CHAPTER 9

Filter Design

A filter is a circuit that passes signals of some Figure 9 .2 shows the ideal and realistic
frequencies but blocks or attenuates those of frequency response curves of each. The realistic
other frequencies. The most common filters curves on the right are referred to as Bode
are RC or LC networks. Active filters using op plots. They indicate the attenuation at different
amps and RC networks are also popular. High- frequencies. The passband and a reject or stop
frequency filters are made with LC networks, band are indicated.
quartz crystals, ceramics, surface acoustic wave
(SAW) devices, and other components. In this Low-Pass Filters
chapter, you will learn how to design basic RC
and LC filters, as well as active :filters with op This filter passes signals below a specific cutoff
amps. These filters are the ones you will most point and attenuates signals above the cutoff
likely need or encounter. Online filter design point. The response below the cutoff is called
calculators are available to simplify and speed up the passband. The region above the cutoff is
your design. designated the stop band. See Fig. 9.2a. Signals,
including de, pass relatively unattenuated
The primary characteristic of a filter is
below the cutoff frequency (fa:) . The cutoff
its selectivity. Selectivity is the sharpness of
frequency is that point where the output drops
response between the passband where the
to 70. 7 percent (0. 707) of the output at a lower
desired signals reside and the reject band of
frequency. If the filter attenuation is expressed in
undesired frequencies. The steepness of the
decibels (dB), the cutoff,fCO' occurs at the point
response or sharpness of the transition between
where the output drops to -3 dB from a lower
the passband and the reject band is a measure of
frequency. The total passband or bandwidth is
the selectivity.
from de to far
Above the cutoff, the attenuation increases
linearly with frequency. The term used to
Types of Filters describe this is roll-off at a constant rate. The
There are four basic types of filters: low-pass, steepness of this roll-off is a measure of the
high-pass, bandpass, and band reject filters. selectivity. In a basic RC filter, the roll-off rate is
Figure 9.1 shows the symbols commonly used to 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade.
represent each filter type in block diagrams. The Figure 9.2a shows the actual response of a
waves designate high, mid-, and low frequencies. low-pass filter. The cutoff frequency is 600 Hz.
Note the subtle marks across some of the waves If the output is 5 V at lower frequencies, the
that indicate which signals do not get through. output at cutoff is 0.707 (5) = 3.535 V. This is

103
104 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

Low-Pass High-Pass

-
In -.........
-----+-.........

Band Pass
1Out~ -------..
In - 1 0ut~
-.....
-.....
Band Reject/Notch

---14 ~ Out~ I ---1!4 ~ I Out ~

m[I I:1a I The four basic filter types, ideal and true responses.

Ideal Response Actual Response

0.707 Youl(max) Yout(max) i

- 3 dB 0 dB i : 6 dB/Octave
t ~,-- --6dii--------------------- ; 20 dB/Decade
-9 dB ___________________________ _,__

!1-------. 20ldB
t :
'

i :
I
I

::_~:
Signals in the
Pass Band Pass
Unattenuated
Signals Above/co
are Eliminated
-- --- 23 dB _________ _________ l_l_
: :
_____ _:
Frequency --+ fco Frequency --+

(a)

0
-3dB
t
Pass Band

~------...-------/co= _1_
/co Frequency --+ f co Frequency-+ 21tRC
(b)
Pass Band
Pass Band 0

~
-3dB
t
J
/1 fc h Frequency --+ Frequency--+
'---v---'
BW=Jz-f1
(c)
Notch or Band Reject Region

Notch
t
J Pass Band Pass Band

Frequency --+ Frequency--+

(d)

UJ!I qJfj Block diagram symbols forthe four filter types: (a) low-pass, (b) high-pass, (c) band pass, and (d) notch.
 Chapter 9 • Filter Design 105

also the -3 dB point. The attenuation levels for divider configurations to achieve their function.
one octave later (1200 Hz) and one decade later In this chapter, you will learn how to design the
(6 kHz) are indicated. most common RC and LC filters.

High-Pass Filter
Filter Specifications
This filter lets frequencies above the cutoff
pass with little attenuation, while frequencies The following are the basic characteristics to use
below the cutoff are gradually attenuated. See in selecting a commercial filter:
Fig. 9.2b. The response below the cutoff is called Insertion loss. This is the attenuation of
the stop band. The region above the cutoff is the signal in the passband. It is typically
designated the passband. expressed in decibels (dB).
Attenuation. This is the loss in the filter
Bandpass Filter because of the losses in the components.

Bandpass filters allow frequencies in a specific Impedance. LC filters have a characteristic

range known as the bandwidth to pass while impedance. They are designed for a
attenuating frequencies above and below that specific resistive load. For example,
range. The bandwidth is defined by two cutoff 50 Q is a common filter impedance at radio
frequencies,J; and.J;, as illustrated in Fig. 9.2c. frequencies (RF).
The bandwidth BW is Group or envelope delay. The transit time of
BW=J;-J; a signal through a device versus frequency
and the effect that it has on signals with
The filter also has a center frequency that is
an envelope such as pulses and modulated
the mean between the cutoff frequencies.
signals. It results in a distortion because of
fc= v<.t;JJ the phase shift change with frequency.
Ripple. Variations in the filter amplitude
Band Reject Filter response in the passband or stop band.
A fourth filter type is the opposite of the Ripple means that the response is not flat
bandpass filter. It greatly attenuates a narrow or constant over the designated frequency
range of frequencies but lets others above and range.
below a center frequency pass unattenuated. Order or number of poles. This refers to the
Refer to Fig. 9.2d. A better description of this number of RC or LC sections used in the
filter is that it is a notch filter designed to filter filter. Discrete component filters tend to use
out signals at the one specific frequency while multiple cascaded sections to get the desired
others above and below pass with minimal selectivity. One pole is one RC section. In
attenuation. an LC filter, a pole is the number of reactive
Most filters are made with resistors and components per section. A single LC section
capacitors (RC) or inductors and capacitors is a two-pole filter. The more poles you
(LC). Their function, of course, is dependent use, or the higher the order, the sharper the
upon how the reactance of capacitors or response, and the greater the selectivity.
inductors varies with frequency. These Cutoff or center frequency. This defines the
components are arranged mainly in voltage filter frequency range.
106 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

Filter Design Guidelines crystals, ceramic resonators, surface acoustic

wave (SAW), bulk acoustic wave (BAW),
Here are a few rules of thumb that will help you mechanical, switched capacitor, and stripline.
with your filter needs and designs:
• A major filter trend over the years from
• Low-pass filters seem to dominate the roughly the 1980s to the present is a digital
filter world. You will encounter more and signal processing (DSP) filter. This filter
design more of these than any other kind. takes the analog signal to be filtered and
These filters are needed to filter out noise, digitizes it in an analog-to-digital converter
harmonics, interfering signals, ripple, and (ADC) and stores the resulting samples. The
other undesirable signals. A widespread digital samples are then fed to a digital signal
example is a single capacitor connected at processor (DSP) or FPGA, where special
one point in a circuit that acts as a low-pass algorithms perform the digital equivalent
filter to provide some filtering out of the of the desired filtering process. This is an
higher frequencies. This is called a bypass or expensive and complex approach, but the
decoupling capacitor. resulting filters give superb selectivity. Most
• For frequencies below about 1 MHz, use a if not all wireless devices used today (cell
RC filter or an active RC filter. Inductors phones, Wi-Fi, etc.) incorporate DSP filters.
are larger and more expensive at the low Special DSP embedded controllers and
frequencies. RC filters and active filters with processors are available to do the job.
op amps can achieve excellent results.
• Use an LC filter at the higher frequencies.
Above 3 MHz or so, inductor sizes and Filter Response Options
prices are more reasonable. LC filters The actual performance of a filter depends upon
predominate at the radio frequencies from the way it is designed. There are four common
3 to 300 MHz. filter behavior models to consider. These are
• Remember, you can probably buy just Butterworth, Bessel, elliptical, and Chebyshev.
about any filter you want. There are many These are compared in Fig. 9.3.
sources, especially for the higher frequencies • Butterworth. The most common filter type
(> 10 MHz). Check out what is available is the Butterworth. The previously covered
before you design your own because it will RC and active filters have a Butterworth
save time but not money. Buying versus response. Its output is very fiat over the
making is one of your design decisions. An passband range of coverage. It then rolls off
example is an ac power line filter that is used at a leisurely, constant rate. The Butterworth
in just about every ac power supply. You is not the most selective filter because the
don't want to have to design and build this. gradual roll-off characteristic does not
This is a low-pass filter that works both ways: adequately filter some inputs. Also, the
It keeps power supply noise off the ac power phase response is nonlinear, causing it to
line and keeps high-frequency noise and distort some signals. Your first consideration
pulses on the ac line out of the power supply. for a filter is its frequency response. As
• Keep in mind that there are other types of filters the reactances in the filter change with
besides the traditional RC and LC types. Most frequency, a phase shift is also taking place.
of these are made for the higher frequencies. This may or may not be relevant to the
Some of your choices are filters using signals you are covering.
 Chapter 9 • Filter Design 107

Chebyshev

--+ Frequency m!I Iif& I Simple one-section RC low-pass filter.

Q)!I ilffl Common filter response curves.

some frequency Xc = R, the output drops to 0. 707
of the input. This is the cutoff frequency fco·
• Bessel. A Bessel response has a somewhat fco = 1121CRC
slower roll-off than the Butterworth but
If the output voltage (V~is 0.707 of the input
also has a flat response in the passband.
voltage(~), this is the equivalent of -3 dB.
The key characteristic is its linear phase
Remember the formula for decibel (dB) measure.
response. Other filter types like Butterworth
and Chebyshev have nonlinear phase dB= 20 log(VofV1) = 20 log(0.707) = -3 dB
responses that cause distortion to some Above the cutoff, the attenuation increases
types of signals, such as modulated signals linearly at the rate of 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade.
and pulses. The Bessel filter is a good The frequency response plot in Fig. 9.2a shows
alternative because it does not distort and this roll-off. Keep in mind that an octave means
it does provide a minimum of frequency a ratio of 1 to 2 or 2 to 1. One octave above
selectivity. 500 Hz is 1000 Hz or 1 kHz. A decade is a 1 to
• Chebyshev. This filter has better selectivity 10 relationship. One decade higher than 400 Hz
because of its rapid roll-off above or below is 4000 Hz or 4 kHz. Note in Fig. 9.2 the cutoff
the cutoff. One potential downside is that is 600 Hz. One octave higher (1200 Hz), the
it has ripple in the passband. This response attenuation drops another 6 dB for a total of 9 dB.
variation may or may not be a problem. One decade from 600 Hz is 6 kHz, and over that
range the attenuation drops 20 dB more to 23 dB.
• Elliptical. The elliptical filter has the best
selectivity of all of the types of filters. By the way, keep in mind that this RC
Its roll-off is rapid at cutoff. Its potential circuit also produces a phase shift. The output
disadvantage is ripple in the passband and frequency is shifted by 45° at the cutoff
stop band. frequency. Overall, the output voltage lags the
input by some amount from 0° to 90° depending
upon the frequency.
RC Filter Design The operation of a high-pass RC filter is
similar. Reversing the positions of the resistor
The simplest RC low-pass filter is shown in Fig. 9.4.
and capacitor as shown in Fig. 9.5 produces a
The resistor and capacitor form a voltage high-pass filter.
divider. At low frequencies, the capacitive
The cutoff frequency is
reactance (Xc) is high, so most of the input
signal appears across the capacitor. At the higher fco = 1121tRC
frequencies, the capacitive reactance begins to The attenuation at the cutoff is also 3 dB. The
decrease, so less voltage drop occurs across it. At roll-off rate is the same as for the low-pass filter.
108 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

• Notice that no load on the filter was

specified. So any load should be minimal.
Any resistive load should be at least 10 times
or more the value of R to minimize the
deviation from the design performance.
R R(Rc)
r= R+RL Use this same procedure to design a high-pass
filter. The main difference is that any resistive
Q [I Ilffj Simple one-section RC high-pass filter.
load on the output is going to have a significant
effect on the cutoff frequency. Figure 9.5 shows
that a load on an RC high-pass filter puts the
Step-by-Step RC Filter Calculations load directly in parallel with the filter R. The
Use the following steps to design either the total parallel equivalent of the two resistors is
low-pass or high-pass RC filter. An example is the value to use in the design.
included. RT=RRiR+RL
• Specify low- or high-pass. If the load on the filter is minimal, use the
Low-pass design value for R. Minimal means that RL is
at least 10 or more times the filter R value. The
• State the cutoff frequency.
higher the better.
4kHz
• Specify the output impedance Z 0 of the Cascading RC Filters
circuit driving the filter. This is needed so
There are design instances where the roll-off
that the filter will not "load" the driving
source, producing additional attenuation. rate is not fast enough. Figure 9.6 illustrates
Remember, low output impedance is the the problem. The desired signalJ;_ passes
most desirable. successfully. Some of the undesired signal J; still
gets through. The more gradual response lets in
Assume Z 0 is 1 kn.
more of J;. Increasing the selectivity and roll-off
• Determine the filter resistor value. Ideally, rate gets rid ofJ;.
it should be at least 10 times or more of Z 0 •
One solution is to increase the roll-off rate
The higher the better. The exact value is not
by cascading RC sections as shown in Fig. 9.7a.
generally critical.
R = lO(Zc) = 10(1 k) = 10 kO minimum.
Sharper Filter Rejects
Let's choose R = 50 k. Standard values of Unwanted Signal
47 k or 51 k will work. We will use 47 k.
Slow Roll Off Lets
• Calculate the capacitor value. Knowing the Undesired Signal Pass
cutoff frequency and the value of R, you can
rearrange the cutoff formula to solve for C.
fco =l/21tRC ~~~~~~~~~~~~~--/

/1 = Desired Signal /1 h
C = l/ 27tf~ = 1/6.28(4000)47,000 = 847 pF h = Undesired Signal
Standard values are 820 and 910 pF.
Either will work with a small shift in the
Qi IIlftj Response of low-pass filters with
different roll-off rates and their success
cutoff frequency. in minimizing unwanted signals.
 Chapter 9 • Filter Design 109

lOOR
R lOR
Bandpass LC Filters
c Bandpass RC filters are rarely used. However,
100 I you can make BPFs with simple resonant LC
(a) circuits as Fig. 9.9 shows.
Here is the procedure and an example.
The center frequency of the filter is the
resonant formula. Assume f = 7 kHz.
18 dB/Octave
fc= 112xYLC
/co A good starting point is to select an available
(b)
inductor with a known value. Select a large value
Qil!ifQ A three-section RC low-pass filter used like 100 mH for low frequencies (<10 kHz).
to improve selectivity.
Next, knowing the center frequency and the
inductance, we can rearrange the resonance
Each RC section attenuates at a rate of 6 dB/ formula to solve for C.
octave, so the combined attenuation rate for C = 1/(2xf)2L = 1/(6.28 x 7000)2(100 x 10-3)
a three-section filter is 18 dB/octave or 60 dB/
C = 0.005 µF A standard value, but 0.0047
decade. The curves in Fig. 9. 7b are exaggerated should also work.
to show the concept.
Recalculatingfwith that later value of C gives
The problem with this arrangement is that
7345 Hz.
each section loads the previous section. This
One solution is to put another capacitor in
loading effect shifts the cutoff frequency,
making the filter something different than parallel with the 0.0047 µF to get 0.005 µF. We
what you may need. To correct this problem, need
make each section resistor value 10 times or 0.005 - 0.0047 = 0.0003 µFor 300 pF
more the value of the resistor in the previous There is no 300 pF, but there is 330 pF or 0.00033 µR
section. The most effective approach is to make
Putting the two capacitors in parallel gives
all RC sections the same, but put an isolation
amplifier between sections as shown in Fig. 9.8. C = 0.0047 + 0.0033 = 0.00503 µF
Here an op amp follower with its unity Now recalculatingf, we get
gain, high input impedance, and low output f=7100Hz
impedance effectively eliminates the loading
closer to the desired 7000 Hz.
problem.

(a) (b)
Q !I Ilf!:I A three-section RC low-pass filter with Q [I !lf£j {a) Series and {b) parallel LC bandpass
interstage isolation with op amps. filters.
110 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

The selectivity is determined mainly by the Q The new bandwidth is

of the circuit. Recall, that Q is BW = 7100/20.27 = 350.3 Hz
Q=XiR This is better but not great. Another type
XL is the inductive reactance that is computed of filter may be needed to get a narrower
with bandwidth.
XL= 2rcfL = 6.28(7100 x 100 x 10-3) = 4459 n As for the parallel resonant circuit of
Of course,/ is the center frequency, and Lis the Fig. 9.9b, most of the formulas are the same as
inductance in henrys. the series circuit. The new information is that
at resonance the parallel LC circuit is equal
R is the total circuit resistance in a series
to a pure resistance, since the inductive and
filter like Fig. 9.9a. It is made up of the output
capacitive reactances cancel. That equivalent
resistor R plus the winding resistance of the
resistance is
inductor, Rw- The Q of the circuit is
.RJQ2+1)
Q=Xi(R+~)
Q is still the same.
Remember that in a series resonant circuit the
inductive and capacitive reactances are equal, Q=Xi~
so they cancel one another. That leaves only the At resonance, the equivalent circuit is a
coil resistance Rw- At the resonant frequency voltage divider made up of ~ and the input
the whole equivalent circuit is a voltage divider resistor R. ~ is much higher than the input
made up of Rwand R. R is made much larger resistor R, so most of the input reaches the
than ~ so the attenuation is minimal. output.
To find RW' measure the inductor resistance
with your DMM. A data sheet or catalog will
also have that value. Let's assume it is 20 n. We Band Reject Filters
want the output resistor at least 10 times that or Twin-T Filter
200 n. Make it 2000 n.
One of the best RC filters is the notch filter
Q = Xi(R + Rw) =4459/(2000 + 20)
shown in Fig. 9.10. It is called a twin-Tor
= 4459/2020 = 2.2 parallel-T. If you look carefully at the filter, you
As for bandwidth, it is calculated with the can see that it is a low-pass filter and a high-
expression pass filter in parallel. The passbands overlap
and define an attenuation notch. The twin-T is
BW =f/Q =7100/2.2 =3227 Hz
designed to null out one particular frequency
Q=XiR+~
Remember that bandwidth is
BW=ifi-f)
This filter is not very selective with a 3227 Hz
bandwidth. One solution is to make the output
resistor less to increase Q. We can use the
previous estimate of 10 times Rw or 200 n. The
new Q value is
Q = XiR + Rw= 44591(200 + 20) = 20.27 W!I I:Ja [1# The popular twin-T RC notch filter.
 Chapter 9 • Filter Design 111

and pass those above and below the center the desired calculated value to achieve good
frequency. It has been widely used to notch out attenuation at the center frequency. It is possible
60 Hz ac power line interference. to achieve an attenuation of up to about 40 dB
The notch or center frequency is determined at the notch frequency, but only if the actual
by the familiar expression calculated values are used. Typically, you must
resort to 1 percent resistors and capacitors to get
fc= 1/21tRC
close enough to the desired values.
Like other RC filters, its effectiveness is greatly
Another approach is to select the capacitor
affected by the output impedance of the driving
first. Choose a 2 percent or 5 percent capacitor,
circuit and the load. As usual, the driving
then using that value, calculate the resistor value.
impedance should be as low as possible and the
Use the closest 1 percent value. Since there are
load as high as possible. Here is the basic design
more closely spaced resistor values, you are more
procedure.
likely to get close to the ideal.
• State the notch frequency.
One helpful modification is to use a variable
Let's use 360 Hz. resistor for the R/2 value. This will let you vary
• Select a value for R. It should be at least 10 the notch frequency a small amount so you
times higher than the Z 0 of the driving stage can optimize the attenuation of the undesirable
and lower than a factor of 10 or more of the signal.
load Re A more selective twin-T can be created by
If z 0 is 200 n and the load is 100 kn, a using it in conjunction with an op amp. See
value of 10 k for R would work. Fig. 9.11.
• Calculate C. Rearranging the formula to This circuit uses two op amp followers to
solve for C, provide feedback that significantly sharpens
C = 1121tf00R = 1/6.28(360)10,000 =0.044 µF the selectivity. The degree of selectivity is
determined by the amount feedback provided
A standard 0.047 µF capacitor would work
by the voltage divider R 1 and ~· A good way to
but would shift the notch a bit to
implement this circuit is to use a pot in place of
fc = 1/21CRC = 1/6.28(10,000)(0.047 x 10-6) the two resistors. This way you can adjust the
= 339Hz response to fit the application.
This is usually not suitable, so a capacitor
value closer to the calculated value must
be used. You can experiment with putting
capacitors in series or parallel to get closer to
the desired value. Output

• Calculate 2C and R/2. These values are

Ri
required as Fig. 9.10 indicates.
c c --+ }R1
Using the previous design results, 2C R
2 }R2
R2
2C = 2(0.044) = 0.088 µF
R/2= 10kl2= kn s
This filter design is very sensitive to Q)liilfjll Thetwin-T RC notch filter with
component values. They must be right on feedback to improve selectivity.
112 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

L affect the design outcome. Second, they are

R
not very selective. A better choice for higher
~ c
frequencies is to use LC filters. However, there
is another class of RC filter that is widely used.
R
JL It is the active filter. The term active means that
the RC network is enhanced by an amplifier that
-
(a) (b) provides feedback and isolation. The frequency
Q!l!lfjfl (a) Series and (b) parallel LC notch range is also extended above 1 MHz. Here
filters. are the design procedures for the basic forms
of active filters. These design instructions are
taken from Texas Instruments' (TI) Application
LC Notch Filters
Report SLOA093. That document is still
You can also make some simple band reject available from the TI Web site. Otherwise, the
filters with LC tuned circuits. See Fig. 9.12. procedures presented here are simplified.
The center or notch frequency is the resonant The active filters described here use op amps.
frequency of the LC circuit: Many different types are candidates. Even the
fc = 1!21t'ILC older IC op amps work well. You will need the
All of the formulas and procedures used ± power supplies for a full output swing, but
on the bandpass filters apply to these band single-supply versions are also useable. Here are
reject filters. Keep in mind that at resonance, the preliminary design steps.
the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel • Determine the output voltage needed. A
one another out, leaving only resistance. In the peak-to-peak specification is best. This will
series circuit of Fig. 9.12a, the series resistance tell you what power supply voltages are
is just the inductor winding or coil resistance. In needed. For older bipolar op amps, make the
the parallel resonant circuit of Fig. 9.12b, the power supply voltages 1 to 3 V greater than
equivalent parallel resistance can be computed the peak-to-peak output desired.
with any of the following formulas: • Select the filter type. You should be able to
RP= Q(XJor determine what frequencies will pass and
RP= Rw(Q2+1) which will be attenuated based upon your
application.
RP=LIC(R.)
• Establish the cutoff frequency. For low- and
Other relevant formulas are
high-pass filters, you will need the cutoff
Q=XJRw frequency. For bandpass and band reject
XL =21tjL filters, you need to know the center frequency
Rw is the winding resistance of the inductor. and/or the bandwidth.
• Choose a capacitor value. It is not too critical,
but at least you can specify standard available
RC Active Filters values. As a start, select 0.1 µF for low
frequencies (below about 10 kHz) and 100 pF
RC filters are cheap and easy to design, but they
for the higher frequencies (above 100 kHz).
have limits. The main one is that they do not
work well above about 1 MHz. At the higher • Calculate the resistor values.
frequencies, stray capacitances and inductances
 Chapter 9 • Filter Design 113

• If the calculated resistor values are too low or

+V
high, select another capacitor and start over.
VoUT
• Despite the use of an op amp, most of these
circuits do not produce any gain or loss but
do offer good isolation between input and
output with low output impedance.

Low-Pass Filter mIIIlf8fj Active RC bandpass filter.

Figure 9.13 shows the circuit.

Here is an example. de from the input and output. The coupling
capacitors CIN and C0 UT should be about 100
• Output voltage is less than 10 V peak-to-
to 1000 times C 1• This would be a value of
peak. Choose ±9 V or ±12 V.
1 µf to 10 µF.
• Choose filter type. Low-pass.
• State cutoff frequency f co is 5 kHz. Bandpass Filter
• Choose C 1• Try 0.1 µF for frequencies less
This is the procedure for a narrow bandpass
than about 10 kHz.
filter. The circuit is shown in Fig. 9.15. This filter
• Calculate C2, where C2 = 2C1 = 0.2 µF. also produces a gain of 10 (20 dB) at the center
• Calculate R 1 and~· R 1 =R2 =1/2..J2(7tC1/c;J frequency.
= 225 n. Use a 220-0. resistors. The following is a typical design:
• The single-supply low-pass circuit is given • Determine the desired center signal
in Fig. 9.14. You probably want to block the frequency (f~- Assume 7000 Hz.
• Select C1 = C2 =Let's choose 0.01 µF.

Vi
~
Ri c; C2

I
C1I
~vJ
-V
VoUT
•
•

•
•
Calculate R 1 = R4 = 1/2nCJc = 1/6.28(0.01 x
10-6 x1000) = 2215 n
Calculate R 3 = 19R1 = 19(2275) = 43,221 .0.
Calculate R 2 = R/19 = 2275/19 = 120 .0.
• Use the closest standard resistor values.
If necessary, use 1 percent resistors for
Qll!tflfl Active RC low-pass filter.
precision in setting the center frequency.
For the design details of the other filter types,

c;C1I C2 download the Texas Instruments Application

Report SLOA093 as recommended earlier.
V
~
Rt ~vj VoUT ,.
I -V
LC Filter Design
Because of the complexity of designing LC
m1•1;1ac1 Active RC low-pass filter using a
single-supply op amp.
filters, I suggest you do as I have done, and use
an online calculator. There are several good filter
114 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

design tools you can access for free. Here is an a challenge. You want to get components with
example to show you how. values close enough to those calculated so the filter
1. https://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/-fisher/ will work. That is easier said than done. Standard
lcfilter/ capacitor values in 5 percent tolerance units are
usually not close enough. Inductors are even more
2. http://www.rfwireless-world.com/
difficult. You may need to build your own. For
calculators/RF-filter-calculator.html
standard inductors, search the distributors first.
3. rf-tools.com/lcfilter Then try the inductor manufacturers like Coilcraft
4. www.wa4dsy.net/filter/filterdesign.html and Bourns (J.W Miller).
5. https://www.coilcraft.com/appsllc_filter
_designer/lc_filter_designer.cfm
Switched Capacitive Filters
Here is a design example using tool #1 above.
An interesting and different type of filter is the
A radio transmitter operating at 30 MHz is
switched capacitor filter (SCF). It uses a network
producing a distorted output and is generating
made up of multiple capacitors, each with a
harmonics. The second and third harmonics
MOSFET switch. The network of capacitors
are 60 and 90 MHz. We need to get rid of the
each with its on-off switch is connected to the
harmonics so they will not interfere with signals
input of an op amp. The capacitors are switched
near the harmonics. We need to design a low-
in and out of the circuit by a clock signal that
pass filter that will have a cutoff of 30 MHz.
drives the MOSFET's gates. The result is a
Assume a filter impedance of 50 n. Design
bandpass or low-pass filter response. Most SCFs
for a Butterworth response with five reactive
are available as ICs and are programmable, so
components or order.
you can select low, high, or bandpass devices
Now repeat that same filter design with the with any of the four responses (Butterworth, etc.).
procedure using tools #3 and #4. The result for The clock frequency determines the center
all three is the same and is shown in Fig. 9.16. frequency or cutoff of the filter. Most SCFs
Note that the generator output impedance have an upper frequency limit of 100 kHz or
is 50 n as well as the load. Here are the odd, so. For that reason, applications are limited to
nonstandard C and L values. these lower frequencies. With up to eighth-order
L 1 =L 2 =0.4292 µH =429.2 nH variants, selectivity is superb. If you need a small
IC filter with excellent selectivity and low cost,
c1 = C3 = 65.57 pF
SCFs are a good choice.
C2 =212.21 pF
SCFs are available from several IC
The design process is pretty painless using these manufacturers, including Analog Devices,
software design tools. Implementing the filter is Maxim Integrated, and Texas Instruments.

Making a Sine Wave Out of a Square

Wave
A good example of a filter application is using a
filter to convert a square wave into a sine wave.
It is based upon the Fourier theory that says
that any nonsinusoidal like a square wave is
Di•i:tStJ Low-pass LC filter with five poles.
 Chapter 9 • Filter Design 115

samples representing the signal at short intervals.

actually a composite of multiple sine waves at
harmonic frequencies added together. A square With the signal in this form, it can be subjected
wave (50 percent duty cycle) is made up of a to any one of multiple DSP programs that will
fundamental frequency sine wave and all the odd perform the same function as an analog circuit.
harmonics. Rem.ember that a harmonic is a sine
wave that is some multiple of the fundamental The most common application is :filtering.
square wave frequency. For example, the third A processing algorithm can perform any type
harmonic of 2500 Hz is 7500 Hz. of :filtering. A DSP IC or any micro capable of
Figure 9.17 shows a frequency domain plot DSP functions can duplicate the effect of any
similar to what you would see if you connected the
filter type, for example. A DAC at the output of
square wave to a spectrum analyzer. Each vertical
line represents the amplitude of a sine wave. The the DSP converts the :filtered signal back to its
fundamental, third harmonic, fifth harmonic, etc. analog equivalent-or any other filter type for
Note the diminishing amplitudes of the harmonics that matter. Replacing a handful of inductors
with frequency.
and capacitors or resistors and capacitors with
a DSP IC or some microcontroller does not
Low pass filter selecting seem practical, but it is. Furthermore, the digital
the fundamental sine wave.
A band pass filter selecting filter performs better than the equivalent analog
the 5th harmonic circuit. It can have lower loss and much better

~
selectivity than any LC or RC filter.
The truth is, a DSP filter is really software.
f 3/ 5/ 7/
The filter algorithms are programmed on a
Frequency
standard microcontroller or on a special DSP
QjiitJjfl Using low-pass and/or bandpass IC. They are also implemented on programmable
filters to select the fundamental
or harmonic components of a
logic devices (PLDs) like field programmable
rectangular wave to generate a gate arrays (FPGAs).
sine wave.
A DSP device can implement a wide range
To produce a sine wave, you can design a bandpass of other linear circuits. DSPs can perform
filter that will select out one of the desired sine
modulation, demodulation, equalization,
wave signals. The selectivity of the filter needs to be
good so that it passes only the desired sine waYC/ mixing, error correction, spectrum analysis, and
harmonic. Figure 9.17 shows the response curve of a many other analog operations. A variety of math
bandpass filter selecting the fifth harmonic. Another techniques are used. For example, in :filtering,
possibility is to select the fundamental sine wave
the overly simplified explanation of the process
with a low-pass filter as Fig. 9 .17 shows.
is multiplying the signal samples by coefficients
This technique works well and is an alternative
to making a sine wave oscillator that is harder to and adding them together. DSP is a complex
design than a square wave generator. topic beyond this book, but it is an option you
may not have known you have.

DSP Filters Design Project 9.1

DSP means digital signal processing. It is a Design an RC low-pass filter with a cutoff
technique that substitutes digital mathematical frequency of 8 kHz. The output impedance of
calculations to substitute for conventional analog the driving circuit is 300 a. Simulate the filter in
or linear signal processing. The idea is to digitize software if that is available to you. Use the sweep
the analog signal to be processed and store the frequency capability, and create a Bode plot.
resulting data. The digitized signal is a set of Build the circuit, and test it.
116 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

AC-AC Wall Adapter

Design Project 9.2 /
Design an LC low-pass filter using the online
tools suggested. The cutoff frequency is to be
10 MHz with an impedance of 150 .Q. Design Q!I iiJIL·I A simple and useful source of low
for 7 poles or order 7. voltage 60 Hz.

Design Project 9.3 summer linearly mixes a 1 kHz sine wave (the
desired signal) and a 60 Hz signal (the undesired
Design an RC active bandpass filter to select or interfering signal). The signals can be derived
the third harmonic out of a 1-kHz square wave from function generators or oscillators that you
input to produce a sine wave. build. Put pots on each input so you can adjust
the amplitudes. Suggested input levels are 2 V
Design Project 9.4 peak-to-peak each.
A good source of the 60 Hz signal is a wall
Design a twin-T notch filter that will remove
wart/wall adapter transformer. It steps the
the 60 Hz interference from a 1-kHz sine wave.
120-V ac in down to 6 V ac. Attach a 1 k pot to
Figure 9.18 shows the circuit. An op amp
it so you can adjust the output amplitude. See
Fig. 9.19.
lkHz Design and build the notch filter, and connect
Sine Osc
it to the op amp output to see how much of the
60 Hz is removed. You may want to put a pot
as R/2 so you can adjust the center frequency to
60Hz improve the attenuation of the 60 Hz. Measure
Source
the peak-to-peak 60-Hz voltage at the output of
the op amp and then at the output of the filter.
Calculate the dB attenuation.
QJll!iJll:I A circuit demonstrating how a twin-T
See solutions in App. B.
filter can remove 60 Hz of noise from
a 1 kHz signal.