Mountain farming

systems
seeds for the future
Sustainable agricultural practices
for resilient mountain livelihoods
Cover photograph: Woman farmer in the Peruvian Andes displays her harvest of quinoa and potatoes

©FAO/Liana John
 Mountain farming
systems
seeds for the future
Sustainable agricultural practices for resilient mountain livelihoods

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, 2021
Required citation:
Romeo, R., Manuelli, S.R., Geringer, M. and Barchiesi, V. (eds) 2021. Mountain farming
systems – Seeds for the future. Sustainable agricultural practices for resilient mountain
livelihoods. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb5349en

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Contents
Foreword v

Acknowledgements vii

Abbreviations and acronyms viii

Executive summary ix

Introduction xi
1. Mountain agriculture matters for sustainable development 1

2. Key takeaways from experiences for sustainable agriculture

in mountains 9
3. Safeguarding agrobiodiversity and enhancing resilience 15
Agroecology as a tool for managing and increasing the
sustainability of mountain agriculture 16
Protecting Lamon beans from viruses that threaten
their production and agrobiodiversity in Italy 18
Permaculture revives sustainable agriculture on HASERA
farm, Nepal 21
Climate change-resilient agriculture in Nepal 23
Reviving and strengthening indigenous food systems
in the Philippines 27
Climate-smart dairy production in the Swiss mountains 30
Organic farming breathes new life into Mt. Livingstone, United
Republic of Tanzania 33

4. A circular and solidarity economy that adds value to products 37

The circular economy in mountain areas 38
Participatory Guarantee Systems: a tool for sustainable
mountain development 39
Urban agroecology at 3 900 metres above sea level
in La Paz, Plurinational State of Bolivia 41
Himalayan smallholders’ Participatory Guarantee
Systems – Small and beautiful, India 44
From supply chain to community – A Participatory
Guarantee System for mountain farmers in Italy 50
Organic aymaks of Kyrgyzstan 52
Farmers’ markets build solidarity in Lima 55

5. Strengthening local community initiatives by building alliances 59

Mountain family farming: where economic, environmental,
social and cultural functions co-evolve 60
Using ethnobotany to refine agroforestry tools in Yunnan, China 61
Resilient practices for large cardamom agroecology in Nepal 64
Cultivated species help to protect wild plant
resources in high Himalayan communities 67
Food from farm and forest, a case study from
Kailash Sacred Landscape 70
Energizing mountains – Solar power for organic Nepali apples 73

iii
 Organic family farming helps to protect watershed in Panama 76
The Carpat Sheep project in Romania – It all starts
with
Smart grass!
theand organic – A Swiss valley stakes its future 78

on sustainable territorial development 81

Organic cinnamon cooperative discovers strength
in numbers in Viet Nam 84

6. Promoting a people-centred approach for the inclusive

and sustainable development of mountain agroecosystems 89
Recognizing the value of connecting culture and agriculture 90
Sustainable wild plant collection – A driver of rural change
in the Armenian mountains 92
Stingless bee honey for Bolivian ecosystem conservation 95
Biological and anti-erosion measures to improve
livelihoods in Moroccan watersheds 98
Community-led conservation in Peru’s Potato Park 102
Tradition lives on in Portugal’s Barroso Agro-Sylvo
Pastoral System 105
Agroecology farming for sustainable community
land-use management in Sierra Leone 108
Conserving an ancient agroforestry system on the slopes
of Mt. Kilimanjaro, United Republic of Tanzania 110
Organic vegetable production promotes sustainable
livelihoods for Thai hill tribes 113

7. Opportunities for mountain agriculture 117

High agrobiodiversity and mountain speciality products 118
Traditional breeds and varieties 118
Labelling 119
Added value 119
Sustainable tourism: agritourism, ecotourism and
community-based tourism 121

Conclusion 125

Bibliography 127

iv
Foreword
Agriculture and food processing are important economic and development drivers
in many mountainous areas and are essential features of mountain landscapes,
cultures and societies.

However, the majority of the world’s mountain rural population does not have
secure access to food and to the daily calories and protein necessary to guarantee
a healthy life: one out of every two mountain dwellers in the rural areas of
developing countries is estimated to be at risk of food insecurity.

The persistence and high incidence of vulnerability to food insecurity among the 1
billion people living in mountains in the developing countries is a matter of great
concern and is hindering the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 2 –
zero hunger.

This publication has been compiled with the objective of raising awareness
about the importance of applying sustainable production practices to mountain
agriculture as an accelerator for achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. A joint initiative by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, the Mountain Partnership Secretariat (MPS), the Swiss Federal
Office for Agriculture and the Italian Development Cooperation, it also aims to
contribute to the milestone UN Food Systems Summit in 2021.

Applying sustainable practices offers opportunities for mountain agriculture to

balance economic development with cultural and environmental preservation.
Special focus has been given to the potential of agroecological approaches for
improving mountain people’s livelihoods and creating environmental benefits.
These environmental benefits include conservation of biodiversity, improved
resilience to extreme events, and water management for highland populations as
well as lowland populations living far away. Agroecological approaches can also
help to tackle some of the vulnerabilities of the food system exposed by COVID-19
and to “build back better” after the pandemic.

The case studies presented in this publication clearly show the opportunities for
empowerment – particularly of women – generated through the production of
high-quality mountain products with strong market value, which can increase
incomes for mountain communities. The case studies also emphasize the need at
institutional level for policies, investments and cooperation that specifically target
and support mountain people, their production systems and their incomes.

Mountain farming systems that have evolved under varying agroclimatic conditions
– frequently in difficult and inaccessible terrains ill-suited to intensive, high
productivity crops – have often maintained a highly diversified genetic base for
crops and domestic animals. This publication shows that sustainable approaches
in mountain agriculture are varied, rich and dynamic, with innovative and
traditional farming practices that are being tested, used and promoted by farmers,
researchers, practitioners and policy makers. Such practices seek to protect
biodiversity, improve resource efficiency, strengthen resilience and promote social
equity, while enhancing the livelihoods of mountain communities.

v
Harnessing the potential of mountain farming systems is key to attracting youth
back to agriculture and food-based livelihoods, and to ensuring that healthy
mountain ecosystems can continue to provide their essential services. Our
organizations are all deeply committed to sustainable mountain development. It is
our hope that this publication will encourage others to join us in providing political
support and investment for sustainable mountain agriculture and sustainable food
systems for the future.

François Pythoud Mette Løyche Wilkie

Special Envoy for International Director
Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry Division
Federal Office for Agriculture, Food and Agriculture
Switzerland Organization of the United
Nations

vi
Acknowledgements
This publication is the result of collective contributions from Mountain Partnership
members. We want to thank all the authors of the individual case studies that
we received (detailed list in Annex 1), who collaborated with us to produce this
publication.

We wish to thank Svea Senesie (FAO), Clelia Maria Puzzo (FAO), Abram J. Bicksler
(FAO), Emma Siliprandi (FAO), Mahmoud el Solh (CFS) and Patricia Flores (IFOAM
Organics international) for their specific contributions.

We thank the reviewers Surendra Raj Joshi (ICIMOD), Sam Kanyamibwa (ARCOS),
Thomas Kohler (CDE), Xuan Li (FAO RAP), François Pythoud (FOAG) and Laura
Russo (MPS/FAO) for their comments that contributed to the improvement of the
text.

We also would like to thank Samantha Abear (MPS/FAO) for the photo selection.

Editors: Rosalaura Romeo (MPS/FAO), Sara Manuelli (MPS/FAO), Michelle Geringer

(MPS/FAO) and Valeria Barchiesi (MPS/FAO).

Concept: FAO Mountain Partnership Secretariat

Layout: Roberto Cenciarelli

Editing: Clare Anne Pedrick

Proofreading: James Varah

vii
Abbreviations and
acronyms
CO -eq carbon dioxide equivalent
2

CIP International Potato Center

DFF Decade of Family Farming
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FFF Forest and Farm Facility
FFPO forest and farm producer organization
FOD Bio-KG Federation of Organic Development BIO-Kyrgyzstan
FSF Future Smart Foods
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG greenhouse gas
GIAHS Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre
LEK local ecological knowledge
MAP medicinal and aromatic plant
MP Mountain Partnership
MPP Mountain Partnership Products
MPS Mountain Partnership Secretariat
NGO non-governmental organization
NUS neglected and underutilized species
PGI: protected geographical indication
POP package of practices
PGS Participatory Guarantee System
PKVY Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
TEBTEBBA Indigenous Peoples’ International Centre for Policy Research and
Education
TMI The Mountain Institute
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization
VNFU Viet Nam Farmers Union
WNEP Wild and non-cultivated edible plant

viii
Executive summary
Mountains cover about 27 percent of the Earth’s land surface and are found on all
continents. Agriculture is a predominant economic activity in mountain areas and
an essential feature of mountain landscapes and peoples’ cultures and societies.

Mountain farming systems have the potential to support sustainable mountain

development and drive progress towards several of the Sustainable Development
Goals, particularly the goals of reducing rural poverty, contributing to zero hunger,
reducing gender inequalities, ensuring the availability and sustainable management
of water, and protecting key terrestrial ecosystems.

Mountain communities have developed valuable traditional knowledge and

practices in crop cultivation, livestock production, water harvesting, forestry and
agroforestry that are well adapted to natural ecosystems and biological cycles.
Demographic shifts, changes in consumption trends and markets for agricultural
products, and the effects of climate change are altering the way that mountain
farming is traditionally carried out. These changes may create opportunities but
can also have negative consequences for the livelihoods of mountain peoples, and
for mountain ecosystems.

This publication presents a collection of case studies provided by Mountain

Partnership (MP) members from around the world, highlighting experiences of
agroecological mountain farming systems. It aims to increase attention toward
agroecological principles and approaches and their potential. The MP, the only
United Nations global voluntary alliance dedicated to sustainable mountain
development, is fully committed to promoting action that can improve the
resilience of mountain people and environments.

In mountains, the practice of agroecology can result in more resilient agricultural

and food systems. Diversity is a fundamental element of agroecology that
safeguards resilience, ecosystem functions and productivity at farm level as well as
at market level. Agroecology is crucial for human health and nutrition because it
embraces several context-specific approaches, organic practices, agroforestry and
permaculture.

A common theme of the many projects and activities featured here is a strong
human-centred approach, pointing to the importance of knowledge exchange,
encouraging a sense of community, strengthening local initiatives, creating
alliances and promoting a solidarity economy, for mountain agriculture and food
systems.

Mountain agricultural products satisfy many of the demands of today’s discerning

consumers, who are often looking for healthy, organic and traditional products
that tell the story of the communities behind them. Making value chains more
efficient and sustainable through their shortening, diversification, conservation of
traditional breeds and variety, along with improved marketing and labelling, are all
opportunities for mountain agriculture. In territories where food culture and social
values are prominent features, agritourism, ecotourism and community-based
tourism also represent significant opportunities.

ix
The experiences showcased in this publication demonstrate that the 10 Elements
of Agroecology are highly relevant for mountain farming systems. These are:

• diversity (1), which improves mountain soil health and productivity and can
also help to bolster nutrition and human health and market diversification,
ultimately building resilience;

• co-creation and sharing of knowledge processes (2) that blend

traditional and indigenous mountain knowledge, as well as producers’ and
traders’ practical knowledge and global scientific knowledge;

• synergies (3) that contribute to enhancing key functions across food systems
are particularly important in mountain contexts, where ecosystems are fragile
and harmony between agriculture and nature is crucial – practices such as
innovative high-biodiversity cropping systems (including animal integration
and high-value crops) also reinforce other principles, such as efficiency (4),
recycling (5) and resilience (6);

• human and social values (7) and culture and food traditions (8) can
help to promote cultural preservation and sustainable mountain tourism
development, and to foster the strong sense of belonging and traditions in
mountains; and

• responsible governance (9) and a circular and solidarity economy

(10) which can be considered as potential approaches to improving
mountain economies that suffer from lack of investments, lack of access to
infrastructure, markets, and lack of organized support.

Food security in mountains is a matter of concern, as current data on vulnerability

to food insecurity (Romeo, et al., 2020) show that half of all rural mountain people
in developing countries live in areas where the daily availability of calories and
protein is estimated to be below the minimum threshold needed for a healthy life.

Through adequate and coordinated pro-mountain policies, investments, capacity

development, services and infrastructures, as well as efforts to provide smallholders
and family farmers with access to innovation, mountain farming systems have the
potential to become important pathways for change. In doing so, they can provide
valuable support and impetus to the transition to sustainable food systems,
contributing to revitalizing rural areas for youth and lifting mountain peoples out
of poverty and hunger, while protecting fragile mountain environments for the
future.

x
Introduction
Rosalaura Romeo, Sara Manuelli, Michelle Geringer and Valeria Barchiesi

About 27 percent of the Earth’s land surface is covered by mountains. In mountain

areas worldwide, agriculture is embedded in landscapes, cultures and societies,
and it is crucial for mountain communities’ subsistence.

Mountain farming is often carried out by families, and due to the multitude of
agroecological zones resulting from altitude changes and varied landscapes, a
wide genetic variety of agricultural crops and farm animals is generally found in
mountain regions. Mountain people share a deep respect for nature, together
with a holistic view of it, and as such, they are careful stewards of the often scarce
natural resources that surround them.

However, food security in mountains has been a matter of concern in recent years.
Half of all rural mountain people in developing countries live below the minimum
threshold of available calories and proteins needed for a healthy life, as estimated
by current data on vulnerability to food insecurity (Romeo, et al., 2020).

Agroecology is a relevant basis for promoting well-functioning and sustainable

food and agricultural systems. Agroecological practices may include organic
farming, permaculture and agroforestry, and agroecology can include a multitude
of sustainable solutions, applying localized knowledge-based practices, not only
at field level, but also to the broader food system, including food processing,
marketing and distribution. A key element of agroecology and mountain farming
is diversity: it ensures the provision of ecosystem functions, productivity, resilience
and market diversification, and contributes to human nutrition and health.

Based on an integrated approach that simultaneously applies ecological and social

concepts and principles to the design and management of food and agricultural
systems, agroecology puts people squarely at the centre of food systems (HLPE,
2019). Using a scientific basis of agroecological processes for food and agriculture
systems, it provides holistic and long-term solutions based on knowledge sharing
and innovation, including the combination of local, traditional, indigenous and
practical knowledge with multidisciplinary science (FAO, 2019a).

Family farmers, including smallholder producers, indigenous people and

pastoralists, are at the heart of agroecology. This publication is a compilation of
experiences for sustainable agriculture in mountain areas, featuring examples of
agroecological mountain farming systems from around the world through case
studies provided by Mountain Partnership (MP) members. These highlight a rich
array of projects, research, experiences and lessons learned on mountain food
systems. They offer the perspectives of different stakeholders on the opportunities
and challenges for agriculture in mountain areas, with a special focus on practices
that can help to conserve local agrobiodiversity and enhance mountain peoples’
resilience to environmental and economic changes.

The message from many of the experiences documented here is that traditional
approaches to mountain farming have changed due to shifts in consumption
and markets and due to the effects of climate and demographic changes. The
consequences represent both opportunity for and a risk to mountain communities
xi
and ecosystems. The COVID-19 pandemic has amplified existing challenges faced
by food systems in mountain areas, as evidenced by disruptions to food supply
chains, food shortages in many developing countries and an increase in people
suffering from acute food insecurity (FSIN, 2020; ICIMOD, 2020).

To address the growing challenges brought about by human activities and global
changes, effective and specific mountain policies and coordinated interventions
are needed at all levels, to conserve natural assets that support human well-being
from the highlands to the lowlands, and ultimately to “ensure the conservation of
mountain ecosystems” (SDG 15.4). In mountains, we can find the inspiration and
innovation for a more sustainable and prosperous future.

xii
xiii
Mountain agriculture in Kalikot, Karnali Province, Nepal
©Geetaxiv Pandey
 1
Mountain agriculture matters for
sustainable development

1
1. Mountain
agriculture matters for
sustainable
development
Rosalaura Romeo, Sara Manuelli, Michelle Geringer and Valeria Barchiesi

Throughout the centuries, mountain agriculture has contributed to shaping

highland landscapes as we see them today. Mountains1 are often harsh
environments, remote and vulnerable to natural hazards. To cope with these
conditions, mountain communities have developed valuable traditional knowledge
and practices in crop cultivation, livestock production, water harvesting, forestry
and agroforestry, which are well adapted to natural ecosystem biochemical cycles.

Agriculture is an important element of mountain landscapes and cultures and

provides critical ecosystem services for upland and lowland environments. The
Alpine Convention (2017) describes mountain agriculture as an essential resource
for supplying food to the population, producing typical nutritious and high-quality
products, preserving and maintaining the cultural landscape, including tourism,
and protecting soil against erosion, avalanches and floods.

Mountains are key ecosystems, providing goods and services to the planet world
wide. They are often referred to as the “water towers” of the world for their role in
the maintenance of freshwater reserves, and due to their topographical diversity,
steep environmental gradients and climatic conditions, they host unique ecosystems.
Mountains cover more than one-quarter of the Earth’s land surface and are home to
1.1 billion people, almost 15 percent of the world’s population.
More than 90 percent of the world’s mountain dwellers live in developing countries,
including 648 million people in rural areas, where a vast majority live below the pov
erty line and one out of two people faces the threat of food insecurity. The number of
rural mountain people in developing countries considered vulnerable to food insecurity
was estimated at 346 million in 2017, an increase of more than 40 million since
2012, when they were estimated at roughly 300 million.
Mountainous areas host a rich variety of ecological systems and genetic diversity. Of
the 20 plant species that supply 80 percent of the world’s food, six (apples, barley,
maize, potatoes, sorghum and tomatoes) originated in mountains, and a large pro
portion of domestic mammals (sheep, goats, yaks, llama and alpaca) originated or
have been diversified in mountains.
About 50 percent of all global biodiversity hotspots are located in mountain regions
(17 out of 34). These contribute disproportionally to the planet’s terrestrial biodiver
sity and approximately 30 percent of total land identified as Key Biodiversity Areas
is located in mountains. Mountain species coexist thanks to their different climate
preferences and have high genetic diversity, which is a prerequisite for adaptation to
new conditions.
Sources: Fleury, 1999; UNEP-WCMC, 2002; Chape et al., 2008; Körner and Paulsen, 2004; Rahbek
et al., 2019 ; UNEP et al., 2020; Romeo, et al., 2020.

1
Definition of mountain by UNEP-WCMC: www.fao.org/mountain-partnership/about/definitions/en/

2
In many mountain areas, agricultural and food systems are key economic and
development drivers, providing a source of income through products for local and
urban markets, and employing a significant share of the population, especially
in developing countries.

Traditional mountain farming systems have adapted to local circumstances

through sophisticated techniques such as terrace farming, which has made
farming in mountains possible and enables farmers to make their land more
productive. These agricultural techniques play a role in sustaining entire
ecosystems, as farming helps to stabilize the land and reduces soil erosion,
preventing the leaching of nutrients.

A range of mountain farming systems has been developed in relation to specific

varied climatic conditions, slope and elevation. They can be broadly classified as
follows (El Solh, 2019):

• Pastoral livestock production system: This is a grazing-based production

system, whereby livestock are fed on natural vegetation and rangelands
that include grasses, legumes, shrubs and other vegetation, which provide
forage throughout the year.

• Agropastoral livestock system: This is an integrated crop-livestock

rangeland production system that includes different types of livestock,
natural pastures and various field crops such as barley, forage crops, shrubs
and trees, as well as by-products of field crops.

• Rainfed agriculture production system: In both tropical and non

tropical areas, rainfed agriculture occurs where there is more than 400
mm of rainfall during the rainy season. Worldwide, rainfed agriculture is
often used as a conservation agriculture approach, meaning minimum soil
disturbance or zero tillage, stubble retention and crop rotation. Conserving
soil moisture and reducing soil erosion in rainfed agriculture production
systems are crucial to ensuring the sustainability of soil productivity, soil
and water conservation.

• Irrigated agriculture production system: This system is practised in arid

and semi-arid mountain areas, where annual rainfall is less than 350 mm.
The sources of irrigation water are either deep artesian wells, surface water
from rivers, or harvested rainwater in macro and micro water catchments
and dams. Farmers using irrigated mountain agriculture production systems
tend to diversify production to ensure food security, with high-value crops,
including vegetables, fruit trees and ornamentals.

• Forestry system or agroforestry: This is an important source of livelihoods

in mountain areas and provides essential environmental goods and services,
such as timber, fuelwood, carbon storage and other products that improve
the lives of people living in mountains.

3
Mountains offer unique opportunities for agriculture due to their variations in
climate, soils, elevations and slope, resulting in much greater diversity in terms
of species richness and degree of endemism. Since agricultural biodiversity is the
basis for global food security, mountain agrobiodiversity should be considered as
nature’s insurance system.

In general, mountain agriculture is characterized by smaller, more fragmented

plots of land compared with lowland agriculture, and by time-consuming and
labour-intensive cultivation and pastoralism practices. For example, in the Hindu
Kush Himalaya, households typically own less than 1 ha of land (Wester et al.,
2019). The highly diversified mountain livelihoods found here are based on a
combination of agriculture, handicrafts, tourism and trade, full- or part-time.

The agroclimatic features of mountains have a number of implications for

agriculture compared to agriculture practised on the plains. These include low
productivity, low scale of economy, restrictions on monocropping, cold-resistance,
integrated farming systems, and opportunities for mountain specialty products
and off-season fruit production (FAO, 2019b). Widespread lack of investment
exacerbates the negative aspects of mountain agriculture while failing to exploit
its positive aspects.

Worldwide, mountain agriculture is changing under the pressure of population

growth, rapid urbanization and climate change. Outmigration and land
abandonment are among the most visible trends affecting traditional mountain
farming systems. Male outmigration to urban areas is common in many rural

Himalayan landscape in India

©Pradeep
4 Mehta
mountain regions, such as the Tropical Andes and the Hindu Kush Himalaya,
with the result that responsibility for agriculture falls on women, adding to their
workload. Women often face more obstacles than men in agricultural endeavours,
including reduced access to land and finances, lack of decision-making power
and high dependence on intermediaries (Bachmann et al., 2019). In some
regions of the developing world, urban encroachment on agricultural lands is
one of the main drivers of reduced agricultural productivity. The transformation
of integrated mountain farming systems to more input-intensive, higher-yield
agriculture is occurring in many mountain regions, with often devastating
impacts on natural resources and biodiversity.

Mountain agriculture, either as a subsistence or commercial activity, is particularly

linked to water availability. Climate change is expected to affect this essential
resource, with probable repercussions for agricultural activities. Predictions
are that climate-related shifts will reduce water availability for irrigation, while
increasing the risk of extreme weather events, including floods and droughts
(IPCC, 2019). Such events would negatively impact crop yields and reduce areas
suitable for cultivation. In recent years several mountain areas have experienced
a reduction in water availability for crop irrigation and a subsequent decline in
agricultural yields. Mountain meltwater is essential during the dry season, for
agriculture and other human needs (Biemans et al., 2019). It is estimated that
the vulnerability of mountains to climatic and socio-economic changes linked to
water could negatively affect 1.9 billion people living in, or directly downstream
of, global mountainous areas (Immerzeel et al., 2020).

5
The importance of mountain agriculture for achieving the SDGs

Under the framework of the United Nations 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), mountain
agriculture has the potential to advance sustainable mountain development and strengthen the resilience of communities
and ecosystems in mountain areas. Mountain agriculture contributes to the following SDGs:

SDG 1 – No poverty SDG 2 – Zero hunger SDG 3 – Good health and well-being
Approximately 1 billion people live in the Vulnerability to food insecurity is high in mountains. Poverty and scarce access to food and medical
mountains of developing countries. Of these, An estimated 1 out of 2 mountain people living in facilities threaten the health of many people
around 648 million live in rural areas where the rural areas of developing countries is vulnerable living in mountains. Water quality is highly
poverty is widespread, often with a higher to food insecurity. Most of the world’s mountain dependent on mountain sources and on water
incidence of poverty than in surrounding chains are home to indigenous peoples and local management through farming practices.
lowlands. Mountain agriculture represents communities, whose livelihood strategies, food Mountain agriculture is well suited to the
a source of income for mountain dwellers systems and cultural identities are inextricably production of a wide range of fruits, nuts,
through ecotourism and the sale of speciality linked with mountain environments. Mountains are vegetables, livestock and by-products, and
products. important centres of domestication of plants and other high-value products (most of which
therefore repositories of local varieties, providing are potentially Future Smart Foods) that
a global gene pool that is critical for nutritional could contribute to improved availability of
improvement, dietary diversity and quality. sufficient, nutritious and safe food and address
Appropriate policies and investments in support of food shortages in mountain areas.
mountain agriculture could increase food production
and contribute to food security for mountain people.

SDG 5 – Gender equality SDG 6 – Clean water and sanitation SDG 8 – Decent work and economic
Mountain women farmers often have This SDG aims to protect and restore water-related growth
primary responsibility for natural resource ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, Mountain areas can greatly contribute to the
management, agricultural production and the rivers, aquifers and lakes. Mountain glaciers are economy, while at the same time helping to
well-being and survival of their families. Male retreating, while deforestation and unsustainable conserve the natural heritage. Many economic
outmigration, permanent or seasonal, leads economic activities are increasing difficulties for
sectors are based on mountain services
to increased responsibilities and workloads some mountain communities in accessing clean and products, including tourism, forestry,
for women in mountain agriculture. Achieving water. Mountain agriculture can contribute to agriculture, biodiversity conservation, pastures
gender equality in mountain agriculture calls maintaining high water quality, both in uplands and and pharmaceuticals.
for targeted interventions to improve access to lowlands, through appropriate farming and water Mountain products and agritourism generate
inputs and resources for women and eliminate management practices.
income for smallholder farmers and improve
discrimination against women and girls. local economies. Producer organizations have
strong potential for inclusive economic growth
through training in marketing and distribution
techniques, as well as through improved
access to markets.

6
SDG 12 – Responsible production SDG 13 – Climate action SDG 15 – Life on land
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indicators
storage Mountain agriculture is an essential element
of mountain landscapes, cultures and societies.
In some areas, the over-extraction or
Good mountain agricultural practices enhance
degradation of environmental resources
represents a challenge for mountain the role of mountains in the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial
agriculture, while in others, mountain farming
practices are making a strong contribution and inland freshwater ecosystems and their
to resource efficiency, waste reduction and Mountain agriculture has the potential to services. The SDG target 15.4 is fundamental
diversification
promoting
adoption
and
buildlocally
mountain
animals). ofpeoples’
livelihood
ofclimate-resilient,
climate
available opportunities
adaptation
resilience
or adaptablepractices
through
crops
economically and
(such
and the
the as
farm
viable for sustainable mountain development and it
keeping a low carbon footprint. seeks to, by 2030, “ensure the conservation
Mountains are at the forefront of sustainable
production practices and agrobiodiversity of mountain ecosystems, including their
biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity
conservation. Mountain tourism promotes
sustainable food systems and responsible to provide benefits that are essential for
production and consumption by informing sustainable development.“
consumers of the nutritional value of
agrobiodiverse products, focusing on domestic
value chains that ensure transparency and
trust between producers and consumers, and
fair compensation for the primary producers.

SDG 17– Partnership

The Mountain Partnership is a United Nations
voluntary alliance of partners dedicated to
improving the lives of mountain peoples and
protecting mountain environments around the
world. Currently, more than 400 governments,
intergovernmental organizations, major
groups (e.g. civil society, non-governmental
organizations [NGOs] and the private sector)
and subnational authorities are members.
The MP brings members together to work
towards a common goal: to improve the lives
of mountain peoples and protect mountain
environments worldwide.

7
Kyrgyz community in high mountains
© Kuluipa Akmatova
 2
Key takeaways from experiences
for sustainable agriculture in
mountains

9
2. Key takeaways from
experiences for
sustainable agriculture
in mountains
Rosalaura Romeo, Sara Manuelli, Michelle Geringer and Valeria Barchiesi

The examples of mountain farming systems and agroecological practices provided

by MP members show the potential for mountain agriculture to balance resilience,
livelihood improvement and economic development.

The remoteness of mountain farmers and their lack of financial resources often
limit the use of pesticides and promote farming in an organic manner. In addition,
family-based and small-scale upland farms, if not already organic, have strong
potential for moving or reverting to organic practices relatively easily, compared
with large-scale lowland businesses. (Wymann von Dach et al., 2013)

Diversity, in terms of production systems, but also activities, can be considered

and applied as a pathway towards environmental and socio-economic resilience,
and as a livelihood strategy. Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) are a
promising tool for mountain farmers to improve equity in value chains, and bring
together producers and consumers. They highlight the importance of transparent
transactions for mountain products and the role of community-based participation

Terrace farming in Karnali province, Nepal

©Ashim10 Poudel
as a valid system of certification. Thirty-eight percent of the world’s mountain
people live in urban areas, and urban gardening as well as ecological markets can
be a way to engage local populations, bringing consumers and producers closer
together, as well as making small plots of land highly productive.

Mountain people’s livelihoods are at the core of many projects and initiatives in
the experiences featured here, and a common theme is a strong human-centred
approach. Culturally appropriate food systems are critical components of many
case studies, due to their linkages with food security, nutrition and ecosystem
health. Cultural identity shapes landscape and farming practices, which can in
turn inspire agroecological solutions. The deep connection between human and
social values, culture and food traditions in many of the case studies represents
a strong sense of belonging in mountain areas, with promising potential in terms
of sustainable tourism development. In territories where food culture and social
values are prominent features, community-led tourism and diversification of
activities represent a significant opportunity.

11
 The following chart summarizes the main lessons learned from the case studies:

Safeguarding agrobiodiversity and

Knowledge exchange Producing more with less
enhancing resilience

The combination of traditional Agrobiodiversity is a way to reduce risk – by Efficiency in production, natural
knowledge and innovation, and of using multiple varieties of the same species, resource management – avoiding
research and community action, the farmer protects the harvest against waste – and conservation of
is key for successful experiences. possible attack. The typically scattered nature indigenous varieties is fundamental
Demonstration sites (Nepal), use of production in mountain areas and the great to achieving sustainable mountain
of low-cost techniques and local variety found there pose challenges in terms development (India, United Republic
materials, the understanding of social of producing large volumes, but have the of Tanzania). Terrace farming
context (Kyrgyzstan, Peru), are all advantage of conferring increased resilience. and permaculture principles such
crucial to ensure the sustainability Agrobiodiversity is fundamental for water as rainwater harvesting, grey
of policies and projects, through resource efficiency (Nepal), climate change water harvesting, mulching and
public-private partnerships and multi resilience (Panama) and greenhouse gas tree planting make it possible to
stakeholder engagement. reduction (Switzerland). It also contributes cultivate under unfavourable land
to improved nutrition and food security, is conditions and increase the efficient
adaptable to small-scale farming and provides use of scarce resources. The farm is
ecosystem services. considered an organism integrated
within an ecosystem (Nepal).

Adding value to products Encouraging a sense of community A solidarity economy

Adding value to speciality products The social aspect plays a pivotal role in Connecting at an emotional level
can ensure fair prices for farmers and co-creating knowledge, supporting other and understanding the risks of food
increase recognition for indigenous farmers, sharing technical expertise and production can create an inclusive
crops and lesser known wild edible recreating the linkages between humanity and solidarity-based economy (Peru).
plants for their nutritional and climate and the environment. Social exchanges The awareness of both producers
resilient value (Plurinational State of are fundamental to rebuild consumer and consumers regarding sustainable
Bolivia, Portugal, United Republic of producer linkages and those with citizens. production and nutrition-sensitive
Tanzania). Certification and product Urban gardens can foster a renewed sense products is increasing. This is a
differentiation systems demonstrate of community, and ensure healthier and reciprocal process, where organic
the quality and diversity of products adequate diets (Plurinational State of Bolivia). markets encourage the growth
with transparency (India). A local Mountains can promote a strong sense of of organic producers, who then
territorial brand can promote interest collective spirit, as well as self-sufficiency and connect with other farmer groups
in local crops and cultural heritage. solidarity among residents, which can in turn and increase sustainable production
This can help to safeguard important inspire others (Portugal). Farmers in mountain (India, Thailand)
traditional crops, productive know areas were found to be naturally inclined to
how and consumption rituals, and interact and help each other, avoiding an
foster increased organic production individualistic and competitive approach
(Switzerland). (Italy).

12
Strengthening local initiatives Creating alliances

Political support is fundamental for Mountain farmers have very limited capacity
agricultural research and infrastructure to supply large volumes of products in order
development. Best practices can lead to meet market demand, but collectively they
by example and move regulations can do so and increase organic production
forward (Plurinational State of Bolivia). (Kyrgyzstan). Community farming and
Online decision-making tools can tailor collaborative market strategies can help to
recommendations based on farmers’ reverse migration flows and make territories
individual needs (China). Examples more attractive. Collaboration at all levels is
include: the creation of a governing fundamental for the sustainability of projects,
body and a special fund for family and local producer associations and institutions
farming, to strengthen family farmers’ are often as important as national/regional
organizations, the implementation of authorities (Romania). Building alliances makes
agritourism strategies, the construction it possible to scale up and to link farmers with
of commercialization infrastructures enterprises and markets, diversifying organic
and the improvement of access to production and, at the same time, maintaining
information through technologies sustainable development as a priority (Viet Nam).
(Panama). There are also opportunities for transboundary
collaboration, for example, to promote
cardamom as a regional product through
coordinated research, technology exchange for
improved yields, building organized markets
and infrastructure, and developing compatible
regional policies (Nepal).

Combined actions People-centred actions Women’s empowerment

A multiscale, multiple-goal approach, Solutions to environmental and poverty-related It is crucial that women play an active
integrating political, social and problems will only be found by working together role since they are often the chief
ecological factors, is fundamental to with people, and if those people are ready to holders of valuable indigenous and
ensure the effectiveness of combined put them in place (Morocco). Interventions traditional knowledge, as well as
actions (Peru). For example, the use of must be adapted to people’s needs and cultural custodians of native seed diversity and
renewable energy can relieve pressure beliefs and traditions. The role of resource resilient cropping practices, despite
on natural resources, while also saving persons is crucial in connecting and creating a having the heaviest workloads and
money (Nepal, Sierra Leone). Organic bridge among sectors and institutions (Italy), suffering malnutrition (Nepal). If
and agroecological agriculture shows or among types of knowledge. Strengthening women are made more aware, and
that achieving multiple complementary local partners and training local staff as primary their fundamental role is recognized,
goals is possible: food security and implementers is a successful way of keeping they can become key facilitators,
decent employment can be related to programme staffing levels small and cost involving and motivating other women
water security of watersheds (Panama), effective, while expanding the reach to remote and helping to improve food security
as well as enhanced biodiversity and communities, ensuring long-term sustainability and nutrition (Armenia, Plurinational
recognition of women’s roles (United for projects (Nepal). Communities need to State of Bolivia).
Republic of Tanzania). Geographical be empowered to lead with autonomy; local
certification and territorial valorization and indigenous people must be involved in
are multidimensional and can achieve conservation, because they are both guardians
several goals at once, helping to and users of resources (Peru, the Philippines).
mobilize resources, identify priorities Farm household resources influence the
and lobby for government support capacity to pursue different livelihood strategies;
(Portugal, United Republic of Tanzania). context-specific people-centred policies are the
pathway towards sustainability.
1313
Lamon beans in Italy
©Consorzio14 per la Tutela del Fagiolo di Lamon
 3
Safeguarding agrobiodiversity and
enhancing resilience

15
Agroecology as a tool for
managing and increasing the
sustainability of mountain
agriculture
Abram J. Bicksler and Emma Siliprandi

Agroecology is an integrated and dynamic approach and has been promoted

as a way of contributing to transforming food systems (HLPE, 2019). FAO has
developed the 10 Elements of Agroecology (see Figure 1), which can be used as a
guide for policy makers, practitioners and stakeholders in planning, managing and
evaluating agroecological transitions.

DIVERSITY

RESPONSIBLE RECYCLING EFFICIENCY SYNERGIES RESILIENCE CIRCULAR AND

GOVERNANCE SOLIDARITY ECONOMY

HUMAN AND CO-CREATION CULTURE AND

SOCIAL VALUES AND SHARING OF FOOD TRADITIONS
KNOWLEDGE

Figure 1: The 10 Elements of Agroecology

Source: FAO, 2019a; adapted by MPS

16
The 10 elements can be used as an analytical framework to identify the challenges
faced by mountain communities (including those related to the degradation of
ecosystems, soil erosion, soil health, low productivity, lack of access, climate change
resilience, cultural erosion, and limited technical knowledge). The framework
allows actors to identify which elements are well or poorly represented in the
farming system and how the sustainability (social, environmental and economic
facets) of the system can be bolstered. It is important to note that the elements
are interconnected and interdependent and offer many different entry points for
holistic thinking about the system (Barrios et al., 2020). It should also be noted
that agroecology is not limited to production but encompasses the entire range of
food systems across sustainability dimensions.

In common with mountain agriculture, agroecology embodies a holistic view of

food and agricultural systems, emphasizing people’s central role in shaping the
way that systems can be transformed.

17
Protecting Lamon beans
from viruses that threaten
their production and
agrobiodiversity in Italy
Tiziana Penco, Paolo Ermacora and Carlo Murer

The Lamon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is subject to recurrent viral epidemics,
causing severe productive losses. Viruses cannot be cured and the ecotypes
currently cultivated lack genetic resistance. The FaLaRes (Resistant Lamon Bean)
project aims to select plants which, under high infective pressure conditions in
fields, show resistance or tolerance to viruses. This continuous selection process
may lead in the medium term to the selection of tolerant or resistant ecotypes.
Farmers will have healthy seeds available, derived from a process of “guided
co-evolution” with pathogens, and therefore with enhanced resilience.

The Consortium for the Protection of the Lamon Bean is a non-profit association
of producers established in 1993, based in Lamon village and including 20

Lamon beans growing in Italy

©Consorzio per la Tutela del Fagiolo di Lamon

18
municipalities in northern Italy’s Belluno Province (Veneto Region). It involves about
100 farmers, with a total cultivated area of 13 ha and a Protected Geographical
Indication (PGI) production of 16 000 kg of beans per year. The PGI label, awarded
to the bean in 1996, implies total traceability, a strong characterization and
recognition of the product, and good economic valorization on the market.

The consortium’s objectives are to:

• provide technical agronomical assistance;
• ensure the production and provision of certified quality seeds to consortium
farmers;
• protect and manage the use of the Lamon beans brand, combating
counterfeits;
• organize events to promote the bean, in Italy and abroad; and
• activate research and innovation projects to ensure sustainable bean
production.

Recurrent epidemics of viruses have affected the Lamon PGI bean in recent years,
with the entire harvest lost in 2012 due to disease. The population of Lamon
beans was secured thanks to a quantity of seeds saved from the previous year. The
viruses, known as Bean Common Mosaic Virus and Cucumber Mosaic Virus, are
both transmitted through the seeds, to the new generation, and through aphids.

Experience shows that massive use of chemical insecticides to

control aphids is not effective in preventing the spread of the virus,
nor can the use of virus-free seeds control the spread of disease.
With the local economy and biodiversity under serious threat, a project was needed
to ensure continued and sustainable bean production for farmers.

The challenge was significant. Virus-resistant cultivars of the Lamon PGI bean do
not exist. Genetic crosses between current Lamon beans and other (non-Lamon)
resistant varieties would not conserve the typical historical and organoleptic
characteristics of the Lamon lines. Particular traits of these traditional mountain
beans are their thin skin, high digestibility and high calcium, amino acid and
vitamin C content. It is critical that these characteristics are protected when
selecting resistant bean plants, if the Lamon’s valuable heritage is to be retained.

One promising opportunity to solve the problem lies in exploring research into
induced resistances. Plants that are inherently susceptible to pathogens can
become resistant after stress inductions, such as infections of pathogens. This
approach, known as Systemic Induced Resistance, is a form of induced resistance
that involves activating previously dormant genes to enhance resistance. This is a
phenomenon that is similar to vaccinating animals. The project’s goal is to select
four induced lines of the Lamon bean in the field.

Researchers will conduct a selection of those plants not showing symptoms of

any virus, and those that have the best productive characteristics. This selection
will be assisted by an analytical verification of the causes behind the absence of
symptoms, so as to understand any possible genetic influence. The seeds obtained
by supposedly resistant plants will be propagated in an insect-proof greenhouse,
for several cycles. The pool of induced plants will be periodically enriched with
new induced plants selected in the field, year by year.

19
As a result, it will be possible to provide farmers with healthy, local, adapted and
induced seeds for resistance/tolerance to viruses, with enhanced resilience. In this
way, annual output is expected to be less dependent on epidemics of viruses.

The main activities involved include: searching for Lamon bean plants that
behave as resistant or tolerant to viral plant pathogens in the field; experimental
confirmation of the status of resistance/tolerance in induced plants by artificial
inoculations and application of laboratory techniques in order to select induced
and healthy plants; and molecular studies to investigate origin of resistance/
tolerance mechanisms. Improved virus-free seeds with enhanced resilience will be
supplied to growers annually, and knowledge shared through local meetings and
via several publications and a dedicated website: www.fagiolodilamon.it.

After the first year of research and experimentation, the results are promising.
Resistant plants have been selected from the fields of consortium farmers. The
year 2019 proved to be one in which the aphid virus vectors were highly active,
so this strong pressure from the pathogens enhanced the possibility of identifying
resistant plants.

Seeds of these supposedly resistant plants will be verified in the next growing
season, both in the field and in the greenhouse; in the greenhouse, these plants
will be artificially infected with the viruses, to check their actual resistance. The
resistance to viruses will be further verified through genetic analysis in university
laboratories, in order to better understand the mechanism of induced plant
resistance.
20
 The HASERA farm in Nepal uses the permaculture method of farming
©HASERA/Bibek Dhital

Permaculture revives
sustainable agriculture on
HASERA farm, Nepal
Bibek Dhital

Agriculture is not just a question of farming. It’s our daily life –it’s who we are, and
once we pollute the system with chemicals and bad practices, we are lost in our
own creation. Today, we have the chance to be world leaders in the production of
healthy food; joining hands in this movement is what permaculture is all about. In
Nepal, the HASERA farm has been practising permaculture since 1993 and is an
example of how one small act can have a far bigger impact.

In Nepal, pesticide contamination and haphazard agricultural modernization are

relatively recent, compared with its neighbours such as India and China, as well
as many developed countries. The trend, however, is shifting from diversified
agriculture to monocropping, and today chemical-based farming has become a
major concern for every institution involved in agriculture.

Since its creation 27 years ago, the HASERA farm, situated in Kavre, Nepal, has
adapted to and promoted the permaculture method of farming. When purchased
for farming, the land was a barren hill surrounded on all sides by commercial
farms. Without any source of irrigation, and situated in a hilly landscape where
80 percent of the rainfall was concentrated during the three-month rainy season,
farming conditions were extremely challenging. The farm’s owners, who had
studied agriculture – particularly organic farming and permaculture – introduced
rainwater harvesting, grey water harvesting, mulching, tree planting, farm zoning
and many other permaculture principles to make the best use of a few hundred

21
litres of water harvested on a daily basis, taking care not to let a single drop go
to waste.

The major organic practices adopted for pest management include planting a mix
of crops from at least three botanical families, using trap crops for selective insects
(ants), multicolour plantations (vegetables and flowers) to attract pollinators, and
insect repellents such as onion, garlic and coriander to deter insects. However,
once a farm becomes mature, with plenty of perennials and well-enriched soil, the
problem of insect-based pests and disease generally declines, with nature doing
most of the work to keep a healthy balance.

In line with the social principles of permaculture, the farm also offers technical
expertise to farmers, and most of the surrounding commercial farms no longer
use chemical fertilizer as a result, opting instead for biopesticides and traps. Their
output is therefore organic and is marketed through a farmers’ market run by the
HASERA farming family, who are currently establishing a PGS certification.

The annual edible biodiversity of the farm comprises around 92 different crops,
which include different vegetables, beans and cereals, etc.; the total biodiversity
that the farm supports (perennials, planted crops, flowers, forest species and
weeds) is more than 500 varieties. Butterflies, spiders, mantises and other
beneficial insects can be seen all around the farm. This rich biodiversity has made
a major contribution to making compost, saving water in the soil, promoting
microorganisms, and achieving self-sufficiency in agricultural production. The
average production of vegetables is 3 kg/m2 or 30 tonnes/ha – much higher than
the national average of 10–15 tonnes/ha.

With its sloping land, the farm is a practical model for terrace farming. It also
has a farm stay facility and has hosted visitors from 92 countries. Some of these
people come to learn Nepali traditions and culture, try traditional Nepali cuisine,
and learn about the permaculture lifestyle and farming methods. At the heart
of the farm’s zoned design is the house (Zone 0), almost in the centre of the
farm and surrounded by a vegetable garden (Zone 1), most of which lies below
the kitchen and washing area, making irrigation much simpler. Edible leftovers
from the kitchen are fed to the cows, goats and chickens, while the waste goes
to the compost pile, which nourishes the soil. Herbal tea from the herbal and
medicinal garden, in front of the kitchen, is offered as a welcome gift to visitors.
The edge of the terrace in Zones 2 and 3 is lined with hedgerows, where numerous
fodder species (ipil-ipil, mulberry, Listia spp., Bauhinia, Napier grass) are planted
to provide for the farm animals year-round. In winter, these fodder hedges are
pruned into bushes to prevent them from shading the crops on lower terraces. The
narrow terraces are planted with a range of crops, mixed and rotated during the
season. In the corner runs a drainage canal, with swales (shallow channels) every
3 m, which serves for water catchment, soil erosion control and as a recharge site
for water during the rainy season.

The major objective of the farm is to be as self-sufficient as possible in food

production and to recycle all of the waste generated in the process, with large
volumes of tomato, potato, rice and wheat cultivated. According to the principles
of permaculture, the social component is also important, helping to make the
system much stronger and more sustainable.
22
 An improved cowshed collects urine as a source of nitrogen for plants in Kavre district, Nepal
©ASIA NGO

Climate change-resilient
agriculture in Nepal
Alessandra Nardi

The “Development of Climate Change-Resilient Agriculture in Nepal” project

strengthens the system for sustainable agricultural production with an inclusive
model that favours food security while strengthening the local market. The aim
is to produce more food of higher quality while using fewer natural resources
and synthetic chemicals, to increase producers’ incomes and set up a certified
production system.

The agricultural production system in Nepal is characterized by subsistence

agriculture. It has always been based on natural production techniques, used to
promote the coexistence of all the elements of the ecosystem (soil, plants, animals,
people). In the past, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides have been little used, but
the arrival of industrial agriculture has exacerbated environmental problems. The
increased use of hybrid seeds has also led to genetic pollution and to the gradual
loss of local varieties. A major earthquake in 2015 reduced farmers’ capabilities to
produce the seeds needed for their basic food requirements.

To address this challenge, in recent years some farmers have begun to introduce
agricultural systems that can increase productivity without excessively affecting
water resources, through climate change-resilient mechanisms. Organic farming
represents one of the most important strategies for this purpose, with significant
positive economic, health and environmental impacts. This sector also has high
income generation potential in peri-urban areas, is attractive to young people and
can help to reduce alarming rates of youth migration to urban areas or abroad.

23
 In 2016, Italian NGO the Association for International Solidarity in Asia and its
partners the Istituto OIKOS Onlus and Fondazione punto.sud, in collaboration
with local partner the Centre for Environmental and Agricultural Policy Research,
Extension and Development, carried out background assessments for a project
aimed at strengthening sustainable agricultural production, increasing producers’
incomes, and promoting entrepreneurship, market access and domestic trade,
with a particular focus on women.

From the studies, field visits, and meetings with farmers and local authorities,
various problems emerged. The country’s changing climate, with rainfall
concentrated in short, intense bursts, takes a heavy toll on crops and increases
erosion. The consequences are more intensive use of land, accelerated erosion
events and a decline in production. Famers’ profits are very low and the cost of
land very high.

In December 2016, the project was co-financed by the Italian Agency for
Development Cooperation. During implementation, numerous activities were
carried out, with around 4 500 direct beneficiaries (about 50 percent women).
These included participatory identification and selection of local varieties; scientific
analysis of the varieties selected; establishment of cooperatives; training in seed
production; construction of storage infrastructure; promotion of bioinsecticides,
biopesticides and biofertilizers; training and roundtables with entrepreneurs and
retailers; establishment of PGS protocols; creation of a brand to certify the quality
of products; developing a marketing strategy for product promotion, improvement
of market access and launching commercial relationships; improvement of animal
breeding and nutrition techniques compatible with agriculture-resilient practices;
and subgrant pilot projects. After two-and-a-half years of activities, some best
practices have been identified:

• Vegetable collection centres: Farmers’ groups came together to launch a

common vegetable collection centre to gain greater reach through collective
marketing via a single sales depot, leading to more control over vegetable
quality and branding.

Low-cost plastic tunnels help vegetable farmers achieve higher yields and earnings in Sindhupalchowk district, Nepal
©ASIA NGO

24
• Plastic tunnels: These bamboo and plastic structures have helped vegetable Thanks to the project, on our
farmers to achieve much higher yields and earnings; the low-cost technique farm we have implemented all
uses locally available materials and is suited to small areas. the smart agriculture techniques
and our revenues have greatly
• Nurseries: In order to conserve, multiply and distribute selected local and increased in one and a half years of
indigenous crop varieties, four nurseries in each district have been established activities. Now, we have increased
at various altitudes. production and the products are
qualitatively better than before.
• Model farms: The project has established nine model farms where climate My husband didn’t have to leave
smart technologies are integrated. As these farms are designed to be the Nepal in search of a better job and
focal point in the village, farmers are encouraged to learn different improved we managed to build a new house
and climate-smart agricultural practices here, before replicating them in their that we called “organic house” in
fields. honour of the project.

• Community irrigation schemes: The project supported the community Tara Kesi
with irrigation facilities (plastic wastewater collection ponds, soil cement Woman farmer
tanks, lift cum sprinkler irrigation and solar irrigation systems) for increased, in Kavre District
year-round vegetable production. Botanical pesticides prepared from a
variety of plant ingredients soaked and fermented in cattle urine provide an
alternative to chemical pesticides.

• Drip irrigation: Farmers face water shortages for irrigation between the end Thanks to the use of biofertilizers,
of one monsoon and the next pre-monsoon period. This limits agricultural biopesticides and vermicompost,
production and leads to much land being left fallow after the monsoon crops which I learned to do during the
have been harvested. Drip irrigation is a cost-effective way of making the project, my potatoes are bigger
best use of available water. and I can sell them at the market
for 25 Nepalese rupees (I used to
• Market trials: This highly effective approach involves providing a platform sell them for 19 Nepalese rupees).
for consumers, vendors, traders and market enablers, to enable direct Today the production is so much
exposure and interaction with producers. greater that the potatoes that I
do not sell to the market I use as
• Improved cowshed management: The project supported the construction seeds.
of improved cowsheds for the collection of urine as a source of nitrogen for
plants. Dhurba Regmi
Woman farmer
• Subgranting pilot project: A subgrant component aimed to complement in Sindhuli District
the project benefits. These seven pilot projects included additional activities
to maximize the scalability and replicability of main project activities for
communities that were not direct beneficiaries.

25
A model farm in Kavre district, Nepal
©ASIA NGO

26
Reviving and strengthening
indigenous food systems in
the Philippines
Florence Daguitan

Women members of the Pidlisan tribe have played a leading role in reviving home
gardens to grow a diverse range of food crops, herbs and fruits and have engaged
in agroforestry, both at household level and on their communal farm. Through
collective action, the women set up a cooperative to produce and sell organic
products.

In the 1990s, many households in the Pidlisan tribe adopted green revolution
technologies, such as planting high-yielding rice varieties, engaging in commercial
vegetable production and introducing agrochemicals. Children moved out of their
villages to pursue higher education, leading to a reduction in labour for the farm
and weakening cultural practices of seed selection, soil fertility maintenance, field
sanitation and collective work to maintain communal irrigation systems. The result
was a slow but steady decline in land productivity. Meanwhile, growing numbers
of the tribe moved into the mining and tourism industry, driven by the need to earn
incomes. As a result, more food had to be supplied from outside the community.

In June 2011, the Indigenous Peoples’ International Centre for Policy Research and
Education (TEBTEBBA) responded to a request to assist the Pidlisan community.
After assessing the situation of the ancestral domain and its people, the association
worked together with the tribe to increase awareness through participatory

Network of women implementing innovations in ricelands, Philippines

©Pidlisan Tribe Organization

27
 Women of the Pidlisan tribe planting trees
©Pidlisan tribe of Sagada

action research and education, enhancing the community’s capacity for livelihood
development, promoting indigenous people’s education and increasing their
capacity for resource mobilization to support their self-determined development
plans.

Pidlisan territory is composed of the four barangays (administrative divisions) of

Aguid, Bangaan, Pide and Fidelisan in the northern part of Sagada, Mountain
Province, the Philippines, with a population of 2 408 in 2015.

The indigenous peoples of Pidlisan developed their territory into one whole
agroecological system for their food needs. There are three types of farm: the um-a
or unirrigated farms, with agroforestry within or near the settlement areas; the
uma or rotational agricultural areas in the forestlands; and the payew or irrigated
rice lands. The participatory research conducted revived indigenous knowledge
systems and traditional farming practices, such as:
• seed storage and natural breed improvement techniques;
• seeds shared and exchanged within and with neighbouring villages,
planting various crops and integrating short-term and perennial crops and
livestock-keeping;
• adherence to an agroecological calendar based on climate and weather; and
• integrating moon phases for favourable crop performance and maintaining
the integrity and balance of different ecosystems within the territory.

In the Pilisan areas of about 4 000 ha, timberland, grassland and farmlands
(payew, um-a and, in a lesser proportion, orchards) are the main land uses. Small
scale mining and residential areas (including sacred sites) are also present in lower
proportions. The watershed area occupies 74 percent of the total Pidilisan territory.

28
Elder people recalled that “there was a time when production inputs were mainly
dependent on the internal resources of their communities.” Natural vegetation
and post-harvest plant residue were now turned over in the soil to feed the next
cycle of crops. Producers began making their own tools, using their knowledge
and acquiring more from other areas.

A major innovation involved combining traditional knowledge with modern science

to produce organic farm inputs such as biofertilizers (foliar fertilizers, fermented
plants and fruit juices) and harnessing indigenous microorganisms to restore soil
fertility.

In order to sustain the production of organic farm inputs, TEBTEBBA supported the
purchase of a shredder and the establishment of a centre for the production of
organic fertilizers. The effectiveness of these farm inputs was tested by members
of the Pidlisan Tribe Organization, mainly women, with a significant increase in rice
yields recorded in the experimental plots, from 4.2 tonnes/ha to 7.5 tonnes/ha. The
revival of home gardens in more than 300 households has enabled women to serve
safe and nutritious food for their families and to market the surplus, generating
an income. Through collective planning and action, in Guesang in 2017, women
set up a cooperative to produce organically grown banana chips, with a knock-on
effect for banana producers in the area, who now have a ready market for their
produce.

Another source of income is the production of muscovado unrefined sugar,

with processing done in a communally-owned sugar cane crusher. As demand
for organic farm inputs has grown, the women have become keen to diversify
their income sources and now plan to produce organic fertilizer for commercial
purposes.

29
Climate-smart dairy
production in the Swiss
mountains
Alexandra Rieder, Jan Grenz, Andreas Stämpfli, Beat Reidy, Tamara Köke
and Sebastian Ineichen

“Climate-smart Dairy Farming,” a public-private initiative, has achieved a reduction

of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per kilogramme of milk through an innovative
participatory bottom-up approach and a goal-oriented payment system. The
project shows high potential for upscaling, leading to a potentially high impact on
GHG reduction in Swiss agriculture.

Switzerland’s temperate climate, alpine meadows and small farm structures

provide good conditions for livestock production on family farms. Dairy cows,
many of which spend the summer or even the whole year at altitudes of more than
1 000 m, are a mainstay of Swiss mountain farmers. However, these producers are
economically challenged, with the lowest revenues in Swiss agriculture, which are
already well below those of the non-agricultural population. Compounding the
difficulties, climate change threatens biodiversity and the entire sustainability of
the fragile mountain ecosystems.

The Swiss Confederation has pledged to cut its total GHG emissions from
agriculture by one-third by 2050. Agriculture accounted for 12.9 percent of
Switzerland’s total GHG emissions in 2017, with more than one-third caused by
dairy cattle, mainly in the form of methane from enteric fermentation. Meanwhile,
Nestlé, a major Swiss milk buyer, aims to achieve zero net GHG emissions by 2050.
These combined ambitions led to the launch of the Climate-smart Dairy Farming
project in 2017.

The initiative is a public-private partnership between a producer organization,

Aaremilch, milk processor Nestlé, and the Swiss Federal Office of Agriculture.
Scientific support is provided by the Bern University of Applied Sciences. Owned
by farmers, Aaremilch trades around 230 million kg of milk a year, 70 percent of
it from hill and mountain areas, mostly in the canton of Bern. The initiative aimed
to reduce GHG emissions in carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) per kg of milk by
10 percent by the end of 2020, from baseline values for 2014–2016. The GHG
reduction was to be achieved in an agroecological way, without damaging other
areas of the environment. Created through a participatory, bottom-up approach,
involving dairy producers from the outset, the project included goal-oriented
premium payments per kg of milk from Nestlé.

Eligible GHG reduction measures are: (1) increasing lactations per cow, thus
reducing the share of non-productive animals in the herd; (2) increasing lifetime
performance (kg of milk per life day); (3) feeding manure and slurry to biogas
fermenters; (4) increasing coupled meat production through insemination with
double-use breeds and sperm sexing. Two further measures are under research,
namely (5) increasing feed efficiency; and (6) using methane-inhibitory feed
additives, such as linseed.

Beyond the climate-related goals, a holistic approach was adopted to prevent side
effects, such as aggravated food-feed competition. The programme also aimed to

30
increase farmer income, or at least not cause additional cost. Given the difficult
economic situation of many Swiss mountain farmers, these criteria are crucial
when it comes to upscaling the initiative and assuring its long-term sustainability.

Project impact is monitored annually based on individual farm data and a computer
based tool that calculates GHG emissions and land demand from dairy production,
on- and off-farm feed production, on-farm energy use and manure handling. Dry
matter, protein and energy balances for lactating cows and the whole herd are
calculated by the same tool, to optimize feeding practice.

Reducing GHG emissions per kg of milk on these farms is a challenge, given their
low calculated baseline emission of 0.93 kg CO -eq/kg milk, 0.64 kg CO 2-eq/kg of
2
which are caused by enteric fermentation and manure management “direct GHG
emissions.” These low values are a consequence of the high share of digestible
roughage from meadows and pastures fed to the cows. Nevertheless, the 46
pilot farms, which deliver 7.5 million kg/year of milk to Aaremilch, have managed
to reduce emissions by more than the amount necessary to be on track for a
10-percent reduction by the end of 2020. The project has a goal-oriented payment
system for farmers, whereby they receive a fixed monetary incentive to participate
in the research part and obtain a price premium for the effective GHG reductions
achieved, based on individual goals. This innovative payment method has proved
effective in motivating farmers to implement the climate-smart practices.

Simmental cows participating in Nestlé SA and Aaremilch’s climate-smart dairy farming programme
©Nestlé Suisse SA/Remo Nägeli

31
Starting in 2019, the volume of climate-smart milk has been expanded to
22 million kg per year, produced on 147 farms to test the scalability of the
project. If the adopted practices were upscaled to the whole Swiss dairy herd,
much of the countrywide agricultural GHG reduction goals could be achieved
within a couple of years. Capacity development and face-to-face dialogue among
farmers, industry officials and scientists have continued throughout the project’s
duration and helped to build mutual trust and understanding. The farmers have
acquired and implemented knowledge about methane reduction measures at
farm level, which has contributed to an inclusive agroecological transition process.
Calculating robust GHG balances based on a limited set of input data (for efficiency
reasons) has proved challenging, but efforts to refine the herd-level GHG calculator
continue to stimulate knowledge exchange among science, industry and farmers.

Figure 2: Average greenhouse gas emissions per litre of milk from the 46 pilot dairy farms
participating in the Climate-smart Dairy Farming project, baseline values for 2014–2016, are
calculated with the KLIR 1.8 tool of HAFL. Standard deviation is shown on the top of each bar.
Source: Case study authors’ own elaboration, 2020.

Simmental cows in Switzerland are mainly fed on high-quality roughage

©Nestlé32 Suisse SA/Remo Nägeli
 Biogas cookers promote equality in gender roles in Mt. Livingstone, United Republic of Tanzania
©GEF Small Grants Programme Tanzania/Stella Zaarh

Organic farming breathes

new life into Mt. Livingstone,
United Republic of Tanzania
Nehemiah Murusuri and Wilbert Mtafya

Synergies between biogas technology, organic farming and conservation of

mountain ecosystems are demonstrated through wide adoption of biogas plants
around Mt. Livingstone in the United Republic of Tanzania. Slurry, a by-product of
the biogas production process, is an effective organic fertilizer for crops. Studies
show that each biogas plant saves an annual 0.12 ha of woodland, which would
have been felled for fuelwood.

The Renewable Energy (Biogas) Construction Programme for Rungwe District

was developed in 2016 in partnership with Tanzanian NGO Hifadhi ya Mazingira
na Utalii Rungwe, in consultation with the African Wildlife Foundation and the
Isangati Agricultural Development Organization. It is based on a renewable energy
technology project, Environmental Conservation and Enhancement at Kyimo, Ikuti
and Idweli Villages, which was supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
Small Grants Programme in 2012 and which constructed six biogas plants for
demonstration.

The project involved constructing 160 biogas plants in six villages adjacent to
the mountains. The communities identified as project beneficiaries provided
labour, such as excavation of trenches for biodigesters and pipelines. The NGO
technicians’ role was to set up and connect the digester, and to test, commission
and train users in plant operations and maintenance.

Farming practices in the area are poor and characterized by very low crop
productivity. The project tested the effectiveness of adopting biogas technology
to promote organic farming, improve community livelihoods and conserve the

33
Mt. Livingstone ecosystem. Main activities included: selecting 160 pilot farmers and
constructing a biogas plant for each of them; training demo farmers in operations
and maintenance of biogas plants; training demo farmers in conservation of eco
friendly, high-yielding farming techniques and the use of bioslurry and natural
pesticides for organic farming; and biodiversity conservation for ecosystem health
and ecological services.

The main outcomes are:

• the use of bioslurry and dry manure increasing and slowly replacing industrial
fertilizers;

• crop productivity for demo farmers increasing up to fivefold and other

community members switching to sustainable farming methods;

• The use of 160 biogas plants estimated having saved 38.4 ha of woodland
in the past two years, contributing to the conservation of Mt. Livingstone
where most fuelwood is collected;

• biogas cookers having promoted equality in gender roles (since cooking by

biogas is simple and clean, even men can now cook for the family); and

• 160 pilot households (930 individuals) in six villages benefiting from using
biogas plants for cooking, lighting their homes and using bioslurry for
organic farming. Indirect beneficiaries include about 7 200 people who
learned about biogas technology through demonstration and observation
methods.

The renewable energy technology project that underpinned this case study was
supported by the GEF Small Grants Programme, which in 2012 gave USD 23 607 to
assist young people around Mt. Livingstone to plant trees in degraded areas of the
mountain. Selected local people were also sensitized to establish fuelwood farms,
in order to relieve pressure on trees growing on the mountain slopes. Altogether,
50 000 trees were planted. In addition, the NGO supported the establishment
of six biogas demonstration plants, to show mountain communities how to use
biogas and reduce the use of fuelwood for cooking and heating.

A key challenge identified during the project was that many farmers are keen to
adopt biogas technology and organic farming but lack the capital and/or credit
facilities to do so.

34
The use of biogas plants saves woodlands and contributes to the conservation of Mt. Livingstone
©GEF Small Grants Programme Tanzania/Stella Zaarh
35
The Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta is the first urban community food garden in Bolivia
©Fundación Alternativas
36
 44
A circular and solidarity economy
that adds value to products

37
The circular economy in
Woman volunteers in the Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta in Bolivia
mountain areas ©Fundación Alternativas

The circular economy approach is one of FAO’s 10 Elements of Agroecology and aims
to better connect producers and consumers and to create fair and short distribution
networks. It is based on the “sharing, leasing, reuse, repair, refurbishment and
recycling” of products and materials in an ideally closed loop (Whitaker, 2017).
The potential of the circular economy’s adoption and development is particularly
strong in mountain areas, due to its linkages to exceptional primary resources such
as forests, water, minerals and agrogenetic resources.

Furthermore, the circular economy is particularly relevant to mountain areas,

where the marginality and fragility of systems push the communities living there to
cope by implementing optimized energy systems, processing fluxes and managing
natural resources.

Keeping products and materials within the economy of mountain territories is

crucial to reduce waste and increase the value of resources and ecosystem
services such as clean water, carbon sequestration, landscapes and agritourism.
Employment opportunities and economic growth can increase if a circular economy
approach is envisioned.

New business models are necessary, such as service- and function-based models,
collaborative production and consumption, sharing materials and resources, and
considering waste as part of them. Globally, and specifically in mountain areas, it is
essential that supply and demand are balanced and that the exchange of materials,
products and services across the supply chain is planned in a sustainable manner.
Collaboration and participation of actors, with a shared vision of sustainable future
development, is a condition sine qua non for scaling up the circular economy.
Participatory Guarantee Systems can be considered as an example: sharing time,
assistance and responsibilities towards the organic certification of products is in
line with a circular economy approach.

38
Participatory Guarantee
Systems: a tool for
sustainable mountain
development
Patricia Flores

The high cost of third-party certification for organic production and its disconnection
with the values of many agroecological farmers’ organizations, combined with
the inexistence of regulations on organic agriculture and production in many
countries, led to a demand for the social construction of new markets for organic
products, where farmers and consumers were at the core of these initiatives.
Participatory Guarantee Systems are low-cost quality assurance systems, suitable
for smallholder farmers. This participatory approach presents an alternative to
third-party certification for organic agriculture. Experiences from all over the world
have found that the PGS can be an important platform for the development of
social processes among producers and between producers and consumers, and
has the potential to make a significant contribution to reducing food insecurity
and to improved nutrition among farmers in rural areas.2

The collective impetus of the PGS allows other positive outputs, such as:

• Knowledge management and agroecological solutions. Participatory

Guarantee System participants can play the role of rural service providers
of technical assistance, such as through farmer-to-farmer knowledge
exchange. Members of a PGS initiative may have the capacity to collectively
pay for the technical assistance that they need. This cost is mostly included
in the system’s overall budget. Initiatives of a PGS contribute to traditional
knowledge maintenance and dissemination and empower farmers to make
use of locally available inputs and breeds, thereby contributing to improved
natural resource management in communities.

• Collective marketing to supply short chains in rural, peri-urban and urban

markets. Based on evidence from the Nutrition in Mountain Agroecosystems
project, markets in semi-rural and urban mountain areas are often highly
attractive, valorizing the quality of native, highly nutritious and diverse food.
The PGS gives farmers access to specific markets, reduces costs related to
market organization, and helps to reach consumers on a larger scale.

• Social bonds and trust being strengthened, leading to strong social

organizations. Many PGS initiatives have empowered stakeholders engaged
in policy-making processes, advocacy and increased outreach to demand
more specific needs that have been identified collectively. Implemented
by stakeholders involved in organic production, PGS initiatives strengthen
social structures, thereby helping to address the specific challenges of agro
ecosystems in mountainous areas.

2 More information available at: https://www.ifoam.bio/our-work/how/facilitating-organic/

nutrition-mountain-agro

39
Families grow fruits and vegetables in an urban community food garden
©Fundación Alternativas

• Increased farm income. The social construction of markets linked to a PGS

initiative leads to short value chains, reducing intermediaries, while prices can
be collectively settled to make them affordable to producers and consumers.

• Genetic resource conservation. Consumers demand a diverse basket, with

as many different food groups as possible, so as to cover nutritional needs
and maintain a healthy diet. In a PGS, the close connection with consumer
demand for diversified production offers an opportunity to introduce the
necessary changes in crop arrangements and in farmers’ decisions on
what and how much to produce. Traditional seeds, particularly from native
strains, varieties and ecotypes, are the basis for diversified production. For
this reason, community seed banks are developed, and traditional seeds are
conserved and exchanged.

• Small-scale savings systems are developed in a PGS to cover common

expenses for the system and related PGS markets. This may subsequently
enable producers to access financial markets, in order to increase the size of
their operations or add value to their products.

• Certification cost savings. In monetary terms, the PGS significantly reduces

the cost of organic certification compared with third-party certification. In
some cases, third-party certification can be almost five times more expensive
than PGS on an annual basis.

• Enhanced food security and improved nutrition. Smallholder members of a

PGS initiative are more likely to achieve food security and improved nutrition,
with diversified production and consumption. Healthier diets are achieved by
accessing better markets to sell products, improving productivity of cash and
subsistence crops, and increasing education in better decision-making about
how to complement household food baskets.

40
Urban agroecology at 3 900
metres above sea level in
La Paz, Plurinational State
of Bolivia
María Teresa Nogales and Johanna Jacobi

The Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta is the first urban community food garden in Bolivia
(Plurinational State of). Located at about 3 900 m, the garden houses 40 plots
and is dedicated to organic food production. Set in the highland city of La Paz,
the garden promotes urban agriculture, fosters community values and outdoor
recreation and encourages neighbours to adopt healthy diets.

Although food security and nutrition are fundamental pillars of social well-being in
the Plurinational State of Bolivia, these tend to be left out of urban development
and planning processes. Failure to address these topics exacerbates existing
weaknesses in local food systems, which inevitably affects citizens, especially the
poor, and their capacity to access affordable, healthy food. Today, more than 60
percent of Bolivians are malnourished, while 42.7 percent are overweight or obese.

Local non-profit organization Fundación Alternativas garnered support to launch

the Plurinational State of Bolivia´s first community food garden. The Huerto
Orgánico Lak´a Uta, founded in 2013, is located on one of the many steep
slopes of La Paz. The garden has been developed in a once densely populated
neighbourhood that was buried in a landslide in the 1990s. Abandoned for close
to 20 years, the park was frequented by alcoholics and was notorious for violent

A sign welcomes visitors and volunteers to the Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta in La Paz
©Johanna Jacobi

4141
incidents. Today, it is home to a community garden made up of 40 plots, where
families grow more than 30 different varieties of fruits and vegetables. Fundación
Alternativas provides technical support in ecological urban farming methods, lends
tools, keeps a small seed bank and provides materials such as wooden pallets,
which nearby enterprises donate to support the garden. To date, more than 7 000
people have visited and/or volunteered in the garden, many of whom have also
begun to grow food at home.

The participating families have become active change agents in their communities,
where they practise and promote urban agriculture as an instrument to improve
food security. In 2018, having visited the garden on several occasions, the local
government of La Paz introduced Municipal Autonomous Law 321 for the
Promotion of Urban Food Gardens in the Municipality of La Paz. The first of its
kind, this law enshrines an obligation to make municipal land available to the
public, so that people can set up food gardens in their communities.

The Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta is open to the public and offers visitors and
community members a place for healthy recreation, as well as interaction and
reconnection with Pachamama (Mother Earth). The garden has adopted low
cost production models based on recycled material and focuses on ensuring
that each family can produce food to complement its regular diet, together with
the preservation of community values and customs. To this end, citizens have
readopted trueque (the ancient tradition of bartering). In tandem, and in an effort
to bolster community development, Fundación Alternativas organizes different
activities based on ancestral Andean traditions of reciprocity, such as community
potlucks (apthapis saludables) and collaborative workdays (ainis), and provides an
array of workshops on food security and agroecological food production. These
activities ensure that people come together to work collaboratively, share meals as
a community and continuously engage in learning experiences.

In the garden, 40 families produce traditional foodstuffs (such as potatoes, oca,

broad beans and maize), as well as herbs and fruits (such as tumbo and golden
berries). In recent years, volunteers have shared novelty seeds and some families
have begun experimenting with chard, kale and artichokes, with good results.
Given the small size of plots (16–20 sq m), the harvests are primarily destined for
household consumption, though when yields are abundant, families barter their
produce to diversify their diets.

The community garden has set an important precedent for transforming

underutilized space into green and productive areas that foster the resurgence of a
sense of community. Here, people of all ages work together, learn from and share
with each other, and enjoy the outdoors. They also make a conscientious effort to
ensure that their diets are healthier, sustainable and adequate. Yearly evaluations
conducted by Fundación Alternativas track members´ perceptions regarding the
importance of the garden. Interviews conducted in 2018 with the families revealed
that: for 100 percent their primary motivation is the opportunity to grow their
own food; 64 percent enjoy the peace and quiet that the garden gives them; 54
percent enjoy the opportunity to spend time in nature; while 51 percent highlight
that they enjoy the opportunity to engage socially with other members.
42
Over the years, the garden has turned into an educational platform where students
learn how to grow food in an urban setting. Children and youth visit the garden
to learn different growing techniques, as well as how to make organic fertilizers,
grow food in small spaces and conduct pest control organically. Many go on to
start small-scale food gardens in their schools, along with teachers and parents.
Since 2017, Fundación Alternativas has conducted workshops for more than 300
public school teachers and community educators. With the active participation
of more than 400 teachers, the organization is developing classroom material
to ensure that students from kindergarten to twelfth grade receive appropriate
instruction on nutrition, food security and farming.

In the course of five years, the Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta has become a well
known local initiative that has helped citizens to appreciate the value of urban
agriculture and its ability to serve the environment, and to ensure that people can
easily access fresh, healthy food. The hope is that the adoption of the municipal
law on urban gardens will ensure that in the near future, many more new food
gardens will spring up across the mountainous landscape of La Paz.

Women farmers celebrating their harvest in the Huerto Orgánico Lak´a Uta, La Paz
©Fundación Alternativas

43
 PGS farmers selling fresh produce at an event in Delhi
©Gram Disha Trust – India/Ashish Gupta

Himalayan smallholders’
Participatory Guarantee
Systems – Small and
beautiful, India
Ashish Gupta

In India’s Himalayan mountains, smallholders have poor market access and low
bargaining power due to lack of collective arrangements. Now, PGS are helping to
form such groups, based on agroecology. Organic agriculture in the Himalayas is
currently reported to be about 1.7 million ha, and the state of Himachal Pradesh
contributes 10 percent. Slowly, the sustainable agriculture movement is moving
up from grassroots smallholder farmers to the level of the state and the nation.

In the past, most Himalayan mountain farmers were connected to conventional

markets, where they had little say in the price of their produce. In addition, long
distances to market and lack of consumer confidence posed challenges to the
authenticity of products, in the case of organic farmers. To break this cycle, in
2015 the Gram Disha SHG farmers group in Baag Village, Mandi District, Himachal
Pradesh, decided to join the PGS certification system, with the support of the
Indian PGS Regional Council – Organic Way of Life.

44
Primary data collection of farmers’ agricultural produce and cultivation practices
was the first step on the pathway to establishing a PGS. This went hand in hand
with training provided to farmers, to help them switch to organic practices using
various in situ composting and crop protection practices and, where needed, ex
situ access to products for crop protection and soil nutrition management, though
the focus was on input cost reduction.

Since 2015, the farmers have gradually reduced or eliminated the use of
agrochemicals, and been assisted in selling to consumers through transparent
intermediaries. These, such as Jaivik Haat (a natural and organic retail shop in
Delhi) and the Delhi Organic Farmers’ Market, ensure connectivity between
producers and consumers. In August 2019, farmers pooled their resources to open
the state of Himachal Pradesh’s first farmer-run organic shop selling fresh produce,
in response to growing demand for organic products from urban, peri-urban and
rural areas. Other farmers’ groups have now approached this PGS group to assist
them in creating similar models of production, supply chains and marketing in
their areas. The PGS process has helped to raise confidence among consumers,
although challenges remain in ensuring a constant and reliable supply of quality
produce year-round and in creating a network with other farmers within the
district and state.

The farmers’ group receives no support from any government subsidy or scheme,
and all the innovative market linkage mechanisms are the result of their members’
own efforts and resources. However, through transparency along the value chain
and a direct link between producers and consumers, farmers are now receiving a
fair price for their products. The close contact teaches consumers about the true
cost of products, prompting them to spend more money on them, not only for
their own health, but also to benefit the farmers.

Challenges and mitigation measures include:

• Lack of institutional support offered to farmers for poverty alleviation and

market access. To fill this gap, farmers are collectivizing, pooling their
resources – both human and monetary – to create pathways for institution
building and market access, in the hope that this may result in support for
expansion in future.

• Lack of institutional credit for organic farmers to mitigate any losses

during the conversion period. Pursuing their own initiatives, the farmers
are optimistic that their efforts will be recognized by local rural banks, and
institutional credit provided as a result, especially with subvention support.

• Women farmers’ direct participation in creating a market-linked PGS is

currently minimal, leading to gender disparity in terms of market access. To
mitigate this problem, attempts are being made to form women-led farmers’
groups.

Greater outreach is currently underway in neighbouring villages, with a view to

creating other collectives and assisting them in developing market access using a
PGS. With increasing market access, both local and distant, it is hoped that larger
numbers of farmers can participate and form scaled-up collectives. The goal is that
within a two-year time frame, it will be possible to launch a producer company
based on at least 100 smallholder families.
45
 Farming as a profession is uniquely
Himachal Pradesh is one of the ten Himalayan states in India. The country’s state distinct from others. Access to the
and central governments are now working vigorously to implement institutional services of various professions is
agroecology and digital infrastructure for organic farmers. Since 2015, schemes required with less frequency, for
such as Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North-Eastern Region and example, those of a doctor or
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) have been rolled out. In 2016, Sikkim
set out to become the first fully organic state in India and was selected for the lawyer, whereas the services of
farmers are required for every meal
prestigious One World Award in 2018. As part of the PKVY rollout, the Govern
ment of India has launched PGS, and under the PGS-India system, the Himalayan we have, every day of our lives.
states have seen an increase in land banks. In addition, market access and the
direct sale of produce by smallholders to markets have risen. Across India’s Him Mountain farmer
alayan states, organic agriculture is gaining a foothold. As of 2018, Himachal from India’s Himalayan mountains
Pradesh had a total of 175 306 ha under organic agriculture through PGS and the
third-party certification system.

Surplus vegetables from the farms being sold at Delhi Organic Farmers’ Market
©Gram Disha Trust - India/Ashish Gupta

46
Native crops and wild edibles
boost food security in India
Shalini Dhyani and Deepak Dhyani

In India’s Western Himalaya, croplands are mainly rainfed (more than 70 percent),
small (less than 0.2 ha), have low external inputs and are supported by forest and
livestock. Climate-resilient indigenous crops and wild edibles support subsistence
food habits. Diversified native crops of Garhwal in the state of Uttarakhand hold
good prospects for building future food security, with no food miles attached.
Local communities are helping in the conservation of wild edibles through
domestication and bioprospecting.

The Indian Himalayan Region is a natural biodiversity hotspot, with rich

agrobiodiversity and cultural diversity. Indigenous and local communities have
been practising low external input agriculture using a variety of cereals, millets,
legumes and oilseeds. However, in the past few decades migration has driven a
shift from traditional crops and cropping practices to cash crops.

Village in Indian Himalayan Region

©Shalini Dhyan

47
To counteract this trend, activities implemented under the “Strengthening fodder
resources and developing a pilot model for reducing drudgery of rural women in
Kedarnath Valley, Uttarakhand” and the “Conserving lesser known wild edible
biodiversity and indigenous traditional knowledge of locals in North Western
Himalayas, India” projects have involved developing a community seed bank for
the domestication of underutilized wild edible species, with the aim of increasing
nutritional security. The projects have also established a livelihood resource centre
to promote value addition for indigenous crops and wild edibles, and a fodder
bank model to support livestock fodder requirements. All three initiatives were
developed in collaboration with the village Panchayats (local village governing
bodies) of Maikhanda, Tolma and Suraithota villages. Financial support has been
provided by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, the
Rufford Small Grants Programme UK, the GB Pant National Institute for Himalayan
Environment and Sustainable Development, Srinagar Garhwal and NGO the
Society for Conserving Planet and Life.

The projects were carried out in Uttarakhand in the Western Indian Himalayas
from 2009 to 2019. As well as setting up a livelihood resource centre, activities
involved establishing a community plant nursery and a wasteland rejuvenation
model in Maikhanda village, Rudraprayag district, and a community seed bank
of lesser known underutilized wild edibles in Suraithota village, Chamoli district.

The Western Himalaya is a storehouse of legume and rice varieties. More than
200 varieties of indigenous rice and 230 of Rajma (kidney beans) are grown
here, as well as many traditional and indigenous legume varieties. However, sig
nificant loss of indigenous crops and cropping practices has been observed due
to increased market demands for cash crops. Innovative approaches to develop
support systems for forest- and livestock-dependent organic agricultural prac
tices have helped to transform life for upland communities in Uttarakhand. In
the process, a number of native crops have been used to develop value-added
products. These include six main grain crops – finger millet (Eleusine coracana),
kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail
millet (Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum milliaceum) and Indian barnyard mil
let (Echinochloa frumentacea) – and several wild edibles, such as tree rhodo
dendron (Rhododendron arboreum), vegetable fern (Diplazium esculentum), box
myrtle (Myrica esculenta), Indian barberry (Berberis aristata), Viburnum mullaha,
Neolitsea pallens and cherry prinsepia (Prinsepia utilis). More than 186 farmers,
including a number of women and youth, have been trained in developing a commu
nity-based wild edible seed bank and further domesticating local species through
seed germination techniques.

Value-added products are getting

The key challenges identified were that: a better market and we are able
to fetch 2 000–5 000 Indian
• convincing the community of the prospects and economic benefits was rupees (USD 25–70) per month per
difficult, albeit critical; and household during the pilgrimage
season, when a lot of tourists visit
• replicating even successful models, such as the fodder bank, community seed our area during summer. This has
bank and livelihood resource centre, requires support from policy makers and brought economic and nutritional
practitioners. benefits.

Bindeshwar Semwal
Shersi village

48
Future activities planned include monitoring the food bank model and the trial Our traditional seeds and cropping
domestication of wild edibles in farmers’ fields to develop agri-horticulture models patterns are threatened as well
by the community seed bank. In addition, the livelihood resource centre will help as the traditional knowledge
to train more women in value addition of wild edibles and organic crops. associated with low external input
agriculture. Bioprospecting of
traditional crops and wild edibles
can help us survive in the changing
climate conditions.

Rudra Singh Butola

Tolma village

Woman farmer in the Indian Himalayas

©Shalini Dhyani

49
From supply chain to
community – A Participatory
Guarantee System for
mountain farmers in Italy
Carlo Murer

Lack of confidence among consumers in third-party certification has prompted

one Italian organics supplier to introduce a PGS to certify its products. The move
is being piloted in Romagna, a partially mountainous region of northeastern Italy.

Monitoring the entire production chain, from farm to shop, is the best way of
guaranteeing the quality of organic products, according to EcorNaturaSì, an Italian
company specializing in producing and distributing organic products. But a series
of scandals in recent years, which have received wide coverage in the media, has
highlighted the need for a second level of quality assurance.

In response, the organics company has set up a PGS system based on regular
visits to farms by a delegation that includes agronomists, food technologists and
consumers. The strategy marks a shift in the basic PGS model, which is normally
perceived as a tool in the hands of farmers to ensure the quality of their products,
rather than one promoted by a distribution company.

A farmer feeding cows in Italy

©EcorNaturaSì Spa
50
By embracing a participatory approach to the selection of supplier farms and the
monitoring of the production processes of products sold in the shops, the company
hopes to build trust between producers and consumers, who increasingly want to
know more about the food they eat and the culture behind its production.

Under this particular PGS, customers of EcorNaturaSì’s shops are asked to actively
participate in visiting farms, to select the most virtuous and to help in monitoring
their production processes. The 20 farmers selected for PGS implementation have
been enthusiastic about the experience, expressing the desire to work together,
opening their farms to consumers and sharing their way of life. The company
opted to launch the process in Romagna in 2019, partly because the community
spirit is still present there and partly because mountain environments are naturally
cleaner, with their forests, ecological corridors and natural features helping to
maintain a balance with many pests, avoiding the need for chemical pesticides.

What The key element for the PGS to work is to address the inherent need of people to know
where the food comes from, in order to have a feeling of trust and safety regarding the
food that they eat.
The logic behind implementation of a PGS, for EcorNaturaSì, is the connection between
the people who produce the food and those who eat it. The idea is to turn the linear
Why concept of a supply chain, which sees farmers and consumers far apart on the two
opposite extremes, into a model where farmers and consumers get to know each other.

Who As well as involving farmers and consumers, the PGS in Romagna set out to involve
all potential stakeholders, including agronomists, small-scale mills, bakeries and
shopkeepers.

Farm visits are conducted once/twice a year by the delegation of PGS participants. The
When best time to visit farms is spring or early summer, when the crops are growing.
Romagna is a partially mountainous region in northeastern Italy, with a strong
Where agriculture sector. In the mountains of Forlì-Cesena province, the main crops are cereals
such as soft wheat and spelt, or pulses such as chickpeas and lentils. Most of the farms
here still have animals, mainly cattle, thanks to the availability of hay from meadows in
the higher altitudes.
Figure 3: Overview of PGS implementation by EcorNaturaSì in Italy
Source: Case study author’s own elaboration, 2020.

PGS members meet to discuss in Italy

©EcorNaturaSì Spa

51
Organic aymaks of Kyrgyzstan
Asan Alymkulov

It is widely acknowledged that there are large numbers of organic farmers in

Kyrgyzstan, especially smallholders. However, many of them are unaccounted
for, unrecognized and unrewarded – simply because they are not certified.
Participatory Guarantee Systems are particularly suited to smallholders such as
these, intertwining tradition and culture with quality assurance.

In Kyrgyzstan, the organic aymak is a model of integrated sustainable development

for rural communities, combining the traditions of nomadic culture with the
progressive achievements of modern civilization. It comprises a group of farmers,
drawn from one or several villages in mountainous regions that have common
sources of water and adjacent lands. These farmers have agreed on a voluntary
basis to jointly develop their agriculture, based on organic methods and traditional
knowledge.

Assisted by the Federation of Organic Development BIO-KG (FOD Bio-KG), a pilot

project was introduced in 2013 in Koror-Bazar Organic aymak, with 40 farmers.
By 2019, the initiative had been extended to include ten organic aymaks in various
regions of Kyrgyzstan – two in Talas oblast (region), two in Nary oblast, five in Issyk
Kul oblast and one in Chui oblast, involving a total of 650 farmers (see Figure 4).

Since 2015, FOD Bio-KG has implemented a number of activities aimed at

promoting organic agriculture in Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia. Its main work pillars
involve capacity-building, advocacy, lobbying and research, with activities that
include practical and theory-based training in organic agriculture, organic quality
assurance, biological pest and disease management, fundraising and leadership.
A key component of the strategy is the promotion of diversified crop growing,
instead of or together with monoculture practices, to make products more resilient
to market price fluctuations. Another is the quality assurance of products through
PGS for the internal market, and helping farmers to establish such schemes.

Tradition is a key tool in uniting farmers within organic aymaks, and the same
model has been used in establishing a structure to implement a PGS, and
particularly to guarantee the sustainability of its activities. For this reason, the role
of coordinating body is generally undertaken by elderly people, respected for their
deep knowledge and experience of farming.

Figure 4: Number of PGS certified farmers per year

Source: FOD Bio-KG, 2020.

52
 The Harvest Fest is a tradition to thank nature for a good harvest
©FOD Bio-KG

The PGS groups are based on mutual trust, with members firmly convinced of the
value of organic farming as a healthy, compatible and affordable approach that is
safe for today’s generation and for those to come. In addition, the farmers have
formed themselves into a legal entity, so as to reach a volume of products that can
meet market demands.

Challenges include the need for record-keeping and documentation – practices that
are new to many farmers. To simplify the process and avoid paper documentation,
a mobile-based Akvo application has now been introduced for data collection and
peer assessment. Although a key component of PGS initiatives is the constant
learning process, at the beginning only 50 percent of members participated in
training.

The Federation of Organic Development BIO-KG and the organic aymak farmers
are also active at national level. They jointly campaigned against the construction
of a plant producing chemical fertilizers in Kyrgyzstan and against gold mining in
the Koror-Bazar organic aymak.

Future plans include integrating livestock into the verified organic farming system
and building the capacity of new emerging groups. According to the collected
data, about 61 percent of farms are managed by women and more young people
are becoming involved in rural agricultural entrepreneurship. For this reason,
53
organic aymaks will need to develop and systematize strategies for ensuring that Using organic farming and the crop
youth and women play a greater role. On the demand side, more marketing, rotation method, I started planting
awareness-raising and strong branding are required, while on the production side, various seeds. People don’t believe
there is a need for support to new producers, processors and related support that I earn more now, on this small
services. piece of land, than on the several
hectares I had before! This is all
because of the comprehensive
trainings conducted within the
project framework by BIO-KG.

Turdubekov
a 53-year-old farmer from Tüp
raion district in Kyrgyzstan

Organic festival in Kyrgyzstan

©FOD Bio-KG
54
Farmers’ markets build
solidarity in Lima
Liza Melina Meza Flores
Farmers’ markets are becoming an increasingly familiar sight in the Peruvian capital.
They are attracting a new range of consumers, who are flocking to these freshly
created spaces and engaging directly with producers. In this way, the landscape of
Lima is gradually changing, and, at the same time, consumers are increasing their
environmental awareness and solidarity with small-scale farmers.

Ecological farmers’ markets are proving successful platforms for changing

consumer patterns, serving as entry points for raising awareness about food
products and the people behind them. As a result, such markets are emerging
as the foundation for an economy based on solidarity between consumers and
producers, strengthening the urban-rural connection.

To test this theory, an evaluation was conducted by the Project Coordinator at

Fondo de las Américas (FONDAM) NGO, in order to strengthen the technical
capacities for the development of food value chains of rural development projects
financed by the NGO. For this, ecological farmers’ markets in Apurimac and Lima
were visited, where semi-structured observations and interviews were conducted,
and their social media activities were monitored.

Consumer
awareness

Responsible
consumption
(SDG 12)

Zero hunger
(SDG 2)

55
The study revealed:

• Institutional arrangements: In Peru, there is a strong “bargaining” culture,

but this was surprisingly absent during the market visits.

• Socio-economic conditions: Familiarity between producers and consumers

creates an understanding and recognition of each other’s realities.

• Physical environment: Consumers finally acknowledge producers’ inherent

vulnerability to climate change and the challenges of supplying products for
the food system.

In these markets, capacity-building events are held on a regular basis, with experts
presenting simple activities that can be practised at home, even in an urban
setting, such as composting, reducing waste, reusing non-recyclable materials and
urban gardening. In addition, small-scale farmers often make presentations to
raise awareness about their living and working conditions. Small-scale processors
share knowledge about the nutritional properties of native foods and the benefits
of processed foodstuffs that use native inputs (such as quinoa milk). Chefs teach
different recipes using well-known but also neglected and underutilized plants
(such as lupin). If consumers do not know how to prepare a tasty meal, then they
are unlikely to purchase the ingredients.

This type of interaction in the markets has brought producers and consumers closer
together. The new bond of solidarity was highlighted during landslides and floods
in the summers of 2018 and 2019. As a result of these events, access to several
main roads in rural areas and all highways to cities was reduced or totally blocked,
causing an increase in transaction costs. In these difficult times for small-scale
farmers and processors, consumers organized support by sending them clothes,
waterproof boots, bottles of water and blankets, among other essential items.

Building trust with consumers is crucial if they are to accept organic products,
and that generally requires some form of quality assurance system. In June 2019,
Peruvian Law 29196 gave PGS the same status as third-party certification for
organic products. The move promised to be an advantage for smallholder farmers,
for whom third-party certification is complicated, expensive and time-consuming.
However, the new law also makes it complicated, expensive and time-consuming
for small-scale producers to obtain PGS authorization, leaving small farmers with
the following challenges:

• Technology and technical assistance are expensive.

• There are no formal links between academia and small-scale farmers and
processors to promote co-creation of knowledge.

• Inappropriate infrastructure keeps transaction costs high.

• Trust in the PGS and how it is managed is key if consumers are to pay
premium prices for products. But the PGS is time-consuming, necessitates
technical assistance, is often expensive and requires recognition by law.

56
 • Currently, these markets are located in wealthy districts, whose inhabitants
can pay above-market prices. In order to achieve the SDG 2 of “Zero hunger,”
the strategy should include making available healthy and nutritious products
to the most vulnerable communities in the outskirts of Lima.

Ecological farmers’ markets3 are places of interaction and learning, creating

synergy among actors in the food system, and building a community. Policies must
be adapted or designed to support small-scale producers and processors, and
consumers need to be aware and to act responsibly. Change will follow, as a result
of public pressure on the government, or through consumers’ own direct action,
by paying a fair price to producers.

An agroecological fair in Barranco, Peru

©Liza Melina Meza Flores

3 Feria Agroecológica Chakramanta in Abancay: www.facebook.com/watch/?v=2321945651373604

Feria Ecológica de Barranco in Lima: www.facebook.com/feriaecologicabarranco/
Interview with the Managing Director of Agroferias Campesinas in the official newspaper of
the Government of Peru. Agroferias Campesinas is one of the visited farmers’ markets: https://
elperuano.pe/noticia/83135-mercado-de-productores-para-unir-el-campo-y-la-ciudad
Ferias Frutos de la Tierra: www.facebook.com/Proyecto-Frutos-de-la-Tierra-220030798485795/
Feria Peruanos Naturalmente: www.facebook.com/events/448190125956686/
Festival Conservamos: www.facebook.com/events/2279128745507548/

57
Farm in Yunnan , China
©Clément Rigal - Cirad/Icraf
 5
Strengthening local community
initiatives by building alliances

59
Mountain family farming:
environmental,
where economic,social and

Agroforestry in Yunnan, China

cultural functions co-evolve ©Clément Rigal - Cirad/Icraf

Svea Senesie

Family farms produce more than 80 percent of the world’s food,

while also improving the environmental sustainability of agriculture,
conserving and restoring biodiversity and ecosystems, as well as providing
traditional and nutritious food. The UN Decade of Family Farming
(DFF, 2019–2028) is a major opportunity to highlight the role of smallholder, supporting
the design and implementation of comprehensive economic, environmental and
social policies for a conducive environment to strengthen the position of family
farming.

Priorities of the DFF action plan encompass the development of an enabling policy
environment, support to youth and the promotion of gender equity in family
farming and the leadership role of rural women. In addition, family farmers’
organizations and capacities need to be strengthened to improve socio-economic
inclusion, ensuring resilience and well-being for family farmers, and contributing
to territorial development and food systems that safeguard biodiversity, the
environment and culture.

The Forest and Farm Facility (FFF) provides support to empower the collective action
of forest and farm producer organizations (FFPOs), helping them to increase their
advocacy skills to achieve recognition for their rights, to enhance their technical
and business capacities to play a role in mitigating and adapting to climate change,
and to improve food and nutrition security. The Facility has already reached more
than 947 FFPOs in 10 partner countries (Plurinational State of Bolivia, Gambia,
Guatemala, Kenya, Liberia, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Viet Nam and Zambia)
since 2012. In Viet Nam, the FFF is working with family farming households in 12
mountainous communes in Bac Kan, Yên Bái, Hoa Binh and Son La (see p. 82 for
more detail).

6060
Using ethnobotany to refine
agroforestry tools in Yunnan,
China
Clément Rigal, Jianchu Xu and Philippe Vaast

Awareness of the link between conventional agricultural practices and

environmental degradation is increasing. The repercussions are even more
serious for smallholder farmers, who are among the most vulnerable to market
fluctuations and climate change. In Yunnan Province, China, local governments
and researchers are partnering to deliver sustainable agroforestry solutions to
coffee farmers, aimed at both protecting the environment and safeguarding
indigenous livelihoods.

Yunnan Province is the leading coffee-producing area in China, with more than
100 000 ha of Arabica coffee farms. Production saw a boom in 1990, in the wake
of domestic economic reforms. Farming systems (monocultures in full sunlight)
and management practices (high fertilizer inputs) were
designed for high yields, but rising production figures
came at the expense of environmental sustainability,
biodiversity conservation and soil health.

To address these concerns, in 2012 local governments

in southern Yunnan Province implemented a large-scale
campaign to convert monoculture coffee systems into
agroforestry systems. Drawing on a growing body of
evidence that shows the importance of shade trees in
sustainable coffee production systems and the multiple
ways in which they buttress climate change resilience,
local extension leaders selected a dozen such species
and distributed free seedlings to all coffee farmers. In
southern Yunnan, the transition to agroforestry rapidly
increased soil and biological fertility, offered protection
to coffee trees from climatic hazards and maintained
high coffee yields.

However, local extension services did not take advantage

of farmers’ first-hand experience and did not therefore
tailor their solutions to individual farmers’ needs. The
Centre for Mountain Futures, in collaboration with World
Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the Kunming Institute
of Botany illustrated the feasibility of a bottom-up
approach in selecting and promoting shade tree species.
At the core of this approach lies the idea that all farmers
possess local ecological knowledge (LEK) regarding the
effects of several shade tree species on their coffee
Adding fertilizer
farms. This LEK combines traditional knowledge and ©Clément Rigal - Cirad/Icraf
first-hand experience of working in emergent coffee
agroforestry systems. The comprehensive aggregation
and consolidation of farmers’ LEK can strengthen
scientific research into shade tree species selection.

61
Figure 5: Tool outputs displaying scores for 18 shade tree species out of 30 according to four scenarios:
1) overall preference; 2) a high altitude farm exposed to frost risks; 3) a farm with limited or no input
of chemical fertilizers; and 4) a farm where trees are primarily planted and managed for income
diversification. Grey boxes indicate promoted species; striped boxes indicate non-promoted species that
score highly in a specific scenario.
Source: Rigal et al., 2018.

For the study, 143 coffee farmers were interviewed to assess their perceived impacts
of the most abundant shade tree species. Interviewees were selected across a wide
range of ages (from 23 to 62 years) and ethnic groups in the area, while also
aiming for a representative gender mix. The analysis resulted in a database of
scores reflecting the perceived performances of 30 shade tree species across nine
dimensions: i) allowing high coffee yields; ii) bringing additional economic benefits,
such as fruits, timber, etc.; iii) protecting coffee trees from frost; iv) protecting
coffee trees from heatwaves; v) suppressing weeds; vi) enhancing soil fertility via
improved nutrient cycling; vii) enhancing soil moisture; viii) limiting soil erosion;
and ix) limiting root competition. For example, Leucaena leucocephala scored
close to the maximum score of 1 for coffee yield. This means that, according to
farmers, this shade tree species leads to higher coffee yields under its canopy than
most other tree species studied. On the other hand, the same species scored close
to the minimum score of 0 with respect to additional economic benefits. This
means that, according to farmers, this species brought less economic income than
most other trees studied.

This LEK-based approach generated comprehensive results for a large set of shade
tree species and ecosystem services. These indicate that most coffee farmers
appreciated the dozen tree species selected by local governments, particularly
those with the potential to protect coffee trees from climate hazards and which
offered significant economic benefits. Some of these latter were the result of
additional fruit production or the transplanting of more mature trees into urban
environments for green marketing campaigns. Two other shade tree species were
widely praised by most coffee farmers – Artocarpus heterophyllus and Leucaena
leucocephala – but they widely dismissed indigenous timber trees with strong
potential for providing ecosystem services, such as Michelia baillonii and Toona
ciliata, due to difficulty in securing timber harvesting permits.

While the data have significant policy implications for informing the future
context-specific selection of seedlings for distribution to coffee farmers, gaps still
exist at farm level. To bridge this, the database was integrated with an online
decision-making tool that can tailor shade tree species recommendations, based
on farmers’ individual needs. To illustrate the point, if you farm at high elevations
and seek shade tree species that can enable high coffee yields, protect coffee
trees from frost and enhance soil moisture, the tool will identify species that

62
provide the best trade-off among these three objectives. Taking into account
fine-scale contextual variations, this tool paves the way for refining efforts to
promote agroforestry systems. The next step is to incorporate its use into public
and private delivery service models to bring tangible benefits to the coffee farmers
of southern Yunnan.

Local ecological knowledge-based results are only relevant locally, but the
methodological approach used in this study is applicable globally. For example,
similar results have recently been released regarding shade tree species provision
of ecosystem services in coffee-agroforestry systems in the United Republic of
Tanzania and Uganda. Results from such studies feed into the growing online
database of shade tree species and their provision of ecosystem services, expanding
the influence of the online tool, enlarging the scope of this kind of research and
bringing its benefits to farmers in need around the world.

63
Resilient practices for large
cardamom agroecology in
Nepal
Surendra Raj Joshi and Nakul Chettri

Large black cardamom is an important cash crop for marginal farmers in the
Eastern Himalayas. It is ecologically native, involves little workload and is not
dependent on high external inputs. However, climate change and lack of product
profiling have increased risks for farmers. This intervention focused on developing
a package of practices (POP) to reduce risks and build resilience.

Large black cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.), native to the Eastern

Himalayas, is widely grown as a cash crop in Bhutan, Nepal, and the northeastern
states of the Indian Himalayas. It is a high-value, low-volume crop that grows well on
marginal lands and favours agroforestry systems suited to mountain environments.
The product is a boon for farmers and a primary export commodity in the region,
with national and local governments prioritizing its production and promotion. In
recent years, the area under large cardamom has increased exponentially due to
high returns and increased market demand. However, substantial fluctuations in
both yields and market prices have led farmers to explore more sustainable modes
of production and trade. These swings are due to two broad challenges:

• Climate change: Extreme climate events, erratic rainfall, increasing pests

and disease, hailstorms and snowfall have impacted traditional management
practices and the crop cycle. For example, flowering and harvesting times
have changed due to rising temperatures and a decline in pollinators,
resulting in reduced fruit setting.

Water storage for irrigation of large cardamom crop during dry season
©Nakul Chettri

64
 Improved dryer for improving quality of pods and reducing use of fuelwood
©Nakul Chettri)

• International competition and volatile market: Several plants in

the genera Amomum, Elettaria and Aframomum, all belonging to the
Zingiberaceae family, are referred to as cardamom, though they have different
local names and their taste, aroma and chemical compounds vary greatly.
Cardamom is often described as green, white, black or red based on the
appearance of the dried fruit, and indexed to fruit size/form such as small,
large and round. The green or small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is
cultivated in Guatemala, India, Sri Lanka and other tropical countries; large
black cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is a particular species of
cardamom grown only in Bhutan, India and Nepal. Though overall demand
for cardamom has increased over the years, the expansion of cardamom
plantation area in other countries has led to increased competition and a
drop in international market prices. Large black cardamom from the Eastern
Himalayas has to compete in price with green, white and large cardamom,
as it is not differently positioned in the international market. However,
most data on international trade in cardamom, market actors and use are
generic. At the same time, the increased dependency on large cardamom
poses higher risks to farmers due to production fluctuation and volatile
markets. For example, in 2014, large cardamom capsules in Nepal fetched
USD 28 per kg, and dropped to USD 10 per kg in 2017.

To address these challenges and improve the livelihoods of communities involved

in large cardamom agroforestry, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), together with partners, co-developed a package of
practices and demonstrated it in Taplejung district, Nepal. The POP is based
on series of field studies, observations, interactions and literature review, and
integrates climate-smart practices and innovations developed in different pockets
of the Kangchenjunga landscape. It focuses on (i) diversification of income
sources by integrating honeybees, legumes and fruit trees on large cardamom
farms; (ii) understanding ecosystem services and ecosystem management, with
community-led microplans and collective actions; (iii) strengthening market

65
linkages and enterprise development; and (iv) demonstrating climate-resilient One way to respond to climate
farming practices, such as effective and efficient use of water, renewable energy, change is more income for large
crop management as per weather forecasts and climate services, green manures, cardamom farmers so they have
vermicompost, replacement of old shade trees, and access to services and more options; this farm is a
information on market prices and crop advisories. fantastic example of that.

Strong emphasis is placed on strengthening institutional linkages, community David Molden

mobilization and capacity-building to ensure sustainability. In partnership with social former Director General of
enterprises, community members are being trained to make value-added products ICIMOD
from cardamom pods, such as cardamom powder, cardamom biryani masala, and
cardamom tea mix. Traditionally, the cardamom stems are discarded, but following
training a number of entrepreneurs have begun using cardamom fibre to weave
products such as tablemats. In addition, an SMS-based information service now
connects farmers to market prices, weather forecasts and crop advisories.

Comparison of large cardamom production (kg)

Baseline Difference (Significant at
Categories 2015 End line 2018 1%)
Beneficiary households (n136) 100.57 153.64 53.06***
Non-beneficiary households (n115) 107.38 106.83 -0.54

Difference -6,81 46.81** DiD=53.60***

Figure 6: Comparison of large black cardamom production.4 The production for non-beneficiary
households remained stagnant between baseline and end line; however, production increased by 53 kg
among beneficiary households and this increment is statistically significant at 1%.
Source: Case study authors’ own elaboration, 2020.

The baseline and end line surveys, conducted in late 2015 and early 2018
respectively, showed high uptake of the POP by target communities, and a
significant reduction in loss among target households compared with the non
target ones. There are opportunities for transboundary collaboration to promote
large cardamom as a regional product through coordinated research, technology
exchange for improved yields, building organized markets and infrastructure, and
developing compatible regional policies. The next step will be to position large
cardamom as a niche product with coherent regional standards, by informing
market actors about its unique attributes. Bhutan, India and Nepal have prioritized
large black cardamom as a valuable foreign exchange-earning export commodity.
Nepal has listed it in its National Trade Integration Strategy (2010–2015 and
2016–2020). Bhutan has included large cardamom as an important product under
its “One Gewog One Product” policy, and the Government of Sikkim has placed
great emphasis on promoting this crop to support rural livelihoods. Regional
stakeholders are now planning to position large cardamom as a product with
unique attributes through collective action and a common marketing approach,
backing this up with a Geographical Indication certificate.

4 DiD stands for Difference in differences, which is calculated using the formula: (C-D)-(A-B); where C
is end line figure of beneficiary households, D is end line figure of non-beneficiary households; A is
baseline figure of beneficiary households and B is baseline figure of non-beneficiary households. The
asterisks denote significance level, set before data collection: *** Significant at 1% and ** 5%. The
significance level is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a
significance level with *** indicates a 1% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is
no actual difference.

66
 Participants in Rasuwa MAPs training, transplanting rhizomes of Satuwa
©Alisa Rai

Cultivated species help to

protect wild plant resources in
high Himalayan communities
Umesh Basnet, Jesse Chapman-Bruschini and Alisa Rai

For centuries, mountain people in Nepal have traded valuable medicinal and
aromatic plants across the Himalayas. However, intense pressure from wild
harvesting is threatening these species’ survival. In partnership with remote
highland communities, The Mountain Institute (TMI) has developed nature-based
solutions to improve livelihoods and offer a profitable alternative to traditional
wild harvesting.

As key ingredients in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicines, medicinal and

aromatic plant (MAP) products from the Nepalese Himalayas have long been wild
harvested, transported and traded across boundaries. Most MAPs come from wild
harvests and end up mostly in India, with lesser amounts destined for China and a
few western countries. In recent decades, increasing global demand for Nepalese
non-timber forest products has played a major role in over- and unsustainable
harvesting, resulting in the rapid depletion of wild MAPs, even in protected areas.

As of the early 1990s, the impact of over-exploitation could be clearly seen in

eastern Nepal, where species such as Chiraito (Swertia chirayita), Satuwa (Paris
polyphylla), Bikhuma (Aconitum spp.) and Loth salla (Taxus wallichiana) were on
the verge of local extinction. In response, TMI carried out a reconnaissance study
and found that unsustainable harvesting of MAP species represented between
10 and 50 percent of rural households’ annual cash income, and that strong
market demand was driving the increase in wild harvesting. In 2000, TMI began
its Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program, with a focus on training mountain
farmers to cultivate medicinal and aromatic plants on their own plots and on

67
 degraded land, instead of relying on wild harvests. Mountain farmers adapted
quickly, learning to cultivate MAPs on the edges of steep mountain terraces and
intercropping medicinal plants with other cash and food crops.

Training workshops are held to build both technical skills and practical knowledge
among interested farmers. Each trainee is given seeds or rhizomes for specific
MAP species and taught practical cultivation skills. Medicinal and aromatic
plant cooperatives are established and legally registered to support enterprise
development, quality assurance and equitable benefit sharing. Additional training
and workshops on cooperative management and business development planning
help to enhance the cooperatives’ ability to access financing and develop a
business strategy.

The Mountain Institute’s Cultivation, Commercialization and

Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) Program

Feasibility Study and

Stakeholder Consultations Project Area Expansion
for area selection Value Addition

Phase Out Plan

(Focus on small-holder, Stakeholders
Final evaluation
marginalized farmers, women) Government Line Agencies Sustainable plans
1.
Lessons learned
District Forest Office
documentation and
District Agriculture Development
dissemination
Office
Basic Level Cultivation Department of Plant Resources
Training District Development Committee
Theory and practical Village Development Committee
Nursery establishment Division Cooperative Office Monitoring and Data
Start up seeds Collection
2. Private Sectors (local, regional,
MAPs production and
national and international traders)
3. Development Partners sales data
Community based MAPs
Capacity Building 4. Civil Society Organizations diversity monitoring
Exposure Visits 5. Research Institutions
Trainings in: 6. Donors
o Weeding, transplantation, organic
7. Traditional healers (Aamchii)
manure preparation
o Basic legal provisions and regulations Further Capacity Building
for the collection, harvest and sales
o of
Cultivation
MAPs Product Origin Certificates
on private land Business Development
o Sustainable harvesting techniques Fair Trade Exhibition
Market management and network

Cooperative/Enterprise Development
Advanced Level Cultivation Training
MAPs Co-operative formation and registration
Theory and practical Support for asset & infrastructure development
Diversification of species Market linkages and value addition

Cross Cutting Issues - Gender Equality and Social Inclusion, Policy Advocacy

Figure 7: The Mountain Institute’s Cultivation, Commercialization and Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) Program
Source: TMI, 2020

The Mountain Institute has also supported site visits to China and India and to
establish market linkages for farmers’ cooperatives. Medicinal and aromatic plant
farmers are assisted in obtaining Product Origin Certificates to certify that their
MAPs are not collected from the wild.

With the help of local community groups and NGOs, the MAP initiative has now
expanded to encompass 100 villages in 11 mountainous districts of eastern,

68
central and western Nepal. More than 18 000 farmers are currently cultivating
MAPs, and between 35 and 40 percent of them are women. By training their
neighbours and relatives, MAP farmers have greatly increased the programme’s
reach and impact over the years. More than 2 500 ha of private and degraded
land are under cultivation with 13 different MAP species. MAP storage depots and
collection centres have been established, along with community managed MAPs
and fodder nurseries. The income of individual farmers from selling MAPs has
ranged from USD 300 to USD 35 000 per year. Now, as well as working to spread
the initiative throughout regions of Nepal, TMI is promoting the MAP approach in
the Peruvian Andes. Implemented by local communities, the programme is already
beginning to produce results for local highland producers and the resources on
which their future depends.

Farmer-turned-entrepreneur Phinsum Sherpa, 59, is one of the lead MAP farmers

in Kimathanka village, near the Tibetan border in Sankhuwasabha district. In 2015,
she purchased a fiour grinding machine with money earned by selling MAPs grown
in her field. With the earnings from MAPs and her new enterprise, she has been
able to send her son to Kathmandu for Buddhism Studies and one of her daughters
to the district headquarters for higher education.

Goba Jamyang Bhotia and his wife Chhijik, both 58, of Chyamtang village, have
been cultivating Chiraito (Swertia chirayita) on a 0.2 ha plot. Before, Goba made
money from wage labour, but this income was not sufficient to feed his family. Last
year, the couple made enough money from MAP sales to replace their old bamboo
mat roof with a new blue metal one. With their upcoming MAP income, they hope
to help send their grandchildren to the new private boarding school in nearby
Lingam, which offers a better education than government schools.

69
 Food from farm and forest,
a case study from Kailash
Sacred Landscape
Kamal Prasad Aryal, Ram Prasad Chaudhary and Sushmita Poudel

People living in the Kailash Sacred Landscape in Far Western Nepal depend
significantly on crop diversity, both cultivated and wild, for food, nutrition and
income. Nearly 85 percent of households also rely exclusively on wild and non
cultivated edible plants for one or more months of the year. Conservation of this
unique agroecological system is crucial for the future of this food-insecure region.

The Kailash Sacred Landscape is a transboundary area shared by Nepal, India and the
People’s Republic of China. It is home to several ethnic and linguistic groups and is
rich in biodiversity, particularly agricultural crop and wild genetic diversity. However,
documentation is poor regarding these resources’ availability, use, contribution to
livelihoods and household food security, and the engagement of household members
in conserving and managing diversity.

Many districts in the mid-hills and mountains of Far Western Nepal are in food deficit
and score the lowest on the Human Development Index for regions within Nepal.
In a context characterized by high poverty rates and chronic food and livelihood
insecurity, there is a high level of outmigration, mostly of men.

A study undertaken by ICIMOD in Khar Village Development Committee, Darchula

district, investigated the diversity of cultivated and wild crops, their use, their role
in and implications for livelihoods, and local perceptions on conservation and
management differentiated by gender.

70 at a stall during the crop diversity fair in Khar

©ICIMOD/Pradyumna
Women
Rana
 120
Multiple use
100 Single use

80 35

60

40
17 64
12
20 18
23 19 12
12 6 9
0 4 4
Fruit Vegetable Medicine Others Spice Religious Aggregate
User value

Figure 8: Use of wild and non-cultivated edible plants

Source: Case study authors’ own elaboration, 2020.

The study documented 88 crops (vegetables, spices, fruits, beans and pulses, cereals
and pseudo cereals) and 235 varieties from 37 botanical families. The highest varietal
diversity within major crops was recorded in maize, followed by paddy, wheat and
beans. However, only 5 percent of households were able to meet their annual food
requirement from their own production; the remainder were only food self-sufficient
for 10 months or less. Households adopted multiple coping strategies during the food
deficit months, including seasonal migration for work to the district headquarters
and to parts of India, sale of agricultural and livestock products, collection and sale of
yartsa gunbu, the caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), and collection of wild
and non-cultivated edible plants (WNEPs). Besides cultivated crops, the study recorded
101 WNEPs belonging to 60 botanical families. Importantly, nearly 85 percent of
households depend exclusively on WNEPs for at least one month of the year.

However, there is erosion and loss of this crop and wild diversity due to the
introduction of hybrids, outmigration, the easy availability of other foods, and the
seasonal movement of entire villages in search of yartsa gunbu.

Wild edibles, crucial during times of food shortage, have the potential to become
important alternatives to the usual vegetable crops cultivated by farmers. The study
also showed that farmers prioritize those species that provide multiple benefits,
such as food and nutrition security, as well as household-level health care. It is

160

ytilibaliavof0204variety
A0and 0608hybrid
improved
001021041051 migration
lofathe
humannos market
road
aeand
resource
Access Sfor
to54 086for
interest
People's
agriculture
90High
11 income
from yartsa
gunbu and
resources availability work
declining NWFP
collection

Figure 9: Reasons for the decline of traditional crops

Source: Case study authors’ own elaboration, 2020.
71
Discussing rice variety traits with a farmer in Khar
©ICIMOD/Pradyumna Rana

important that government interventions are designed to conserve this diversity.

That could mean developing conservation and restoration plans with an explicit When I was growing up, we used
focus on species crucial to household nutrition and health. Domestication in home to cultivate a diversity of traditional
gardens could be a good starting point for some species, as they offer increased crops like finger millet, amaranth,
availability of water, a mostly organic-based production system, easier protection foxtail millet, proso millet, barley
against predators and close monitoring by household members. and buckwheat. Everyone loved
finger millet, buckwheat and
Changing food habits, taste and lifestyles and the availability of ready-made foods maize bread back then. Our own
in the local market are contributing to the growing neglect of traditional foods in production was sufficient for our
rural diets. Integrated research and development, including product diversification family, and we didn’t depend upon
and marketing of these crops, is needed to promote the conservation of diversity the market for our food.
and ecosystems, and secure better returns for producers.

Local people must be involved in the conservation and management of crop People have stopped planting
diversity, as they are both the guardians and users of the resources and have traditional local varieties such as
the greatest knowledge of them. The study highlighted the role of women as millets, amaranth and barley. It
seed keepers and the importance of conserving this diversity. It is essential that is even hard to find the seeds of
government and civil society interventions aimed at improving the food security of these varieties now. Eating rice is
the Far Western Region place women and their concerns at the centre of research considered modern, while eating
and extension. millet is considered a sign of
backwardness. Programmes such
as these will help us conserve
traditional seeds. Perhaps my
grandchildren will be able to utilize
these crops in the future.

Jaymati Badal,
77, a resident of Khar, Darchula,
belongs to a women’s group that
collected seeds, fruits and other
plants

72
Energizing mountains – Solar
power for organic Nepali
apples
Menila Kharel, Renuka Rai and Pooja Sharma

Recently, many smallholders in Nepal’s Jumla District have been hard hit by
drought. Solar-powered irrigation, a climate-adaptive technology, is now helping
these producers to irrigate their lands and increase organic apple production.

In Jumla District, more than 85 percent of mountain smallholders make their

living from rainfed agriculture, with women accounting for over 60 percent of
the agricultural workforce. This mountainous area, which was declared Nepal’s
first organic district in 2007, is popular for products such as organic apples, an
indigenous variety of rice called marshy, Jumla beans, walnuts and a range of
medicinal herbs. Organic farming is not merely an economic activity for these
mountain smallholders. It is a way of life.

Organic apples are a key source of income for mountain smallholders in Jumla,
but strong demand in urban markets has proved difficult to supply. Irrigation is a
major challenge, albeit increasingly necessary given the growing impacts of climate
change, especially erratic rainfall and drought. Despite an abundant source of
water provided by the nearby Tila River, lack of technology means that smallholder
farmers had no reliable source of irrigation. Women carried water manually from the
river to irrigate their lands, which took a heavy toll on their health and well-being.

To address this acute shortage of water, a solar-powered irrigation system has been
introduced in Jumla. Implemented as part of the Building Inclusive and Sustainable
Growth Capacity of CSOs in Agriculture and Forest Sectors project – a joint
initiative of the European Union, Jersey Overseas Aid and Practical Action – the

Organic apple farming in Dhaulapani Jumla

©Archana Gurung

73
Solar-powered irrigation under BICAS project in Jumla
©Archana Gurung

technology involved setting up pumps powered by renewable energy, with a view

to generating evidence for its upscaling through public and private investments.

During the project period (2017–2019), a total of five solar-powered irrigation

systems were demonstrated along the banks of the Tila River. These produced
20 000 litres of water per day, which was collected in storage tanks and distributed
to fields as needed. The systems are now irrigating 8 ha of land and directly
benefiting 130 households.

Working together with the local municipality and a private company – which
provided technical support for the installation of pumps and training to local
people for repair and maintenance – the project adopted a pay-for-water scheme
as a business model, with households paying a nominal monthly fee for water
use. The amount collected is deposited at a bank to pay for system maintenance,
ensuring sustainability.

Aside from the irrigation technology, the project has also helped to strengthen the
local knowledge system required for organic agricultural production, providing
vegetable seed support, training in improved farming practices, a farmers’ business
school to enhance entrepreneurship skills, and climate field schools to sensitize
farmers on climate change and climate-adaptive farming practices. Assistance was
also given in building market linkages and networking with municipal government
and other stakeholders.

Smallholders now have access to sufficient water for irrigation, livestock and
domestic use. As a result, an additional 2 500 apple seedlings have been planted
in Dhaulapani and smallholders have expanded their organic apple orchards and
begun intercropping, producing both seasonal and off-seasonal organic vegetables
for commercial sale. The increased and timely availability of water has improved both
the production and quality of the organic apples and vegetables that they grow.

The solar-powered irrigation systems have drastically reduced women’s workloads,

leading to improvements in their health. Household nutrition has also benefited,
due to higher incomes, resulting in a better quality of life for mountain
communities. The increased opportunities for organic agricultural production have
reduced seasonal migration. Men have started returning home and many are now
working together with women to advance organic agriculture and other income
generating activities.
74
Creating an enabling environment for public and private investment in climate
adaptive practices and technologies will be critical to maintaining the momentum
of these mountain farmers in practising organic production. The Jumla brand
of organic apples is well known in Nepal, and the progress made so far heralds
strong potential for the district to diversify its apple products into the production
and marketing of juice, wine and dried chips, ensuring that the benefits of solar
powered irrigation extend well into the future.

75
Organic family farming helps
to protect watershed in
Panama
Alberto Pascual

The diversified agroecological production of fruit and vegetables is key to

guaranteeing livelihoods for family farmers and the sustainable use of the upper
part of the Santa Maria River Watershed in Panama. Practices by smallholder
mountain farmers to safeguard agrobiodiversity in Santa Fe are contributing to
climate change adaptation and water resource conservation for upstream and
downstream communities.

Located in the upper part of the Santa Maria River Watershed, Panama’s mountainous
district of Santa Fe, with altitudes of over 1 900 m, plays a critical role in regulating
the hydrological cycle and conserving biodiversity. Family farmers living in this area
make an important contribution to this watershed, which supplies water to more
than 200 000 people in three provinces: Veraguas, Coclé and Herrera, and to one
part of the indigenous region Ngäbe-Buglé. The mountains of the upper part of
the Santa Maria River Watershed host two protected areas – the Santa Fe National
Park (72 636 ha) and the La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7 090 ha).

Since 2019, local NGO Fundación Comunidad has been working with 20 organic
family farmers to implement a PGS in the watershed, with the aim of promoting
sustainable development and mountain products. At the core of this initiative
lies a family farm, Finca Orgánica Maria y Chon, established by husband and
wife Encarnación and Maria Rodríguez 42 years ago. The farm has a total 3 ha,
including 1 ha for flower and fruit cultivation and 2 ha of forest reserve, which
contains mahogany trees (Swietenia macrophylla) planted 30 years ago to protect
groundwater sources for irrigation.

Woman farmer in Panama

©Fundación CoMunidad

76
Finca Orgánica Maria y Chon is divided into several plots, where more than 60
local varieties of orchids are grown, as well as Arabica coffee and other crops.
Maria makes jams from mango and banana, together with concentrates from
seasonal fruits. The farm also offers accommodation for tourists.

The couple have obtained government organic certification for three crops: citrus,
banana and vegetables, whose total production was 11 477 kg in 2018. Other
crops grown on the farm include chili peppers, broccoli, onions, green beans,
lettuce, criollo mandarins, Valencian oranges, cucumbers, paprika, beets, cabbage,
tomatoes and carrots.

This organic family farm is linked to traditional farming systems, where biodiversity
is protected through polyculture and agroforestry. Encarnación and Maria use
crop rotation techniques, and integrate worm and bokashi composting as organic
fertilizers for soil conservation.

Family farmers such as this couple play a fundamental role in the sustainable
management of natural resources. At the same time, they are strengthening the
adaptive capacities and building the resilience of mountain ecosystems to the
potential impacts of climate change.

Panama has made significant progress in promoting family farming in recent years.
In 2018, in collaboration with FAO, the government published a National Plan
for Family Farming, outlining areas for targeted support, including governance,
finance, insurance, research and marketing. In January 2020, prospects for a more
vigorous family farming sector advanced a step further, when a law based on this
strategy was approved for implementation.

Coffee trees in the nursery

©Fundación CoMunidad

77
The Carpat Sheep project in
Romania – It all starts with
the grass!
Andrei Coca, Ioan Agapi and Peter Niederer

This Swiss-Romanian cooperation initiative seeks to consolidate authentic farming

practices in the Carpathian Mountains by integrating traditional activities with
modern-day food safety measures and economics. The aim is to provide benefits
to actors along the entire value chain, linking mountain producers practising time
honoured techniques to the end customer, through a series of carefully planned
processing and marketing steps.

In Romania, agriculture remains an important economic and labour-intensive

sector, involving 36 percent of the population, and contributing 21 percent of
gross domestic product. The Romanian Carpathian Mountains are home to more
than 14 million sheep, from which high-quality products are made using traditional
techniques. Until recently, however, it was hard to find these products in shops or
restaurants, as efficient marketing and distribution networks were lacking.

The traditional livestock system in the Romanian mountains is based on the stana,
the Romanian term for a sheepfold. During the grazing season (May–October),
entire communities send their animals up onto the alpine pastures, where there
are mostly no roads, water or electricity. In an effort to modernize the value chain,
four Romanian NGOs – the Mountain Farmers’ Federation “Dorna,” AGROM-RO,
ROMONTANA and the Open Fields Foundation – have joined with the Swiss Centre
for Mountain Regions to develop the Carpat Sheep project. The initiative set out
to strengthen farmers’ associations so as to increase their negotiating power, as
well as to develop marketing opportunities and create and consolidate branding
in order to attract consumer interest in a quality mountain product. In total,
six “model” sheepfolds were built in the Eastern Romanian Carpathians, fully
equipped and designed to blend traditional high-quality production techniques
with European standards of hygiene, traceability and food safety.

Hut in Romanian Carpathian Mountains (©Romontana Assocation)

78
 A farmer seeding his pasture
©Romontana Assocation

Project activities covered all phases of the value chain, starting with pasture quality
and ending with the final product served to the consumer. A first critical step
involved improving the quality of the grass eaten by sheep by seeding pastures
with indigenous herbs and securing water sources for both the animals and cheese
production. Some 636 farmers were trained in pasture management, leading to
an improved floral structure for 1 155 ha of pastureland. A further six sheepfolds
and six sheep shelters were also built.

Market opportunities were increased by providing technical assistance to meet

veterinary requirements, traceability and food safety compliance for three clusters
of product types, together with support for marketing and branding. Over a
period of two years, the volume of cheese sold increased by 80 percent, while the
price of yellow cheese rose by 13 percent and that of ricotta by 21 percent. New
marketing channels were explored, such as markets, regional fairs, local shops and
bed and breakfasts.

A total of 546 farmers graduated from vocational training courses on the themes
of farm management and conditions for subsidies. Exchange visits for 188 people
were conducted to the project sites, and study visits were organized for Romanian

79
 Romanian mountain products and CARPAT sheep logo
©Romontana Assocation

producers to see milk processing units in France. In addition, partnership

agreements were signed between six local farmer’s associations and local councils,
as well as with national/regional authorities.

In parallel, a number of institutional measures have helped to advance the

Carpathian sheep-based value chain. In 2017, the “Mountain Product” label
was officially introduced in Romania for products from mountain areas. Soon
afterwards, the Government of Romania adopted the Mountain Law, which
provides farmers with access to finance to build sheepfolds in line with the model
developed by the Carpat Sheep project. In the future, the Carpat Sheep team is
considering experimenting with further innovations to the six pilot sheepfolds, as
well as building capacity for producers and other value chain actors interested in
developing the potential of mountain products.

80
 Swiss valley of Valposchiavo
©Valposchiavo Turismo

Smart and organic – A Swiss

valley stakes its future
on sustainable territorial
development
Cassiano Luminati and Diego Rinallo

Smart approaches to territorial development can be applied to rural as well as

urban areas. The Swiss valley of Valposchiavo has increased its organic production
from 60 percent to more than 90 percent through a territorial branding and
smart planning strategy based on participatory governance and cross-sectoral and
heritage-sensitive initiatives.

Valposchiavo is an Italian-speaking valley (269.3 sq km, 4 700 inhabitants) in the

southern part of the Swiss canton of Grisons. Already in the 1990s, 60 percent
of the valley’s agricultural land surface was certified as organic, mainly for the
production of herbs and milk. At the time, limited cooperation existed among
the agricultural production, food processing and tourism sectors, and several
traditional crops had disappeared.

Then, in 2002, the local museum acquired Casa Tomé, a fourteenth-century

farmhouse that was turned into an experiential showcase of the area’s agricultural
heritage, including educational visits to nearby fields. The resulting interest in local
crops facilitated the development, in 2015, of a local territorial brand, piloted
by the tourism management organization Valposchiavo Turismo, in cooperation
with local farmers, crafts and trader associations, and with political backing
from the Valposchiavo Region. Today, more than 150 products are certified as

81
 100 percent locally produced and made from local ingredients – bearing the 100%
Valposchiavo label – or as mostly made with local products, with at least 75 percent
of their added value locally generated (Fait sü in Valposchiavo). Additionally, 13
restaurants have signed the “100% Valposchiavo Charter,” committing to using
local products for the preparation of at least three 100 percent local dishes. The
initiative has increased local organic production, positioned Valposchiavo as an
enogastronomic destination, and created a local market for food ingredients. It
has also stimulated innovation and cooperation between farmers and producers.
A case in point is a partnership of two restaurants, the Poschiavo Dairy and a
local farmer, for the supply of locally produced mozzarella and tomatoes for
“100% Valposchiavo” pizza.

At the end of 2017, 14 local farmers and food producers joined with Valposchiavo
Turismo to launch the “100% (Bio) Valposchiavo association.” By then, more
than 90 percent of local agricultural production had turned organic. In 2012,
the Valposchiavo Region and the Agricultural Fund Operating Group developed
a preliminary Regional Development Project, submitted in 2015 to the Swiss
Confederation and approved in 2019. In the 2020–2024 period, the project will
finance initiatives to halt the flow of raw materials from leaving the valley, as well
as actions to support the few farms not yet converted to organic production, and
collective marketing and promotional measures for local products. Total public–
private sector investment is estimated at CHF 15.92 million (USD 17.4 million).

Another ongoing project, Valposchiavo Smart Valley Bio, will contribute to the
valley’s territorial development by safeguarding and valorizing its landscape.

Several restaurants in the Valposchiavo Valley have committed to using local products in their dishes
©Valposchiavo82 Turismo
Cultural, social, economic and climate shifts are threatening the valley’s local
identity, memory, values and landscape. To mitigate these risks, the project will
co-develop an interactive and updatable hyper-map of the community’s and
territory’s values. The map, based on a participatory process, will identify territorial
values and where they feature in the landscape, enabling users to visualize ongoing
territorial conflicts and balance cultural, economic and ecological interests.

The project will also train landscape mediators to communicate the landscape’s
values and beauty, and create new tourist experiences; develop school projects
to pass on territorial knowledge and values to future generations; support
territorial marketing initiatives based on synergies between farming and tourism;
and align current initiatives to long-term strategies to create the basis for Smart
Valley Bio certification. The initiative will be coordinated by the Polo Poschiavo, a
centre for continued education and support to territorial development projects,
with the participation of various local stakeholders in the fields of agriculture,
education, culture, tourism and commerce. Its outcomes will lay the foundations
for the development of an Alpine Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System
(GIAHS).

Both cases highlight the potential for sustainable territorial development through
the deployment of well-planned and coordinated initiatives that reinforce each
other’s impact. Territorial brands can contribute to the restructuring of local agrifood
supply chains and accelerate the process. Smart land approaches to sustainable
territorial development should be based on cross-sectoral initiatives, education
to develop local skills, and participatory governance systems, involving local
stakeholders and communities. They should also be future-proof, considering how
megatrends might affect ongoing initiatives and preparing for future challenges;
and heritage-sensitive, ensuring that the local cultural patrimony is safeguarded
and transmitted to the next generation, and that important traditional crops,
productive know-how and consumption rituals are not forgotten.

Key challenges include difficulties in uniting actors in a common vision; overcoming

the scepticism of risk-adverse community members; sourcing funding and an
appropriate “institutional home” for projects to give them stability; and creating a
critical mass of initiatives that generate a self-sustaining virtuous circle.

83
Organic cinnamon cooperative
discovers strength in
numbers in Viet Nam
Vu Le Y Voan and Pham Tai Thang

Cinnamon growers in Viet Nam’s mountainous Yên Bái province have learned that there
are advantages to working together. Since 2015, producers in this richly forested area
have been helped to organize themselves into groups and cultivate organic cinnamon,
earning higher incomes as a result.

Prior to 2015, in the Dao Thin Commune’s mixed landscape of natural forest, cinnamon
and other trees, cinnamon producers sold their products individually to middlemen,
without any market information or negotiating power. Prices were low and unstable,
and producers’ incomes were badly affected by the high cost of the chemical fertilizer
and pesticides that they used.

Helped by the FFF programme, with support from the Viet Nam Farmers’ Union (VNFU),
the cinnamon growers embarked on a new strategy, based on grouping together and
receiving capacity-building in organic farming, improved practices and marketing and
business skills.

A first move involved forming four collective cinnamon groups, but the members soon
realized that it would make more sense to merge, so that they would now have 39
members and 135 ha of cinnamon. This group worked out a business plan, conducted
a market study, looked for potential buyers, and introduced its cinnamon products at
agricultural fairs. Members also started learning and applying organic cinnamon practices
to improve product quality.

Organic cinnamon co-op at a trade fair

©Organic Cinnamon Cooperative Case of FFF Viet Nam

84
Through a series of roundtable discussions organized by FFF and attended by producers, Yên Bái has the advantage of
local government agencies, central government officials, banks and the private sector, both forest and farms. The FFF
the chief problems facing cinnamon farmer groups were identified and resolved. The has helped forest and farm
local authority approved an organic cinnamon development strategy and supported producers increase solidarity in
the group to build nearly 2 km of forest roads. A private sector company active in the communities, helping to link
processing and distribution expressed interest in enhancing the quality of organic collective groups and cooperatives
cinnamon products to meet export markets. with local authorities, agencies
and departments to solve their
In 2016, members of the group established a cooperative to expand their organic problems. In addition, FFF has
cinnamon production, processing and business activities, and took out a lease on land supported them in finding
for a processing plant. Some members invested their own money in a joint business for partners for production and
organic cinnamon processing, together with the company whose director they had met business, especially in the case of
through the roundtables. the organic cinnamon model in
Dao Thinh commune, increasing
After gradually expanding the area under organic cinnamon production, in 2017 group incomes for Yên Bái farmers and
members launched the Viet Nam cinnamon and star anise cooperative in Dao Thinh, in also sustainable forest and farm
partnership with the private sector Viet Nam Samex exporting company. The farmers development.
now produced more than 500 ha of organic cinnamon and the local authority allowed
the cooperative to lease 9 900 sq m of land to build a factory. Giang A Cau,
Chairman of Yên Bái Farmers’
The cooperative currently sells various washed and dried grades of organically certified Union
cinnamon to national buyers and importers from the European Union and Japan. With
23 founding cooperative members, more than 500 associate members are supplying
organic cinnamon to the processing factory. Incomes have increased, since the price of
organic cinnamon is 30 percent higher than conventional products. The cooperative
organizes training and applies an internal control system.

Organic cinnamon processing

©Organic Cinnamon Cooperative Case of FFF Viet Nam

85
Output has increased to 80–100 tonnes per month, with 12 kinds of organic cinnamon Following discussions facilitated
products, creating jobs for up to 100 people, the majority of whom are women. More by the FFF, the growers realized
than 600 forest farmers have been trained in organic farming for cinnamon production that forming a group could help
and that of other crops and trees. them share market and technical
information, aggregate their
Bolstered by confidence due to the organic farming experience, and with support from supply, and hopefully negotiate
the Viet Nam Farmers’ Union, two new collective groups have been established to better prices for their product. This
diversify the organic production base. One grows organic herbal plants, while the other crucial, early trust-building work
plants organic mulberry for silkworm production. Both are now applying Participatory by the FFF led to the formation
Guarantee Systems to control organic product quality. In an effort to expand organic of four collective groups, locally
and agroecology farming in Viet Nam, the FFF is now providing training in organic called “To Hop Tac.”
farming and PGS operation for rice, fruit trees, herbs and Forest Stewardship Council
certified bamboo, linking producers to enterprises and markets to promote sustainable Duncan Macqueen,
development. International Institute for
Environment and Development

86
87
Collecting wild herbs in the mountains of Armenia
©ICARE
88 Foundation
 6
Promoting a people-centred
approach for the inclusive and
sustainable development of
mountain agroecosystems
89
Recognizing the value of
connecting culture and
agriculture Barroso Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System in Portugal
©Municipality of Montalegre)

Clelia Maria Puzzo

There are various ways to turn the potential of mountain agriculture into
tangible benefits for farmers’ food security, cultural traditions and income, while
safeguarding the environment. Actions include product labelling, agritourism
experiences, technological innovation and the creation of niche markets, all
designed around the uniqueness of mountain agricultural systems and ensuring
the conservation of core elements.

One option to enhance recognition and the global value of mountain and
other specific agroecosystems is FAO’s Globally Important Agricultural Heritage
Systems (GIAHS) programme.5 It includes territories where local communities
have successfully conserved agrobiodiversity, landscapes and cultural values for
centuries and, in some cases, millennia. The sustainability of these systems is
ensured by the strong sociocultural environment created by local communities
and by interrelations between culture and farming systems.

Through this programme, FAO highlights the local knowledge that helped to
develop ingenious agricultural practices, which have proved to be sustainable over
time and hold important lessons that may be used to respond to current global
challenges. Examples include modifying the landscape to ensure sustainable
natural resource management (soil and water), replacing or mixing specific crops
to increase resilience to shocks, shifting to different activities, and changing land
uses, depending on the season or fluctuating climatic conditions.

The GIAHS approach relies on the concept of dynamic conservation: recognizing

that farming communities and their landscapes cannot be conserved in a static
way, and supporting decision-makers in designing actions that encourage rural
development strategies based on innovations.

5
www.fao.org/giahs/en/
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To become part of the GIAHS programme, a site needs to include measures that
support adaptation to change and be presented by a national governmental
institution, following a multi-stakeholder consultation process. A proposal
document is submitted to FAO, describing the site against the five GIAHS selection
criteria (FAO, 2017):

• food and livelihood security;

• agrobiodiversity;

• local and traditional knowledge systems;

• culture, values and social organizations; and

• landscape and/or seascape features.

A Dynamic Conservation Action Plan has to be developed, together with the

community concerned, and presented to FAO with a list of supporting institutions
and actors as part of the applicant’s commitment to support local communities
and conserve the site. The Scientific Advisory Group analyses proposals received
by FAO, determines the compliance of the site with requirements and approves
its designation, after conducting a careful scientific analysis and a field visit. The
strength of the GIAHS programme lies in its capacity to foster collaboration at
national and local level for implementation of the Dynamic Conservation Plan,
which begins after a system is internationally recognized. As observed in the
designated Agricultural Heritage Systems, activities related to GIAHS recognition
promote investments and support to the rural development of these areas, thanks
to an increased awareness by local communities and the public.

91
 Sustainable wild plant
collection – A driver of rural
change in the Armenian
mountains
Astghik Sahakyan

Millions of people worldwide live near forests and collect plants and berries to
improve their livelihoods. If the collection of wild plants is organically certified,
the process does not threaten the ecosystem or harm people’s health. With the
growth of the organic tea sector in Armenia, many women farmers are now able
to improve their livelihoods by becoming involved in collecting wild plants.

Armenia is located at the crossroads between Europe and Asia and is mainly
mountainous, with agriculture accounting for 13.7 percent of gross domestic
product in 2018 and unemployment (20.5 percent) and high poverty rates
(23.5 percent) posing major challenges. In this context, the Government has

Rural women in Armenia are trained in wild plant collection

©ICARE Foundation

92
identified wild plant collection as a promising strategy for
poverty reduction and sustainable development. Although data
on wild collection practices are inadequate, demand for wild
plants and berries has greatly increased due to the promotion
of organic agriculture in recent years. Growing numbers of
organic tea, jam and juice producers are using wild crops in
their production, thereby contributing to sector development.
Plants collected in mountainous regions include herbs, berries
and wild fruits. Wild plant collection mainly employs women
(of 50 years and over) in rural areas and serves as a main source
of stable income for them.

Within the framework of the World Bank Group’s Armenia

Gender project 2017–2020, a study was conducted by the
International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education
Foundation in collaboration with the International Finance
Corporation. Activities undertaken included identifying wild
collection practices and the culture and traditions in areas
where the practice is popular, evaluating the capacities of
women involved in wild plant collection, revealing the skills gap
among women, developing a handbook on “Sustainable Wild
Collection” and delivering training for rural women. In order to
fully understand the scope of wild plant collection, interviews
were conducted with 18 women farmers/collectors, four
middlemen, nine processors and three retailers. The initiative
also involved meetings with state officials, sector experts and
Armenia’s organic certification body. This was to understand
state regulations covering the agroecological system and the Wild plants are collected and sorted
©ICARE Foundation
organic agriculture standards covering wild plant collection.

The study revealed that working with organic producers offers several advantages:

• Enhanced knowledge of sustainable wild collection practices: Prior

to the collection period, organic producers organize training for women
collectors where these topics are presented: What can be harvested (are
there endangered species that are prohibited for collection)? How can
these be harvested without damaging the environment and the health of
living organisms? What post-harvest activities are allowed under organic
standards?

• Women’s empowerment: For retired women, finding a new source

of income and improving the quality of life of family members was a key
takeaway from interviews. Women collectors have developed leadership
skills and became the contact point between producers/processors and other
women collectors, often motivating other women in the village to join their
teams.

• Enhanced biodiversity: In collaboration with women collectors, organic tea

producers work to explore regional biodiversity, conserving natural habitats
through sustainable activities and raising awareness about ecological systems
among different stakeholders. Fewer than 100 types of plant are currently
being used and organic producers are constantly searching for new plants
growing in mountainous regions, identifying their useful features and their
effective and sustainable use.

93
Training materials for the project were developed in collaboration with
agroecologists and cover a wide range of topics, including plants common to the
mountainous regions of Armenia and the environmentally friendly collection and
marketing of produce. The study helped researchers to draw attention to the fact
that some plant species are already endangered, which led to the development of
a separate training module on this topic.

The final outcome of the project was training for rural women in sustainable wild
plant collection and the provision of handbooks (available online in Armenian).
A total of 20 women, including elderly and young women, participated in the
training, which was delivered by other women. The training was interactive,
allowing women farmers to share the challenges they face during collection, clarify
the requirements set by organic producers, and build connections with producers
and NGO representatives.

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 Women collecting honey from their melipona bees
©Slow Food

Stingless bee honey

for Bolivian ecosystem
conservation
Chiara Davico

Ask what comes to mind when people think of bees, and inevitably the answer
will be honey or stings. But few are familiar with native stingless bees, raised by
indigenous peoples for generations. In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, women
from the highlands of Chaco de Chuquisaca are breeding melipona bees for
their liquid and bittersweet honey, protecting and conserving biodiversity and
ecosystems in the process.

In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, different species of native stingless bees are
found in the eastern tropics and in Chaco de Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz and Tarija.
The area is rich in biodiversity and forestry resources, and a large number of native
stingless bees are responsible for pollination of annual and perennial crops, as well
as many other species growing in the forest.

Recently, in Chaco de Chuquisaca, beekeeping has become an important

activity due to advances in family farming management. In 2015, five women’s
associations, based in an area with altitudes of between 1 100 and 3 300 m,
began working in meliponiculture – the term given to the cultivation of stingless
bees on a commercial scale for honey production or pollination. The focus is on
conserving the environment and biodiversity and generating an additional source
of income.

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Women have sole responsibility for maintenance of these fragile bees, and nearly
200 women with basic technical knowledge are now involved in the management
and production of melipona honey. They face challenges that include lack of
management skills, lack of control and prevention of pests, lack of complementary
food in winter, inadequate breeding boxes, weak hives, use of inappropriate honey
harvesting techniques, and storage in unsuitable containers, leading to excessive
air exposure, which shortens the honey’s shelf-life.

To assist these women and improve the stingless bee product value chain, in
2018 the MP joined with Slow Food to organize training sessions for 160 women
in sustainable agricultural practices for beekeeping and business management.
The training was conducted in coordination with PROMIEL, the Bolivian public
enterprise tasked with developing the national apiculture sector.

As a result of technical assistance, the women beekeepers have been able to

develop sound management practices for the native bees. In addition, 25 local
women facilitators attended the training, with a focus on environmental care and
biodiversity, responsible capture, hive division, feeding and harvesting techniques.
The facilitators are now training producers in their community, to disseminate the
knowledge.

In addition, the training led to implementation of a regulation among women

beekeepers, regarding care of the forest as a main supplier of honey plants and
native bee habitats. Many women strongly believe that meliponiculture should not
only pursue economic ends, but it should also contribute to the conservation of
the local environment and biodiversity.

The appointment of women facilitators has played a crucial role in empowering

other women producers, generating a new dynamic that is leading to greater
equality in communities and the active participation of women and young people
in the melipona honey value chain. In addition, meliponiculture is extremely
important for the sustainable management of the territory and the protection of
biodiversity. These two factors have led women to ask local governments to work
together on a reforestation plan.

Melipona honey is an increasingly rare commodity. Deforestation and the

introduction of the more productive European honeybee have affected the
distribution of the 350 known stingless bee species. There is therefore an urgent
need for greater knowledge about the different species of melipona bees, as well
as their favourite flowers and their behaviour. To this end, a census was conducted
of all the communities located in the Monteagudo and Villa Vaca Guzmán
Municipalities and the Iñao National Park and Integrated Management Natural
Area. Based on the information analysed so far, the highest diversity of species is
observed inside the Serranía del Iñao Protected Area. In other areas, dense human
populations and intensive agriculture using agrochemicals have led to changes
in native vegetation and a dramatic reduction in vegetation mass. Primary and
secondary forest area has declined, soil has been strongly modified and water has
been contaminated. All these disturbances have led to emissions of penetrating
odours, which are believed to be partly responsible for the disappearance of
meliponas.

96
In an effort to add value to melipona honey, the MPP initiative has assigned the
product its narrative label, which tells consumers the story of the product’s origin,
processing methods and organoleptic and nutritional characteristics.

As next steps, the producers plan to:

• promote a PGS, which is expected to generate important advantages for

the valorization of melipona honey, highlighting its qualities, properties and
origin and certifying them organically for the domestic market;

• diversify the products generated by the hive, for consumption and promotion
in the local market; and

• promote ongoing research on bee varieties and validation and dissemination

of climate change adaptation measures.

Keeping melipona bees in the highlands of Chaco de Chuquisaca, Plurinational State of Bolivia
©Slow Food

97
Biological and anti-erosion
measures to improve
livelihoods in Moroccan
watersheds
Malika Chkirni

Soil is the principal resource for the survival of all species of life, but it can
become degraded through water and wind erosion. To address soil erosion in
Morocco’s Midelt area and the Oued Outat watershed, biological and mechanical
measures have been implemented, with the added benefit of improving croplands
downstream.

Natural resources – vegetation, land and water – are under growing pressure
in the Midelt area and the Oued Outat watershed, in the high plains of central
Morocco. The over-exploitation of indigenous and introduced species, coupled
with the intensification of activities related to extensive livestock farming in forests
and the cultivation of fragile land have created an unsustainable situation.

A farmer and her goats in Morocco

©Chkirni Malika

98
 Goats and sheep in Morocco
©Chkirni Malika

This area is home to about 23 600 people, almost all of them dependent on land
use. They are not only the cause of many environmental and poverty problems,
but also the key to solving them. In this context, there is a conflict between the
designation of protected areas and the continuation or introduction of agricultural
land use, for example, through the application of environmentally compatible
forms of conservation, such as agroforestry. Given that poverty-oriented rural
development based on long-term resource protection is indispensable for this
area, any measures taken must be in keeping with the special living conditions,
interests and knowledge of local farmers.

Soil, a limited and non-renewable resource, is currently being lost at the rate of
about 3 tonnes/ha annually in this upland area. The Participatory and Integrated
Watershed Management Project for Erosion Control6 has implemented a range of
methods and approaches to prevent soil erosion by water and wind. Activities of
the project have included:

• physiographic and socio-economic indicators from the diagnostic studies;

• discussions and interaction of various workshops (20 training workshops

have been organized, with 600 beneficiaries, 25 percent of them women);

• five trips organized for information exchange;

• meetings and contacts with partners; and

• development of co-management plans.

6 Projet de Gestion Participative et Intégrée des Bassins Versants pour la Lutte contre l’Erosion
(Kingdom of Morocco, FAO and Switzerland)

99
Four specific objectives and methods have been identified for the management
plans, namely:

• reduction of the effects of hydric and torrential erosion (flooding) through

the reconstitution of native vegetation, both upstream and downstream
of the watershed. This has involved the installation of a mechanical and
biological anti-erosion infrastructure at the level of the ravines and slopes;

• adoption of silvopastoral management specific to the physiographic and

socio-economic conditions of the area and organization of nomadic and
sedentary herders into associations;

• improvement of agroforestry techniques and pipelines through the

rehabilitation of irrigation water diversion canals and installation of new
innovative systems for enhancing the value of agricultural land; and

• popularization of appropriate cultural techniques and diversification of tree

crops.

As part of the strategy, various technologies have been implemented, such as forest
plantations, mechanical anti-erosion correction of gullies (gabion thresholds),
biological anti-erosion gully treatment, mechanical and biological development of
banks, diversification of fruit trees and the introduction of fruit species adapted
to the ecological conditions of the environment. Farmers have been trained to

Beekeepers working in Midelt area, Morocco

©Chkirni Malika

100
combine mechanical and biological treatments. The hydro-agricultural network
has been monitored, leading to a slowing of runoff along the watershed drainage
system, which in turn has resulted in reduced soil stripping and better maintenance
of topsoil.

The condition of croplands downstream of the watershed has improved and the
lifespan of hydro-agricultural structures has increased. More than 1 000 farmers
have benefited from the project, and display a strong sense of commitment and
motivation. The Government of Morocco is continuing to evaluate and implement
the co-management plans by outsourcing the experience to other watersheds at
communal and regional levels and moving ahead with reforestation activities.

101
Community-led conservation
in Peru’s Potato Park
Nisreen Abo-Sido

The Parque de la Papa/Potato Park in Cusco Valley, Peru presents a model for
community-led conservation using traditional and agroecological approaches. The
Amaru, Chawaytire, Cuyo Grande, Pampallaqta, Paru-Paru and Sacaca – indigenous
Andean peoples – live together and collaboratively manage the Park, with the
goals of supporting their livelihoods while conserving biodiversity, landscapes and
culture.

The Parque de la Papa approach is built on the ayllu system, which is a traditional
Andean model of community organization that promotes sumak kawsay – or well
being – by fostering harmony among people, domesticated species, and sacred
or wild elements. Though frequently studied as a political and socio-economic
structure, the ayllu is also an ecological framework, in which promoting reciprocity
between the various communities creates an active and holistic landscape
management system.

Among the many agroecological techniques practised by the people of the Park,
two that exemplify how such practices arise from the interaction of the ayllu system
with land management in the Peruvian Andes include seed-saving approaches and
farming along mountain gradients.

102Indigenous Andean peoples collaboratively manage the Potato Park, Peru

©Nisreen Abo-Sido
 The Potato Park is built on a traditional Andean model of community organization called ayllu
©Nisreen Abo-Sido

Led by local technicians from each of the indigenous groups, the people at the
Park practice in situ seed conservation that includes conserving crop wild varieties.
The benefits of these techniques are many. Firstly, in addition to saving seeds in
ex situ seed banks, it is advantageous to save seeds in situ, so that they are more
continuously shaped by the dynamic relationships between the abiotic and biotic
elements in the changing environment, encouraging the reciprocity required by
ayllu systems. In situ seed saving continues to allow natural genetic exchange
between landraces and their wild relatives. This agroecological approach fosters
biodiversity, while increasing species’ adaptive capacities and promoting resilience.

The development of microclimates along an altitudinal gradient is characteristic of

mountain environments, and can manifest itself in drastic changes in niches along
slopes. Climate change could alter these niches, disrupting ranges at which species
may thrive, consequently reducing biodiversity and threatening food systems and
livelihoods. Communities at the Park collaborate within the ayllu system to make
decisions about landscape management on the repatriation of potato varieties.
They share traditional knowledge of these microclimates and their potential
to shift in efforts to maximize productivity, support food systems and improve
livelihoods. For example, communities will grow crops in the most suitable
conditions along these microclimates, and then trade the products between the
upper, middle and lower altitudes. Moreover, efforts have been made to plant
more cold-adaptive potato varieties at higher altitudes to conserve the varieties
under the effects of climate change. Indigenous knowledge and communal
collaboration are integral to the agroecological management of these zones, as
community members make decisions about what to grow and where, in ways that
conserve biodiversity and support livelihoods.

In promoting harmony among all the ayllu, the system encompasses FAO’s
10 Elements of Agroecology, as it expands the definition of agroecology to include
the importance of spiritual and religious beliefs in influencing human–nature
interactions. Technicians at the Potato Park emphasize that they feel a responsibility

103
to conserve and protect potato biodiversity, not just for their communities, and not
just for Peru, but for the entire world. For this reason, they regularly participate
in and facilitate knowledge exchange, nationally and internationally, with visiting
farmers and indigenous communities, as well as with students and scientists. In
one example, the Park technicians led workshops on the ayllu system, protecting
native species, saving seeds, managing cooperatives, and various other topics to a
visiting group of indigenous peoples from Lake Titicaca, Peru, who were interested
in establishing a site similar to the Potato Park – one that would improve local
livelihoods, while conserving biodiversity and promoting knowledge exchange.

In another example, the Park technicians described their engagement with

a long-term study on the effects of climate change on potato growth and the
potential for potato adaptability in the region. They are performing the study
in partnership with researchers at the International Potato Center (CIP) and
describe the synergy resulting from the combination of traditional knowledge
and landscapes provided by the communities and the technical knowledge and
resources provided by CIP. This form of knowledge exchange promotes resilience
and bridges gaps in understanding and approaching problems within food
systems and environmental conservation, ultimately leading to greater sustainable
development and food sovereignty. Such a system can only work effectively if
communities are empowered to lead with autonomy. Recognizing the value of
traditional, indigenous, and cultural knowledge must be central to any attempt
to uplift marginalized communities and promote community-led and rights-based
approaches to conservation and food security.

104
Tradition lives on in Portugal’s
Barroso Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral
System
António M. Machado

In 2018, the Barroso Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System was among the first European
sites to be listed as a GIAHS. Located in the Alto Tâmega region of northern
Portugal, this is a natural landscape that includes the Peneda-Gerês National Park,
where the existing agrarian model has remained to the present day, based on a
rural subsistence economy, typical of mountain regions.

The Barroso agrarian system is strongly influenced by the soil and climate
conditions, with a predominance of smallholdings and pastoral cattle, sheep and
goat farming, as well as pig-rearing, which makes a significant contribution to
household economies and plays an important social role.

The system is a landscape mosaic, in which ancient pastures (marshes and common
land), farming areas (rye and potato fields and vegetable gardens), thickets and
forests are interwoven, and where the animals (mainly cattle) are used to transport
materials among the system’s components.

Cow grazing in Barroso Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System

©Municipality of Montalegre

105
 This is a rural subsistence economy, with little input or surplus produce. Farms
are small (less than 1 ha) and usually managed in a collective way. Isolation has
maintained ancient and archaic lifestyles, based on a strong sense of community
in each village, where self-sufficiency and solidarity among residents are marked
cultural features.

The geographical location, orography, soils, climate and human interactions have
led to the development of important plant and animal communities in the area,
including endangered species and populations. As a result, parts of this territory
are included in Portugal’s only national park, Peneda-Gerês National Park, the
Gerês-Xurés Cross-Border Biosphere Reserve, and the Natura 2000 Network.

From a cultural perspective, the 14 255 inhabitants of Barroso have developed

and maintained forms of social organization, practices and rituals which make
them stand out from most populations in the country, in terms of habits, language
and values. These have been largely shaped by the conditions and geographical
isolation, as well as by the area’s limited natural resources, which have led people
to develop methods of using them that are consistent with sustainability.

External threats to the region mainly revolve around Portugal’s current economic
situation, which acts as a strong disincentive to investment (increased tax burden,
low employment). The bureaucratic and organizational requirements for accessing
financial support are also ill-suited to the size and capacity of local businesses,
which are, in the main, run by family farmers or food processors.

The Barroso Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System was among the first European sites to be listed as a GIAHS
©Municipality of Montalegre

106
For the dynamic maintenance of Barroso’s agrarian system to continue and
develop in the coming decades, it will be important to encourage certification
and differentiation systems, which demonstrate the quality and diversity of
products to consumers. These can help to strengthen consumer confidence, while
conveying a message associated with cultural values specific to the region, as well
as ensuring respect for the values and demands of the consumers themselves,
such as environmental protection and animal welfare.

A range of activities has been planned under various projects and funds, with the
aim of valorizing and promoting the territory and helping people to understand
the traditions and culture of Barroso. These include building an information centre
and developing agritourism initiatives, as well as efforts to shorten the food supply
chain between local producers and consumers.

One of the challenges for this region is its ageing population and low level of
education, which could lead to the loss of valuable traditional knowledge. For this
reason, there are plans to make greater efforts to attract younger people into the
agriculture sector, not just as producers per se, but also as figures whose greater
innovative and entrepreneurial potential can ensure a sustainable future for this
ancient mountain landscape.

107
Agroecological farming in Falaba, Sierra Leone
©GEF-SGP/Abdul R. Sannoh

Agroecology farming for

sustainable community
land-use management
in Sierra Leone
Abdul Rahman Sannoh

A pilot project based on agroecology principles is helping to restore severely

degraded land in the mountainous Falaba District of northern Sierra Leone. It
has introduced agropastoral ranching and organic vegetable farming, as well as
reforesting strategic areas of a woodland savannah plateau, increasing revenues
for the communities involved and laying the foundations for a more sustainable
future.

Rapid land degradation, caused by slash-and-burn farming, open livestock grazing

and the exporting of threatened species of tropical hardwood, is causing serious
damage to the landscape and livelihoods of communities in an upland area of
Sierra Leone. The resulting deforestation, fluctuating rainfall and reduced soil
fertility have gone hand in hand with a steady decline in agricultural productivity,
and a widespread increase in hunger and malnutrition. Located in the country’s
northeastern interior plateau and dotted with hills and mountains, Falaba District
is one of the poorest areas of Sierra Leone, with an average annual household
income of less than USD 500.

In 2018, the Tinkifirah Descendants Association received USD 30 000 from the
GEF Small Grants Programme to implement a 12-month pilot project for four
self-help groups in four communities. More than 150 farmers were targeted as

108
beneficiaries, 60 percent of them women and most identified
as vulnerable, with limited access to income, good shelter and
adequate balanced food.

The project trained small-scale producers – who are

predominantly subsistence farmers from the Kuranko
ethnic group – in forestry and sustainable organic farming
technologies, including setting up nurseries, composting
and traditional pest control. Basic vegetable farming tools,
including hoes, machetes, rakes and watering cans, were given
to each group, as well as seeds to grow watermelon, peppers,
onions and tomatoes. Each community contributed land for
vegetable cultivation, the sale of which generated income for
many women and young people who had previously been
employed in the timber trade.

To address the problem of damage caused by open grazing, a

160 ha cattle ranch was created and fenced off using barbed
wire and more than 8 000 tree logs as poles, which will
eventually regenerate and grow into taller trees. Two ranch
caretakers were trained in improved animal husbandry and
Farmers display their onion harvest, Sierra Leone
ranch techniques, including vaccination, stalk-feeding, feed ©GEF-SGP/Abdul R. Sannoh
grass and fodder plant cultivation. The farmers bought 22
cattle, using savings from their vegetables, and placed them
in the community ranch. Fallen leaves, crop plant residue and livestock droppings
are composted into organic fertilizer to improve agricultural productivity. Strategic
degraded areas measuring 226 ha have been reforested, through the planting of
18 000 indigenous trees.

Demonstrating the core principles of agroecology farming through the introduction

of sustainable vegetable production, livestock rearing and tree planting, the
project has helped to diversify farm income activities and bolster food production
and nutrition intakes, in so doing building resistance to poverty and hunger and
resilience against climate change.

The immediate results of the project include an estimated 30 000 ha of community

land freed from livestock overgrazing, thereby allowing the regeneration of natural
vegetation. Some 760 household members have benefited from sustainable
incomes generated by vegetable production and cattle rearing. Overall, the project
has contributed to improved food security and nutrition for more than 5 000
people in mountain communities.

Challenges included the difficulty of aligning the individual interests of stakeholders

with the common goal of sustainable community land-use management, as well
as sourcing a sustainable supply of vegetable farm inputs.

Planned next steps will involve reinforcing the fencing of the grazing area,
expanding reforestation efforts to water catchment areas and upscaling the
vegetable farming to other communities. The long-term aim is to transform the
initiative into a profit-making social enterprise that is commercially viable. Already,
the model has attracted interest as a sustainable approach to alternative income
generation for poor rural mountain communities.

109
For the Chagga community living on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, kihamba (plots of land
with a home and vegetable garden) are an essential and traditional part of young people’s lives
©FAO/Felipe Rodriguez

Conserving an ancient
agroforestry system on the
slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro,
United Republic of Tanzania
Firmat Martin Banzi

The time-honoured Tanzanian kihamba (Chagga home garden) agroforestry

system has been recognized as one of the country’s best examples of resilient
upland farming. Its dynamic conservation through targeted measures on the
ground, combined with effective policy support, is helping to ensure food security
and livelihood sustenance, as well as sustainable environmental management and
the continuity of its living agricultural heritage.

At the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro in the United Republic of Tanzania’s rural Moshi
district, Uru-Simbwejuu village has been selected as a GIAHS site by the FAO GIAHS
Secretariat. The village has been chosen due to its reliance on the kihamba – or
Chagga home garden – agroforestry system, which is thought to have first evolved
during the twelfth century.

The Chagga home garden system is characterized by a unique multilayered

vegetation-based land-use approach. Typically, the garden is composed of four
vegetation layers, where the uppermost is formed by sparsely spaced trees that

110
provide shade, medicine, fodder, fruits, fuelwood and, for some species, timber.
Under this layer, more than 15 varieties of bananas are grown. Below there are
coffee shrubs and under these, shade crops such as yams, taro and vegetables
are cultivated, including climbers such as passion fruit and oyster nuts. This multi
layered system maximizes the use of limited land.

Mainly found on the southern and eastern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, the kihamba
agroforestry system covers an estimated area of 120 000 ha. It is central to the
identity and culture of the Chagga tribe. People are born, grow up, marry and are
buried on their kihamba.

As part of efforts by the German Technical Cooperation and partners to establish

GIAHS sites in Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, the kihamba was
identified as deserving support in line with GIAHS criteria and objectives. Through
observations and discussions with the village community, the following challenges
were pinpointed:

• low productivity of kihamba arising from low yields of coffee and associated
crops;

• unreliable market access and associated decline in coffee prices, leading to

reduced income;

• high cost of pesticides used to control coffee pests and diseases;

• inadequate water for irrigation during the dry season. Climate change has
resulted in low and erratic rainfall over the past two to three decades; and

• population increase, leading to fragmentation of kihamba (less than 0.2 ha).

Due to these difficulties, some farmers have abandoned their traditional farming
system or shifted to annual crops. In order to secure the sustainable cultural
management of the area, as well as the heritage and environmental benefits it
provides, the GIAHS project was introduced in 2010. The project aimed to help
the community to conserve its natural resource base, together with land and crop
management practices and knowledge systems, while adapting the system to
contemporary challenges. A critical part of the approach involved improving the
food security and well-being of the community and transforming the considerable
benefits of the kihamba agroforestry system into a sustainable form of livelihood
generation, compatible with the landscape and its rich cultural heritage.

On-site activities aside, the project also deployed a number of policy measures aimed
at ensuring recognition and protection for the area, and the heritage practices and
resources it represents, as well as broader awareness-raising among policy makers
and other stakeholders of the values of Tanzania’s heritage agricultural systems.

A participatory action plan was developed, together with the community. The
main activities were improved management of kihamba coffee and other crops,
including an efficient irrigation system, and the development of a long-term
management plan for the area through community agreements. Alternative cash
crops such as vanilla and watercress were introduced, together with appropriate
marketing strategies. Priority was given to the restoration of traditional values and
knowledge systems linked with kihamba and their transmission to generations.

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Based on improved coffee management, the community decided to practice
organic farming, which is relatively low-cost and has an assured market. To this
end, the project linked the farmers to the Kilimanjaro Native Cooperative Union,
and the entire village community received training in integrated pest management
and organic production ethics. Members agreed to gradually replace the old coffee
trees, and the project facilitated the setting up of a coffee seedling nursery to
enable farmers to revive abandoned farms, replant new coffee trees and increase
productivity.

In 2017, community members were certified as organic farmers and linked to the
organic coffee market. A local coffee marketing point was set up in the village
where inspection, grading, bagging and storage are done to facilitate coffee
marketing.

With an eye on the future, a model kihamba has been selected to serve as a
learning ground for people wishing to know about the system, and to ensure
sustainability for the initiative. Although challenges remain in developing the
kihamba system, GIAHS support has underscored the fact that this ancient form
of land use is one that is well worth preserving.

112
Organic vegetable production
promotes sustainable
livelihoods for Thai hill tribes
Pedcharada Yusuk, Siriporn Thipan and Bunpracha Thongchot

More than ten ethnic hill tribes in the northern Thai mountains have transformed
their subsistence agriculture to organic farming through an ongoing development
oriented research programme. The organic farming has not only enhanced
household food security and decent employment in the area, but has also improved
an upstream watershed, with long-term benefits for the mountain ecosystem and
downstream communities.

In the six mountainous provinces of Thailand, home to more than ten indigenous
hill tribes, most farmers have traditionally lived off the subsistence economy,
based on the shifting cultivation of upland rice. A project launched back in 1968,
and continuing to this day, targets integrated mountain livelihood development
through research and development to improve the productivity of 349 alternative
food crops and livestock. The Royal Project promotes environmentally friendly
farming that includes good agricultural practices, biological extract application
and organic standards, while protecting the upstream origin of water resources
that supply the downstream population. In 2018, farmers produced 1 847 tonnes
of organic vegetables for a value of approximately USD 1.9 million. The organic
produce was largely sold to the domestic market.

From 2003 to 2018, the number of farmers involved in the programme grew more
than tenfold. Thanks to the programme the production of organic vegetables has
also grown: in 2003, there were 50 ha of farms under organic production with
an output of 120 tonnes of produce, and in 2018 these increased to 320 ha and
1.8 thousand tonnes of production.

Focus group for product specification

©Pedcharada Yusuk, HRDI, Thailand

113
Farmer harvesting organic pak-choi
©Pedcharada Yusuk, HRDI, Thailand

The initiative has involved improving soil health in upstream mountains, including
through the analysis of soil properties, construction of terraces and addition of
green manure to farmland. Thai mountains are rich in biodiversity and local plant
species that can be used for organic compost and biopesticides, and more than
20 innovative bioagents have been developed from microorganisms for pest and
disease control in the highlands.

Starting in 2003–2004, farmers, researchers and extension staff have been involved
in on-site participatory research and training to understand more about Thailand’s
organic standards. As a result, growing numbers of farmers from indigenous hill
tribes have received organic certification for their vegetables.

Organic vegetable production in the Thai mountains involves engagement with

farmers, researchers, field officers and the private sector. Many farmers have
organized themselves into collective groups to manage agricultural inputs that
include organic compost and biological extract, and to plan production in response
to market demand. Meanwhile, an in-house research team is constantly developing
more effective organic farming techniques that are applicable for mountain
ecosystems. Field officers closely support the farmers in the transformation process
and a marketing team explores commercial opportunities.

Organic vegetables have improved both the incomes and food security of hill
tribe farmers and their families. One study showed that 52.3 percent of farmers
who transitioned from conventional to organic production had increased incomes
due to the higher prices fetched for organic vegetables and short-growth crops,
which can produce more than conventional ones. Most farmers found that organic
production costs were lower than conventional farm costs, since there is no need
to buy chemicals and labour is exchanged within the group. In addition, 93 percent
of farmers were able to pay off debts and improve their well-being. An added but
important benefit is that organic production supports the upstream ecosystem,
which is responsible for supplying water to the rest of the nation. Furthermore,
Thai consumers are now able to buy and eat safe, home-grown organic products,
rather than importing lower quality ones.

114
Climate change threatens to damage organic vegetable production in the Thai
mountains, with rising temperatures and drought likely to cause a fluctuation in
quality. To address this challenge, researchers are working with pioneer farmers
to develop and test improved organic seed and alternative varieties. This should
ensure that organic vegetable production remains a viable option for hill tribe
communities well into the future.

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Smart Valley Val Poschiavo Switzerland
©Valposchiavo116 Turismo
 7
Opportunities for mountain
agriculture

117
High agrobiodiversity and mountain speciality products

Mountain farming systems host substantial agrogenetic diversity, containing a

wide variety of locally adapted crops and livestock, and have the opportunity to
produce local nutritious and diversified foods. The wide-ranging diversity found
in mountains may include crop wild relatives and neglected plant and livestock
species and varieties.

Mountain products satisfy many of the demands of today’s discerning consumers,

who are often looking for healthy, organic and authentic products that tell the
story of the communities behind them. A survey conducted by the Mountain
Partnership Secretariat in 2015 in nine countries confirmed that mountain
products were perceived as niche products that are healthy and of high value.
Mountain products such as spices, teas, grains and cheeses are often produced on
a small scale due to the limited resources available in high altitudes and the small
size of plots and rural communities, compared with lowland environments. The
high value of these products compensates for their small volume, and increasing
numbers of consumers are willing to pay a premium for them.

Building the capacity of mountain producers is therefore essential, in order to

ensure a steady flow of quality mountain speciality products, both for new markets
and for tourists.

Traditional breeds and varieties

Indigenous peoples and family farmers in mountain areas often have a broad
knowledge of their intricate and complex local ecological systems, accumulated
over generations. Farmers know that biological diversity is crucial for their own
resilience, generating ecological services and conserving the resource base and
foods on which they depend. In many cases, it is women who hold the traditional
knowledge, and they play a critical role in the sustainable use and conservation
of biodiversity. Traditional varieties are a source of nutritious food and are often
disease-resistant and adapted to local climatic conditions, as repositories of an
incredible amount of genetic diversity. They may also have characteristics that
can be valuable for further adaptation to climate change, such as a native potato
variety with a high tolerance to frost. The promotion of traditional varieties has the
potential to improve the livelihoods of local communities by enabling them to sell
high-quality products in urban markets, generating an additional source of income.

Unique agroclimatic conditions in mountains offer a comparative advantage for a

wide range of fruits, nuts, vegetables, livestock and by-products, as well as for other
high-value products, and, according to FAO (2018a; 2019b), many of them qualify
as Future Smart Foods (FSF). These are often neglected and underutilized species
(NUS) that are nutrition-dense (enhance nutrition), climate-resilient (e.g. require
low inputs, promote climate change resilience, are environmentally friendly by
reducing runoff and erosion, are economically viable, generate income and reduce
female drudgery), and are locally available or adaptable (FAO, 2018b; FAO 2019b).
In Asia, for example, countries have identified various crops cultivated in mountain
areas as FSF, such as pulses, cowpea, taro, millet, drumstick, quinoa, buckwheat
and moringa. These are key to agricultural diversification and play a significant role
in narrowing and closing the production and nutritional gap.

118
Labelling

The use of labels to communicate information about products is essential. The

label should make as much information as possible available to consumers
about every aspect and step of the production and processing phases, since
transparency builds trust. Consumers want to know how things are made, and
this can build confidence in the product and the brand. Although consumers
increasingly have access to organic/natural products, mountain products remain
particularly attractive due to their unique characteristics and their value as clean,
pure and healthy goods. This perception should be used as an advantage. The
marketing of mountain products should not just focus on the commodities, but
should tell the story behind the producers.

Criteria such as taste, cleanliness, traditional expertise, authenticity, cultural

heritage and specificity should be emphasized through a marketing strategy.
Given the usual premium on the price of such niche products compared with
industrially produced versions, the target buyers need to be made aware of
the added value (in terms of healthy food, unique taste, etc.). It is crucial to
communicate and monitor these benefits clearly whenever possible, in order to
justify the premium price.

The promotion of mountain food products and territorial services, through

differentiation mechanisms such as quality labels, narrative labels, appellations
of origin and protected geographical indications, can provide a tool for farmers
and territories to achieve better recognition. To this end, it will be important
to share experiences and explore the need for and feasibility of developing a
common reference framework, with common criteria and indicators, such as the
Forum Origin, Diversity and Territories platform.

Added value

A more specific value chain approach should be tailored to each single mountain
product and for each single country and region, considering the major challenges
of accessibility, scale and market. Only sustainably managed value chains of this
type have long-term and self-sustaining potential, and can show the comparative
advantage that mountain products have over lowland and industrial production.

Adding value is not only a matter of processing or packaging; it also involves

highlighting ecological, nutritional, cultural and economic values. Value can be
created by adopting and processing traditional varieties. Adopting agroecological
practices on a farm can enhance ecological, health and social values through
better water and soil conservation practices, as well as improved and increased
biodiversity, a return of wildlife, and a healthy ecology and living environment
for the producers through cleaner and safer working conditions. For that reason,
in addition to achieving a premium price, highlighting the full economic value
of ecosystems and biodiversity to those who benefit from them can help to
encourage investment in their protection and enhancement. Payments for
ecosystem services promote sustainable development and the conservation of
ecosystem services, generate income in rural areas, and improve food security
(FAO, 2012).

119
 The Mountain Partnership Products initiative
The Mountain Partnership Products (MPP) initiative is a certification and labelling
scheme based on environmentally and ethically sound value chains that promotes
short, domestic value chains while ensuring transparency and trust between pro
ducers and consumers, fair compensation for the primary producers, conserva
tion of agrobiodiversity and preservation of ancient techniques.
Developed by the Mountain Partnership Secretariat with Slow Food in 2016, the
MPP “narrative” label tells the story of the product: its origins and cultivation, its
processing and preservation methods, its nutritional value, and its role in local cul
tures. It aims to create an emotional link between the producer and the consumer
by sharing the story behind each product. Consumers often cannot easily distin
guish mountain products from others when displayed in the marketplace. The MPP
label aims to communicate the values of mountain products, enabling consumers
to make a more informed purchase and the producers to sell at a premium price.

Currently, the initiative operates in eight countries and includes 20 products.

Goods marketed under the MPP label include stingless bee honey from the Bolivian
Andes and pink and purple rice cultivated by farmers in India’s Himalayas, as well
as tea, coffee, pulses and textiles. So far, around 10 000 smallholder mountain
farmers, grouped as local producers’ associations, grassroot foundations and
eco-social companies – 60 percent of whose members are women – have been
supported by the MPP scheme. The adoption of the MPP label increased the mar
ket request of all products and allowed producers to increase output by up to 40
percent, sales by up to 49 percent, and/or the selling price by up to 25 percent.
Mountain agriculture has a comparative advantage for the production of safe and
organic products and the MPP initiative supports its partners in establishing qual
ity assurance systems for these. The Mountain Participatory Guarantee System
certifies that MPP are ethical, fair and organic and has created the first-ever
international network of mountain-specific PGS. The first regional training initiative
in Latin America was held in November 2019 and more training sessions involving
all MPP initiative partners committed to the Ranikhet Declaration are planned for
the future.

Mountain Partnership Products Initiative

©FAO/Michelle Geringer

120
Diversification of products is important for value-adding activities. Mountain
products should leave the farm or producers’ organization only after being
processed insofar as possible on-site, so as to ensure that producers receive
an equitable share and are not exploited by middlemen. Creating a detailed
label and/or a basket of products can also add value to a product. A basket
approach considers the close link between livelihoods and the environment in
mountain areas, and calls for an integrated system of production that takes a
holistic perspective rather than a focus on individual subsectors. By promoting
a set of high-value products and services produced by mountain peoples, the
total production system can be intensified, and at the same time the risk of
degrading natural resources or food security can be reduced. The production
and commercialization of a basket of mountain products can offer a good
opportunity to diversify local economies. Since livestock-keeping plays a pivotal
role in the lives of many mountain farmers, the diversification of products in
livestock-based production systems may include dairy products such as yogurt
and cheese produced, as well valuable by-products such as wool (FAO, 2019b),
all of which can lead to increased incomes for farmers. Value-adding activities
may also include the introduction of simple techniques such as solar drying of
fruits and vegetables, which helps to extend the storage life of fresh products.

Sustainable tourism: agritourism, ecotourism and

community-based tourism

Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors in mountain regions, which currently
attract 15–20 percent of global tourism (UNEP, 2007; UNWTO, 2018). Tourism
has become an important economic resource for mountain areas, bringing new
jobs and incomes, and supporting traditional systems that would otherwise face
serious economic difficulties. Mountain areas have a comparative advantage,
as they often have diverse landscapes and scenery (Debarbieux et al., 2014).
According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World
Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2005), “Making tourism more sustainable is
not just about controlling and managing the negative impacts of the industry.
Tourism is in a very special position to benefit local communities, economically
and socially, and to raise awareness and support for conservation of the
environment.” Many developing countries have recognized the potential of
their natural resources for the development of tourism, maintaining traditional
agriculture systems, such as terraces, to improve incomes and attract ecotourism.
Yet the sustainability of this kind of tourism in a mountain setting depends on
keeping the fragile mountain environment and landscapes intact, while bearing
in mind that these environments can be severely affected by ecological changes
such as global warming and pandemics (Yanes et al., 2019; UNWTO 2018).

Mountain tourism can only be sustainable if local communities and other

stakeholders are willing and able to protect both natural and cultural resources
and receive economic benefits. Concepts such as community participation,
empowerment, transparency, fairness, equity and doing-no-harm have led to
the creation of different types of tourism, such as agritourism, ecotourism and
community-based tourism. Bhutan has enhanced its ecotourism income by
limiting supply: there are visitor quotas and each tourist is required to sign up
with one of the country’s certified tour agencies. These agencies coordinate
with each other to ensure that facilities are not overcrowded, and that everyone
shares the revenue (Kohler et al, 2015).

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Smart Valley Val Poschiavo Switzerland
©Valposchiavo Turismo

122
Purpose-driven ecotourism and community-based tourism can bring benefits to
both people and nature, unlike asset-oriented models (Foggin, 2020). Ecotourism
can also strengthen community conservation efforts, thereby helping the country
to meet national goals, obligations and aspirations.

Food & tourism for mountain development

Worldwide, the tourism sector has shown an ever-increasing interest in tradi
tional and high-quality foods in recent years, and in the local agriculture systems
that generate such products. Robust and vibrant food systems, together with well
characterized gastronomic heritage, have in many cases contributed to increased
incomes for local communities through both national and international tourism.
Food systems can act as an incentive for international tourists, even when the
main rationale behind visiting a country is not gastronomy, while domestic tourism
can stimulate the transfer of wealth from cities to rural towns and from richer to
more vulnerable areas.
In collaboration with the Coalition of Fragile Ecosystems, Slow Food and the De
partment of Tourism of the Philippines, the MPP initiative launched the Food &
Tourism for Mountain Development project in 2018, which promotes sustaina
ble food systems as drivers of sustainable tourism. The project aims to create
stronger synergies between mountain food products and sustainable tourism ser
vices in the Philippines’ Cordilleras region. This includes promoting high-quality,
indigenous mountain food products and helping vulnerable mountain communities
to tap into rising demand for sustainable, fair-trade, quality food. The Cordilleras
is the most mountainous region in the Philippines. It is also one of the poorest and
most marginalized,7 with poverty levels that exceed 40 percent – twice as high
as the national average. The project connects small-scale producers with tourism
service providers, helps to promote high-quality mountain products, and allows
visitors to discover and support unique biodiversity, while safeguarding indigenous
foods and boosting the local economy.

7 Poverty Statistics of the Cordillera Administrative Region http://rssocar.psa.gov.ph/con

tent/2018-poverty-statistics-cordillera-administrative-region#:~:text=The%20poverty%20
threshold%20of%20the,considered%20not%20poor%20in%202018.

123
Rice farming in Ifugao Province, Philippines
©FAO/Michelle Geringer

124
Conclusion
Mountain agriculture plays a critical role in the livelihoods of mountain communities
and those of people living downstream. The case studies presented here highlight
the rich diversity of mountain farming systems, as well as the solutions that they
offer for sustainable mountain development and their relevance for achieving the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Mountain farming systems have developed throughout the centuries and have
proved to be resilient and highly diversified. They can benefit significantly from
a transition to agroecology, especially where environmental degradation and
unsustainable resource use are threatening the sustainability of mountain
agrisystems.

The experiences showcased in this publication demonstrate that the 10 Elements

of Agroecology are highly relevant for mountain farming systems. These are:

Diversity, which improves mountain soil health and productivity, and can also
help to bolster nutrition and human health and market diversification, ultimately
building resilience.

Co-creation and sharing of knowledge processes that blend mountain

traditional and indigenous knowledge, as well as producers’ and traders’ practical
knowledge and global scientific knowledge.

Synergies that contribute to enhancing key functions across food systems are
particularly important in mountain contexts, where ecosystems are fragile and
harmony between agriculture and nature is crucial. Practices such as innovative
high-biodiversity cropping systems (including animal integration and high-value
crops) also reinforce other principles, such as efficiency, recycling and resilience.

Human and social values and culture and food traditions that can help to
promote cultural preservation and sustainable mountain tourism development,
and to foster the strong sense of belonging and traditions in mountains.

Responsible governance and a circular and solidarity economy that can be

considered as potential responses to the widespread lack of targeted mountain
specific actions and projects, lack of access to infrastructure and markets and lack
of organized support, and help to create an enabling environment that promotes
sustainable food systems.

This publication showcases viable solutions for recovery programmes based

on the SDGs for long-term sustainable development, in particular in marginal
environments. Mountain agriculture has the potential to advance sustainable
mountain development and strengthen the resilience of communities and
ecosystems in mountain areas, contributing to the SDGs.

The Decade of Family Farming (2019–2028) has a particular resonance for

mountain communities. It seeks to promote the design and implementation
of comprehensive economic, environmental and social policies for a conducive

125
environment to strengthen the position of family farming. By working together
and within organizations (locally, nationally and internationally), mountain farmers
can achieve stronger representation in relevant policy processes. Governmental
and private sector institutions can provide incentives and create enabling
environments.

In many countries, national family farming secretariats are leading the development
and implementation of Decade of Family Farming strategies. By taking steps
to ensure that they are closely involved in national family farming secretariats,
mountain farmers and their organizations have an important opportunity to
make certain that mountain areas are incorporated in such strategies. If required,
international organizations and NGOs could facilitate capacity development
of mountain farmers and their organizations to fulfil this role. Securing the
involvement and adequate representation of mountain farmers in global farmers’
organizations represented on the Decade of Family Farming International Steering
Committee (such as the World Farmers Organization, the World Rural Forum and
La Via Campesina), would be a valuable opportunity for mountain development.

As the only United Nations voluntary alliance of partners dedicated to improving

the lives of mountain people and protecting the world’s mountain environments,
the Mountain Partnership plays a fundamental role in supporting mountain farmers
worldwide, and it is fully committed to promoting the agroecology approach.

Through adequate and coordinated pro-mountain policies, investments, capacity

development, services and infrastructures, as well as efforts to provide smallholders
and family farmers with access to innovation, mountain farming systems have the
potential to become important pathways for change. In so doing, they can provide
valuable support and impetus to the transition to sustainable food systems,
contributing to revitalizing rural areas for youth and lifting mountain peoples out
of poverty and hunger, while protecting fragile mountain environments for the
future.

126
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Edições Gutenberg, Chaves. 190 pp.

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Sierra Leone

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farming systems of global heritage importance in Tanzania. Conference pro
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gardens: A multi-storeyed agro-forestry cropping system on Mt. Kilimanjaro,
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Conclusion

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 Mountain Partnership website news. 2020. Mountain Partnership members
react to COVID-19. Available at : http://www.fao.org/mountain-partnership/
news/news-detail/en/c/1272468/

ANNEX 1

Authors

Chapter 1. Mountain agriculture matters for global

development

Rosalaura Romeo. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. rosalaura.romeo@fao.org

Sara Manuelli. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. sara.manuelli@fao.org

Michelle Geringer. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. michelle.geringer@fao.
org

Valeria Barchiesi. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. valeria.barchiesi@fao.org

Chapter 2. Key takeaways from experiences for sustainable

agriculture in mountains

Rosalaura Romeo. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. rosalaura.romeo@fao.org

Sara Manuelli. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. sara.manuelli@fao.org

Michelle Geringer. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. michelle.geringer@fao.
org

Valeria Barchiesi. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. valeria.barchiesi@fao.org

143
Chapter 3. Safeguarding biodiversity and enhancing
resilience

Agroecology as a tool for managing and increasing the sustainability of

mountain agriculture

Abram J. Bicksler. Agricultural Officer, Agroecology and Ecosystem Services

Team of the Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. abram.bicksler@fao.org

Emma Siliprandi. Lead Focal Point for the Scaling up Agroecology Initiative, Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. emma.
siliprandi@fao.org

Protecting Lamon beans from viruses that threaten their production and
agrobiodiversity in Italy

Tiziana Penco. President of Consorzio Tutela del Fagiolo Lamon e della Vallata
Feltrina, Italy. info@fagiolodilamon.it

Paolo Ermacora. Researcher at Università degli Studi di Udine, Italy. paolo.erma

cora@uniud.it

Carlo Murer. EcorNaturaSì, Italy. carlo.murer@ecornaturasi.it

Permaculture revives sustainable agriculture on HASERA farm, Nepal

Bibek Dhital. HASERA Agriculture Research and Training Center. bibekdhital12@

gmail.com

Climate change-resilient agriculture in Nepal

Alessandra Nardi. Associazione per la Solidarietà Internazionale in Asia. a.nardi@

asia-ngo.org

Reviving and strengthening indigenous food systems in the Philippines

Florence Daguitan. Tebtebba, Indigenous Peoples’ International Centre for Policy

Research and Education. flor@tebtebba.org

Climate-smart dairy production in the Swiss mountains

Alexandra Rieder. Nestlé Suisse S.A. Alexandra.Rieder@ch.nestle.com

Jan Grenz. Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural, Forest

and Food Sciences (HAFL). jan.grenz@bfh.ch

Andreas Stämpfli. Aaremilch AG. andreas.staempfli@aaremilch.ch

Beat Reidy. Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural, Forest

and Food Sciences (HAFL). beat.reidy@bfh.ch

Tamara Köke. Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural, Forest

and Food Sciences (HAFL). tamara.koeke@bfh.ch

144
 Sebastian Ineichen. Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural,
Forest and Food Sciences (HAFL). sebastian.ineichen@bfh.ch

Organic farming breathes new life into Mt. Livingstone, United Republic
of Tanzania

Nehemiah Murusuri. National Coordinator, GEF Small Grants Program, Tanzania.

nehemiah.murusuri@undp.org

Wilbert Mtafya. Executive Director, HIMARU, Tanzania. mtafya05@gmail.com

Chapter 4. A circular and solidarity economy that adds

value to products

The circular economy in mountain areas

Participatory Guarantee Systems: a tool for sustainable mountain

development

Patricia Flores. IFOAM-Organics International, p.flores@ifoam.bio

Mountain Partnership Products Initiative

Michelle Geringer. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. michelle.geringer@fao.org

Valeria Barchiesi. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. valeria.barchiesi@fao.org

Urban agroecology at 3 900 metres above sea level in La Paz, Plurinational

State of Bolivia

Johanna Jacobi. Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern,

Switzerland. johanna.jacobi@cde.unibe.ch

María Teresa Nogales. Fundación Alternativas, Bolivia. mtnogales@alternati-

vascc.org

Himalayan smallholders’ Participatory Guarantee Systems – Small and

beautiful, India

Ashish Gupta. Gram Disha Trust, India. graamdishaa@gmail.com

Native crops and wild edibles boost food security in India

Shalini Dhyani. Institution IUCN Commission on Ecosystems Management/CSIR-

NEERI, India. shalini3006@gmail.com

Deepak Dhyani. COPAL NGO, India. drddhyani@gmail.com

145
From supply chain to community – A Participatory Guarantee System for
mountain farmers in northern Italy

Carlo Murer. EcorNaturaSì, Italy. carlo.murer@ecornaturasi.it

Organic Aymaks of Kyrgyzstan

Asan Alymkulov. BIO-KG Federation of Organic Development, Kyrgyzstan. alym

kulov.asan@gmail.com

Farmers’ markets build solidarity in Lima

Liza Melina Meza Flores. Fondo de las Américas, Peru. lmeza@fondoamericas.

org.pe; lizameflo@yahoo.com

Chapter 5. Strengthening local community initiatives by

building alliances

Mountain family farming: where economic, environmental, social and

cultural functions co-evolve

Svea Senesie. Forest and Farm Facility, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. svea.senesie@fao.org

Using ethnobotany to refine agroforestry tools in Yunnan, China

Clément Rigal. Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East
Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming,
Yunnan, China. CIRAD, UMR SYSTEM, F-34398 Montpellier. SYSTEM, University
of Montpellier, CIHEAM-IAMM, CIRAD, INRA, Montpellier SupAgro, France.
clement.rigal@cirad.fr

Philippe Vaast. CIRAD, UMR Eco&Sols, University of Montpellier, Montpellier,

France. World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Viet Nam Country Office, Southeast Asia
Regional Program, Hanoi, Viet Nam.

Jianchu Xu. Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan.
World Agroforestry (ICRAF), East and Central Asia Regional Office, Kunming,
China.

Resilient practices for large cardamom agroecology in Nepal

Surendra Raj Joshi. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

(ICIMOD) surendra.joshi@icimod.org

Nakul Chettri. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

(ICIMOD), nakul.chettri@icimod.org

Cultivated species help to protect wild plant resources in high Himalayan

communities

Umesh Basnet. The Mountain Institute. ubasnet065@gmail.com

146
 Jesse Chapman-Bruschini. The Mountain Institute. jessebruschini@gmail.com

Alisa Rai. The Mountain Institute. arai@mountain.org

Food from farm and forest - A case study from Kailash Sacred Landscape

Kamal Prasad Aryal. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

(ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal. Research Centre for Applied Science and
Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. kamal.aryal@
icimod.org

Ram Prasad Chaudhary. Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology,
Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. ram.chaudhary53@gmail.com

Sushmita Poudel. University of California, Santa Cruz, USA. spoudel@ucsc.edu

Energizing mountains – Solar power for organic Nepali apples

Menila Kharel. Knowledge Management Coordinator at Practical Action South

Asia Regional Office, Nepal. menila.kharel@practicalaction.org.np

Renuka Rai. Gender and Social Inclusion Specialist at Practical Action South Asia
Regional Office, Nepal. Renuka.rai@practicalaction.org.np

Pooja Sharma. Thematic lead-Energy at Practical Action South Asia Regional

Office, Nepal. Pooja.sharma@practicalaction.org.np

Organic family farming helps to protect watershed in Panama

Alberto Pascual. Fundación CoMunidad, Panama. apascual@mail.com

The Carpat Sheep project in Romania – It all starts with the grass!

Andrei Coca. Romontana Association, Romania. andrei@romontana.org

Ioan Agapi. Mountain Farmer’s Federation “Dorna”, Romania. ioanagapi@

yahoo.com

Peter Niederer. Swiss Centre for Mountain Regions, Switzerland. peter.nied

erer@sab.ch

Smart and organic – A Swiss valley stakes its future on sustainable

territorial development

Cassiano Luminati. Polo Poschiavo, Switzerland cassiano.luminati@polo-poschi

avo.ch

Diego Rinallo. KEDGE Business School. Italy. diego.rinallo@kedgebs.com

Organic cinnamon cooperative discovers strength in numbers in Viet Nam

Vu Le Y Voan. Senior advisor of FFF in Viet Nam with Viet Nam Farmers’ Union,
Viet Nam. voanvnfu@yahoo.com

147
 Pham Tai Thang. National Facilitator of FFF, Viet Nam. phamtaithang@gmail.com

Chapter 6. Promoting a people-centred approach for the

inclusive and sustainable development of mountain agro
ecosystems

Recognizing the value of connecting culture and agriculture

Clelia Maria Puzzo. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems Secretariat.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy.
CleliaMaria.Puzzo@fao.org

Sustainable wild plant collection – A driver of rural change in the Armenian

mountains

Astghik Sahakyan. International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education

(ICARE) Foundation. astghiksahakyan7@gmail.com

Stingless bee honey for Bolivian ecosystems conservation

Chiara Davico. Slow Food International. c.davico@slowfood.it

Biological and anti-erosion measures to improve livelihoods in Moroccan

watersheds

Malika Chkirni. Consultant, Participative and integrated watershed manage

ment for erosion control in Morocco, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), Representation of FAO, Morocco. chkirnifao@gmail.com;
fao-ma@fao.org

Community-led conservation in Peru’s Potato Park

Nisreen Abo-Sido. Asociación ANDES, Peru. nabosido@wellesley.edu

Tradition lives on in Portugal’s Barroso Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral System

António M. Machado. ADRAT - Development Association of the Alto Tâmega

Region, Portugal. geral@adrat.pt

Agroecology farming for sustainable community land-use

management in Sierra Leone

Abdul Rahman Sannoh. UNDP GEF Small Grants Programme Sierra Leone.
abdul.sannoh@undp.org

Conserving an ancient agroforestry system on the slopes of Mt.

Kilimanjaro, United Republic of Tanzania

Firmat Martin Banzi. Ministry of Agriculture, Tanzania. f_banzi@yahoo.co.uk

148
Organic vegetable production promotes sustainable livelihoods for Thai
hill tribes

Pedcharada Yusuk. Highland Research and Development Institute (Public organi

zation), Thailand. npedcharada@gmail.com

Siriporn Thipan. Highland Research and Development Institute (Public organiza

tion), Thailand.

Bunpracha Thongchot. Royal Project Foundation, Thailand.

Chapter 7. Opportunities for mountain agriculture

Rosalaura Romeo. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. rosalaura.romeo@fao.org

Sara Manuelli. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. sara.manuelli@fao.org

Michelle Geringer. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. michelle.geringer@fao.org

Valeria Barchiesi. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. valeria.barchiesi@fao.org

Conclusion

Rosalaura Romeo. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. rosalaura.romeo@fao.org

Sara Manuelli. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. sara.manuelli@fao.org

Michelle Geringer. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. michelle.geringer@fao.
org

Valeria Barchiesi. Mountain Partnership Secretariat, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. valeria.barchiesi@fao.org

Reviewers

Abram J. Bicksler. Agricultural Officer, Agroecology and Ecosystem Services

Team of the Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. abram.bicksler@fao.org

149
 Mahmoud el Solh. Vice-Chairperson Committee of Food Security (CFS). M.Solh@
CGIAR.org

Surendra Raj Joshi. Programme Coordinator, ICIMOD. Surendra.Joshi@icimod.

org

Sam Kanyamibwa. Executive Director, Albertine Rift Conservation Society

(ARCOS), Uganda. skanyamibwa@arcosnetwork.org

Thomas Kohler. University of Bern, Centre for Development and Environment

(CDE). Bern, Switzerland. thomas.kohler@cde.unibe.ch

Xuan Li. Senior Policy Officer. Regional Initiative on Zero Hunger, Delivery
Manager, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), Bangkok, Thailand. xuan.li@fao.org

François Pythoud. Federal Office for Agriculture FOAG, Switzerland. francois.

pythoud@blw.admin.ch

Emma Siliprandi. Lead Focal Point for the Scaling up Agroecology Initiative, Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy. emma.
siliprandi@fao.org

150
This publication presents a collection of case studies
by Mountain Partnership (MP) members from around
the world, highlighting experiences of agroecological
mountain farming systems. It aims to increase
attention toward agroecological principles and
approaches and showcase their potential.
The MP, the only United Nations global voluntary
alliance dedicated to sustainable mountain
development, is fully committed to promoting actions
that can improve the resilience of mountain people
and environments.
In mountains, the practice of agroecology and the
conservation of agrobiodiversity results in more
resilient agricultural and food systems. Sustainable
mountain farming systems can drive progress towards
reducing rural poverty, contributing to zero hunger
and ensuring the resilience of mountain communities
while maintaining the provision of global ecosystem
services, especially those related to water.
Food security in mountains is a matter of concern.
Through adequate and coordinated pro-mountain
policies, investments, capacity development, services
and infrastructures, as well as efforts to provide
smallholders and family farmers with access to
innovation, mountain farming systems have the
potential to become pathways for change. In doing so,
they can provide valuable support and impetus to the
transition to sustainable food systems, contributing to
revitalizing rural areas and lifting mountain peoples
out of poverty and hunger, while protecting fragile
mountain environments for the future.

This publication was supported by the Italian Agency

for Development Cooperation and the Swiss Federal
Office for Agriculture.

ISBN 978-92-5-134610-5

9 789251 346105
CB5349EN/1/06.21