Quantitative Research Designs

WEEK1- Monday - Experimental Research Design

o Concerned primarily with the
Chapter3- Research Methodology cause-and-effect relationship/s in
- Addresses the question “How does the studies that involve manipulation
research answer the question stated in or control of the independent
Chapter 1?” variables (cause) and the
- Shows how the problem will be measurement of the dependent
investigated and discusses the following variables(effect)
elements: research design, sample, o This design utilizes the principle
sampling designs/ methods, instruments of research, known as the
used, and statistical treatment method of difference---the effect
of the single variable applied to
Parts of Chapter 3 the situation can be assessed
 Introductory Paragraph and the difference can be
o Write an introduction that is brief, determined
precise, and concise o 2 categories
o No need to write it in 1-2 pages  True Experimental
 Research Design Research Design
o A plan that presents how the  Uses random
researcher/s intends to study an selection of
empirical question participants
o Often confused with the  Bias- free
methodology which discusses the  Quasi- Experimental
approach used in data collection, on Research Design
the other hand, research design  partly, partially,
broadly encompasses the entire pseudo, or almost
research process (formulation of the  uses purposive
research question - rrl - development selection of
of the framework – selection of data participants
gathering and analysis technique)  Types: Matches
o Choosing the appropriate research Comparison Group
design depends on several Design, Time-
considerations primarily by the series Quasi-
research question experimental
 Research Locale Design, Single-
 Research Instrument subject Quasi-
 Data Gathering Procedure experimental
 Statistical Treatment of Data Design
- Non- experimental Research Design
Research Design o Descriptive Research Design
- Most research papers have a dedicated  Used to gather information
methodology chapter but not a research on current situations and
design chapter conditions
- In many cases, the research design is  It helps provide answers to
briefly discussed in the abstract and in the questions of who, what
the introduction chapter of a research when, where, and how of a
paper as a guide that explains how the particular research study
researcher approach various stages of  Provide accurate data
the research process after subjecting them to a
rigorous procedure and
 using large amount of data - The participants or respondents are
from large number of individuals or groups of people that
samples serves as the sources of information
 Leads to a logical during data collection
conclusions and pertinent
recommendation Sample Size Determination
 Dependent to a high - Determining the correct sample size and
degree on data collection how the samples are collected are
instrumentation of the crucial in insuring the accuracy and
measurement of data and precision of an estimate leading to valid
analysis research findings
 Aims a picture with words - Sampling is securing some of the
and number elements of a population--- an element
 Survey is a member of a population who can
 Correlation provide information for the population
 Comparative - A population consist of the total
o Causal Research Design elements about which you can make
 Used to measure the differences based on the data gathered
impact of independent from determined sample size
variable on the other - Sample (n) is a selection of respondents
variable (why a certain for a research study to represent the
results are obtained?) total population (N)
 A valid conclusion may be - Making a decision about a sample size
derived when an for a survey is important
association between the iv - 2 large sample may mean a ways of
and dv is obtained resources both human and financial, on
 Can also be used to the other hand 2 small sample
identify the extent and decreases the utilization of the results
nature of cause-and-effect
relationships Reasons for the Use of Sample
 Keyword: impact; nature of  A sample saves time compared to doing
cause-and-effect a complete census which requires more
relationships time
 A sample saves money because it less
costly than conducting a complete
WEEK1- Wednesday
census
 A sample allows more particular
Participants of the Study
attention to be given to a number of
- Discusses how the subjects or
elements than when doing a census
respondents of the study are selected
 There is a greater error in reporting
and how an appropriate sampling
results of a census by inexperienced
method is chosen
interviewers, there is less sampling error
- In this part of the research, the subjects
in a survey
or respondents are introduced to the
 Some research studies in the industry
readers through their basic profiles
may be only be performed for a sample
- Subjects can be individual or groups to
of items (ex. Testing the length of time a
which interventions or processes are
battery would last)
applied
- In some studies, the subjects are the
Ways to Determine a Sample Size
respondents themselves, but in other
 Through the use of formulas
researches, the subjects are not
o Slovin’s Formula
necessarily the respondents
Slovin’s Formula all the elements of
- Is used to compute for the sample size the population, (2)
- It is used when you have limited write down all the
information about the characteristics of names of the
the population members of the
- There is the desired margin of error populations on
strips of paper, (3)
place the names on
a bowl, (4) draw
samples as desired
o Stratified Random Sampling
 The population is first
divided into different strata
Sampling Procedure
then the sampling
- Sampling is a process of choosing the
follows--- age, gender,
correct sub group called a sample from
educational qualifications,
a population who participate in a
etc.
research study
o Cluster Sampling
- The sub group should be the
representative of the large group from  Used in large scale studies
where they were selected in which the population is
- To create a sample there are categories geographically spread out
of sample procedure/ techniques:  In this cases, sampling
procedures may be difficult
 Probability Sampling (Scientific and time consuming
Sampling) – a type of sampling in which o Systematic Sampling
all members of the population are given  Method of selecting every
the chance of being selected nth element of population
o Simple Random Sampling (ex. Every 5th, 9th , 11th )
 The most frequently used  After the size of sample
type of probability has been determined, the
sampling technique selection of the sample
 Characterized by the idea follows
that chance of selection is  Non- Probability Sampling (Non-
the same for every Scientific Sampling)- a process of
member of the population selecting respondents in which the
 This is the method of members of the entire population do not
choosing samples in which have the equal chance of being selected
all the members of the samples; there are cases in which a
population are given a sample is given priority instead of other
chance of being selected members
 Unbiased way of selection o Convenience sampling
as samples are draw by (Accidental/ Incidental Sampling)
chance o Snowball Sampling
 Roulette wheel, Fish Bowl  Technique where the
Technique, Table of researcher identifies an
Random Numbers informant about the
 Fish Bowl research of interest and
Technique--- steps; then ask the respondent
(1) prepare the to refer or identify another
sampling frame and respondent who can
list of the names of participate in the study
 The identification of the technique as well as of the right
samples follows a instrument in collecting data
multiplier effect
 This technique is Most Frequently Used Data Collection
applicable when Techniques
researchers find difficulty  Observation
in locating special  Survey
numbers of a population o Interview
 The chain referral  First set of questions
procedure allows the  Second set of questions
researcher to reach the  Third sets of questions
desired samples  Fourth sets of questions
o Purposive Sampling (Judgmental/  Questionnaire
Subjective Sampling) o Paper
 Involves the hand picking o Series of Questions
of subjects o Statistical Information
 Employs procedure in  Experiment
which samples are chosen  Content Anaysis
for special purpose
 It may involve members of Types of Survey Questions
a limited group of  Open-ended questions
population
o Quota Sampling
 Somewhat similar to
stratified sampling in which
the population is divided
 Dichotomous questions
into homogenous strata
and then sample elements
are selected from each
stratum
 Gathering a representative
samples from a group
based on certain  Multi-response questions
characteristics of the
population chosen by the
researcher
 Usually the population is
divided into specific
groups
 Likert scale
WEEK1- Friday

Quantitative Data Collection Techniques

- Collecting data is one major component
of any type of research undermining its
importance with result in the production
of inaccurate data sufficient to render  Contingency Questions
your research study invalid, hence, in
collecting quantitative data, stress is
given to the accuracy or
appropriateness of your data gathering
 o Data are summarized to reveal
overall data patterns and make them
managable
 Inferential Statistics
o Studies a sample of the same data
o Involves making generalizations
about the population through a
sample drawn from it
o It also includes hypothesis testing
and sampling, similarly, it is
WEEK2- Monday concerned with a higher degree of
critical judgment and advanced
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA mathematical modes such as
parametric and non- parametric
Statistical Treatment statistical tools
 Combination of the long process of:
o Formulating hypothesis
o Constructing the instrument
o Collecting data
 It is used to properly test the hypothesis,
answer the research questions, and present
the results of the study in a clear and
understandable manner

In qualitative research, data are validated by

document analysis, ethno methodology, and
observation studies, however, quantitative
research deals more with numerical data as in
most surveys and experiments it is logical to Levels of Measurement of Variables
use the statistical treatment Based on their mathematical properties,
data are divided into these groups. Our key
Statistics letters are N-O-I-R. They are ordered with their
 Is the body of knowledge and techniques increasing accuracy, powerfulness of
used in: measurement, preciseness, and wide
o Collecting application of statistical techniques.
o Organizing  NOIR
o Presenting o Nominal
o Analyzing  Categorizing people based on
o Interpreting data gender, religion, position, etc.
 It is a pre-requisite in any research that the  These are attributes that only
name variables
researcher has sufficient knowledge of
 These data are considered at
various statistical techniques
the simplest level—non-
parametric statistical tools
Branches of Statistics
 Nominal means name and
 Descriptive Statistics
count
o Describe data
 Data are alphabetic or
o Involves tabulating, depicting, and
numerical in name only, they
describing the collected data are categories without order
or direction
  Data used is restricted to  There is no absolute zero,
keeping track of people, and origin does not exist
object, and events  More powerful than ordinal
 They are least powerful in scale due to equality of
measurement with no interval
arithmetic origin, order, o Ratio
direction, or distance  Rating something from zero to
relationship, hence nominal a certain point
data is of restricted or limited  These are attributes of
use variables that has a natural
zero
 Allows performing quotient in
addition to setting inequalities
and performing differences
o Ordinal  All mathematical operations
 Ranking or arranging the are possible in ratio data or
classified variables to scale
determine who should be the  Can have absolute or true
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc., in the zero and represent the actual
group amount or value
 These are attributes of  It is the most precise data and
variables that can be placed allows application of all
as one is higher than two, statistical techniques
they can be used in ranking
purposes
 Mostly used in likert scaling
 Ordinal data placed events in
order, they are ordered
categories like ranking or
scaling
 It allows for setting up
inequalities and nothing much Common Statistical Tools
 It has no absolute value, and  Descriptive Statistics- the methods of
more precise comparisons are describing characteristics of a data set; it is
not possible useful because they allow you to make
sense of the data; it helps exploring and
making conclusions about the data in order
to make rational decisions; and it includes
calculating things such as the average of
the data, its spread and the shape it
produces
o Frequency distribution- it is the
record of the numbers of individual
or cases located in each category of
o Interval the scale in measurement
o Proportion- total frequency divided
 Attributes of variables where
the distance from one number by the number of cases in each
to the other has a meaning category; it can be derived from the
 Further allow forming frequency distribution
differences o Percentage- it is the proportion
expressed in percentage
o Measure of central tendency- it
indicates where the center of the
distribution tends to be located; it
refers to a typical or average score in
a distribution
 Mean, median, mode
o Variability or dispersion- it refers to
the extent in manner in which the
scores in a distribution differ from
each other
 - It is an index of relationship between 2
WEEK2- Wednesday variables

Statistical Treatment of Data: INFERENTIAL

STATISTICS
- Involves making generalization about
the population through a sample drawn
from it
- It also includes hypothesis testing in  Other Statistical Tools:
sampling, similarly, it is concerned with - Simple Linear Regression
higher degree of critical judgment and o Used when there is a significant
advanced mathematical modes such as relationship between the x and y
parametric; interval and radius scale, variables
and non-parametric; nominal and ordinal o Used in predicting the value of y,
statistical tools given the value of x
- Used to draw conclusions about a - Multiple Regression Analysis
population by examining the sample o Used in predictions
- Also, inferential statistics is drawing o The dependent variable can be
conclusions and/or making decisions predicted, given several
concerning a population based only in a independent variables
sample data
Non-Parametric Tests
Parametric Tests - Does not require the normal distribution
- Require a normal distribution of scores
- The level of measurement must either - It can be utilized when the data are
be interval and ratio nominal and ordinal
 T-test  Chi-square
- Used to compare 2 means: - A test of difference between the
o 2 independent samples or 2
observed and expected frequencies
independent groups or the means - 3 functions:
of 2 correlated samples before o Test of goodness of fit- test of
and after treatment
difference between the observed
- It can b used for samples composed of
and expected frequencies
at least 30 elements or respondents
o Test of homogeneity- concerned
 Z-test
with 2 or more samples with only
- Used to compare 2 means:
one criterion variable; used to
o The sample mean and the
determine if 2 o more populations
perceived population mean
are homogenous
- It can be used when the sample has 30 o Test of independence- the
or more elements
sample used in this test consists
 F-test (ANOVA- Analysis Of Variance)
of members randomly draw from
- Used to compare 2 or more means of the same population; used to
independent groups look into which measures are
- One way ANOVA is used when there is taken or if 2 criterion variables
one variable involved; Two way ANOVA are either independent or
is used when there are two variables associated with one in a given
involved population
 Pearson r  Spearman’s Rank Order
- Pearson product moment coefficient of - Non-parametric version of person r
correlation
 - Measures the strength and direction of o Shows the relationship of
association between 2 rank variable different parts of a whole
overtime
WEEK2- Friday o Best used for 4- 6 data series

PRESENTATION OF DATA
- After the collection of data and treating
them with appropriate statistical
formulas, the presentation follows
- The commonly used tools of data
presentation of quantitative research are
figures, tables, and graphs---- these are
tools used to clearly present one or
more sets of data or data series to the
readers
- It also shows the results of data analysis
through statistical methods
- Before the actual presentation of data,  Column
these non-post forms must be properly o Shows the differences of
introduced and described individual values vertically
o It can be used to show the
Ways to Introduce Graphs or Tables differences between values in
time periods or other data
groupings
o Works best with 1 to 2 data
series

Graphs
- It shows relations, comparisons, and
distributions in a set of data like absolute
values, percentages, or index numbers
- Lines of a graph should be kept clean and
simple, and must not contain extraneous
detail
- Information in a graph should be presented
on a horizontal and vertical axes in a clear
and systematic manner
 Bar
- Facts can be indicated in either ascending
o Shows the differences in
or descending order
individual values horizontally
- A set of related data is referred to as a data
o It is not a good choice for
series (ex. Sales of product x each year for
showing values in different in
the past five years, enrollment of high
time periods
school students in Caloocan City for SY
o It works better for presenting the
2015-2020
results of 1 or 2 data series
Basic Types of Graph
 Area
 Key Graph Elements
 Colors
o Make sure that there is enough
contrast between the background
color and the color of each data
series so that the information is
clearly seen by the readers
o These colors should also be
consistent with the overall color
scheme of the slide so that the graph
 Line does not look out of place
o Features values of different  Depth
points in time o Refers whether the graph is 2D or
o It is usually best to have equal 3D
time intervals along the horizontal o Selecting between the 2 is simply an
axis of the graph aesthetic choice
o Can effectively display 4 to 6 data  Axes
series o All of the mention graph types except
for the pie graph has 2 axes; one is
for the data values, and the other is
for the time scale or the data is
operated
o It is important to set the scale of the
axes to make sure the data be
showed
o Make sure that the axis labels that
indicate the values along each axis
are big enough to be legible when
the graph is displayed
 Pie o If the axes are not clear, the graph
o Shoes the proportion of each may be misinterpreted because it is
segment of a whole not clear to the audience what the
o This graph only handles one data difference between the data is
series  Data Labels
o When a data value in a graph needs
to be more clearly indicated, the data
label can be used
o This is a text box that contains the
actual data value, it should be places
close to the graphical representation
of the data point, whether it is at the
end of a bar or column above the
data point on the line graph or inside
the pie section in the pie graph
o Make sure that the text is legible
enough and the text color has
sufficient contrast with the color
underneath
 Title
 o Should focus on the interpretation of
the data and not on the data
themselves _________WEEK 3- Wednesday________
o It should be remembered that a Analysis and Interpretation of Data
graph is used to help make a point, - Placed before the summary of
and a title would be a key factor to finding, conclusion, and
enable the audience in interpreting recommendations.
the graph properly - Known headers (1) results and
 Legend discussion (2) presentation and
o If there are more than 1 data series discussion (3) analysis of findings
in the graph, text labels should be
added to indicate each series Major Elements of the Section
instead of using a legend in the 1. Presentation of Data- features the data
graph for easy understanding of the reader.
o Research shows that a legend Presented in charts, tables with textual
distracts and forces the audience to explanation.
split their attention between the data 2. Analysis- it is the basis of the findings.
in the graph and the explanatory text Explanation of data in terms of quantity,
in the legend, reducing the quality, traits, attributes which involves
understanding of the graph statistical techniques.
o Instead, any explanatory text in the 3. Interpretation- answers the questions
graph should be placed using text ‘what’ in relation of the results.
boxes 4. Discussion- explanation of results. The
results are compared and contrasted
Tables with the rrl.
- Provide exact values and illustrate results
efficiently as they enable the researcher to Analysis of Data
present a large number or large amount of - Process of breaking a whole into parts.
data in a small amount of space Must consider the following
- The data usually shown as specific 1. Highest numerical value (scores,
numerical figures or arranged in an orderly weighted mean)
display of rows and columns to aid in 2. Lowest numerical value
comparison, therefore the readability of 3. Most common numerical values
both the results and analysis of variables is 4. Final numerical value
enhanced
- The following must be observed: Interpretation of Data
Levels:
o Precise value
Level 1- Compared and contrasted
o Comparing numbers
Level 2- Consistency and reliability
o Column and row Level 3- Generality or applicability
- Tables can be used in the ff: Level 4- Relate or connect
o Single category
o Exact value
o Few number
- Elements of a Table
o Title
o Rows
o Columns
o Column Labels/ Titles
o Data
  Uses minimal to no citation
 Builds up towards the recommendation
 Evidence-based recommendation

Recommendations
- Serve as practical suggestions for future
research in similar fields.
- Envisioned to further improve the pertinent
variables.
- Expressed in clear, concise, and precise
terms.
- Feasible to implementation.
- Discuss the real life implication of your
study

Elements of a Good Recommendation

 Offers solutions to problems identified in
the study.
 Lay down the groundwork for future
studies.

___________WEEK 3- Friday____________
Chapter 5: Summary of Findings,
Conclusions, and Recommendation

Concluding Part
- Composed of the summary of finding,
conclusion, and recommendation.

Summary of Finding
 Restatement of main and sub-problems
 Reiteration of the type of research,
nature and size of samples, locales of
the study
 Enumerating the major finding in one to
two statement and identify whether the
null have been rejected or not.

Conclusions
- Contains insights drawn from the findings
per sub problem.
- Summarizes the principal feature of the
study.

Characteristics of a Good Conclusion

 Brief and concise (main idea)
 Captures the essence of the study
 Direct to the point