66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.

4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 1

2.4 Light

Nature of light; speed of light;

Laws of reflection and refraction: reflection at plane

surfaces, reflection by spherical mirrors, refraction, lenses;
Module 2 – Physics Fiber optics.

2.4 Light
Lesson plan:

1. Nature and properties of light;

2. Lens and mirrors;
3. Lens aberration;
4. Fiber optics;
5. Laser applications.
Module 2.4 Light Page 2

Wave model Light colors

 Light is the same as  Wavelength  Additive primary colors
electromagnetic radiation.
 Violet 400 nm  R- red
 The range of wavelengths
that comprise the visible  Red 670 nm  G- green
light makes up a only a
small portion of the entire  B- blue
electromagnetic spectrum.
 Subtractive primary
 There are no sharp colors
divisions between types of
electromagnetic waves  C- cyan - GB
nor are there sharp
boundaries between  M- magenta = BR
different colors of light.
 Y- yellow = RG

Light rays (Ray model) Color filters

 Light is composed of a  The speed of light in  Filters in the color of
stream of particles. vacuum (taken as a ray or additive primaries block all
wave) is a universal other colors of light, so they
 This is consistent with the constant. cannot be used to generate
observation that a beam other colors.
of light from a flashlight  It is 3.0 x 108 m/s.
or a laser seems to travel  Subtractive color filters
in straight lines.  .f = c = speed of light
 Cyan, magenta and yellow
 We call the straight-line  The shorter the wavelength, filters block the passage of
path a ray of light. the higher the frequency. their complementary colors.
 The longer the wavelength,  By using 2 subtractive
the lower the frequency. filters in succession, we can
allow only one primary
color to pass.
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 3

Nature and Properties of Light

Wave properties- Light is realized to be the same as the

electromagnetic radiation. The range of wavelengths that
comprise visible light makes up only a small portion of the entire Wave-particle duality- Light also displays particle-like
electromagnetic spectrum, which spans many orders of characteristics when it interacts with matter, as it does, for
magnitude. There are no sharp dividing lines separating the example, when sunlight falls on a leaf and photo-synthesis takes
various regions; there is just a continuous blending from one place.
region to the next.
The apparent conflict over this wave-particle duality cannot be
When sunlight is spread into a spectrum, we see the character- understood with just the theories of Newton or Maxwell, but is
istic band of visible colors from red to violet. Beyond the violet resolved by the twentieth-century theory of quantum mechanics.
edge of the visible spectrum are frequencies of radiation that
exceed that of the violet. We use the name ultraviolet to
Speed of light- The speed of light in vacuum (taken as a ray or
describe this invisible extension of the spectrum. Beyond the red
wave) is a universal constant. It is 3.0 x 108 m/s. In any other
end of the visible spectrum lie frequencies below those we can
media, the speed of light is less. .f = c = speed of light
see. These wavelengths make up the infrared region of the
spectrum.
Light and color- Newton passed a beam of sunlight through a
prism and spread the light into a spectrum of colors. A second
Although we usually consider light to be a wave phenomenon,
prism turned the opposite way converged the spectrum back into
that is not the only possible view.
a narrow beam of white light. The intensity of sunlight reaching
the earth’ surface peaks bear a wavelengh of 475nm and falls off
sharply in the ultraviolet.
Particle properties- This idea that light is composed of a stream
of particles is consistent with the observation that a beam of light
The primary colors of light (RGB) also called the additive
from a flashlight or a laser seems to travel in straight lines
primaries, can combine to generate a full range of colors. We
except when it encounters an interface between two optical
use the term complementary colors for any pair of colors of light
media.
that can be combined to produce white light. Thus, the color
complementary to red is cyan, the color complementary to blue
We call this straight-light path a ray of light. The ray model
is yellow and the color complementary to green is magenta.
allows us to explain in simplest terms the formation of images
These three colors- cyan, magenta and yellow- are called
by lenses and mirrors.
subtractive primary colors. Color photography relies on the
subtractive method of color production.
Module 2.4 Light Page 4

Law of reflection Scattering of light

Normal No scattered
Incident light along axis
Angle of Angle of light
incidence reflection
Scattered light
1 2

Reflecting surface/mirror Atom (electrons

under forced
oscillation)

The incident and reflected beams make equal

angles with the normal.

Mirror and diffused reflection Scattering: The Blue sky

 The color of the sky is
blue.
 This is because of the
scattering of light by the
Reflecting surface/mirror air molecules.
A)
 The natural frequency of
air molecules lies in the
 The setting sun looks red ultraviolet region.
because the atmosphere
scatters the blue light  Blue light is therefore
from the rays that reach scattered more
B) Diffused reflection from a our eyes. effectively than red light.
rough surface
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 5

Law of Reflection

Suppose we shine a beam of light at a mirror. The incident and

reflected beams make equal angles with the mirror. For example, you may look at a mirror and see an image of
yourself or someone else. What happens when light is reflected
In optics it is an established convention to measure angles with from an object whose surface is not perfectly smooth? In that
respect to the normal, which is a line perpendicular to the case, the light is diffusely reflected, with different parts of the
surface. The angle between the incoming ray and the normal is incident light beam scattered in different directions according to
called the angle of incidence, i. the angle between the outgoing the law of reflection. The light reflected at each little region of
ray and the normal is the angle of reflection, r. Both angles are the surface is reflected at an angle equal to the local angle of
measured positive from the normal. When these angles are incidence. Most objects that we see are made visible by the
measured, the angle of reflection is always found to equal the diffuse reflection of light from their surfaces. The paper in this
angle of incidence. Thus, the observed law of reflection is that book reflects light diffusely so that you can see it from any angle.
the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, or To see a light reflected in a mirror, however, requires that you be
in just the right place so that the specularly reflected light can
r = i reach your eye. Sometimes both diffuse and specular reflection
occur simultaneously from the same surface. For example, when
The normal, the incident ray, and the reflected ray all lie in a sunlight shines on a car, you can see the car from any direction
plane perpendicular to the reflecting surface, known as the plane around it. That is diffused reflection. If the car is highly polished,
of incidence. The light ray does not “turn” out of the plane of you may also see the image of distant objects reflected from its
incidence as it is reflected. surface. That is specular reflection.

The law of reflection applies to both flat and curved surfaces. Scattering of light occurs when light energy is absorbed by an
For a curved surface, the angle of reflection is determined by the atom or molecule, which then re-emits radiation in all directions.
angle of incidence between the incident ray and the surface As a result, the intensity in the initial radiation is reduced. The
normal at the point where the incident ray strikes the surface. blue color of the sky at noon and its reddish color at sunrise can
be explained by the scattering of light by the air molecules. The
natural frequency of air molecules lies in the ultraviolet region.
Specular and diffused reflection- Reflection from a smooth
Therefore, blue light, being closer to the resonant frequency, can
mirrorlike surface is called specular reflection. When you look at cause greater amplitude of forced vibration. Blue light is so
a mirror, you do not usually see the mirror surface itself; you see scattered more effectively by air molecules than red light.
the specularly reflected image of other objects instead.
Module 2.4 Light Page 6

Law of refraction (Snells law) Refraction

Angle of
incidence

Angle of r
refraction
A) Observation

When light travels from a less dense

to a more dense optical material, the n= sin i / sin r
rays are bent toward the normal.

Light speed
c sin i  Upon entering an optical
medium, light rays travel at
a speed v, which is less than
c cos i c.
c i
 Refractive index n= c/v

r  Typical values of n
v  Air 1.00
Water 1.33
v sin r Glass 1.50
Diamond 2.42
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 7

Law of Refraction

If light strikes a transparent body, we observe both reflection and

transmission. The transmitted beam is bent, or refracted, as it When light goes from a material with a smaller index of
crosses the surface between one medium. In 1621 the Dutch refraction to one with a larger index of refraction, we say that the
mathematician Willebrod Snell (1591-1626) empirically light has gone from a less dense to a more dense optical material.
discover the exact law of refraction. The law of refraction, also We can use this terminology to state a qualitative version of
called Snell’s law, can be written Snell’s law: When light travels from a less dense to a more
dense optical material, the rays are bent toward the normal.
n1sin1= n2sin2 Because of the reversibility of light rays, we can also say: When
a light ray travels from a more dense to a less dense optical
where n1 depends only on the optical properties of medium 1 and material, the rays are bent away from the normal.
n2 depends only on the optical properties of medium 2. The
constant n is called the index of refraction of the medium. We Grazing incidence- A particularly interesting situation arises
define the index of refraction n of a medium to be the ratio of the when the light incident on an interface comes from within the
speed of light in vacuum c to the speed of light in that medium v, optically denser medium – that is, from the material with the
greater index of refraction. In this case, n1 is greater than n2.
Consequently, in accord with Snell’s law, 2 is larger than 1, As
nc/v
1 increases, 2 must also increase, but it reaches a limit at 90o.
At this point, the refracted ray runs along the interface. The
We can verify Snell’s law for a large number of materials and
incidence angle corresponding to a 90o angle of refraction is
use it to determine their indices of refraction. Usually the index called the critical angle c and is found from Snell’s law, where
of refraction of air can be taken as unity without introducing any
significant error. In most materials, the speed of light depends n1 sinc = n2 sin900 sinc = n2 / n1
upon its wavelength. Generally, the index of refraction
decreases slowly with increasing wavelength. Total internal reflection- When the angle of incidence is
smaller than c, the light is transmitted at some 2 between 0 and
If the refracted ray strikes a mirror at 90o so that it is reflected 90o. But for angles of incidence greater than c, no light
back along the same path, it will be refracted at the interface and penetrates into the less-dense medium. Instead, when the angle
emerge along the same path as the incident ray. We say that light of incidence exceeds the critical angle, all the incident light is
rays are reversible. That is, if a light ray traveling in some reflected back into the denser medium by the interface between
direction takes a particular path, a light ray going in the opposite two normally transparent materials.
direction will also follow exactly the same path.
Module 2.4 Light Page 8

Dispersion of light Grazing incidence

 When light travels from a
more dense to a less dense r
optical material, the rays are
bent away the normal.
 The critical angle is reached i
when the refracted ray is at
right angles to the normal.

Video r
Observation: White light is spread into a rainbow
of colors after passing through a prism. The yellow ray i
is often taken to be the mean of all the color rays. Critical
angle

Refraction by prism Total internal reflection

 Different refractive index for Normal
red and blue lights refraction
Air 1

Grazing
incidence
R

V
Total internal
 Crowned glass reflection
 Result is separation into  1.514 for red light
rainbow colors. Medium n
 1.517 for yellow light
 1.521 for blue light
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 9

Total internal reflection

 When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical

angle, light is totally internally reflected.

 The image of a ruler is totally reflected from the

back surface of a triangular prism.
Module 2.4 Light Page 10

Refraction by spherical lenses View through a converging lens

Object

u
Focal length f

Image distance v
 Observation: View
through a diverging lens
1 1 1
Focus + =
v u f Image

View through a converging lens Construction to locate images

2
ho
3
F
F’ hi
 Observation: View
through a converging
lens; object close to lens. f f
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 11

Lenses

The major usefulness of lenses & mirrors, is their ability to form

images of an object. The object may be self-luminous, giving off
its own light (like the sun or a light bulb), or it may reflect the the center than the edges are called converging lenses, because
light that falls on it (like an apple or a page of this book). In they refract parallel incident rays to converge at a focal point on
either case, an image of the object is formed where light rays the opposite side of the lens.
that come from points on the object intersect or at the points
from which the rays appear to originate. Lenses that are thicker at the edges than the center are called
diverging lenses because they refract parallel incident rays so
When the light rays actually intersect at the image, we call this a that they appear to diverge from a focal point on the incident
real image. A screen placed at a real image point would show side of the lens.
the image in the same way that pictures appear on a movie
screen a virtual image is formed at a point where the light A lens whose thickness is small compared to its focal length is
appears to converge, or from which it appears to come. If you called a thin lens. There is a symmetry to the passage of light
place a screen at the position of a virtual image, no image is through a thin lens. Any light entering the converging lens from
observed on the screen, for the light rays do not actually there. the left parallel to the optical axis passes through the focal point
on the right after it leaves the lens.
An example of images in a mirror may help to explain virtual
images. If you stand one meter in front of a mirror, your image An ordinary piece of flat glass such as a window with parallel
appears to lie one meter behind the mirror. However, you will faces passes light without changing its direction.
not find an image on a screen placed at the image position one
meter behind the mirror. An object such as a pencil reflects light rays in all directions
from all points of the pencil. When the pencil is placed in front
An optical lens is a piece of glass or other transparent material of a lens at a distance u to the distance of the lens, an image of
used to direct or control rays of light. Usually the lens surfaces the pencil will form at a distance v to the center of the lens. The
are spherical, although parabolic or cylindrical surfaces are not following relation, known as the thin lens equation, holds for the
uncommon. The refraction of light through the lens depends on object and image distances.
its shape, its index of refraction, and the nature of the medium
surrounding it. 1/ f = 1/ u + 1/ v

There are only a few ways of combining flat, convex and Linear magnification for an extended object is defined as
concave surfaces to form a single lens. Lenses that are thicker at
m = height of image/ height of object = v/ u
Module 2.4 Light Page 12

Reflection by plane mirrors

Rotation of plane mirrors
Object
 Virtual image  If the plane mirror rotates
through an angle , then
 Perverted
u  the reflected beam will
 Same size turn through twice that
angle.
 Equidistant from the
surface of the mirror
(u = v)
v 2


Image

Reflection by plane mirrors Reflection by spherical mirrors

Object
 Virtual image
Focus
 Perverted

Object distance u
Focal length f
 Same size
 Equidistant from the
surface of the mirror
(u = v)

v
1 1 1 Image
- =
v u f
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 13

Mirrors

Curved mirrors like lenses are used to focus light and create
images. However mirrors work by the reflection of light rather
than reflection. Curved mirrors are often spherical in shape.
When the plane mirror is turned an angle , the reflected rays
A concave mirror reflects light from the inner surface of a sphere; will turn twice the angle 
a convex mirror reflects light from the outer surface of a sphere.
A beam of parallel light reflecting from a concave mirror Like the lens formula, there is a mirror formula relating object
converges to a single point, called the focus of the mirror. If the distance, image distance and focal length. The mirror formula is
mirror surface is convex, the reflected ray diverges in a manner
analogous to the spreading of a beam by a diverging lens. 1/ f = 1/ u + / v

A convex mirror always produces a virtual image of a real object. In applying the mirror formula, we adopt the real-is-positive
The image always lies within the mirror and is always erect and convention.
reduced.

The most common non-spherical mirrors are concave parabolic Nature of object/ Object distance Image distance
reflectors. A parallel beam incident along the optical axis of a image u v
parabolic mirror is imaged to a point without the complications Real Positive Positive
of spherical aberration. Virtual Negative Negative

Similarly, light from a small source can be reflected into a

parallel beam, as is done in searchlights. The dish antennas that
are used for microwave communication, satellite TV links, and For concave mirrors, f is positive; for convex mirrors, f is
radio telescopes are parabolic reflectors. negative.

Plane mirrors- Light rays incident on a flat mirror are such that
the incident and reflected beams make equal angles with the
normal. The characteristics of the image are evident when you
view yourself in front of a plane mirror.
Module 2.4 Light Page 14

Lens aberrations Thin lenses in contact

Lens 1 Lens 2
 Spherical aberration

 Incident rays farther from

the optical axis intersect O I O’
slightly closer to the lens
rather than the focal point.
u v
Focal plane  Image is relatively clear at w
the center while the edges
are considerably more
distorted.  For a composite lens, the equivalent
focal length is given by
 1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2

Lens correction Zoom lens

P Q
Telephoto
f = 19cm

4 cm 15cm

Wide-angle
f = 10.5cm
Spherical
aberration
corrected
8 cm 2.5cm

Image is relatively clear at the  The commercial zoom lens is more complicated than a
A fresnel center while the edges are simple combination of two lenses. It comprises 12 lenses
lighthouse lens considerably more distorted. or more and will maintain focus automatically
throughout the entire zoom range.
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 15

Lens Aberrations

Consider incident rays parallel to the optical axis of a

converging lens. Careful measurement of the refraction angles
shows that incident rays farther from the optical axis intersect is applied at each boundary between materials with different
slightly closer to the lens than the focal point. This effect is indices of refraction. The number of individual lenses, their
called spherical aberration. composition, and the shapes of the surfaces are chosen so as to
reduce the distortion. The application of computers to lens-
Consider incident rays at an angle to the optical axis. Again, design problems has resulted in improved camera lenses and
careful measurement shows that the refracted rays do not meet at other optical systems, along with reductions in their cost.
one point, but create a trailing blur away from the optical axis.
This effect is called coma. There is an additional complication: the index of refraction
varies slightly for light of different colors – that is, different
We see that what we said earlier about thin lenses is strictly true wavelengths. This variation is most easily seen in the action of a
only in the so-called paraxial approximation, that is, only for prism. This spreading of light according to wavelength is called
incoming rays that are not far from the axis and that are parallel dispersion. A similar thing happens at the second surface,
to the axis. These limitations explain why the center of an image resulting in a spectrum of colors. Because the surfaces of a
is often relatively clear while the edges are considerably more single lens are not parallel, it behaves like a prism. This
distorted. produces a fringe of false colors around the image, a
phenomenon called chromatic aberration. It cannot be
Aberration correction- Aberrations can be reduced, but not removed by geometrical shaping of a single lens.
removed entirely, by suitably combining different spherical
surfaces with appropriate radii. However, to reduce aberrations Chromatic aberration can be troublesome in any optical
of this kind to an acceptable level for optical instruments such as instrument that uses lenses. To overcome this problem in
microscopes, or cameras, each lens must be made of several thin telescopes, Isaac Newton invented the reflecting telescope,
lenses in combination. which uses a focusing mirror instead of an objective lens. No
dispersion occurs when light is reflected from the mirror, so
The design of these lenses is quite complicated in practice, but chromatic aberration is eliminated from that element.
the basic principle used is still that of refraction as determined
by Snell’s law. Using computers, lens designers trace ray paths
through complicated optical systems in a short time. Snell’s law
Module 2.4 Light Page 16

Optical Fibers Wave representation

 An optical fibre is a dielectric waveguide that operates n2 < n1
at optical frequencies. A C
1 1
 Confines EM energy in the form of light to within its
surfaces and guides the light in a direction parallel to
its axis. n1 d

 Core index n1 Cladding Buffer coating B

Core n2 < n 1
 Cladding, index n2

 Buffer coating Light propagating along a waveguide. Phase changes

(encapsulation) occur both as the wave travels through the fiber medium
and at the reflection points

Optical Fiber- Construction Optical fibers- Dimensions

Refracted ray
n n2  Core  Clad  Numerical
Cladding diameter diameter aperture

 Reflected ray  50 m  125 m  0.19 to 0.25 m


  62.5  125  0.27 to 0.31
n1 Core
 85  125  0.25 to 0.30
n2 Cladding
 100  140  0.25 to 0.30
n2
The minimum angle that supports total
internal reflection for the ray is
sin min =
n1
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 17

Fiber Optics

Have a look at Figure below and try answering this question

Does the ray go to A or B?
Sometimes light pipes are made of very thin optical fibers,
Light approaching the outer edge of the optic fiber at an angle which may be grouped into a bundle. If the fiber ends are
greater than the critical angle would be reflected back into the polished and their spatial arrangement is the same at both ends,
fiber and would bounce its way along as in the ray path B. an image may be transmitted from one end of the fiber bundle to
the other.

This diagram suggests that a useful transmission system can be A fiber bundle that transmits an image is called a coherent
built from a simple length of clear glass. bundle, or an image conduit. Bundles of fibers that do not have
exactly the same alignment at both ends transmit light but not
images. They are known as incoherent bundles or light guides.
Because their fibers are so flexible, fiber optics light guides and
coherent bundles are used in instruments designed to permit
direct visual observation of other wise inaccessible objects.

Prime examples are endoscopes, which are used by physicians to

examine the interior of a patient’s body. Optical fibers are also
used in communication systems to transmit modulated light
beams. Because of the high frequency of the light waves, these
fibers can carry more information in the same space than the
metal wires that they replace. The fibers are less expensive to
produce than are copper wires, and they are resistant to noise
caused by stray electromagnetic signals.
Total internal reflection can work for us in light pipes. If we
direct light into one end of a long rod of glass or plastic, the light
is totally internally reflected by the walls, bouncing back and
forth until it emerges at the far end. If we bend the light pipe into
a particular shape, the light follows the shape of the pipe and
emerges only at the end.
Module 2.4 Light Page 18

Ruby Laser Basic conditions for laser

 Ruby laser
 Ruby rod  a) A photon of resonant
Partially energy hf1 incident upon an
 mirrored ends reflecting
High intensity excited atom;
 and a flash lamp. flash lamp mirror
 b) The stimulated atom
emits a photon of energy hf1
in phase with the continuing
Totally photon.
reflecting Light
mirror output
 Active medium
Lamp
power supply  Pumping
LASER: Light Amplification by  Optical resonator
Simulated Emission of Radiation

Ruby laser in operation Producing a hologram

E3  Light from the laser is split
into two beams
Blue
 The reference beam is
reflected directly at the
E2 photographic film.
Green Nonradiative
transitions
E1  The other beam is scattered
off the object onto the
Optical pumping Laser beam.
transitions transitions
 A hologram displays a 3-D
image of an object, while
= 694.3 nm ordinary photographs are
2-dimensional.
E0
 66 B1 / B2 Module 2 – physics 2.4 Light Level 2 Apr 16 Page 19

Laser Applications
In 1917, Albert Einstein showed that incident light of the proper back and forth. Light emitted along the axis is reflected, causing
frequency could trigger the emission of light by excited atoms. many additional stimulated emissions, while light directed off
This process called stimulated emission takes place when the the axis is quickly lost from the system.
frequency of the incident photon equals the resonant frequency
of the transition between energy levels. Types of lasers
Pulsed lasers can deliver a large amount of energy in a very
Thus when light of frequency f1is incident on an atom with short time interval. Such a laser is appropriate for applications
electron in energy state E1, a photon of frequency hf1 can requiring high power in the laser beam, such as drilling and
stimulate a transition to the ground state, with the simultaneous welding.
emission of another photon, also of frequency f1. In such a case,
instead of being absorbed, the incident photon continues its On the other hand, some applications may require a laser that
travel, accompanied now by a second photon of the same operates continuously. Such a laser is known as continuous wave
frequency and phase. or cw laser. One of the best known cw lasers is the helium-neon
laser. This laser uses a low-pressure mixture of 90% helium and
In 1960, the first light device of stimulated principle was 10% neon for the active medium. An electric discharge causes
produced. The device soon became known as laser, an acronym the gas to glow in essentially the same process that occurs in
of Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation. neon lights. However by using a mixture of gases, we can
achieve an inverted population in the neon atoms, thus leading to
Basic conditions for lasers the possibility of laser action.
To use stimulated emission in a practical laser, we must satisfy
several basic conditions. First, we need an active medium --that Properties of laser light
is, a material containing atoms or molecules that can be made to
emit light. Second, we need a method for adding energy to this 1. The laser light is monochromatic.
medium in order to promote a sufficient number of its atoms to
an excited state. The process of exciting the laser medium is 2. Monochromatic laser lights produces interference patterns
called pumping. Finally, we need a way of confining the light so that are quite pronounced.
that we can trigger many stimulated emissions before the light
escapes from the medium, thus building up an intense output 3. When laser light reflects off a surface, its unusual character
beam. We achieve this result by placing the active medium in an immediately becomes visible. The reflected light seems to
optical resonator, which consists of mirrors that reflect the light sparkle with bright regions separated by dark areas. This so-
called speckle pattern is characteristic of laser light that is
due to coherence.
Module 2.4 Light Page 20

Optical fiber: Illustration Optical instruments

Endoscope

 Light pipes can be made of

simple optical fibers, which
may be grouped into a
bundle. Eyepiece

 A fiber bundle that

transmits an image is called
image guide.
 Light rays trapped by
total internal reflection  A fiber bundle that does not
are channeled along the have exactly the same
length of a light pipe alignment at both ends
transmit light but not
 Light can be seen images. It is known as a
emerging from the ends of light guide.
tiny optical fibers. Newtonian telescope
uses a mirror to focus light Ray diagram of a microscope

Optical instruments

Camera

Slide projector