Bangladesh Army University of Science

and Technology, Saidpur

EEE 4251: Power Electronics
Course Instructor
Md. Hassanul Karim Roni
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE, BAUST
 Slide Contents
1. Introduction to Power Electronics
2. Power Electronics Switches
3. Rectifier (AC to DC)
4. AC voltage Controller (AC to AC)
5. Cyclo Converter (AC to AC)
6. DC Chopper (DC to DC)
7. Voltage regulator (DC to DC)
8. Inverters (DC to AC)
9. Gating Circuits
10. Short Q & A

2
 Course Content
• Power semiconductor switches and triggering devices: BJT, MOSFET, SCR, IGBT,
GTO, TRIAC, UJT and DIAC.
• Rectifiers: Uncontrolled and controlled single phase and three phase.
• Regulated power supplies: Linear-series and shunt, switching buck, buck-
boost, boost and Cuk- regulators.
• AC voltage controllers: Single and three phase. Choppers. DC motor control.
Single phase cyclo-converter.
• Inverters: Single phase and three phase voltage and current source. AC motor
control. Stepper motor control. Resonance inverters. Pulse width modulation
control of static converters.

3
Reference Book

4
Reference Book

5
Introduction to Power Electronics

6
1. Why do we need power electronics?
2. Draw and Explain the general structure of Power electronics
application.
3. What are the different types of Power converters used in power
electronics applications?
4. Explain any one application of power electronics with proper
block diagram.

7
 What is Power Electronics
• Electrical Power is a fundamental requirement for residential and industrial
applications. The nature of requirements may be variable for different
consumers and applications. But the electric power utility supply power at a
fixed voltage and frequency and thus can’t meet the above requirement.
• Hence a power modulator (PE Converter) is needed which will act as an
interface between the utility system and consumer load.
• Definitation:
“It is a technology associated with efficient conversion and control of electric
power by Power Electronic Devices. The control is done by varying the
voltage(v), frequency (f) and current.”
• The goal is to control the flow of energy from source to load.
• It may also be defined as a subject that deals with the apparatus and
equipment working on the principle of electronics but rated at power level
rather than signal level.
8
 Why PE?
• In order to save energy there must be separate power processing
unit in between source and load which gives the required input to
the machine to improve the 𝜂.
• Also to reduce the controlling device size.

9
Typical Block Diagram of A PE System

Bimbhra Page -18 10

 Advantages and Disadvantages of PE
Advantages
• No rotational loss (As PE is Static device )
• High Efficiency
• Less heat, less temperature rise and less cooling is required. So, also
size of heat sink is also reduced
• Compact In size

Disadvantages
• Harmonics (Due to switching harmonics are injected in the system)

11
 Harmonics Analysis
• Harmonics are undesirable because-
• It increases 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
• It increases 𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
• For constant power factor decreases as the current I increases

𝐼𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑜 + 𝐼𝑚1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼𝑚2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼𝑚3 sin 𝜔𝑡

Desirable AC Undesirable AC part
part (Harmonics)

1 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡 = (𝐼02 + 2
𝐼𝑚1 + 𝐼𝑚2 +⋯
2
• Harmonics arises in>> rotating machines, transformers, improper operation of
relay.
• In order to reduce harmonics suitable filter is installed. 12
Applications of PE

13
 Types of Converter
Converter Type Input Output Symbol

Rectifier AC at Const. voltage DC at variable voltage

and frequency

AC at desired voltage
Inverter DC at constant voltage
and frequency

Chopper DC at constant voltage DC at desired voltage

AC at constant voltage AC at desired voltage

Cyclo converter
and frequency and frequency

AC at constant Voltage AC at desired voltage

AC Voltage Controller
and frequency and input frequency
14
Application of PE: Solar Energy

15
Application of PE: Electric Car

16
Application of PE: Motor Control

17
Application of PE: HVDC Transmission

18
Power Electronics Switches

19
1. List the uncontrolled, half controlled and full controlled power
electronics switches.
2. Explain the construction and characteristics of the following devices
i. Power Diode
ii. SCR/ Thyristor
iii. GTO
3. Shorts Note (Symbols, Construction, Characteristics Curves,
Applications): Power Diode, SCR, GTO, IGBT, BJT, MOSFET, DIAC, TRIAC
4. Differentiate between
i. Signal Diode vs Power Diode
ii. SCR vs GTO
iii. SCR vs. TRIAC
iv. DIAC vs TRIAC
v. Power MOSFETs vs. BJTs

20
Classification

21
 Classification of Power Switches
1. Uncontrolled Turned on and off Device: Diode
• Has only two terminals and can not be controlled by control signal. The on
and off states of the device are determined by the power circuit.
2. Half Controlled (Controlled turned on but uncontrolled turn off
Devices): SCR
• It is turned on by a control device and turned off by the power circuit.
3. Fully controlled Device (Controlled turned on and off devices):
Power BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, IGCT, SITs, MCTs
• The on and off states of the device are controlled by control signals.

22
 Power semiconductor switches and triggering devices
• BJT, MOSFET, SCR, IGBT, GTO, TRIAC, UJT and DIAC.

BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

• BJT is bipolar device
• It can acts as switch, amplifier or oscillator.
• Active, saturation and cutoff zone.

SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

• It is a four layer solid-state current controlling device.
• An SCR conducts when a gate pulse is applied to it, just like a diode.
• It is mainly used in electronic devices that require control of high voltage and
power.
• Forward blocking, reverse blocking, conducting mode.

23
 Power semiconductor switches and triggering devices
• BJT, MOSFET, SCR, IGBT, GTO, TRIAC, UJT and DIAC.

MOSFET
• MOSFET is a field-effect transistor (FET with an insulated gate) where the voltage
determines the conductivity of the device.
• It is used for switching or amplifying signals.
• The ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for
amplifying or switching electronic signals.
MOSFET

IGBT
• Insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT, is a solid state devices primarily used as an
electronic switch
• IGBT is a switch that is used in order to allow power flow in the ON state and to stop
power flow when it is in the OFF state.
• It is used in switching power supplies in high power applications: variable-frequency drives
IGBT (VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, lamp ballasts, and air-conditioners.
24
 Power semiconductor switches and triggering devices
• BJT, MOSFET, SCR, IGBT, GTO, TRIAC, UJT and DIAC.
GTO
• A Gate Turn off Thyristor or GTO is a three terminal, bipolar (current controlled minority
carrier) semiconductor switching device.
• Similar to conventional thyristor, the terminals are anode, cathode and gate as shown in
figure below. As the name indicates, it has gate turn off capability.
• These are capable not only to turn ON the main current with a gate drive circuit, but also to
turn it OFF.
GTO • A small positive gate current triggers the GTO into conduction mode and also by a negative
pulse on the gate, it is capable of being turned off.

TRIAC
• A TRIAC is a type of thyristor device with three terminals used in switching applications.
• A triac allows the flow of current in both directions between its terminals MT1 and MT2,
and therefore it tends to be utilised more in AC circuits, however it can also operate in DC
circuits.
• The conduction occurs only when the gate (G) receives a voltage, and removal of this
voltage stops the conduction.
TRIAC
25
 Power semiconductor switches and triggering devices
• BJT, MOSFET, SCR, IGBT, GTO, TRIAC, UJT and DIAC.

UJT
• A Uni Junction Transistor (UJT) is a device that is formed with a single junction of p-type
and the n-type of the semiconductor material.
• It resembles to that of the diode with a single junction of the P-N. It looks almost like that
of the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET).
• But the operation is completely different in comparison with it.
UJT

DIAC
• The DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its break-over voltage, VBO,
has been reached momentarily.
• The term is an acronym of "diode for alternating current".

DIAC
26
Characteristics and Symbols of Some PE

27
Characteristics and Symbols of Some PE

28
Book: Power Electronics by M D Singh 29
Book: Power Electronics by M D Singh 30
Power Diode

31
 Power Diode
• Power diodes are also similar to signal diodes but
have a little difference in its construction.
• In signal diodes the doping level of both P and N
sides is same and hence we get a PN junction,
• But in power diodes we have a junction formed
between a heavily doped P+ and a lightly doped
N– layer which is epitaxially grown on a heavily
doped N+ layer.
• Hence the structure looks as shown in the figure
below.

32
 Power Diode
• The N– layer is the key feature of the power
diode which makes it suitable for high power
applications.
• This layer is very lightly doped, almost intrinsic
and hence the device is also known as PIN
diode, where i stands for intrinsic.
• As we can see in the figure above that the net
charge neutrality of the space charge region is
still maintained as was the case in signal diode
but the thickness of space charge region is quite
high and deeply penetrated into the N– region.

33
 V-I Characteristics of Power Diodes
• In signal diodes for forward biased region the
current increases exponentially however in power
diodes high forward current leads to high ohmic
drop which dominates the exponential growth and
the curve increases almost linearly.
• The maximum reverse voltage that the diode can
withstand is depicted by VRRM, i.e. peak reverse
repetitive voltage.
• Above this voltage the reverse current becomes
very high abruptly and as the diode is not
designed to dissipate such high amount of heat, it
may get destroyed. This voltage may also be called
as peak inverse voltage (PIV).

34
 Properties of PN Junction
• Forward voltage, 𝑉𝐹 is the voltage drop of a diode across A and K at
a defined current level when it is forward biased.
• Breakdown voltage, 𝑉𝐵 is the voltage drop across the diode at a
defined current level when it is beyond reverse biased level. This is
popularly known as avalanche.
• Reverse current 𝐼𝑅 is the current at a particular voltage, which is
below the breakdown voltage.

35
 AC diode parameters
• Forward recovery time, 𝑡𝐹𝑅 is the time required for the
diode voltage to drop to a particular value after the
forward current starts to flow.
• Reverse recovery time 𝑡𝑟𝑟 is the time interval between
the application of reverse voltage and the reverse current
dropped to a particular value as shown in Fig. 2.3. ta is the
interval between the zero crossing of the diode current to
when it becomes IRR. On the other hand, tb is the time
interval from the maximum reverse recovery current to
approximately 0.25 of IRR.
• 𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏

36
 AC diode parameters
• If tb is negligible compared to ta which is a very common
case, then the following expression is valid:
2𝑄𝑅𝑅
𝑡𝑅𝑅 =
𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡
• The reverse recovery current
𝑑𝑖
𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 2𝑄𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑡
• Diode capacitance, CD is the net diode capacitance
including the junction (CJ ) plus package capacitance (CP).

37
AC diode parameters

38
 Diode circuit with RC Load
• When the switch S1 is closed at t=0, the
charging current that flows through the
capacitor is found from
1
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣𝑅 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 0
𝐶
• With the initial condition 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 0 =
0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑅

39
 Diode with RL Load
• When switch 𝑆1 is closed at t=0, the current through the inductor
increase and is expressed as
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝑅 = 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑡
• With initial condition 𝑖 𝑡 = 0 = 0, the solution yields
𝑡𝑅
−
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 /𝑅 1 − 𝑒 𝐿

40
 Diode Circuit with RL Load
• When switch S1 is closed at 𝑡 = 0, the
charging current of the capacitor is
expressed as
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
With initial condition 𝑖 𝑡 = 0 = 0 and
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 0 = 0 the above equation
solution is given as
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐶/𝐿 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑃 sin 𝑤𝑡

41
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

42
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
• It is a three terminal semiconductor switching device. Three terminals are taken
• one from the outer p-type material called anode A,
• second from the outer n-type material called cathode K and
• the third from the base of transistor section and is called gate G.

• SCR is turned on by applying +ve gate signal when anode is +ve with respect to
cathode. SCR is turned off by interrupting anode current.
• It can change alternating current into direct current and at the same time can control
the amount of power fed to the load. Thus SCR combines the features of a rectifier
and a transistor.
• It is essentially an ordinary rectifier (p-n) and a junction transistor (n-p-n) combined in
one unit to form p-n-p-n device.
43
Mehta 20 Chapter
 SCR Construction
• A silicon controlled rectifier is made up of 4
semiconductor layers of alternating P and N type
materials, which forms n-p-n-p or p-n-p-n
structures.
• It has three P-N junctions namely J1, J2, J3 with
three terminals attached to the semiconductors
materials namely anode (A), cathode (K), and gate
(G).
• Anode is a positively charged electrode through
which the conventional current enters into an
electrical device, cathode is a negatively charged
electrode through which the conventional current
leaves an electrical device, gate is a terminal that
controls the flow of current between anode and
cathode.
• The gate terminal is also sometimes referred to as
control terminal.
44
 Application of SCR
• Phase control of the signals
• For switching of Electronics Devices
• Triggering the IC’s and different timing circuits
• Used as controlled rectifier
• SCR as static contactor
• SCR for power control
• SCRs for speed control of d.c. shunt motor
• Over-light detector
• SCR Crowbar: A crowbar is a circuit that is used to protect a
voltage-sensitive load from excessive d.c. power supply output
voltages.

45
 SCR Characteristics
• Forward Blocking mode
• Forward Conduction mode
• Reverse Blocking mode

Boylestad 21 Chapter
46
 Characteristics Curve of SCR
In order to operate the SCR in normal operation, the
following points are kept in view :
• The supply voltage is generally much less than break-
over voltage.
• The SCR is turned on by passing an appropriate amount
of gate current (a few mA) and not by break-over
voltage.
• When SCR is operated from a.c. supply, the peak
reverse voltage which comes during negative half-cycle
should not exceed the reverse breakdown voltage.
• When SCR is to be turned OFF from the ON state, anode
current should be reduced to holding current.
• If gate current is increased above the required value,
the SCR will close at much reduced supply voltage.
47
Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)

48
 Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)
• It is a fully controllable active semiconductor device.
• A Gate Turn off Thyristor or GTO is a three terminal,
bipolar (current controlled minority carrier)
semiconductor switching device.
• Similar to conventional thyristor, the terminals are
anode, cathode and gate as shown in figure below. As
the name indicates, it has gate turn off capability.
• These are capable not only to turn ON the main current
with a gate drive circuit, but also to turn it OFF.
• A small positive gate current triggers the GTO into
conduction mode and also by a negative pulse on the
gate, it is capable of being turned off.

49
 Construction
• It is also a four layer, three junction P-N-P-N device like a
standard thyristor. In this, the n+ layer at the cathode end is
highly doped to obtain high emitter efficiency. This result the
breakdown voltage of the junction J3 is low which is typically
in the range of 20 to 40 volts.

• The doping level of the p type gate is highly graded because the doping level
should be low to maintain high emitter efficiency, whereas for having a good turn
OFF properties, doping of this region should be high. In addition, gate and
cathodes should be highly interdigited with various geometric forms to optimize
the current turn off capability.
• The junction between the P+ anode and N base is called anode junction. A heavily
doped P+ anode region is required to obtain the higher efficiency anode junction
so that a good turn ON properties is achieved. However, the turn OFF capabilities
are affected with such GTOs. 50
 Operation of GTO
• It can be thought of as being one PNP and one NPN
transistor being connected in a regenerative
configuration whereby once turned on the system
maintains itself in this state.
• Turn On: (+ve) positive gate pulse
• Turn off: (-ve) negative gate pulse
• Turn ON is not as reliable as SCR
• GTO is much faster than SCR Equivalent circuit of a thyristor
including a gate turn off thyristor
• To assist turn off process we connect GTO in parallel.

51
 GTO Characteristics Curve
• When the anode is made positive with respect to
cathode, the device operates in forward blocking mode.
By the application of positive gate signal triggers the
GTO into conduction state.
• The latching current and forward leakage currents are
considerably higher in GTO compared to the Thyristor
as shown in figure.
• The GTO can be turned OFF by the application of
reverse gate current which can be either step or ramp
drive. The GTO can be turned OFF without reversing
anode voltage.
• In reverse biased condition of GTO, the blocking
capability is depends on the type of GTO.
• During reverse biased condition, after a small reverse
voltage (20 to 30 V) GTO starts conducting in reverse
direction due to the anode short structure.

52
 Application of GTO
• AC drives
• DC drives or DC choppers
• AC stabilizing power supplies
• DC circuit breakers
• Induction heating
• And other low power applications

53
Rectifier

54
1. Draw and explain the circuit and output graphs of the following
circuits with a) Resistive load b) RL Load c) Motor Load
2. Find the output dc voltage, rms voltage and efficiency of the
following circuits with a) Resistive load
3. Find the ripple factor, form factor, TUF of the following circuits.
with a) Resistive load
I. Uncontrolled Half and full wave rectifier
II. Half controlled half and full wave rectifier
III. Fully controlled half and full wave rectifier
IV. Uncontrolled and controlled 3𝜙 star rectifier circuit
V. Uncontrolled and controlled 3𝜙 bridge circuit
4. What is freewheeling diode? How is it helpful?
55
 Rectifiers

Half Wave
Center Tap
Uncontrolled
Transformer
Full Wave
Single Phase
Half Controlled Bridge
Rectifier
Rectifier

Fully Controlled

Half Wave
Uncontrolled
Full Wave (Bridge)
Three Phase
Half Controlled
Rectifier Center Tap
Transformer
Fully Controlled
Bridge

56
 AC to DC (Rectifier)
• High voltage dc transmission systems
• DC Motor drives
• Regulated dc power supplies
• Static VAR compensator
• Wind generator converters
• Battery Charger Circuits

57
Uncontrolled Rectifier

58
 Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier
• The output voltage is pulsating dc, comprising a dc part and a ac part. Vi

• The output dc voltage is defined as 1

T
Vdc   vL(t)dt Vm
T0 
0 2 t

+ VL

Vs Vm

0  2 t

R IL
 +
VL Im

t
VD

0  2 t
Vm

59
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier

60
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier

61
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier

62
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier: At a Glance

63
Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier: At a Glance

64
Single Phase Full Wave Mid point Rectifier: At a Glance

65
Single Phase Full Wave Mid point Rectifier: At a Glance

66
Single Phase Full Wave: Bridge Rectifier At a Glance

67
Numerical: Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier

68
Numerical: Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier

69
Numerical: Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier

70
Numerical Example

71
R-L Rectifier

72
 Inductive Load Vi
VS = Vmsint
Vm
+
R
0  2 t
Vs IL IL
β=? If R=10 and X
L
=10 
Im β
0  2 t
• As the source voltage is positive in the circuit, IL

the diode will be forward biased. Β=900 if R=0

Im

• After the diode turns off (reverse biased), the 0  2 t

current continue to flow because of the energy IL
storage into the inductor, which force the diode
to turn on again and continue to be on until the Im Β=00 if L=0
current becomes zero. 0  2 t
 Half Wave Rectifier with RL Load
Vi
vL  Vm sin ωt, 0  t  (   )
Vm

0  2 t This is not the

Vdc  ? IL actual current
wave shape of the
T
1 rectifier circuit.
Vdc   vL(t)dt Im
However we will
T0 0  only concentrate at
vL  0, (   )  t  2 β
2 t
the voltage zero
VL
region

The output dc voltage is defined as Vm

+
+
0  2 t R
VL
β
1    2  Vs IL

Vdc    Vm sin tdt   0 * dt  L 

2


 0   
 Freewheeling Diode
Vi

Vm

0  2 t
IL
+
+
R
VL Im
Vs
0 
L  β
2 t

VL

Vm

0  2 t
β
 Full Wave Rectifier with RL Load
The output voltage wave shape is same as in case of Resistive Load
Vi

Vm

Vs 0 
R L 2
t
IL
VL
 +
Vs
Im

0 
β
2 t
VL

Rest of the analysis is Vm

also same 0  2 t
DC MOTOR Load

77
 DC MOTOR Load

+ +
+
Ia
If Ia

Rf
R Ra Ra

L E E
L

_ _
_
 Half Wave Rectifier with DC Motor Load
+

Vdc  ? Vs VL Ra

2  E

1 

Vdc 
2  vd
0
Vi
Vm > E
Vm
E
1    2 
  Ed   Vm sind    Ed 
0 
Vdc  2 t
2 
0 
VL
β

E  Vm sin  Vm

0  2 t
β
 Full Wave Rectifier with DC Motor Load

Vdc  ? Vi
Vm > E

 Vm
E
1
Vdc 
  vd
0
0  2 t

VL
1 
   
Vdc    Ed   Vm sind   Ed 
  0
Vm

 β 0  2 t
β

E  Vm sin  β
Uncontrolled Rectifiers Comparison

81
Parameter Summary

82
 Numerical Example

Bimbhra Page- 71
83
Numerical Example

84
Numerical Example

85
3 phase uncontrolled rectifier

86
 Three Phase Rectifier
• Three phase half wave rectifier
• Three phase mid-point 6 pulse rectifier
• Three phase bridge rectifier
• Three phase 12 pulse rectifier

87
88
89
 3 Phase ac to DC converter: Star Rectifier
Vin

Vm
2
0  t

Vo

Vm

t

Vdc  ? Vm /6 2/3

 -/6

The output is pulsating dc, T  -/6

comprising a dc part and a ac 1 1
part. The dc value of the output
Vdc   v o dt Vdc   Vm sintdt
T0 2/3 /6
voltage is defined by
 Star Rectifier: RMS Voltage
The output is pulsating dc, comprising a dc part and
 -/6
a ac part. The rms value of the output voltage is
 V sin t  dt
1
Vrms 
2
defined by
2/3
T m
Vrms 
1
 v dt
2
V1
/6
T0
Vm
2
0  t

_ Vo + Vo

Vm

t

 -/6
/6 2/3
 Star Rectifier
Vdc Vrms _ Vo
I dc  I rms  +

R R
Pdc  Vdc * I dc Pac  Vrms * I rms
Pdc V1
η  96.77%
Pac Vm
2
0  t
Vrms
FF   101.65%
Vdc Vo

Vm

RF  1  FF  18.24% t
 Star Rectifier: Transformer Utilization Factor
Vdc Pdc  Vdc * I dc
I dc  + Vo -
R
Vrms
I rms 
R
Pac  Vrms * I rms V1

Vm

VoltAmpere  3Vs Is 0 
2
t

Pdc
TUF   66.43% Vo

3Vs I s Vm

t
 Bridge Rectifier
3 Phase ac to DC converter
Vin

3Vm
2
0  t

Vo

3Vm

R t
_ Vo + /6  -/6
2/3
 -/6
1
Vdc 
2/3 
/6
3Vmsintdt
Rest of the analysis is as before
3 Phase Converter – RL load: Bridge Rectifier
Vin

3Vm
2
0  t

Vo

3Vm

t

/6  -/6
2/3

_ Vo +

Rest of the analysis is as before

 Comparison of different uncontrolled rectifiers
Parameter 1  BRIDGE 3  STAR 3  BRIDGE

DC output 2Vm/ 0.827Vm 1.65Vm

voltage

 81% 96.77% 99.83%

RF 48.2% 18.24% 4%

TUF 81% 66.43% 95.42%

PIV Vm 3Vm 3Vm

No. of Diode 4 3 6

Transformer Small Medium Small

size
DC output Better Better Best
quality

Three Phase Bridge rectifier is the best Problem of floating neutral of the load
 3 Phase Converter Motor load

1      
Vdc   Ed   3Vm sind   Ed 
  0    
E  3Vm sin  Rest of the analysis is as before
Controlled Rectifier

98
 ac to dc converter(Controlled rectifier) output dc voltage

• The output is pulsating dc, comprising a dc A

G
K
part and a ac part. +

Vs
• The output dc voltage is given by 
 Vo +

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝐿 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝛼 Vs

vL  VmSint,  t   Vm


0 2 t
vL  0,   t  2 VGK
  2
1  
 Vdc    0dt   VmSintdt   0dt   t
2  0    Vo

 Vdc 
Vm
1  cos  Vm
2π 
0 2 t
ac to dc converter ( Controlled rectifier ): output rms voltage

G
The output rms voltage is given by A
+
K

Vs
2
1
 v dt
2  Vo +
Vrms 

2
L
0
vL  0,0  t   Vs

vL  VmSint ,   t   Vm


0 2 t
vL  0,   t  2 VGK

  2
1    t
 Vrms    0dt   VmSin tdt   0dt 
2 2 Vo

2  0    Vm

0  2 t
ac to dc converter ( Controlled rectifier )

Vs
G1
Vm
+

 2
t
Vs 0
VG
 +

Vo
+
R  
t
Vs Vo

 Vm

0  2
G2 t
 ac to dc converter: output dc voltage
G1
The output dc voltage is defined by +

 Vs
1
Vdc 
  v dt
0
L
+

 Vo

R
+

Vs
Vs
vL  VmSint ,   t   Vm


vL  0,0  t   0  2 t
G2

 
1   VG

 Vdc    0dt   VmSintdt 

 0     t
Vo

 Vdc 
Vm
 cost   Vdc  1  cos  
 Vm Vm

π π 0  2 t
 ac to dc converter: rms output voltage
G1

1
Vrms   dt
2 +
v

L Vs
0  Vo +


vL  VmSint ,   t  
+
R
Vs
vL  0,0  t   Vs

Vm
G2
 
1   t
  0dt   Vm Sin tdt 
0 2
 Vrms 
2 2

 0  
VG

  t
Vo
Vm  sin 2 
2
 Vrms   π    Vm

2π  2  0  2 t
 Numerical Example:
G1
+
Suppose we use a 220/12-0-12 volt transformer. The firing angle is 300.
Vs
 +
Find the rectifier parameters. Load R=10.
 Vo
+
R Usually the transformer is rated by rms voltage. Therefore Vs = 12 volt
Vs
(rms)

Therefore Vm = 12  2 =16.92 volt
G2

Vm
1  cos  Vm  sin 2 
2 2
Vdc  Vdc 102
Vrms   π    Pdc    10Watt
π 2π  2  R 10

   Sin 2  30 
2
16.92 16.922  Vrms 11.82
 Vdc  1  cos 300  10V  Vrms  π     11.8V Pac    13.93Watt
π 2π  6 2  R 10
Pdc 10
   71.79%
Pac 13.93
 Numerical Example:
G1
+
Suppose we use a 220/12-0-12 volt transformer. The firing angle is 300.
Vs
 +
Find the rectifier parameters. Load R=10.
 Vo
+
R
Vs Vac 11.8
FF    1.18
 Vdc 10
G2

RF  FF2  1  1.182  1  62.64%

PIV  Vm  16.92V
Pdc 10
TUF    49.25%
VA 2 12  16.92
2 10
 Numerical Example 2
G1
+
A dc lighting load of 25 Watt at 10 Volt is to be operated from a 230 volt ac source
Vs
through a step down transformer of 230/12-0-12 volt rating. Design the rectifier

 V
o
+
circuit.
+
R
Vs Usually the transformer is rated by rms voltage. Therefore Vs = 12 volt (rms)

Therefore Vm = 12  2 =16.92 volt
G2
Given that Vdc =10 Volt

Vm  sin 2 
2

Vdc 
Vm
1  cos  Vrms   π   
π 2π  2 
10 
16.92
1  cos  Vrms 
16.922 
 π  0.54 
sin 2 * 31.04 

π
2π  2 
  31.040 Vrms  11.78V
 Numerical Example 2
G1
+
A dc lighting load of 25 Watt at 10 Volt is to be operated from a 230 volt ac source
Vs
through a step down transformer of 230/12-0-12 volt rating. Design the rectifier

 V
o
+
circuit.
+
R
Vs

G2 Pac  Vrms I rms

Given that Pdc =25 Watt
 11.78  2.94
 I dc 
Pdc 25
  2.5A
Vrms  11.78V  34.63Watt
Vdc 10
Vrms 11.78
I rms    2.94
Vdc 10 RL 4
RL    4
I dc 2.5
 Numerical Example 2
G1
+
A dc lighting load of 25 Watt at 10 Volt is to be operated from a 230 volt ac source
Vs
through a step down transformer of 230/12-0-12 volt rating. Design the rectifier

 V
o
+
circuit.
+
R
Vs

G2

Vac  Vrms  Vdc  11.78  10  6.22V

2 2 2 2

Vdc  10V
Vac 6.22
Vrms  11.78V RF    62.2%
Vdc 10
ac to dc converter RL Load: output dc voltage
G1
+

Vs The output is pulsating dc, comprising a dc part and

a ac part. 2

RL 1
 Vo + Vdc   v dt
2 0
L
Vs
Vm vL  0,0  t  
0
 2
t vL  VmSint ,   t    
VG
vL  0, (   )  t  2
t

1     2 
Vo  Vdc    0dt   VmSintdt   0dt 
Vm
2  0    
0 t
 2

β
Rest of the analysis is as before.
 ac to dc converter RL Load

The output is pulsating dc,

comprising a dc part and a ac part.
The output dc voltage is given by

1    
 Vdc    VmSintdt   0dt   VmSintdt 
  0   
Rest of the analysis is as before.
ac to dc converter with RL Load and Free wheeling diode

The output voltage wave shape is similar to that of the case for pure
resistive load

Rest of the analysis is as before.

 ac to dc converter with DC Motor load
G1
Vs
Vm E E<Vm

Vo
+
Output voltage
wave shape 0
  2 t
E R
for pure VG
G2 Resistive load


 t
VoR
E=V m sin
Vm E

1 
    0  2
t
 Vdc   Ed   Vm sin d  Ed  VoM
  0  E
0  2
 t
Output voltage 
wave shape for
DC Motor load
Rest of the analysis is as before.
 3 Phase Controlled Rectifier: Star Rectifier Vin
G

A K
Vm
2
0  t
+ _
Vo
G VGk
A K

G t
A K
Vo

Vm

  2 / 3
1   t
 Vdc  
2 / 3   VmSintdt  Vo
Vm

t

2/3 +2/3
3 Phase Controlled Rectifier: Star Rectifier
G Vin

A K
Vm
2
0  t
+ Vo _
G

VGk
A K
G

A K
t
Vo

Vm
 
1   t
 Vdc    VmSintdt 
   
Vo

 Vm

 t
-
 3 Phase Controlled Rectifier: RL load
G Vin

A K
Vm
2
0  t
+ Vo _
G RL
VGk
A K
G

t
A K Vo

Vm

Similar to that of Resistive Load t

Vo
 
1  
 Vdc    VmSintdt 
Vm

 

-
t
 3 Phase Controlled Rectifier: DC Motor load
Vin

G
Vm
A K 2
0  t
+ _
Vo

G M VGk

A K
G t
Vo
A K
Vm

   t
1  
 Vdc    Edt   VmSintdt  Vo
  0 Vm E
t
 -
3 phase Comparison

117
AC voltage Controller

118
 AC Voltage Controllers
• AC voltage controllers are Thyristor based devices which convert
fixed alternating voltage directly to variable alternating voltage
without a change in frequency.
• Applications: domestic and industrial heating, transformer tap
changing, lighting control, speed control of single phase and three
phase ac drives and starting of induction motors.
• The main disadvantage of ac voltage controllers is the introduction
of objectionable harmonics in the supply current and load voltage
waveforms, particularly at reduced output voltage levels.

119
 AC Voltage Regulators Applications
• These converters convert fixed ac voltage directly to a variable ac
voltage at the same frequency using time commutation.
• These controllers employs a thyristorized voltage controller.
• Lighting control, Speed control of large fans and pumps
• Electronic tap changers

120
 Classification of AC Voltage controller
• In on-off control, Thyristor switches connect the load to the ac source for few cycle
of input voltage and then disconnect it for another few cycles.
• In phase control, Thyristor switches connect the load to ac source for a portion of
each cycle of input voltage
Single Phase
Unidirectional Controller
AC Voltage
Controller
On-off controller
Single Phase
Bidirectional Controllers
Phase Controller
Three phase
Unidirectional

Three Phase Bi-

directional
 AC Regulator

Using Thyristor Only Using TRIAC Only Using Thyristor & Diode Only

122
 ac Voltage Controllers: On-Off Controller
VS

G1
Vm

+ t
+

R VG1
G2 Vo
VS



t
VG2

t

n m
Vo

t
ac Voltage Controllers: On-Off Controller : Output voltage
G1
n m
Vo

R
G2
VS

t

2
td t 
n 1
  
2 2
Vr m s V sin
m  n 2π 0
m

n
Vr m s  VS
mn
Students are asked to do the integration in detail
and obtain the result as shown.
 ac Voltage Controllers On-Off Controller : Numerical Example
G1
The On-Off controller is operated from an ac source of 120 volt at 60Hz
and supplies a load of 10 . The Thyristors are switched ON for n=25
+

R
cycles and switched OFF for m=75 cycles. Find the (i) output voltage (ii)
VS G2
Input power factor.


n 25
Vr m s  VS  120  60volt
mn 100
Vrms 60
Ir m s    6Amp.
R 10
Input Power rating Load Power = Irms2 R Input Power Factor
= VS IS = 120X6=720VA = 62X10 =360Watt Po 360
  0.5
VA 720
 ac Voltage Controllers On-Off Controller : Average Thyristor current
G1

IT1 n m
+

R
G2
VS

t
IT2

Each Thyristor operates for

half cycle and remains OFF
for the next half cycle
t


n Im
  I msintd t 
n 1
IA  IA  
m  n 2π 0 mn π
Students have to do the integration in detail and obtain the result as shown.
 ac Voltage Controllers On-Off Controller: rms Thyristor current
G1

+
IT1 n m
R
G2
VS


t
IT2

Each Thyristor operates

for half cycle and remains
OFF for the next half cycle
t


n Im
  I m sin 2td t 
n 1
Ir m s 
2
I rms  
m  n 2π 0 mn 2
Students have to do the integration in detail and obtain the result as shown.
ac Voltage Controllers: On-Off Controller : Numerical Example

The On-Off controller is operated from an ac source of 120 volt at 60Hz

and supplies a load of 10 . The thyristors are switched ON for n=25
cycles and switched OFF for m=75 cycles. Find the Average and rms
currents of each thyristor.

Vm 2VS 2  120
Im     16.97Amp.
R R 10
n Im 25 16.97
IA      1.33Amp
m  n π 75  25 π
n Im 25 16.97
Ir m s      4.24Amp
mn 2 75  25 2
This is the current rating of the Thyristors for this particular case.
 ac Voltage Controllers On-Off Controller : Comments
G1

R
G2
VS

• On-Off controllers are suitable for the loads having large inertia.
• The duty cycle should be less than the mechanical or thermal time
constant of the load.
Cyclo Converter

130
 What is Cyclo-converter?
• The cyclo-converter is a device that
converts AC power of certain frequency to
AC power of another frequency (usually
lower frequency).
• It works without an intermediate DC link.
• To summarize- Cyclo-converters convert
AC power of fixed frequency to AC Power
of variable Frequency.
• Switches used in Cycloconverters-
Thyristor, DIAC, TRIAC etc.

https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial/cycloconverter-types-working-circuits-applications
131
 Applications
• Cycloconveters are extensively used for driving large motors like the one used
in Rolling mills, Ball mills, Cement kils etc.
• The out frequency of a Cycloconverters can be reduced up to zero which helps
us to start very large motors with full load at minimum speed and then
gradually increase the speed of the motor by increasing the output Frequency.

Cycloconverters have a large set of industrial application, the following are the
few
• high power AC drives, propulsion systems, high frequency induction heating,
• Grinding Mills, Heavy Washing Machines, Mine Winders
• HVDC Power lines, SVG (Static VAR Generators)
• Aircraft Power supply, Ship Propulsion system
• Synchronous motors in sea and undersea vehicles, electromagnetic launchers

132
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• The major advantage of cyclo-converter is that it uses a line commutation
technique for turning OFF the thyristors, thus it eliminates the need of forced
commutation. And these are also more efficient than DC link converters which
require two power conversion stages.
• But, the major problem with cyclo-converter is that it produces much distorted
waveforms for higher frequencies. This can produce reasonable distorted,
sinusoidal waveforms up to 16 2/3 Hz, beyond this frequency the wave shapes
are not very good.
• Also the power factor of the system gets affected when controlling the speed of
AC motor using cyclo-converter. It requires a large number of thyristors. In
addition, these converters are more costly.
• Due to these reasons, cyclo-converters have limited applications. Nowadays,
most of the cyclo-converters are being replaced with variable frequency drives.

133
 Types of Cycloconverter
• Based on the output frequency and number of phase in the input
AC power source the Cycloconverters can be classified as below
1. Step-Up Cycloconverters
2. Step-Down Cycloconverters
• Single-Phase to Single-Phase Cycloconverter
• Three-Phase to Single-Phase Cycloconverter
• Three-Phase to Three-Phase Cycloconverter

134
 Cyclo converter
VS1
T1 V

TO  3TI
m

T 
+ VS2
VS1 T3 t
I
1 -

fO  f I -
VS2
- VL + t
3 + T4
T T T T T T
1 2 1 3 4 3 t
VL

t
T
O
135
 Cyclo converter
v1  Vm Sin t For 0  𝜔𝑡  TI/2 T1

 T2I 3
TI  +
T3
TI
 
2
VS1
      
2 2 2 2
Vm sin tdt v 2 dt v 3 dt 
1   -
0 TI TI

VL r m s  
2
 -
TO  2TI 5
 - VL +
2
TI
3TI VS2
 - v  dt  - v 5  dt   - v 6  dt 
  T4
2 2 2
 T 4
 +
 
2TI TI
3 2 
I
5
2

VL v3 v5 v6 T2

TO

t
TI
136
 Cyclo converter
 T2I TI
3
TI 
 V 2sin2tdt  v 2 dt  v 2 dt  
2

 m  2 T 3   T2I 
1   6  
0 TI I

3TI  0
VL r m s   5
2
 VL r m s  Vm
2
sin2
tdt 
TO  2TI TI 
 
2 3TI
 - v 2 dt  - v 2dt  - v 2dt
 TI 4 2T 5 T 6 
3 2 I 5 I
2 

 T2I 
1  
TI  0 m
VL r m s  V
2
sin 2
tdt  • If the firing angle is zero, the input and output voltage remains
  same, only the frequency is reduced.
2 
• The speed of an induction motor can be reduced, keeping the
terminal voltage unchanged.

VL r m s  VI r m s
137
 Cyclo converter
T1 VS1
V

t
m
+ T
VS1 T3 V I
S2

-
-
- VL + t
VS2
+ T4
T T T T T T
1 2 1 3 4 3 t
 VL

1 sin2 
Vr m s  VS  -   T t
π  2 
o
• The speed of an induction motor can be adjusted more precisely.
• The frequency as well as the voltage magnitude both can be adjusted.
138
 Numerical Example

139
DC Chopper

140
 dc to dc converter ( DC choppers)
• Chopper is a variable voltage dc source obtained
from a fixed voltage dc source.
Devices used in Chopper:
• Low power application: GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, Power
Symbols Used in
MOSFET etc. Choppers
• High power application: Thyristor or SCR

Two types
1. Step down : the output voltage is less than the input voltage
2. Step Up : the output voltage is greater than the input voltage

141
 Applications of Chopper
• In electronics, a chopper circuit is mainly used in power control and
signal applications.
• Choppers used or DC motor control (battery supplied vehicles), solar
energy conversion and wind energy conversion.
• Choppers are used in electric cars, airplanes and spaceships where
onboard-regulated DC power supplies are required.
• In general, chopper circuits are used as power supplies in computers,
commercial electronics, electronics instruments.
• Some uses of dc chopper :
1. Widely used in motor control, e.g. Traction motor control
2. Regenerating braking
3. Voltage regulators

142
 Types of Choppers
• There are two types of choppers
• AC link choppers
• DC Choppers

143
 Types of Choppers
AC Link Chopper
• In the case of an ac link chopper, first dc is converted to ac with the help of an
inverter.
• After that, AC is stepped-up or stepped-down by a transformer, which is then
converted back to dc by a diode rectifier.
• Ac link chopper is costly, bulky and less efficient as the conversion is done in
two stages.

144
 Types of Choppers
DC Chopper
• A DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc
input voltage to a variable dc output voltage directly.
• A chopper can be said as dc equivalent of an ac
transformer as they behave in an identical manner.
• This kind of choppers are more efficient as they involve
one stage conversion. Just like a transformer, a chopper
can be used to step up or step down the fixed dc output
voltage.
• Choppers are used in many applications all over the
world inside various electronic equipment. A chopper
system has a high efficiency, fast response and a
smooth control.

145
 Principle of Chopper Operation
• A chopper can be said as a high speed on/off
semiconductor switch.
• Source to load connection and disconnection from load
to source happens in a rapid speed.
• Consider the figure, here a chopped load voltage can be
obtained from a constant dc supply of voltage, which
has a magnitude Vs.
• Chopper is the one represented by “SW” inside a dotted
square which can be turned on or off as desired.
• During the time period Ton the chopper is turned on and
the load voltage is equal to source voltage Vs.
• During the interval Toff the chopper is off and the load
current will be flowing though the freewheeling diode
FD .
146
 Step Down DC choppers
• The output dc voltage is given by
𝑡1
1 𝑡1
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = × 𝑉𝑠
𝑇 0 𝑇
𝑡1
If we present duty cycle 𝐾 =
𝑇
Then 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐾𝑉𝑠
The output of the dc voltage can be controlled by varying K.
• RMS voltage is given by
𝑡1
1 𝑡1
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉 = 𝑘×𝑉
𝑇 0 𝑇

147
 Step Down DC choppers
𝑉𝑜2
• Output dc power, 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑉𝑠2
𝑃𝑜 =
𝑅
𝑉
• Effective input resistance of chopper 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐼
𝑑𝑐
• The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

148
 Methods of Control
The output of dc voltage can be varied by the following methods-
• Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency control.
• Variable frequency control.

149
 Methods of Control
1. Constant frequency operation :
The chopping period T is kept
constant whereas the ON time t1
is varied. Thus the width of the
pulse is varied and such control is
known as Pulse width
modulation (PWM) control.
2. Variable frequency operation :
The chopping period T is varied
whereas either the ON time t1 or
the OFF time t2 is kept constant. Pulse width
frequency modulation
modulation (PWM)
This is known as frequency control
modulation.

150
 Step Down DC choppers : RL LOAD
• For static RL load, E=0
• For DC motor load, E=Back emf
• During time t1 Chopper is ON+ Diode is OFF
𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + 𝐸 = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
• Solving for 𝑖 𝑡 ,
𝑅
−𝐿𝑡 𝑉−𝐸 𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼1 𝑒 + (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑅

151
 Step Down DC choppers : RL LOAD
• For static RL load, E=0
• For DC motor load, E=Back emf
• During time t2 Chopper is OFF+ Diode is ON
𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + 𝐸 = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
• Solving for 𝑖 𝑡 ,
𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡 𝐸 𝑅
−𝐿𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼2 𝑒 − (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑅

152
 Step Down DC choppers : RL LOAD
During time t1 During time t2
R
 t V E R
 t 
R
 t E  t
R

i (t )  I1e L
 1  e L  i (t )  I 2 e L
 1  e L 
R  R 

R
 t1 V E  t1 
R R
 t2 E  t2 
R
i (t ) t t  I1e L
 1  e L   I 2 i ( t ) t t  I 2 e L
 1  e L   I1
1
R  
2
R 
Solving, Solving,
 RL t1    RL t1 
V  e 1 E 
V e 1 E
I1   t1   I 2   t1  
R T  R R  T  R
 e  1   e 1 

 RL KT    RL KT 
V e 1 E  1 E
I1   K   V e
I 2   K 
R  e 1  R R  e 1  R 
    153
 Step Down DC choppers : RL LOAD
Current Ripple  RL KT 
V e 1 E
I  I 2  I1 I1   K
R  e 1  R 
 R
 t1
R
 T  1 K  T 
R
 
V 1  e L  e L  e L

I 
R  
R
T    RL KT 
 1 e L  V e 1 E
I 2   K  
if L  R R  e 1  R
 
I  VK 1  K 
T
L Chopping frequency

VK 1  K  1 Current will be ripple free if

I  f  chopping frequency and Inductance
fL T is made large 154
 Step Up Chopper

(a) Step Up chopper (b) L stores Energy (c) di/dt is added to Vs

155
 Working Principle Step Up Chopper
• In step-up chopper a large inductor, L is in series with the
source voltage Vs. This forms a closed path as shown in the
figure (b).
• During the time period Ton the chopper is on the inductor
stores energy.
• When the chopper is turned off the current is forced to
flow through the diode and load for a time Toff and as the
inductor current cannot die suddenly.
• When the current decreases the polarity of the emf
induced in L is reversed. Fig (c).
• As a result the total voltage available across the load is
given by the equation V0 = Vs + L (di/dt) .
• The voltage V0 exceeds the source voltage and hence the
circuit acts as a step-up chopper and the energy which is
stored in L is released to the load. 156
 Working Principle Step Up Chopper
• In step-up chopper a large inductor, L is in series with
the source voltage Vs. This forms a closed path as shown
in the figure (b).
• During the time period Ton the chopper is on the
inductor stores energy.
• When the chopper is turned off the current is forced to
flow through the diode and load for a time Toff and as
the inductor current cannot die suddenly.
• When the current decreases the polarity of the emf
induced in L is reversed. Fig (c).
• As a result the total voltage available across the load is
given by the equation V0 = Vs + L (di/dt) .
• The voltage V0 exceeds the source voltage and hence the
circuit acts as a step-up chopper and the energy which is
stored in L is released to the load. 157
 Step Up DC choppers
• For the period t1 chopper is ON and
energy is stored in the inductor, so the
inductor current is increasing.
• For the period t1 chopper is ON and
energy is stored in the inductor, so the
inductor current is increasing.
• When the chopper is ON, voltage
across the inductor is given by

di ΔI t1
L  VS L  VS ΔI  VS
dt t1 L
158
 Step Up DC choppers
• When the chopper is OFF, the output
voltage is given by
ΔI
vO  VS  L
t2

We got, t1
ΔI  VS
L

t1
vO  VS  VS
t2
159
 Step Up DC choppers
• The output voltage is given by
2
1 ΔI VO  VS  VS
t1
VO  VS  L
t2 t2
 t1   t1  t 2 
3
VO  VS 1   4
VO  VS  
 t2   t2 
 T   
 1 
5
VO  VS   6
VO  VS  
 T - t1   1 - t1



 T 
7
 1 
VO  VS  
 1- K 
160
 Step Up DC choppers
• The output voltage can be adjusted
by adjusting K.
• The output voltage will be equal to
input voltage when K0
• The output voltage will be very high
when K1

 1 
VO  VS  
 1- K 

161
 Application of Step Up Chopper
• The principle of step-up chopper can be used for the regenerative braking of DC motors.
• The armature voltage Ea is analogy to the VS and voltage V0 is the dc source voltage. When
the chopper is on the inductor L stores the energy and when it is off the inductor release
the energy.
• If Ea / (1-A) exceeds V0 , the dc machine will work as a dc generator and the armature
current will flow in a direction opposite to the motoring mode.
• As the power now is flowing from dc machine to the source V0 it will cause regenerative
breaking of the dc motor.
• Even at decreasing motor speeds, regenerative breaking can be provided as the motor
armature Ea is directly proportional to the field flux and motor speed.

162
Voltage regulator

163
 Voltage Regulators
• A voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage levels.
• When a steady, reliable voltage is needed, then the voltage
regulator is the preferred device.
• It generates a fixed output voltage that remains constant for any
changes in an input voltage or load conditions.
• It acts as a buffer for protecting components from damages.
• A voltage regulator is a device with a simple feed-forward design
and it uses negative feedback control loops.

164
Voltage Regulator Block Diagram

165
 Application of Voltage Regulators
• Power distribution system
• Automobile alternator
• Power station generator plant
• Computer power supplies

166
 Types of Voltage Regulators
• Basically, there are two types of Voltage regulators:
1. Linear voltage regulator
i. Series Linear Regulator
ii. Shunt Linear Regulator
2. Switching voltage regulator
i. Step up
ii. Step down and
iii. Inverter voltage regulators.

167
 Linear Regulator
• Linear regulator acts as a voltage divider. In the Ohmic region, it uses FET.
• The resistance of the voltage regulator varies with load resulting in constant
output voltage.
Advantages of a linear voltage regulator
• Gives a low output ripple voltage
• Fast response time to load or line changes
• Low electromagnetic interference and less noise

Disadvantages of the linear voltage regulator

• Efficiency is very low
• Requires large space – heatsink is needed
• Voltage above the input cannot be increased
168
 Series Voltage Regulator
• A series voltage regulator uses a variable
element placed in series with the load.
• By changing the resistance of that series
element, the voltage dropped across it can
be changed.
• And, the voltage across the load remains
constant.
• The amount of current drawn is effectively
used by the load; this is the main advantage
of the series voltage regulator.
• Even when the load does not require any
current, the series regulator does not draw
full current.
• Therefore, a series regulator is considerably
more efficient than shunt voltage regulator. 169
 Shunt Voltage Regulator
• A shunt voltage regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to
ground through a variable resistance.
• The current through the shunt regulator has diverted away from the load and
flows uselessly to the ground, making this form usually less efficient than the
series regulator.
• It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference diode,
and is used in very low-powered circuits wherein the wasted current is too
small to be of concern.
• This form is very common for voltage reference circuits. A shunt regulator can
usually only sink (absorb) current.

170
 Applications of Shunt Regulators
• Low Output Voltage Switching Power Supplies
• Current Source and Sink Circuits
• Error Amplifiers
• Adjustable Voltage or Current Linear and Switching Power Supplies
• Voltage Monitoring
• Analog and Digital Circuits that require precision references
• Precision current limiters

171
 Switching Voltage Regulator
• A switching regulator rapidly switches a series device on and off. The switch’s
duty cycle sets the amount of charge transferred to the load.
• This is controlled by a feedback mechanism similar to that of a linear regulator.
• Switching regulators are efficient because the series element is either fully
conducting or switched off because it dissipates almost no power.

• Switching regulators are able to generate output voltages that are higher than the
input voltage or of opposite polarity, unlike linear regulators.
• The switching voltage regulator switches on and off rapidly to alter the output. It
requires a control oscillator and also charges storage components.
• Three different types are step up voltage regulator, buck voltage regulator and
boost/buck voltage regulator.
172
 Voltage Regulators
• It converts unregulated voltages to regulated voltage
• A dc chopper can be used as a regulator

unregulated regulated
Dc chopper dc voltage
dc voltage

-
Variable K
+
Vr
 Switch Mode Regulators
• Buck Regulator:
• Basically step down chopper, the output voltage is less than the input voltage.
• Boost Regulator:
• Basically step up chopper, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
• Buck-Boost Regulator:
• The output voltage may less than or more than the input voltage based on
inductor energy transfer.
• Cuk Regulator:
• The output voltage may be less than or more than the input voltage, based on
capacitor energy transfer.
 Buck Regulator:
Basically step down chopper, the output voltage is less than the
input voltage.
di ΔI L

Vs  Vo  L Vs  Vo  L Chopper
dt t 1 V R
S VO

Vs  Vo C

I  t1 i
L I1

ΔI I2

Vo  L t1 t2 t
t2
Vo
I  t2
L Vs  Vo Vo
I  t1  t2
L L
 Buck Regulator:
Basically step down chopper, the output voltage is less than the input voltage.

Vo Vs  Vo
I  t2 
K
t1 L
L L
Chopper
R

t1  KT
VS VO
C

t 2  1  K T
I1

I2

t1 t2 t

t1
Vo  Vs  KVs
T
 Buck Regulator:
Basically step down chopper, the output voltage is less than the
input voltage.
Vs  Vo IL
I  t1 t1 
L Vs  Vo
Vo IL
I  t2 t2 
L Vo
IL IL 1
t1  t 2   T
Vo VS - Vo f
 Buck Regulator: Ripple current

VS K 1  K 
ΔI 
fL

IL IL 1
t1  t 2   T
Vo VS - Vo f
 Numerical Example
A buck regulator has input voltage 12V. The required load voltage is 5V.
The ripple current is 0.8 A. If the chopping frequency is 25kHz, Calculate
the value of the inductor.

Vo  KVS K
Vo

5
 41.67%
VS 12

VS K 1  K  VS K 1  K 
ΔI  L
fL fI
12 * .41(1- .41)
L  145.83 H
25000* 0.8
 Buck Boost Regulator
di ΔI
Vs  L Vs  L
dt t1
Vs
I  t1
L
ΔI
Vo   L
t2
Vo Vo Vs
I   t2 I   t2  t1
L L L
 Buck Boost Regulator
K
Vs Vo
I  t1  t2 L
L L
Chopper

t1  KT VS
R
VO
C

t 2  1  K T
i
KVs I1

Vo 
1 K I2

t
t1 t2
 Cuk Regulator
• Chopper if OFF, L1 and C1 is charged L1 C1 L2

through diode
load
• Chopper if ON, L1 is charged through VS Chopper
C2

chopper
• C1 is discharged through chopper
KVs
and charging C2 and L2.
Vo  
• Also current flows through load but 1 K
in opposite direction
 Choppers at a view

Cuk Regulator
Buck Boost Regulator

183
 Half Wave AC Voltage Regulator
• It uses one Thyristor and one
diode.
• The power flow to the load is
controlled by delaying the firing
angle of Thyristor T1.
• Since the power flow is controlled
during the positive half cycle of
input voltage, this type of
controller is also known as a
unidirectional switch.

184
Half Wave AC Voltage Regulator

185
Half Wave AC Voltage Regulator

186
 Single phase unidirectional controller Phase Controller : Operation
Here only one thyristor is used to control the positive half cycle VS
whereas a diode is used for the negative half cycle which is free to
conduct.
Vm
G1
 2
1  
  Vm sin td t    Vm sin td t 
t

2 2 2 2
Vr m s VG
2π    +

R
VS
1  sin2 
Vr m s  VS 2 -  



2π  2 

t

VO

 2
1  
  Vmsintd t    Vmsintd t 
t

Vdc 
2π   

Vdc 
VS
Cosα  1 Students must solve the numerical example given in the book
2π Students must do the integration in detail and Find the results
of their own
 Single phase bidirectional controller:
The output ac voltage is given by
VS
 2
1  
   Vm sin td t    Vm sin td t 
2 2 2 2
Vr m s
2π  Vm
  
t

1 sin2  G1

Vr m s  VS  - 
VG


π 2  G1 G2

R  
t
G2
VS
VO


t

Students must do the integration in detail and Find

the results of their own
 TRIAC (TRIode for Alternating Current )
• The major drawback of SCR is that it can conduct
power in only one direction. So, SCR can only
control dc power or forward biased half cycles of
ac in a load. So, if we want to control ac power
i.e. control both cycle of the ac power we need
TRIAC.
• A TRIAC is a type of Thyristor five layer device
with three terminals used in switching
applications.
• A triac allows the flow of current in both
directions between its terminals MT1 and MT2,
and therefore it tends to be utilized more in AC
circuits, however it can also operate in DC
circuits.
• The conduction occurs only when the gate (G)
receives a voltage, and removal of this voltage
stops the conduction.
189
 Construction of TRIODE
• Figure shows the basic structure of TRIODE. It is equivalent to two separate
SCRs connected in inverse parallel.

190
 TRIAC Operation
The four possible electrode potential combinations which make the triac to operate four
different operating quadrants or modes are given as.
• MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.
• MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.
• MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.
• MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.

191
 TRIAC Characteristics Curve
• The V-I characteristics for triac in the 1st
and 3rd quadrants are essentially identical
to those of an SCR in the 1st quadrant.
• The TRIAC can be operated with either
positive or negative gate control voltage
but in normal operation usually the gate
voltage is positive in quadrant I and
negative in quadrant III.
• The gate supply at which the triac is turned
on depends upon the gate current. The
greater the gate current, the smaller the
supply voltage at which the triac is turned
on.

192
 Advantage and disadvantages of TRIAC
Advantages
• Triac can be triggered by both positive and negative polarity voltages applied at the gate.
• It can operate and switch both half cycles of an AC waveform.
• As compared with the anti-parallel Thyristor configuration which requires two heat sinks of slightly
smaller size, a triac needs a single heat sink of slightly larger size. Hence the triac saves both space
and cost in AC power applications.
• In DC applications, SCRs are required to be connected with a parallel diode to protect against reverse
voltage. But the triac may work without a diode, a safe breakdown is possible in either direction.
Disadvantages
• These are available in lower ratings as compared with Thyristor.
• A careful consideration is required while selecting a gate trigger circuit since a triac can be triggered
in both forward and reverse biased conditions.
• These have low dv/dt rating as compared with Thyristor.
• These have very small switching frequencies.
• Triacs are less reliable than Thyristor.
193
 Application of TRIAC
• Light dimming
• Heating control
• Appliance type motor drives
• Solid state relays with typically 50/60 Hz supply frequency
• It is used in control circuits
• It is used in high power lamp switching
• It is used in AC Power control

194
 ac to ac converter ( Voltage Controllers)
Numerical Example : Suppose we use a 220/12-0-12 volt
transformer. What will be the output voltage, if firing angle is
300?

Usually the transformer is rated by rms voltage. Therefore Vs

= 12 volt (rms)

The output is a discontinuous ac. The output ac (rms) voltage is given by

VO  VS
1
π α 
sin2α 

1 π sin2  30 
π 2  VO  12  π     11.83V
π 6 2 
 Numerical Example
Suppose we use a 220/12-0-12 volt transformer.
What will be the firing angle, if output voltage is 10V?

Vo
1 sin2 
Vo  10  12   π   
10V π 2 

? 
 ac to ac converter with RL Load

Vs
Vm

 t
0 2

V
 2 2   

  Vm sin td t    0d t    Vm sin td t 
G
2 2

t 1 0   
Vr m s 
t 2π    2 

 0d t   Vm 2sin 2td t  
    
 

Vo

Vm

0  2
β t Students must do the integration in detail and
β
Find the results of their own
 ac to ac converter with RL Load
1 sin 2 sin 2  
Vr m s  VS      
π 2 2 

vL  0,   t  
 Vm sin t ,   t    

  2  
 
  Vm sin td t    Vm sin td t 
1

2 2 2 2
Vr m s
2π     
 
 
  2VS sin td t 
2

2 2
Vr m s
2π   
 ac to ac converter with RL Load
Vs
Vm

0
 2 t
G1
VG

+ IL
 t
G2 RL
VS
  t
IL
di
L  Ri  2VS sin ωt
dt t
Vo

Vm

0  2
β t
β
 ac to ac converter with RL Load
di G1

L  Ri  2VS sin ωt
dt + IL

i  0, at t   VS G2 RL

 R 
2VS  t
i sin (t  θ)  Ae  L 
Z
 R   
2VS   
A sin (  θ)e  L   
Z
 L  2VS    ( t )  
  R   
  tan  
1
i sin (t  θ)  sin (  θ)e  L   

 R  Z  
Phase Unidirectional voltage controller: Resistive load
 Phase Unidirectional voltage controller: Resistive load
VS

Vm

t
VG


2
1   VG t

   Vm sin td t 

2 2
Vr m s
2π   
VG 
t

1  sin2 
Vr m s  VS  2 -  
2 

2π  t

VO

t
3 Phase Bidirectional voltage controller: Resistive load
 Regulated power supplies
• In regulated power supplies, the output DC voltage is regulated so that a
change in input voltage is not reflected in the output.
• In contrast, unregulated power supplies do not have a voltage regulation at
the output.

204
Tools For Analysis And Design

205
 The Switch Matrix
• The m × n switches in the circuit
can be arranged according to
their connections.
• Power electronic circuits fall into
two broad classes:
• Direct Switch Matrix
• Indirect Switch Matrix

206
 H Bridge Circuits
• The switch matrices in realistic applications are small.
• A 2 × 2 switch matrix, for example, covers all possible cases with a
single-port input source and a two-terminal load. The matrix
is commonly drawn as the H-bridge shown in Fig. 1.11.

207
 Three-phase bridge rectifier circuit
• A more complicated example is the three-phase bridge rectifier
shown in Fig. 1.12. There are three possible inputs, and the two
terminals of the dc circuit provide outputs, which gives a 3 × 2
switch matrix.

208
Inverters

209
 dc to ac converter (Inverter)
• It is a variable voltage ac source obtained from a fixed voltage dc
source.
• A variable output voltage may be obtained in two ways :
• By varying the input dc voltage
• By adjusting the gain of the inverter, usually done by PWM control.
• Theoretically the output is a SINE wave.
• In real life the output is non-sinusoidal and contains harmonics.

210
 Applications of Inverters
• Conversion of electric power from DC type energy sources to AC
type load
• Battery
• Fuel Cell
• Photo-voltaic Cell (Solar Cell)

• As a part of composite inverter

• AC-DC-AC frequency converter (for AC motor drive)
• AC-DC-AC constant voltage frequency converter (for uninterruptible power
power supplies)
• AC-DC-AC converters for induction heating
• AC-DC-AC-DC switching power supplies

211
 Types of Inverter
According to the Output Characteristic
• Square Wave Inverter
• Sine Wave Inverter
• Modified Sine Wave Inverter

According to the Source of Inverter

• Current Source Inverter
• Voltage Source Inverter

212
 Types of Inverter
According to the Type of Load
• Single Phase Inverter
• Half Bridge Inverter
• Full Bridge Inverter
• Three Phase Inverter
• 180-degree mode
• 120-degree mode

213
 Types of Inverter
According to different PWM Technique
1.Single Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
2.Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)
3.Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
4.Modified sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (MSPWM)

214
 Types of Inverter
According to Number of Output Level
• Regular Two-Level Inverter
• Multi-Level Inverter

215
Demonstration Video

216
 Single phase half bridge inverter
• The output rms voltage is given by

T 
1   Vs  
2 2
 Vs 
2 T
Vr m s      dt      dt 
T 0  2  T 2  
 2 

Vs
Vo 
2

Students must do the integration in detail and find the result

217
 Single phase half bridge inverter
• Here we see that the output voltage wave is not a pure Sine wave.

2Vs
vo   sin nt
n 1, 3, 5 n

v o  0, for n  2,4,..
• It can be represented as sum of n numbers of sine waves by Fourier’s series.

218
Single phase half bridge inverter

2Vs
vo   sin nt
n 1, 3, 5 n

219
 Single phase half bridge inverter

2Vs
vo   sin nt
n 1, 3, 5 n

For n=1, the fundamental component is

2 Vs
v1  sin t • In the output the power due to fundamental

component is the useful power.
The rms fundamental component is • The power due to harmonic components is
Vs
2 dissipated as heat and increases the load
V1    0.45Vs temperature.
 2
220
 Single phase half bridge inverter
• The quality of the inverter output is evaluated by some parameters.
• Harmonic Factor of nth harmonic, HFn
Vn
HFn 
V1
• Total Harmonic distortion, THD

1
THD 
V1
 n
V 2

n  2,3

• Distortion Factor, DF 
1 Vn2
DF 
V1

n  2,3 n 2

221
 Numerical Example :
The dc input voltage of a single phase half bridge rectifier is 48 volt. It is
supplying power to a 2.4 resistor. Find (i) output voltage (ii) Fundamental
component of output voltage (iii) output power (iv) peak and average current in
each transistor (iv) peak reverse blocking voltage of each transistor (v) THD (vi)
DF
• Given VS =48V and RL =2.4 
• Output voltage Vo=Vs/2=24V
• Output current Io=24/2.4=10A
• Output Power VoX Io=24X10=240W
• Each transistor conducts for 50% of time
• Transistor current = 10X0.5=5A
222
 Single phase half bridge inverter
The peak reverse blocking voltage for the
transistor = 24 + 24 = 48V
Fundamental component
V1 = 0.45 X 48=21.6V
rms harmonic voltage

Vo2  V12  242  21.62  10.46V

223
Single phase bridge inverter: H Bridge

The output rms voltage is given by

T 
1 
2 T
   Vs  dt    Vs  dt 
2 2
Vr m s
T 0 T 
 2 

Vo  Vs

Students must do the integration in

detail and find the result
224
Single phase bridge inverter: Inductive Load

225
 Single phase bridge inverter
The frequency of the output voltage is given by
1
f
T
Frequency can be chosen from the time period of the
base signal

226
Single phase bridge inverter: Control of output voltage
Single pulse width modulation (SPWM)
The rms output voltage

   3  
1  2 2

   Vs  dt    Vs  dt 
2 2
Vr m s
2    3  
 2 2 


Vr m s  VS


• The output voltage can be controlled by controlling the value of 

227
 Single phase bridge inverter: MPWM
Control of output voltage
Multiple pulse width modulation (MPWM)

p
Vr m s  VS

•  and p both can be adjusted to control the
output voltage.
• p Is the number of pulses per half cycle
• 𝛿 Is the width of single pulse

228
 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
The duration of individual pulse
can be adjusted to different
desired values, so that the lower
order harmonics are eliminated
and a pure/near sine wave could
be obtained

m
Vr m s  VS 
m 1, 2 , 3 

229
 Modified Sinusoidal PWM inverter
f  50Hz
• Suppose Carrier frequency =20kHz
• No of pulses per 10ms = 200

Keep on trying with different patterns

of pulses until a
1. sine wave of desired
2. frequency and
3. voltage magnitude is obtained.

230
Three phase inverter

231
Three phase inverter

232
Three phase inverter firing sequence

233
Three phase inverter output voltage Primary side

234
Gating Circuit

235
 Gating Circuits
• Two Types
1. Short Pulses
2. Continuous

236
 Gating Circuits: Short Pulses
• Two Types
1. Short Pulses VS
2. Continuous
t
VGK
t
VS VL VL

t
Controlled Turn ON and Uncontrolled Turn OFF operation
237
 Gating Circuits: Short Pulses
• Two Types
VS
1. Short Pulses
2. Continuous
t
VGE
t
VS VL VL

Controlled Turn ON and Turn OFF operation

238
Gating Circuits: Short Pulses to IGBT
VS

t
VGE

VS VL t
VL

239
Gating Circuit: CONTINUOUS pulse to SCR

VS

t
VGK
VS VL
t
VL
Undesired because the
gate to cathode junction
will be un-necessarily
t
heated up
240
 Gating Circuit
Sine wave of
variable magnitude
VS can be used

t
VGK

t
VL

t
241
Most Simple Gating Circuit : Ceiling Fan regulator

VS

t
VGK FAN
220V
t ac
VL

t
242
 Generation of Gating Pulse (Short)
Step 1 : Zero crossing detector
+VCC VS

 VO1 t
+ VO1

VCC
t

243
Review of capacitor charging
Fast Charging
VCC Small RC

+VCC
Slow Charging
Large RC

R VC t
VC
C
t

244
 Generation of Gating Pulse
Step 2 : Triangular wave generation
+VC
• Time period of Triangular VS
wave is equal to that of C VO1
sine wave.
+ t
• ZERO of triangular wave is VO1
at the ZERO of sine wave. VCC +VC
t
C VO2
R
VO2 t
C
245
 Generation of Gating Pulse
Step 3 : Control Signal generation VO2

+VCC +VCC
VO3 t
 VO3 
+
C t
VCC VO4 VO4
Control of R
firing
angle t
246
 Generation of Gating Pulse
Step 4 : Short pulse generation +VCC +VCC
 VO3
+
VCC
Control
of firing
angle +VCC
+VCC
 VO5
+
VCC
247
Complete circuit diagram

248
Output Voltage wave shape

249
Isolation between power circuit and gating circuit
Two techniques are adopted
1. Pulse Transformer
2. Optocoupler

Ferrite core transformer

1:1:1 Turns Ratio

250
Pulse transformer to Bridge Rectifier

251
Pulse transformer to Bridge Rectifier (Simplified)

252
Pulse transformer to Bridge Rectifier (More Simplified)

253
Pulse transformer to Full Converter (ac-to-ac)

254
Pulse width

255
 Pulse transformer : Merits and demerits
Merits: Demerits:
• Robust Construction • Bulky Size
• Reliable • Slow Operation
• Desired Output Voltage • Power Circuit voltage may be
feedback to electronic gating
circuit
• Suitable for short pulse only

256
2. Optocoupler

257
2. Modern Optocoupler

258
 Optocoupler Merits
• Simple Construction
• Compact Size
• Very Fast Operation
• Easy Replacement
• Less costly
• No feedback possibility
• Suitable for both short and continuous pulses

259
Optocoupler to Bridge Rectifier

260
Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier (LASCR)

1. Optical fibre can be used to

carry light pulse from far
2. Built-in Photo-diode is
inserted in the SCR casing.
3. Glass window is provided,
where light pulse is thrown
4. External Gate terminal can
be eliminated

261
Generation of Gating Pulse (Continuous)

262
Generation of Gating Pulse (Continuous)

263
IGBT based Bridge Rectifier

264
IGBT based Full Converter (ac-to-ac)

265
Short Q & A

266
What is Power Electronics?

• Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical

power by power semiconductor devices wherein these devices
operate as switches.
What are the main purpose of PE?

• The main task of PE is to control and convert electrical power

form one form to another
• AC to DC- Rectifier
• DC to AC- Inverter
• AC to AC- AC regulators, Cycloconverter
• DC to DC- Chopper

267
Differentiate between power diode and signal diode.

Power Diode
• Constructed with n-layer, called drift region between p+ layer
and n+ layer.
• The voltage, current and power ratings are higher.
• Power diodes operate at high speeds

• Signal Diode
• Drift region is not present.
• The voltage, current and power ratings are lower.
• Operates at higher switching speed.

268
What are the operating region of SCR?

• Reverse Blocking region

• Forward blocking region
• Forward conduction region

What are the advantages of IGBT over BJT and MOSFET?

• IGBT has
• Lower turn on and turn off times than BJT
• Lower on state conduction losses than MOSFET
• Excellent safe operating are

269
What is holding

• It is the minimum current required to hold the SCR in forward

conduction state
• When the forward current becomes less than the holding current,
SCR turns from forward conduction state to forward blocking state.

What is Latching Current

• It is the minimum current required to latch (turn on) the SCR

from forward blocking state to forward conduction state.

270
What are the different turn on methods of SCR?

• Forward voltage triggering

• Gate triggering
• dv/dt triggering
• Temperature triggering
• Light triggering

What is snubber circuit?

• The snubber circuit is used for the dv/dt protection of the SCR.
• It is a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor in parallel
with the SCR

271
What is meant by SOA?

• Safe operating area.

• It determines the voltage and current boundary within which the
power device can be operated without destructive failure.

Name some current controlled and voltage controlled devices.

• Current Driven Devices- BJT, SCR, GTO, GTR

• Voltage Driven Devices- MOSFET, IGBT, IGCT, MCT, SIT

272
What is firing angle?

• The angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage and the
instant the SCR is fired is called as delay angle or firing angle

273
What is Duty cycle?

• It is the ratio of the ON time of chopper to total time period of chopper.

𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐷=
𝑡𝑜𝑛 + 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓

For High voltage applications will you prefer MOSFET or IGBT?

• For High voltage applications we have to use IGBT.
• Because MOSFETs are low voltage devices. Their voltage rating is less
than IGBT
• General rule is MOSFETs are suitable for applications which has
breakdown voltage less than 250V
• The IGBTs are suitable for applications which has breakdown voltage
upto 1KV.
274
For High frequency applications will you prefer MOSFET or IGBT?
Why?
• For High frequency applications, MOSFET is the right choice of the
device.
• Because MOSFET has low switching losses compare to that of IGBT.
• General rule of thumb is for low frequency applications having
frequency range upto 20kHz, we have to use IGBT.
• For high frequency applications having frequency range of more than
200 kHz, we have to use MOSFET.

What are the advantages of free wheeling diode in rectifier

circuit?
• The input power factor is improved
• It prevents the output voltage from becoming negative.
• The load current waveform is improved.
275
What is step up and step down cyclo-converter?

• Cyclo converter is known as frequency changer.

• Step Down Cyclo-converter: It is the converter whose output
frequency is less than the input frequency.
• Step Up Cyclo-converter: It is the converter whose output frequency
is higher than the input frequency.

What are the control strategies of chopper?

• Pulse width modulation PWM (variable Ton, Constant frquency)

• Frequency modulation (Constant Ton or Toff, Variable frequency)
• Current Limit Control (CLC)

276
Define commutation. What are the types of commutation?
• The process of changing the direction of current flow in a particular path of
the circuit is known as commutation. It is used to turn off the SCR.
• Natural Commutation: the process of the current flowing through the
Thyristor goes through a natural zero and enable the Thyristor to turn off is
called as natural commutation.
• Forced Commutation: The process of the current flowing through the
Thyristor is forced to become zero by external circuitry is called as forced
commutation

What are the types of chopper with respect to commutation

process?
• Voltage commutated process
• Current commutated process
• Load commutated process
277
Why Thyristor is not preferred for inverter?

• Thyristor requires extra commutation circuits for turn off which

results in increased complexity of the circuit.
• For these reasons Thyristors are not preferred for inverters.

What is meant by Mc-murray Inverter?

• It is an impulse commutated inverter which relies on LC circuit

and an auxiliary Thyristor for commutation in the load circuit.

278
What are the disadvantages of the Harmonics present in the
Inverter system?
• Harmonics current will lead to excessive heating in the induction
motors. This will reduce the load carrying capacity of the motor.
• If the control and regulating circuits are properly shielded,
harmonics from power ride can affect their operation and
malfunctioning can result.
• Harmonics currents cause losses in the ac system and can even
some time produce resonance in the system.
• Under resonant conditions, the instrumentation and metering
can be affected.
• On critical loads, torque pulsation produced by harmonic current
can be useful.
279
What are the methods of Harmonic reduction?

• Transformer connections
• Sinusoidal PWM
• Multiple communication in each cycle
• Stepped wave inverters

280
What are the advantages of Push-Pull converter?

A push–pull converter is a type of

DC-to-DC converter, a switching
converter that uses a transformer to
change the voltage of a DC power
supply.
Advantages of Push pull converter-
• Easy design
• Near sine wave
• Low TUF
• Transformer saturation
• Low frequency operation

281
Find answers: Answers
a) Two terminal three layer device a) Power Diode
b) Majority carrier Devices b) PMOSFET, SIT
c) Bipolar devices c) Diode, BJT, IGBT, MCT
d) Negative Pulse turn on devices d) MCT
e) Two Terminal two layer device e) Signal Diode
f) Uncontrolled turned on and turn f) Diode
off
g) Controlled turned on and turned g) BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT,
off MCT

282