Chapter 3: Hardware

3.1 Computers and their components

3.2 Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

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Learning Objectives:

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Learning Objectives:

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 Resources:

https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridgeasalevelcomputerscience
 Resources:

https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/programmes-and-qualifications/cambridge-
international-as-and-a-level-computer-science-9618/published-resources/
 Chapter 3: Hardware

3.1 Computers and their components

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Types of memory and storage
Memory is a hugely important aspect of computing, without memory nothing could be
saved and you would have to start every work session from scratch. Even more
importantly there would be nowhere to store an operating system thus meaning that
computers would not exist as we know them.

Memory and storage devices can be split up into three distinct groups:

• primary memory
• secondary storage
• off-line storage.

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Types of memory and storage:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0o6joyhWzg0

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Types of memory and storage:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p3q5zWCw8J4

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory:
As a whole, primary memory is the memory that is used by the computer to maintain
smooth operation. Primary memory, also known as main memory can be divided into two
categories, these are RAM and ROM. Primary memory is the part of computer memory
which can be accessed directly from the CPU. Primary memory allows the processor to
access applications and services temporarily stored in memory locations. The structure of
primary memory is shown in Figure below:

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory:
RAM vs ROM: What Is The Difference Between Them?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Wo3W2atvJw

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory:
RAM vs ROM: What Is The Difference Between Them?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBa7JojXvgk

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM):
Ram is used to store data / programs that are currently in use, this includes:

The Operating System - e.g. Windows

The software in use - e.g. Photoshop, Excel, Chrome
The data which the software is using - e.g. cookies, graphics

When a program is no longer being used, for example a web browser is closed, it is then removed from
RAM to make space for another program.

The features of RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) are:

it is volatile/temporary memory (this means that when the power is lost, any data being stored on it is
lost.
it can be written to or read from and the contents of the memory can be changed
In general, the larger the size of RAM the faster the computer will operate

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM):
Static RAM and Dynamic RAM Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0rNEtAz3wJQ

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Random Access Memory (RAM):
There are currently two types of RAM technology:
• Dynamic ram (DRAM)
• Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Each DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM) chip consists
of a number of transistors and capacitors. Each of these parts is tiny
since a single RAM chip will contain millions of transistors and
capacitors. The function of each part is:
• capacitor – this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)
• transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control
circuitry to read the capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.

Noureddine Tadjerout
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Random Access Memory (RAM):
DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:
• they are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM
• they consume less power than SRAM
• they have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.
Static RAM (SRAM):
• SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access
(typically, access time for SRAM is 25 nanoseconds and for DRAM
is 60 nanoseconds).
• DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers, but
where absolute speed is essential, then SRAM is the preferred
technology. For example, the processor’s MEMORY CACHE is the
high speed portion of the memory; it is effective because most
programs access the same data or instructions many times. By
keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the
computer avoids having to access the slower DRAM.
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Random Access Memory (RAM):
Static RAM (SRAM):
• SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to
data access (typically, access time for SRAM is 25
nanoseconds and for DRAM is 60 nanoseconds).
• There is also static RAM (SRAM), which does not
have to be refreshed. Although faster than
DRAM, SRAM uses more transistors and is thus more
costly; it is used primarily for CPU internal registers
and cache memory.
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Random Access Memory (RAM):
Difference between SRAM and DRAM
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Random Access Memory (RAM):
Difference between SRAM and DRAM
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Read Only Memory (ROM):
The main features of READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM):
Can be summarized as follows:

ROM is different to RAM and has a very specific job. ROM is read
only meaning that it cannot be written to, it simply holds data that
can be read.
The data that ROM holds is the instructions that are needed for a
computer to start up once the power is switched on. These
instructions are known as the BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
Rom is also different to RAM in that it is Non - Volatile, This means
that it does not lose its data when power is lost.
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Read Only Memory (ROM):
Practical Activities: Try to explore BIOS Command on a MacBook or Window 10
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Application:
We will now consider an application, other than a computer, where both RAM and ROM chips
are used:
A remote-controlled toy car has a circuitry which contains both RAM and ROM chips. The
remote control is a hand-held device.
We will consider the function of each type of memory independently:
• ROM
• stores the factory settings such as remote control frequencies
• stores the ‘start-up’ routines when the toy car is first switched on
• stores the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the hand-held device control turning
left, acceleration, stopping, and so on.
• RAM
• the user may wish to program in their own routines; these new instructions would be stored
in the RAM chip
• the RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from the remote control
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
The main differences between RAM and ROM
3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
CPU Cache Explained - What is Cache Memory?
In computing, a cache is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests for
that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of an earlier computation or a
copy of data stored elsewhere.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yi0FhRqDJfo

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Buffer Cache
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2vegjeJICk

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Buffer:
Buffer memory is a temporary storage area in the main memory (RAM) that stores data
transferring between two or more devices or between an application and a device. Typically,
the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an input device (such as a microphone) or
just before it is sent to an output device (such as speakers). However, a buffer may be used
when moving data between processes within a computer. Buffering compensates for the
difference in transfer speeds between the sender and receiver of the data.

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Buffer:

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Registers:
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions
that are being used immediately by the CPU. ... A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage
address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual characters).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpnE6UAfbtU

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Types of ROM-PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzPi-cdTAEs

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Programmable ROM (PROM):
PROM or programmable ROM (programmable read-only memory) is a computer memory chip
that can be programmed once after it is created. Once the PROM is programmed, the
information written is permanent and cannot be erased or deleted. A programmable read-only
memory (PROM) is a type of ROM chip that can be altered once.
A PROM is made up of a matrix of fuses. Programming a PROM requires the use of a PROM
writer which uses an electric current to alter specific cells by ‘burning’ fuses in the matrix. Due
to the method of programming (writing), a PROM can only be written to once. They are often
used in mobile phones .

The program or data once

installed cannot be changed.

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is also the type of ROM is read and
written optically. To write associate EPROM, its storage cells should stay within the same initial
state. EPROM provides reduced storage permanency as compared to PROM as a result of the
EPROM is receptive to radiation and electrical noise. in the construction of EPROM, MOS
(metal–oxide–semiconductor) transistors are used.
An erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is different to a PROM because
they use floating gate transistors and capacitors rather than fuses. Ultra violet (UV) light is used
to program an EPROM through a quartz window. They are used in applications which are under
development, such as the programming of new games consoles

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM):
EEPROM (also E2PROM) stands for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory and
is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers, integrated in microcontrollers for smart
cards and remote keyless systems, and other electronic devices to store relatively small
amounts of data by allowing individual bytes to be erased and reprogrammed.

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Embedded Systems:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPn_adlC1Q0

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Embedded Systems:
An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed
to perform a specific task. For example, a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will sense only
smoke. It has hardware.
Embedded systems involve installing microprocessors into devices to enable operations to be
controlled in a more efficient way. Devices such as cookers, refrigerators and central heating
systems can now all be activated by a web-enabled device (such as a mobile phone or tablet).
The time a central heating system switches on or off and the temperature can all be set from
an app on a mobile phone from anywhere in the world.

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3.1 Computers and their components:
Primary memory
Advantage and Disadvantage of Embedded Systems:

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Answer Exam-style

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Answer Exam-style
Answer Exam-style
AS/Level Exam Questions 1
AS/Level Exam Answer 1
AS/Level Exam Questions 2
AS/Level Exam Answer 2
AS/Level Exam Question 3
AS/Level Exam Answer 3
AS/Level Exam Question 4
AS/Level Exam Question 4
AS/Level Exam Answer 4
AS/Level Exam Answer 4
AS/Level Exam Question 5
AS/Level Exam Answer 5
AS/Level Exam Question 6
AS/Level Exam Answer 6
AS/Level Exam Question 7
AS/Level Exam Answer 7
3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1cyMTl_QXSc

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzyCGHfuqe8

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cj1uuVvd0s4

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Secondary memory can be thought of as the computers long term memory, it stores
the users files and programs whilst they are not being used. Secondary memory is
also non-volatile meaning that it will not lose its data when power is lost.
There two main forms of secondary storage that we will look at. These are:

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
How a Hard Disk Drive Works
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtPc0jI21i0

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
Hard disk drives are a form of magnetic storage and they are currently the most
popular method used to store data on a computer. Inside the HDD, data is stored on
circular, magnetic surfaces called platters.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
Each hard drive can contain multiple platters just like in the image
above. These platters can spin around at roughly 7200 times a minute. The HDD also
has a read write head, this head is responsible for reading data and writing data to the
platters. The read write head can move from the center of the platter to the edge at 50
times per second. This gives the read write head access to all parts of the disk.

Spinning 7200 times a minute sounds very fast! but remember, access to data on a
HDD is still slower than RAM hence the need to store programs currently being used in
RAM. The main reason why HDDs are slower than RAM is latency. When data is
accessed from a hard drive the read write head will constantly look for the correct
blocks of data, as the disk is also constantly spinning it means that the head will have
to be constantly moving and cannot have constant access to the data.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
This slows down access to the data and is defined as latency... latency is the
amount of time it takes for a specified block of data to rotate around to the
read write head, obviously whilst the data is rotating away from the head, it
cannot be written or read.

Structure of the Platters

Data on each platter is organised in a way that allows the read write head to
easily find the required data. The platters are divided into tracks and sectors.
Track - A single circular area of the disk that works all the way around the
surface. Tracks are concentric meaning that they do not spiral, instead they
are separate circular entities.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
Sector - A specific portion of the platter which splits each track
For a better understanding please see the below diagram:

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Solid State Drives
Solid state drives have the same purpose as HDDs in that they provide long term
storage of a user's files and programs even when power is lost - They are also
nonvolatile.

The main difference between SSD and HDD is that SSDs have no moving / mechanical
parts as a result, the read / write process is a lot faster than with HDDs.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Solid State Drives
.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Secondary storage devices
Solid State Drives
So what are the main benefits of using SSD rather than HDD? The main benefits of
SSDs are summarised below:
• they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)
• they are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
• they don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
• they have a lower power consumption
• they run much cooler than HDDs (these last two points again make verysuitable for
laptop computers)
• because they have no moving parts, they are very thin
• data access is considerably faster than HDD.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsEDJM9NuGA

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray disks
Removable storage is any data storage device that can hold data and is not permanently
connected to a computer.
Removable storage is great for backing up data as it can be taken away and kept in a secure
location, it is also good from transporting data from one device to another.

Examples of removable storage are:

USB Flash Drives

CDs / DVDs / BlueRay
Magnetic Tapes
Portable HDDs

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: CDs, DVDs disks
CDS and DVDS are described as OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES. Laser light is used to read data and to write
data in the surface of the disk. Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic
dye to store the data.

On these disks data is stored in pits and lands or cracks that are burned into a spiral track that circles
outwards from the center of the disk.

In the diagram below you can see that the spiral track is illustrated with a red line. If you were to look at
this disk through a magnifying disk you would see what is visible in the magnifying glass. Here you can see
the actual pits and lands (cracks) that are burned on to the disk with light.

DVD technology is slightly different to that used in CDs. One of the main differences is the use of DUAL-
LAYERING which considerably increases the storage capacity. Basically, this means that there are two
individual recording layers
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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: CDs, DVDs disks
Reading and writing to a disk
It has already been mentioned that data is written to an optical disk with a laser which leaves
pits and lands in the disk.

To read from the disk a laser is shone (shine) at the tracks of the disk. The laser
will reflect from the track and direct the reflected light into a sensor.

The intensity of the reflected light will determine whether it is interpreted as a 1 or a 0.

Technically speaking, if the laser hits a pit, the light does not reach the sensor and is recorded as
a 1, if the light hits a land, it will reflect into the sensor and is recorded as a 0.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: DVD-RAM
DVD-RAM uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs. They have the following features:
Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks see figure below:

Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations to take place.
They allow numerous read and write operations (up to 100 000 times) and have great longevity
(over 30 years) which makes them ideal for archiving.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: Blue-ray disk
BLUE-RAY DISKS are another example of optical storage media. However, they are fundamentally different
to DVDs in their construction and in the way they carry out read–write operations.

The main differences are:

- a blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out read and write operations; the wavelength of blue
light is only 405 nanometres (compared to 650 nm for red light).

- using blue laser light means that the ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ can be much smaller; consequently, - Blu-ray can
store up to five times more data than normal DVD.

- Blu-ray uses a single 1.1 mm thick polycarbonate disk; normal DVDs use a sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick
disks.

- Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to prevent piracy and
copyright infringement.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Optical media: CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray disks
Summarizes the main differences between CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
USB flash memories
MEMORY STICKS/FLASH MEMORIES (also known as pen drives) use solid-state technology. USB usually
connect to a computer through the USB port.

Main advantage is that they are very small, lightweight devices which make them suitable as a method for
transferring files between computers.

Digital cameras use a slightly different form of solid-state memory, known as XD (eXtreme Digital) or SD
(Secure Digital) cards).

All solid-state memories need to be treated with some care. If they are removed from a device before
being made safe (for example, while still in the middle of a read–write operation), data on the memory
card or stick can be corrupted. In extreme cases, the memory card or stick become totally unusable. It is
essential to wait for the message: ‘it is now safe to remove your device’ if plugged into a computer.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Off-line storage or Removable storage
Removable hard disk drives :
REMOVABLE HARD DISK DRIVES are essentially HDD but can be connected to the
computer using one of the USB ports. In this way, they can be used as a back-up
device or as another way of transferring files between computers.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
PRINTERS
https://youtu.be/JEVurb1uVFA

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WB0HnXcW8qQ

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZiuQn8g79A

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS
LASER PRINTERS differ greatly from inkjet printers in the way they print pages. They use dry
powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the properties of static electricity to
produce the text and images. Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page in one
go (inkjet printers print the page line by line).

Their advantage is the speed at which they can carry out large print jobs (e.g. 2000 leaflets)
and the fact that they don’t run out of ink halfway through.

LASER PRINTERS produce high quality printouts and are very fast when making multiple copies
of a document; any application that needs high-volume printing (in colour or monochrome)
would choose the laser printer (for example, producing a large number of high quality flyers
or posters for advertising) – they have two advantages: they have large toner cartridges and
large paper trays (often holding more than a ream of paper).

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS
The following table describes briefly the stages that occur when a document is
printed using a laser printer:

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Laser PRINTERS

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
INKJET PRINTERS
INKJET PRINTERS are essentially made up of:
- a print head which consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the paper to form
characters.
- an ink cartridge or cartridges; either a group of cartridges for each colour (blue, yellow and
magenta) and a black cartridge or one single cartridge containing all three colours + black
(Note: some systems use six colours.)
- a stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly across the page from side to
side
- a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
INKJET PRINTERS
There are two methods used to spray the paint, these two ways are Thermal bubble and Piezo electric.
Thermal Bubble:
- A thermal bubble works by having hundreds of print nozzles from which the paint is sprayed
- In each of these nozzles there are tiny resistors that create heat
- This heat will cause the ink to vaporize which will form tiny bubbles
- When the bubble expands it pushes the ink out of the nozzle onto the paper
- Now the resistors will cool causing the bubble to collapse, as it collapses the nozzle will draw in more ink.

Advantages of Thermal Bubble​:

- More printing nozzles can be used than piezoelectric
- It is cheaper than piezoelectric
Disadvantages of Thermal Bubble
- Ink drop sizes are bigger than piezoelectric
- A limited number of ink types can be used
- High temperatures are involved to create the bubble which can cause parts to break or overheat

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
INKJET PRINTERS
When a user wishes to print a document using an inkjet printer, the following sequence of events takes
place. Whatever technology is used, the basic steps in the printing process are the same.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
3D Printer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qoBU0r7pT84

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
3D Printer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Llgko_GpXbI

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
3D Printer
3D printers can produce solid objects which actually work. The solid object is built up layer by
layer using materials such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic powder.

Uses of 3D printing
- Prosthetic limbs made to exactly fit the recipient
- Items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (e.g. facial reconstruction following an
accident); the parts made by this technique are more precise in their design since they are
made from exact scanning of the skull

- In aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other parts using 3D
technology; the bonus will be lightweight precision parts
In fashion and art – 3D printing allows new creative ideas to be developed

- Making parts for items no longer in production, e.g. suspension parts for a vintage car.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
3D Printer
How to create a solid object using a 3D printer

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
https://youtu.be/dzDye6mi-6M

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
Sound is produced from a computer by passing the digital data through a DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE
CONVERTER (DAC) and then through an AMPLIFIER; finally the sound emerges from a (loud) SPEAKER.
The sound is produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker housing at different
frequencies and amplitudes:

The rate at which the DAC can translate the digital output into analogue voltages is known as
the SAMPLING RATE.
Analogue sound signals are continuous where as digital signals are discrete

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
Microphone are hardware devices designed
input analogue sound waves into a computer as digital signals.
How does it work?
- A sound wave will be directed at a microphone
- The sound wave will cause the diaphragm inside the microphone to vibrate forwards and backwards
- This causes a coil to vibrate which in turn changes the magnetic field produced by a magnet
- Changes in this current are detected and a signal is output.
- The diagram below should help to illustrate this process:

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices connected through the
USB port or through wireless connectivity.
• When sound is created, it causes the air to vibrate.
• When a diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations, the diaphragm also begins to
vibrate.
• A copper coil is wrapped around a permanent magnet and the coil is connected to the
diaphragm using a cone. As the diaphragm vibrates, the cone moves in and out causing the
copper coil to move backwards and forwards.
• This forwards and backwards motion causes the magnetic field around the permanent magnet
to be disturbed, inducing an electric current.
• The electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device. The electric current
is analogue in nature.

The electric current output from the microphone can also be sent to a computer where a sound
card converts the current into a digital signal which can then be stored in the computer. The
following diagram shows what happens when the word ‘hut’ is picked up by a microphone and is
converted into digital values:

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
The word ‘hut’ (in the form of a sound wave) has been picked up by a microphone; this is then converted
using an analogue to digital converter (ADC) into digital values which can then be stored in a computer or
manipulated as required using appropriate software.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
Basic internal operation of a speaker
- Takes an electrical signal and translates it into physical vibrations to create sound waves
- An electric current in the coil creates an electro-magnetic field
- Changes in the audio signal causes the direction of the electric current to change
- The direction of the current determines the polarity of the electro-magnet //changing the direction of
the current changes the direction of the polarity of the electro-magnet
- The electro-magnet is repelled by or attracted to the permanent magnet
- Causing the coil to vibrate
- The movement of the coil causes the cone / diaphragm to vibrate
- That vibration is transmitted to the air in front of the cone / diaphragm as sound waves
- The amount of movement

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
The process of converting an analogue signal into a digital one is known as sampling.
Using this image we can count that there have been 32 samples taken

We can also see, using the y axis that there are 16 possible sound states which needs to be represented
using 4 bits per sample.

To calculate the size of the sound file you simply need to multiply the bit depth by the number of
samples...
32 X 4 = 128 bits
128 / 8 = 16 Bytes
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Speakers and Microphones
The rate at which the DAC can translate the digital output into analogue voltages is known as the
SAMPLING RATE. If the DAC is a 16-bit device, then it can accept numbers between +32 767 (216 – 1) and
–32 768 (216); the digital value containing all zeros is ignored. The speed at which these values can be
converted is the sampling rate.

Most textbooks indicate that the standard sampling rate is 44 100 samples per second. This basically
means that the DAC can convert 44 100 values in the range +32 767 to –32 768 every second.

Suppose a CD is being produced to contain a number of music tracks. Each piece of music is sampled 44
100 times a second. Each sample is 16 bits. Since the music is in stereo this also needs to be taken into
consideration.

The above information means that 44 100 × 2 × 16 = 1 411 200 bits per second sampling (the number ‘2’ is
used in the calculation to account for the sound being in stereo).

Since 1 byte = 8 bits, this equation to 1 411 200/8 bytes per second.

This works out at 176 400 bytes per second.

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxygknX1AiE

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
Screens / monitors are an output hardware device that can be used to display data visually to a user.

There are many different types of screen available, however here we are just going to concentrate
on LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY/DIODE(LCD) and ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES screens.
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY/DIODE(LCD)

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
Modern LCD monitors are back lit using LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) technology.
LCD screens are made with thousands of individual pixels, each of these pixels contain a collection of red green and blue
diodes. These diodes are lit in different combinations to make each pixel appear to be the correct color.
Let there be light!
One issue with LCD screens is that they require a back light. The coloured diodes in each pixel of an LCD screen simply act
as light valves, light from a back light is shone through them to provide colour, they do not produce their own light!

In the past CCFLs (Cold Cathode Fluorescent lamps) were used as a back light, however, more recently they have been
replaced by LEDs (Light emitting diodes).

The reasons for this replacement are:

They
- - allow for a sharper image with more realistic colours
LEDs are smaller so screens can be thinner (Good for mobile devices)
Low power consumption and low heat production
LEDs instantly reach maximum brightness whereas CCFLs needed to warm up
Brighter light which produced better picture quality
LEDs last for an extremely long time, this increases reliability

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)
There are many benefits to using OLED screens and they are rapidly increasing in popularity but before we
look at why, we should understand how they work.
How do they work?
OLED screens have 6 layers, these are:
Glass/plastic top layer
Cathode layer
Emissive layer
Conductive layer
Anode
Glass/plastic bottom layer
Electrons will flow from the cathode (Negatively charged)to the Anode (Positively charged)
There are a number of 'holes' within the layers, when an electron hits a 'hole' they cancel each other light
and emit light
Each pixel has a set of Red green and blue OLEDs that can be lit in different combinations to produce
desired colours. This is very similar to an LCD screen, however a back light unnecessary as they produce
their own light​
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Screens: LCD -LED and OLED monitors:
Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)
Benefits
As previously mentioned there are a number of advantages to using OLED over LCD screens, these are:
OLED produces its own light meaning that no back light is needed. Not having to install a backlight
simplifies the manufacture process.
OLED screens have a much lower power consumption, this is vital when producing battery dependent
devices e.g. mobile phones.
Lower power consumption means reduced running cost (Less electricity required).
Greater field of view than other screen types, this means that the screens can be viewed from a greater
angle.
OLED screens are both thinner and lighter than LCD screens.

Drawbacks ( Disadvantage)
It should be noted that OLED screens are not perfect!
Production cost is greater (Although likely to change as time passes)
Due to the organic nature they are affected badly by water and contaminants
The lifespan of the screens is less than LCD screens
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Sensors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XI49uFm5HRE

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Sensors
A sensor is a hardware device that will take measurement of physical properties like temperature, pressure
or acidity.

The data that is taken in / measured by a sensor is usually in analogue form. computers cannot make any
sense of these physical quantities and the data needs to be converted into a digital format. This is usually
achieved by an ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC). This device converts physical values into
discrete digital values.

When the computer is used to control devices, such as a motor or a valve, it is necessary to use a DIGITAL
TO ANALOGUE CONVERTER (DAC) since these devices need analogue data to operate
There are many different sensors available each designed to measure different physical properties. Some
of these sensors are included in the table below:
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Sensors

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Sensors

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Sensors

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Monitoring Applications:
Monitoring systems do not make any changes to the process, instead it simply reports the
information / values to the user e.g. a life support system in a hospital will sound an alarm if
the patient's heart stops...it will not take action to re start the heart, it only informs doctors
that they need to take action.

Examples

Burglar alarm system

Monitoring a patients vitals in intensive care
Checking for intruders in an alarm system
Monitoring pollution levels

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Monitoring Applications:
Let's look at burglar alarm monitoring system will carry out the following actions:

• The system is activated by keying in a password on a keypad.

• The infra-red sensor picks up the movement of an intruder in the building.
• The acoustic sensor picks up sounds such as footsteps or breaking glass.
• The pressure sensor picks up the weight of an intruder coming through a door or through a window.
• The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in an analogue form to produce digital data.
• The computer/microprocessor will sample the digital data coming from these sensors at a given
frequency (e.g. every five seconds); the data is compared with the stored values by the
computer/microprocessor.
• If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable range, then the computer sends a signal to:
a siren to sound the alarm, or a light to start flashing.
• A DAC is used if the devices need analogue values to operate them.
• The alarm continues to sound/lights continue to flash until the system is reset with a password.
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Control Applications:
Control systems can take control and alter how a process is altering e.g. turning up fans on an
air-conditioning machine because the temperature has become too high.

Examples:

Air conditioning / heating systems

Traffic light control
Automatically turning street lights on and off at night

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Control Applications:
Let's look at Control of street lighting:
This next sequence shows how a microprocessor is used to control the operation of a street lamp. The
lamp is fitted with a light sensor which constantly sends data to the microprocessor. The data value from
the sensor changes according to whether it is sunny, cloudy, raining or it is night time etc.

• The light sensor sends data to the ADC interface.

• This digitises the data and sends it to the microprocessor.
• The microprocessor samples the data every minute (or at some other frequency rate).
• If the data from the sensor < value stored in memory:
• a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp
• and the lamp is switched on.
• The lamp stays switched on for 30 minutes before the sensor readings are sampled again (this prevents
the lamp flickering off and on during brief heavy cloud cover, for example).
• If the data from the sensor >= value stored in memory:
• a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp
• and the lamp is switched off.
• The lamp stays switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings are sampled
again (this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during heavy cloud
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
CONTROL / MONITORING SYSTEM

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
HOW TO ANSWER CONTROL / MONITORING SYSTEM QUESTIONS
The Basics:
1.The (Name the sensor) Sensor is reading the (Insert property) at a (set rate or constantly)
2.The data is converted with an ADC and sent to the micro processor
3.The microprocessor will compare this data against the pre-defined values that are know to be acceptable. (If the
question gives you these values, you must use them in your answer!)
4.If the sensors reading and the pre-defined values do not match. The microprocessor will send a signal to the (Insert
device) to adjust the physical properties. This signal must go through a DAC
5.The system will continue until it is switched off or programmed to do so

Example answer for the control of street lights:

Light sensors constantly read the light of the surrounding area.

Data from the sensors is sent to a microprocessor and is converted into digital using an ADC
The microprocessor checks data from light sensors against pre-set values
If light levels < pre-set values then a signal is sent to switch on the street lamp. If light levels >= pre-set values then a
signal is sent to switch off the street lamp
​The microprocessor begins checking data again after two hours

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Touchscreen:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFvh7qM6LdA

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Touchscreen:
Touch screens are actually one of the few devices that are both input (Pressing the screen) and
output (displaying information).

There are 4 different types of touch screen that you should be aware of, these are:

Resistive
Capacitive
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
Infrared

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Touchscreen:
Resistive Touch Screens:
How do they work?
- Resistive touchscreens are made with two layers, the top layer that the user touches is made
from polyester and underneath this layer is a glass layer.
- When the user touches the top layer (polyester) it will bend and make contact with the glass layer, this
completes a circuit.
- The position of the touch on the screen is calculated by a microprocessor based on where the circuit was
completed.

Advantages: Resistive screens allow for the use of a stylus

It is possible to use whilst wearing gloves
It is a cheaper technology than other touchscreen types

Disadvantages:
Multi-touch is not possible
Average durability - Easily scratched
Poor visibility in bright sunlight
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Touchscreen:
Capacitive Touchscreens:
How do they work?
Capacitive touchscreens are made with many layers of glass, these glass layers act like capacitors that
create an electric field between the glass.

When a person touches the top layer of glass their finger will change the electric current between the
glass layers, the coordinates of where the current changes is sent to a microprocessor that uses the
information to calculate where the touch happened.

Advantages:
Medium cost - more than resistive but less than others
Multi-touch is possible
Very durable - A lot of force is required to break the glass
Disadvantages:
Capacitive touchscreens only allow touch to be made with bare fingers, gloves will not work as it will affect
the electricity. (Some special stylus are available)
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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Touchscreen:
Infra-red Touchscreens
How do they work?

- Infra-red touch screens work by creating a grid pattern using LEDs and photocells (light sensors)
- LED lights shine constantly across the screen and into its corresponding sensor
- When somebody touches the screen, the light is blocked and certain sensors will recognize that they no
longer detect light.
- A microprocessor will use this information from the sensors to calculate the coordinates of where the
touch was made.

Advantages:
Multi-touch is possible
Bare fingers and stylus can be used
Good screen durability
Disadvantages:
It is Expensive

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Touchscreen:
Surface Acoustic Wave Screens

How do they work?

SAWs work similarly to Infra-red screens, however, instead of creating a grid of light, it uses a grid of sound
waves.

Two sound wave transducers generate ultrasonic waves and two receivers are used to receive the sound.

When the screen is touched, the sound wave is interrupted and will not reach the receiver. This
information is sent to the microprocessor and used to calculate the coordinates of the touch.

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Input and Output devices
Actuators:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LHn7O6PUaoY

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3.1 Computers and their components
Input and Output devices
Virtual reality headset:
VR headsets replace the user's natural environment with virtual reality content, such as a movie, a game
or a prerecorded 360-degree VR environment that allows the user to turn and look around, just as in the
physical world.
https://youtu.be/fxDCYmsw2M0

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Learning Objectives

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Learning Objectives

160
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
Electronic circuits in computers, many new memories and controlling devices are made up of
thousands of LOGIC GATES. Logic gates take binary inputs and produce a binary output also
electronic circuits have to make decisions. They look at two or more inputs and use these to
determine the outputs from the circuit and the process of doing this uses electronic logic, which
is based on digital switches called gates. When logic gates are combined together to carry out a
particular function, such as controlling a robot, they form a logic circuit.

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
Truth tables: Truth tables are used to trace the output from a logic gate or
logic circuit.

When constructing truth tables, all possible combinations of 1s and 0s which

can be input are considered.

For the NOT gate (one input) there are only 21 (2) possible binary
combinations. For all other gates (two inputs), there are 22 (4) possible binary
combinations.

For logic circuits, the number of inputs can be more than 2; for example: three
inputs give a possible 23 (8) binary combinations and four inputs, the number
of possible binary combinations is 24 (16).
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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
Truth tables:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:

Click the link below to see real life example for logic circuit:

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=DIG1302

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
NOT gate:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
AND gate:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
OR gate:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
NAND gate (NOT AND):

168
Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
NOR gate (NOT OR):

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
XOR (Exclusive OR) gate:

If both states are ON or both state are OFF , we are not going to do anything because
the output will be OFF, However If both states are not the same then do something

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
https://youtu.be/UdirtczcTeQ

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
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Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic circuit and truth table:
Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
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Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
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Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
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Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
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Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
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Example 1:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 2:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 2:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 2:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 2:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:
A wind turbine has a safety system which uses three inputs to a logic circuit. A certain
combination of conditions results in an output, X, from the logic circuit being equal to 1. When
the value of X = 1 then the wind turbine is shut down.
The following table shows which parameters are being monitored and form the three inputs to
the logic circuit.

Revolutions per minute

(abbreviated rpm, RPM, is the number
of turns in one minute. It is a unit of
rotational speed or the frequency of
rotation around a fixed axis.
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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:

The output, X, will have a value of 1 if any of the following combination of conditions occur:
• either turbine speed <= 1000 rpm and bearing temperature > 80°C
• or turbine speed > 1000 rpm and wind velocity > 120 kph
• or bearing temperature <= 80°C and wind velocity > 120 kph.

Design the logic circuit and complete the truth table to produce a value of X =1 when any of the
three conditions above occur.

This time a real situation is given and it is necessary to convert the information into a logic
statement and then produce the logic circuit and truth table.

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:
Stage 1
The first thing to do is to convert each of the three statements into logic statements.
Use the information given in the table and the three condition statements to find how
the three parameters, S, T and W, are linked. We usually look for the key words AND,
OR and NOT when converting actual statements into logic.
We end up with the following three logic statements:

a): turbine speed <= 1000 rpm and bearing temperature > 80°C
logic statement: (S = NOT 1 AND T = 1)
b): turbine speed > 1000 rpm and wind velocity > 120 kph
logic statement: (S = 1 AND W = 1)
c): bearing temperature <= 80°C and wind velocity > 120 kph
logic statement: (T = NOT 1 AND W = 1)
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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:
Stage 2: This now produces three intermediate logic circuits:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:
Stage 2: Each of the three original statements were joined together by the word OR. Thus
we need to join all of the three intermediate logic circuits by two OR gates to get the final
logic circuit. We will start by joining (i) and (ii) together using an OR gate

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:
Stage 2: Finally, we connect the logic circuit in Figure 3.23 to Figure 3.22 to obtain the
answer:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Recap last year logic statement:
Example 3:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Logic circuits in the real world
Practical Activity:
After you watched the video then click on the link below to download the
Logisim for free. An educational tool for designing and simulating digital logic
circuits, featuring a simple-to-learn interface, hierarchical circuits.

https://sourceforge.net/projects/circuit/files/2.7.x/2.7.1/logisim-win-2.7.1.exe/download

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Logic circuits in the real world
Electronics companies need to consider the cost of components, fabrication
and time, when designing and building logic circuits. Two possible ways for
electronics companies can review logic circuit design:

First method is to use ‘off-the-shelf’ logic units and build up the logic circuit as
a number of ‘building blocks’.

Second method involves simplifying the logic circuit as far as possible; this
may be necessary where room is at a premium (e.g. in building circuit boards
for use in satellites to allow space exploration).

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
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Logic circuits in the real world

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
Logic circuits in the real world
Practical Activity:

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
AS/A level Past Paper Exam Question 1

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Chapter 3 -Hardware
3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits
AS/A level Past Paper Exam Question 1

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