Ans. The size of eye cannot be increased or decreased. 17. Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to ~
Therefore, the image distance remains constant. an astronaut? 1
When we increase the distance of an object from Ans. The sky appears dark instead of blue to an astronaut ~
the eye, the image distance in the eye does not "8
because there is no atmosphere in the outer space ./

~
change. The increase in the object distance is ~
compensated by the change (increase) in the focal that can scatter the sunlight. As the sunlight is not
:
length of the eye lens such that the image is formed scattered, no scattered light reaches the eyes of §
~
at the retina of the eye. the astronauts and the sky appears black to them. 1
70
 ALLI. __________________________________________ ~P~h~~~ic~s

SOLVE: -EXAMPLES
-,' 1. The near point of a patient's eye is 50.0 cm. (b) Find the power of the ,lens, in diopters. Neglect
(a) What focal length must a corrective lens have to the distance between the eye and the corrective
enable the eye to see clearly an object 25.0 cm lens.
away? Neglect the eye-lens distance. (b) What is Sol. Here, u = -00 ; v = - 25 cm ; f =?
the power of this lens?
Ans. Here, u = - 25 cm ; v = - 50 cm ; f =? (a) By lens equation, ~- ~=!
, v u f
(a) By lens equation, ~- ! = ! 111 -1
v' u ,f
or f = -(--25-) - -(-00-) 25
1 1 1 1 -1 1
or f = (-50) - (-25) or f = 50 + 25 or f = -25 em = - 0.25 m
1 -1+2 1
or f = ---so
= 50 Aliter:
Here, x = 25 cm
or f = + 50 em = + 0.5 m
Aliter: f = - x = -25 em = - 0.25 m
Here, y = 50 cm = 0.5 m l' 1
(b) Power, P = -f or P =- - = - 4 Dioptre
11111 1 -0.25
f = 0.25 - Y or 7 = 0.25 - 0.5 4. A retired bank officer can easily read the fine print
1 100 10 of the financial page when the newspaper is held
or -=---=4-2= +2
f 25 5 no closer than arm's length, 60.0 cm from the eye.
or f = + (1/2) = + 0.5 m What should be the focal length of an eyeglass lens
1 that will allow her to read at the more comfortable
(b) Power, P =f
distance of 24.0 cm? What is the power of this
or P =_1_ = + 2 Dioptre lens?
+0.5
2. Suppose a lens is placed in a device that determines Sol. Here, v = - 60 cm ; u = - 24 cm ; f =?
its power as + 2.75 diopters. Find (a) the focal length · 1 1 1
By Iensequatlon, - - - =-
v u f
..
• .#fa
of the lens'and (b) the minimum distance at which a
patient will be able to focus on an object if the
patient's near point is 60.0 cm. Neglect the
eye-lens distance.
Sol. Here, P = + 2.75 dioptre ; f =? 1 -2+ 5 3 1
~Q. 1 1 or - = - - = - = -
(a) f = - = = + 0.364 m = + 36.4 em f 120 120 40
Ji
-c P + 2.75
1 or f = + 40 em = + 0.4 m
(b) Here, v = - 60 cm ; u =?
~
i!
~
, , 1 i 1 1 1
By lens equation, - - - = - Power, P = -f or P = -0-
~ ,v u f + .4
0/1

.£. = +2.5 Dioptre

1 1 1 1 -1 1
g 5. A boy uses spectacles of focal length -60 cm. Name
:f or (-60) -~ ~ = 60 - 36.4
= +36.4 or
JM the defect of vision he is suffering from. Which lens
9
1 -1 1 -36.4 - 60 -96.4 is used for the correction of this defect?
.~
~
or - = - - - - Compute the power of this lens.
u 60 36.4 2184 2184
~
Sol. Given, f = -60 cm = -:0.60 m
i
j 2184 The negative sign of focal length indicates that the
-8 or u = -96.4 = - 22.6 em
5
.E
lens is concave.
~ 3. A particular nearsighted patient can't see objects
Thus the boy suffers from myopia (short sightedness)
~ , vision.
el clearly when they are beyond 25 cm (the far point
~
of the eye). (a) What focal length should the 1 1
S Power of the lens = f = (-0.60) = -1.67 D
~
prescribed contact lens have to correct this problem?

71
3
_CB_S_E_:_C_~_s_s_X____________~_______________________ A&L._
EXERCISE # 1
Multiple choice questions (2) A person with hypermetropia can see nearby
1. When light rays enter the eye, most of the refraction objects clearly
occurs at the (3) A person with myopia can see nearby objects
(1) crystalline lens clearly
(2) outer surface of the cornea (4) A person with hypermetropia cannot see distant
(3) iris objects clearly
(4) pupil 9. The inability among the elders to see nearby objects
2. The focal length of the eye lens increases when eye clearly because of the weakening of the ciliary
muscles muscles is called
(1) are relaxed and lens becomes thinner (1) far-sightedness (2) near-sighted ness
(2) contract and lens becomes thicker (3) presbyopia (4) astigmatism
(3) are relaxed and lens becomes thicker
10. Which of the follOWing statements is correct
regarding the propagation of light of different
(4) contract and lens becomes thinner
colours of white light in air?
3. The colour of the eyes such as blue, green, brown
(1) red light moves fastest
etc, is actually the colour of which part of the eye?
(2) blue light moves faster than green light
(1) Pupil (2) Cornea
(3) all the colours of the white light move with the
(3) Lens (4) Iris
same speed
4. Which of the following is not an advantage of having (4) yellow light moves with the mean speed as that
two eyes? of the red and the violet light
(1) Ability to get a wider field of view than that
11. A prism ABC (with BC as base) is placed in different
~r()T..ided by a single eye.
orientations. A narrow beam of white light is incident
(2) Ability to detect faint object than it is possible
on the prism as shown in Fig. In which of the
with one eye. follOWing cases, after dispersion, the third colour
(3) Ability to focus on two different objects at the
from the top corresponds to the colour of the sky?
same time in two different directions.
(4) Ability to experience three dimensional effect A -r------""7B
of the world.
5. Which types of cells on retina respond to colours?
(1) Rod-shaped (2) Box-shaped
(3) Ball-shaped (4) Cone-shaped
6. A person cannot see distinctly objects kept beyond ~----- .. c A
(i) (ii)
2 m. This defect can be corrected by using a lens of
c c
power
(1) + 0.5 D (2) - 0.5 D
(3) + 0.2 D (4) - 0.2 D A
7. A student sitting ')n the last bench can read the ~
:f
letters written on the blackboard but is not able to
read the letters written in his text book. Which of ~
9
(iii) B B (iv) .~
the following statements is correct? s:.
(1) The near point of his eyes has receded away (1) (i) (2) (ii) (3) (iii) (4) (iv) ~

(2) The near point of his eyes has come closer to 12. Which of the follOwing phenomena of light are
i
1
him involved in the formation of a rainbow? -8
~
(3) The far point of his eyes has come closer to him (1) reflection, refraction and scattering ~

~¥
(4) The far point of his eyes has receded away (2) refraction, dispersion and total internal reflection
8. Which of the following statements is correct? (3) refraction, dispersion and scattering
(1) A person with myopia can see distant objects ~
(4) dispersion, scattering and total internal reflection
clearly 1
72
 Physics
ALLI.
13. Twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric True or false
(1) dispersion of light by water droplets 1. The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape
(2) refraction of light by different layers of varying with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
.,
.
refractive indices 2. Eye lens forms an image on a light-sensitive screen
(3) scattering of light by dust particles called the cornea.
(4) internal reflection of light by clouds 3~ Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the
14. The clear sky appears blue because size of the pupil.
(1) blue light gets absorbed in the atmosphere 4. The eye lens forms an upright image of the object
(2) ultraviolet radiations are absorbed in the atmosphere on the retina.
(3) violet and blue lights get scattered more than lights 5. For a young adult with normal vision, the near point
of all other colours by the atmosphere is about 25 cm.
(4) light of all other colours is scattered more than 6. A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly
but cannot see distant objects distinctly.
the violet and,blue colour lights by the atmosphere
15. The bluish colour of water in sea is due to 7. A triangular glass prism has three triangular bases
and two rectangular lateral surfaces.
(1) the presence of algae and other plants found in
water 8. The splitting of light into its component colours is
called dispersion.
(2) scattering of light
(3) reflection of sky in water
9. A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite
to that of the Sun.
(4) absorption of light by the sea
16. Which of the following phenomena contributes 10. The star appears slightly lower (below) than its actual
position when viewed near the horizon.
significantly to the reddish appearance of the sun
at sunrise or sunset? Match the column
(1) Dispersion of light 1. Column-I Column-II
(2) Scattering of light (1) Delicate membrane (a) Cornea
(3) Total internal reflection of light having enomlOUS
(4) Reflection of light from the earth number of light
17. At noon, the sun appears white as sensitive cells
(1) light is least scattered (2) Light enters the (b) Iris
(2) all the colours of the white right are scattered away eye through a
(3) blue colour is scattered the most thin membrane
(4) red colour is scattered the most (3) Dark muscular (c) Retina
18. The danger signals installed at the top of tall diaphragm that
'fl

~ buildings are red in colour. These can be easily seen controls the
.n
~0 from a distance because among all other colours, size of the pupil
~
::2 the red light (4) Does the required (d) Eye lens
B
"0
u (1) is scattered the most by smoke or fog fine adjustment of
!. (2) is scattered the least by smoke or fog
oc5 focal length to focus
~ (3) is absorbed the most by smoke or fog the objects at different
~
:r:
(4) moves fastest in air distances on the retina
~
'" 19. Red colour of the sun at the time of sunrise and
M 2. Column-I Column-D
9
sunset is because (a) Dispersion
b (1) The twinkling
? (1) Red colour is least scattered
(2) Blue colour is least scattered
of a star of light
~.,g (3) Red colour is scattered the most
(2) Formation of (b) Atmospheric
§
0
rainbow refraction
.£ (4) All colours are equally scattered (c) Scattering of
~
(3) Ability of the eye
...- 20. The sky appear dark to an astronaut because light '
ILl
V)
lens to adjust its
y (1) of colour blindness
focal length
; (2) there is no atmosphere in the outer space
(4) Blue colour of (d) Accommodation
~ (3) of dispersion of light
~g sky
(4) of scattering of light
73
7
~C~8S~E~:~C~~~s~S~X~____________~~~~__~~~~~ALL.M
Fill in the blanks 5. Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old
1. The human eye is like a camera. Its lens system forms age becomes milky and cloudy. This condition is
an image on a light-sensitive screen called the ......... . called ................... ....... .
6. A person with the eye defect 'myopia' has the far
2. Most of the refraction of the light rays entering the
point ...................... than infinity. Such a person
eye occurs at the outer surface of the ......... .......... .
may see clearly up to a distance of a few metres.
The crystalline lens merely provides the finer
7. Myopia may arise due to excessive curvature of
adjustment of focal length required to focus objects
the cornea, or ...... .......... .... of the eyeball.
at different distances on the .................... .
8. Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopa and
3. The eye lens forms an ................. and real image
hypennetropia. Such peePe often rEQJire ............ lenses.
of the object on the retina. The retina is a
9. The band of the coloured components of a light
delicate membrane having enormous number of
beam is called its .............. .. ....... .
10. A rainbow is caused by ... ;........ .. .. ... of sunlight by
4. When you are looking at objects closer to the eye, tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A
the ciliary muscles ................. The eye lens then rainbow is always formed in a direction ............. . .
becomes .................... . to that of the Sun.
Crossword
3

~
CL

...,Ji
1
Across Down 1
~
2. Outennost co~ring of eye made of whit~ fibrous tissue. 1. Muscles whiCh control the curvature of flexible eye ~
4. Eye defect in whi~r a person cannot see distant lens. !
objects clearly. ~
3. Ability of eye to change the curvature of eye lens £
so as to see nearby as well as distant objects cIear1y. 5i~
7. Eye defect in elderly people in which eye lens
becomes hazy and opaque causing loss of vision.
5. Lens used to correct hypermetropia. .0
9. Eye defect in which a person cannot see clearly the I,...
objects closer to the eye. 6. Star appears higher than its actual position due to
11. Combination of conca~ and con~x !ensec; 1f a person . .............. refraction. 1i
suffers from both myopia and hypermetropia. 7. Thin, transparent, protective membrane in the front ~
12. liqUid filled between cornea and eye lens is called portion of eye. ~~

13.
............... humour.
Region o~ retina which is insensitive to light.
8. Phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its a
14. Process in which light rays are deflected by the
constituent colours. i
particles of the medium through which they pass.
10. Small hole in iris through which light enters the eye.
~
74
 Physics
~L.'
EXERCISE # 1 ANSWER KEY
Multiple choice questions

True or false

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True 7. False

8. True 9. True 10. False
Match the column
1. (1) ~ c ; (2) ~ a ; (3) ~ b ; (4) ~ d 2. (1) ~ b ; (2) ~ a ; (3) ~ d ; (4) ~ c

Fill In the blanks

1. retina 2. cornea; retina 3. inverted; light-sensitive cells. 4. contract; thicker

5. cataract 6. nearer 7. elongation 8. bifocal
9. spectrum 10. dispersion; opposite
Crossword

75
_C_BS_E_:_C_I_os_s_X_____________________________________ ALLIM
EXE.R CISE # 2
Very short answer type questions Long answer type questions
1. Which parts of eye provide most of the bending of 1. Explain the structure and functioning of a human
light rays? eye. How are we able to see nearby as well as
2. Name the liquid filled between lens and retina in distant objects?
human eye. 2. When do we consider a person to be myopic or
3. Define "power of accommodation." hypermetropic? Explain using diagrams, how the
4. When do we say a person is colour blind? defects associated with myopic and hypermetropic
5. What kind of lens is used in the spectacles of a eye can be corrected?
person suffering from myopia (near sightedness)? .
3. (a) Explain the refraction of light through a
6. The power of lens of a person suffering from an triangular glass prism using a labelled ray
eye defectis + 1. 25 D. Name the eye defect.
diagram. Hence define the angle of deviation.
7. Give one reason for the eye defect "presbyopia"?
(b) Explain the phenomenon of dispersion of white
8. Ust three common defects of vision that can be
light through a glass prism, using suitable ray
corrected with the use of spectacles.
diagram.
9. Make a ray diagram to show refraction of a given
4. How does refraction take place in the atmosphere?
wavelength from a triangular prism.
Why do stars twinkle but not the planets?
10. Why is red colour selected for danger signal lights?
5. How can we explain the reddish appearance of
Short answer type questions
sun at sunrise or sunset? Why does it not appear
1. How are we able to see nearby as well as the distant
red at noon?
objects clearly?
Numerical problems
2. Draw ray diagrams each shOWing (i) myopic eye
and (ii) hypermetropic eye. 1. The near point of an eye is 100 cm. A corrective
3. A student sitting at the back of the classroom cannot lens is to be used to allow this eye to clearly focus
read clearly the letters written on the blackboard. on objects 25.0 cm in front of it. (a) What should be
What advice will a doctor give to her? Draw ray the focal length of the lens? (b) What is the power
diagram for the correction of this defect. of the needed corrective lens?
4. A person needs a lens of power - 4.5 0 for 2. A farSighted person has a near point located
correction of her vision. 210 cm from the eyes. Obtain the focal length of
(a) What kind of defect in vision is she suffering the converging lenses in a pair of contacts that can
from? be used to read a book held 25.0 cm from the
(b) What is the focal length of the corrective lens? eyes. Neglect the distance between the eye and i
(c) What is the nature of the corrective lens? the corrective lens. ~
~
5. Draw a ray diagram showing the dispersion through 3. An individual is nearsighted and his far point is 50.0 :2
a prism when a narrow beam of white light is 8
cm. (a) What lens power is needed to correct his (5
u
incident on one of its refracting sutfaces. Also indicate nearsightedness? (b) At what minimum distance will !.
06
the order of the colours of the spectrum obtained. he be able to focus on an object if his near point is !
c:
6. How will you use two identical prisms so that a 13 cm when the lenses are in use? ~
:c
narrow beam of white light incident on one prism "
4. A nearsighted person has a far point located only ~

emerges out of the second prism as white light? '"

;3
521 cm from the eye. Assuming that eye-glasses' .~
Draw the diagram. >.
are to be worn 2 cm in front of the eye, find the ~
7. Why do we see a rainbow in the sky only after

8.
rainfall?
Is the position of a star, as seen by us, its true poSition?
focal length needed for the diverging lenses of the
glasses so the person can see distant objects. 1
§
0

Justify your answer. 5. The near point of a patient's eye is 50.0 cm. (a) ~
~
9. Why is the colour of the clear sky blue? What focal length must a corrective lens have to ....-
~
10. What is the difference in colours of the Sun observed enable the eye to see clearly an object 25.0 cm ~
~
away if the corrective lens is 2.00 cm in front of the
during sunrise/sunset and at noon? Give explanation ~'"
for each. eye? (b) What is the power of this lens? ~
1
76
ALLI _____________________~--------------------P-hy-s-;c-s
Activity based questions 3. Four students .draw ray diagrams showing the
1. A person is to be fitted with bifocals as shown in dispersion through a glass prism, when a narrow
figure. Which of the following statements is
beam of white light is incident on the glass prism as
'i correct?
shown in figures (1), (2), (3) and (4). Which of the
following is correct ray diagram?

~~~~~==~
y
G
B
I
(1) The upper portion A of the bifocal should be
designed to enable her to see closer objects clearly. (1) (2)
(2) The lower portion B of the bifocal should enable
her to see objects comfortably at 25 cm.
(3) The b\Aer }X)rtion B of the bifocal shoul::l be designed _-\---v
to enable her to see distant objects clearly.
(4) The upper portion A of the bifocal should be
designed to enable her to see objects comfortably
at 25 cm. (3) (4)

2. Four students studied refraction of light through a 4. Four students used two identical prisms ABC (base
glass prism. They traced the ray of light and
BC) and A'B'C' (base B'C') so that a narrow beam of
measured the angle of incidence 'i' and angle of
deviation 8 as shown in figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. Which white light incident on prism ABC emerges out of
one is the correct representation? the prism A'B'C' as white light. They arranged the
prisms as shown in figures (1), (2), (3), (4). Which of
these arrangements is correct?

(1) (2)
LA Lv'
B Cff
(1)
C B
(2)
C N

(3) (4)

(3) (4)

EXERCISE # 2 ANSWER KEY

Numerical problems
1. + 0.33 m ; + 3 D 2. + 28.4 cm 3. (a) - 2.00diopters (b) 17.56 cm
4. f = - 519 cm 5. f = + 44.16 cm ; p = + 2.26 diopters
Activity based questions

77
;C~BS~E~:~C~~~s~sX~~________________~__~_________ ALL.M

Imp~lM1t NOCEW

------------------------~---------------------------------~
Ji
-----------------------------------------------------------1 -b

:2
------------------------------------------------------~---~
~
------~---------------------------------------------------i
~
--------------------------~-------------------------------~

________~____~--------------------------------~9~
1
-----------------------------------------------------------~
. ~
·B
--------------------------------------------~-------------1
::;;
------------------------------~------------------------~~
~
~
------------------------------------------------------~

l
78
Together, we will make a difference.

Sitting : Govind Maheshwari (Director), Rajesh Maheshwari (Director)

Standing: Naveen Maheshwari (Director), Brajesh Maheshwari (Director & H.O.D. Physics)