Lecture Notes: Research Methodology Overview

Chapter Four: Research Design (Planning of Research Project)

 Meaning of Research Design:

o A framework or blueprint for conducting a research project.
o It's the "arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure."
(Kothari, 2004)
o Specifies methods, procedures, and the overall approach from hypothesis to data
analysis.
 Key Concepts in Research Design:
o Variables:
 Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or presumed to
cause changes in another variable.
 Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured and is expected to
change as a result of the independent variable.
 Continuous Variable: Can take any value within a range (e.g., height, age).
 Discrete Variable: Can only take specific, distinct values (e.g., number of
children).
 Extraneous Variable: Other variables not part of the study's focus but could
influence the dependent variable (effect = 'experimental error').
o Control: Minimizing the influence of extraneous variables.
o Confounded Relationship: When the effect of an extraneous variable cannot be
separated from the effect of the independent variable.
o Research Hypothesis: A testable, predictive statement about the relationship
between variables.
o Experimental vs. Non-experimental Hypothesis-Testing:
 Experimental: Independent variable is manipulated by the researcher.
 Non-experimental: Independent variable is observed, not manipulated.
o Experimental & Control Groups:
 Experimental Group: Receives the treatment or special condition.
 Control Group: Receives usual conditions or no treatment (for comparison).
o Treatments: The different conditions applied to experimental/control groups.
o Experiment: Process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis.
o Experimental Unit: The entity to which a treatment is applied.
 Features of a Good Research Design:
o Activity and time-based plan.
o Based on the research question.
o Guides information selection.
o Provides a framework for variable relationships.
o Outlines all procedures.
o Appropriate, efficient, economical, flexible, and adequate.
Chapter Five: Sources and Methods of Data Collection
 Primary Data:
o Data collected firsthand by the researcher for the specific purpose of the study.
o Original, fresh information.
 Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
1. Observation: Directly witnessing and recording events/behaviors.
 Purpose: Collect data directly, in natural settings, eyewitness accounts.
 Steps: Planning, Execution, Recording, Interpretation.
2. Interview: Direct verbal interaction to obtain information.
 Types:
 Structured: Pre-planned questions, same order.
 Semi-structured: Some pre-planned questions, with flexibility for
probing.
 Unstructured: Free-flowing conversation, questions arise
spontaneously.
 Forms: Individual, Group, Supervisor interviews.
3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD):
 Small group (8-12) discussing a specific topic, guided by a facilitator.
 Qualitative method for in-depth understanding of perceptions and ideas.
4. Questionnaire: A set of written questions to which respondents provide answers.
 Purpose: Gather info from widely scattered sources.
 Types of Questions: Closed-ended (restricted choices) or Open-ended (free
response).
 Types of Data: Fact-based or Opinion-based.
 Good Questionnaire: Clear, concise, relevant, attractive, logical flow, avoids
ambiguity.
 Design Elements: Background info, instructions, coding boxes.
5. Experimentation
6. Use of Telephone
 Secondary Data:
o Data collected by someone else for a different purpose, but used by the current
researcher (e.g., reports, articles, databases).
o Information from non-eyewitnesses.
 Chapter Six: Population Size and Sample Technique
 Fundamental Definitions:
o Population: The entire group of individuals or items from which a sample is drawn.
o Sampling: The process of selecting a subset (sample) from the population.
o Sample Frame: A list of all elements in the population from which the sample is
drawn.
o Sample Size: The number of elements in the selected sample.
 Advantages of Sampling: Saves time and cost, can yield more reliable/detailed results,
administrative convenience.
 Steps in Sampling Design:
1. Define the population.
2. State the sampling frame.
3. Identify the sampling unit.
4. State the sampling method.
5. Determine the sample size.
6. Spell out the sampling plan.
7. Select the sample.
 Essentials of a Good Sample: Representative, Homogeneous (within limits of population
diversity), Adequate size, Optimized for cost/efficiency.
 Sampling Techniques:
o 1. Probability Sampling (Every unit has a known chance of selection):
 Simple Random Sampling: Each member has an equal and independent
chance (lottery, random numbers).
 Systematic Sampling: Selecting every kth element after a random start (k =
Pop. Size / Sample Size).
 Stratified Random Sampling: Population divided into homogeneous
subgroups (strata); random samples drawn from each stratum.
 Proportionate: Sample size from each stratum is proportional to its
size in the population.
 Disproportionate: Sample size from strata not proportional to
population size.
 Cluster Sampling: Population divided into clusters (e.g., geographic areas);
random sample of clusters chosen, and all (or a sample of) elements within
selected clusters are included.
 Multi-Stage Sampling: Complex form of cluster sampling involving multiple
stages of selection (e.g., country -> states -> districts -> individuals).
o 2. Non-Probability Sampling (Selection chance is unknown; often based on
convenience/judgment):
 Accidental/Convenience Sampling: Selecting readily available participants.
 Purposive/Judgmental Sampling: Researcher selects participants based
on their specific knowledge or characteristics relevant to the study.
 Quota Sampling: Sample reflects proportions of certain characteristics in the
population (e.g., age, gender), but selection within quotas is non-random.
 Snowball Sampling: Initial participants refer other potential participants;
useful for hard-to-reach populations.
 Chapter Seven: Data Analysis
 Analysis of Data: Critical examination to study characteristics and relationships among
variables. Can be manual or computer-aided.
 Steps in Analysis:
1. Construct statistical distributions (frequencies, averages, percentages).
2. Compare distributions or subgroups.
3. Study relationships between variables.
4. Identify factors affecting these relationships.
5. Make inferences (test validity using statistical tests).
 Types of Analysis:
o Descriptive Analysis: Summarizes and describes main features of data.
 Univariate: Analysis of a single variable (e.g., mean, mode, median, range,
SD, histograms).
 Bivariate: Analysis of the relationship between two variables (e.g.,
correlations, cross-tabulations).
 Multivariate: Analysis of relationships among three or more variables
simultaneously.
o Inferential Analysis: Making predictions or inferences about a population based on
a sample.
 Involves: Statistical estimation and Hypothesis testing.
 Key Concepts in Data Preparation & Analysis:
o Statistical Hypothesis: An assumption about a population parameter.
o Hypothesis Testing: Formal procedures to accept or reject statistical hypotheses
based on sample data.
o Coding: Assigning numerical or symbolic values to responses for categorization and
analysis.
o Classification: Organizing data into homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis
(Geographical, Chronological, Qualitative, Quantitative).
Chapter Eight: Interpretation and Reporting the Research Result

 Research Report:
o A formal, detailed account of the research process, findings, and conclusions.
o Purpose: To communicate what was done, how it was done, what was found, and its
implications.
o Should be written in an academic, formal, and persuasive style.
 Characteristics of a Good Report:
o Clear, concise, accurate, well-organized with clear headings.
o Easy for the audience to understand.
o Includes an executive summary.
o Visually appealing (uses diagrams, charts effectively).
 Types of Reports:
o Technical Report: For industry, communicating technical information.
o Business Report: Applying theories to real-world business situations.
o Abstract/Executive Summary: Brief overview of a research article/thesis.
o Interim Report: Progress report for long-term research.
o Research Article: For publication in a professional journal.
 Qualities of a Good Report: Clarity, Continuity, Consistency, Readability, Interest,
Objectivity (avoids personal opinion), Focus on central ideas, Proper referencing.
 Elements of a Research Report (General Structure):
1. Preliminary Pages:
 Title Page, Declaration, Approval Sheet, Table of Contents,
Acknowledgements, Lists (Abbreviations, Tables, Figures, Appendices),
Abstract.
2. Main Body/Text:
 Chapter 1: Introduction: Background, Problem Statement, Objectives,
Research Questions/Hypotheses, Scope, Limitations, Operational
Definitions.
 Chapter 2: Literature Review: Review of related existing research.
 Chapter 3: Methodology: Research design, data sources
(primary/secondary), data collection tools & techniques (sampling method,
sample size), data analysis methods.
 Chapter 4: Results/Analysis and Interpretation/Discussion: Presentation
of findings (using tables, graphs), analysis, interpretation in light of
objectives.
 Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations: Summary of
key findings, conclusions drawn, recommendations for action or further
research.
3. End Matter:
 References/Bibliography: List of all sources cited (alphabetical).
 Appendices: Supplementary materials (e.g., questionnaire, detailed tables)