INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE SYSTEM within a community.

These elements are connected in

rule governed ways" (Edwards, 2009:53)
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
"Unpacking the definition language as a rule-governed
Language, according to Sapir “is purely human and non-
discrete combinatory system, we see that language is a
instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions
system, a system comprised of discrete segments:
and desires by means of a system voluntarily produced
phonemes, lexemes, morphemes", "Language as social
symbol.” (2014:79)
fact" (Larsen-Freeman, 2011)
American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager
formulated the following definition: “A language is a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a "Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual
social group cooperates.” (signed), or written symbols by means of which human
beings, as members of a social group and participants in
"The faculty of articulating words" (Saussure, 1916)
its culture, express themselves." (Robins and Crystal,
"Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method 2021)
of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by
HUMAN LANGUAGE IS QUALITATIVELY AND
means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols
QUANTITATIVELY DIFFERENT FROM THE
(Sapir, 1921)
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS OF ALL OTHER SPECIES OF
"Language as genetic inheritance, a mathematical ANIMALS
system, a social fact, the expression of individual
THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS OF ALL SPECIES
identity, the expression of cultural identity, the
SHARE THE FOLLOWING FEATURES:
outcome of dialogic interaction, a social semiotic, the
intuitions of native speakers, the sum of attested data, a 1. A mode of communication by which messages
collection of memorised chunks, a rule-governed are transmitted through a system of signs, using
discrete combinatory system, or electrical activation in one or more sensory systems to transmit and
a distributed network" (Cook & Seidhofer, 1995) interpret, such as vocal, auditory, visual, tactile,
or kinesic;
"In informal usage, a language is understood as a
2. Semanticity: the signs carry meaning for the
culturally specific communication system"; "In the
users, and
varieties of modern linguistics that concern us here, the
3. Pragmatic function: all signs serve a useful
term "language" is used quite differently to refer to an
purpose in the life of the users, from survival
internal component of the mind brain" (Hauser,
functions to influencing others’ behavior.
Chomsky and Fitch, 2002)
ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE
"A language is a system of meaning-a semiotic system."
(Halliday, 2003: 2) • The oldest theories of human language history
came from early theologians. Within Muslim-
"Language as a finite system of elements and principles
Judaic-Christian religions, language was
that make it possible for speakers to construct
divinely given to human.
sentences to do particular communicative jobs" (Fasold
• Neither linguists nor theologists failed to
& Connor-Linton, 2006)
provide a detailed record on the history of
"Language as a tool for communication" (Nunan, 2007) language conception on human beings. Rather,
as Origi (2016) perceives that language in its
"Language is foremost a means of communication, and historical concern is still partially unexplained,
communication almost always takes place within some an unresolved mystery.
sort of social context"; "language is a rule-based system • The origin of English as a language, like those
of signs" (Amberg & Vause, 2009:2) found in English speaking countries such as
"A communication system composed of arbitrary Britain, United States, Australia or elsewhere
elements which possess an agreed-upon significance around the globe nowadays can be traced back
to the moment of Anglo-Saxon invasion in the
 fifth century to British Isles (Algeo and Butcher LANGUAGE IS SHARED
2013:53).
● In order to understand each other, speakers of a
• According to Algeo and Butcher 2013 (84-195),
language must agree regarding the meaning of a
the history of English can be divided into three
particular word, the meaning of a particular
periods: the old (449-1100), the middle (1100-
grammatical construction (such as a sentence), and the
1500), the early modern (1500-1800), the late
purpose or function of a particular utterance. In other
modern English period (1800-present).
words, they follow a system or convention.
• British colonialism which ruled the world from
Canada to Australia, from America to India, LANGUAGE RULES ARE CONVENTIONS.
from Caribbean to Egypt, and from Southeast
Asia to South Africa has paved the way for the LANGUAGE IS A FORM OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR.
widespread use of English in its colony and ● ‘Language is the institution whereby humans
commonwealth countries. communicate and interact with each other by means of
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols’ (Hall,
1968).
LANGUAGE IS CREATIVE. This is the ability to combine
the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of “well- LANGUAGE IS DYNAMIC
formed” grammatical sentences, most of which are ● Language changes. It is changed and modified to
novel – never before produced or heard. adapt to the changing needs and demands of the
DUALITY (or ‘double articulation’) refers to two people who use it.
separate layers of language working together to provide LANGUAGE IS COMPOSITE
us with a pool of sounds which we can combine to
communicate with one another. ● Language is composed of form, meaning and use.
These three interact in order to send a message
On the one hand, we have a limited number of discrete between a speaker and a listener.
sounds (e.g. the 44 phonemes in English) which in
isolation have no inherent meaning e.g. b, i, or n. On the o FORM is the perceptible part of language. It
other hand, we have a virtually unlimited number of may be a spoken word, written word, or signed
distinct meanings which we can create by combining word.
these sounds in certain ways e.g. bin, or nib. o MEANING is the idea or function triggered in
the mind of a speaker and a listener.
“All humans are artists, all of us… our greatest o USE refers to a particular function of a
masterpiece of art is the use of language to create an particular utterance.
entire virtual reality within our mind.” – Don Miguel
Ruiz, 2012 ● ALL LANGUAGES CONTAIN THE ELEMENTS OF
PHONETICS, PHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, AND
THE CREATIVITY OF HUMAN LANGUAGE DEPENDS ON: SYNTAX. These elements address different components
DISCRETENESS - The ability to perceive distinct units of the language, particularly sounds and sound patterns,
within larger stretches of language. word structure, and sentence structure.

DISPLACEMENT - The property that allows humans to LANGUAGE IS SYSTEMATIC

talk about things that are removed in time and space ● Language follows an orderly, proper system for
from our immediate environment or mental or physical arranging sounds, words, sentences, utterances, and
state. even paragraphs.
LANGUAGE IS ARBITRARY ROLES OF LANGUAGE:
● It does not possess any inherent connection with its o Emotive
meaning. We do not know the basis for naming objects, o Performative
actions, and attributes the way we name them. It seems
o Recreational
the words just came up from human minds.
 o Descriptive ● Alternatively, we can look at language from a
o Evaluative diachronic point of view, which involves analyzing the
o Evocative development of a language during a certain period of
o Persuasive time e.g. during Middle English, or in the 1950s, etc.
o Interrogative
o Directive

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE (Finch, 2003; Jakobson,

1960)

1. 1. Physiological
2. Phatic
3. Recording
4. Identifying
5. Reasoning
6. Communicating
7. Pleasure Function

LINGUISTICS

Linguistics can be defined as the systematic inquiry into SUBFIELDS OF LINGUISTICS

human language — into its structures and uses and the
Applied linguistics is concerned with practical
relationship between them, as well as into the
applications of linguistic theories. It includes language
development and acquisition of language.
teaching, translation, language policy, and language
Linguistics is generally a descriptive discipline rather planning, among other areas that directly impact
than a prescriptive one, which means that linguists do everyday language use and learning.
not lay down hard and fast rules about how to use a
Sociolinguistics investigates the relationship between
certain language, but rather concentrate on describing
language and society. It studies how language varies
the rules which (especially native) speakers seem to
across different social groups, regions, and cultures, and
have internalized.
how these variations affect communication and
Comparative linguistics is the scientific study of identity.
language from a comparative point of view, which
Psycholinguistics combines linguistics and psychology
means that it is involved in comparing and classifying
to explore how the brain processes and understands
languages.
language. It delves into language acquisition,
Historical linguistics looks at language and its history, comprehension, and production, shedding light on the
that is at earlier stages of language development and at cognitive mechanisms involved.
processes leading to change and finally to language as
Philosophical linguistics is a field of study dedicated to
we have it today.
investigating the relationship between language and
● Its aims are twofold: philosophy. It seeks to understand how language is
used to express philosophical concepts and how these
1. analyzing and describing the historical status of
concepts are influenced by language.
language(s)
2. analyzing and describing patterns of change and Linguistic anthropology examines the relationships
development that help explain language history between language, culture, and society.
and also ongoing processes in language today
 Linguistic anthropologists analyze grammatical
● We can concentrate on language as used at a certain forms and communicative practices to
point of time e.g. in 1989; this is called synchronic understand how language shapes thought.
linguistics.
  Linguistic anthropology further asks how  OPEN JUNCTURES define a pause between one
language use reflects, creates, and transforms sound and the next.
social life across diverse settings.  CLOSED JUNCTURES describe sounds that blend
 Finally, linguistic anthropology investigates how into one another with no audible pause
linguistic and other signs, like clothing and between them.
makeup, inform our beliefs, ways of
PHONOLOGY - THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE
communicating, and classificatory systems.
PHONOLOGY - is essentially the description of the
Dialectology looks at different accent and dialect
systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
communities and how these linguistic varieties can
differ in several aspects including vocabulary, grammar PHONOLOGY - is about the underlying design, the
and pronunciation. It also looks at other speakers’ blueprint of each sound type, which serves as the
attitudes towards this variation. constant basis of all the variations in different physical
articulations of that sound type in different contexts.
Stylistics analyzes the aesthetic and expressive aspects
of language in literary texts and other forms of PHONOLOGY - is concerned with the abstract or mental
communication. This branch explores how linguistic aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the
choices contribute to the overall style and impact of actual physical articulation of speech sounds.
written and spoken language.
PHONEMES - are phones that are significant enough to
Neurolinguistics investigates the neural basis of produce a change in meaning between two very similar
language processing and how language functions in words.
the brain. By studying language disorders resulting from
brain injuries, researchers gain insights into the brain’s AN ESSENTIAL PROPERTY OF A PHONEME IS THAT IT
language centers and cognitive functions. FUNCTIONS CONTRASTIVELY.

Computational linguistics employs computer science  If we substitute one sound for another in a
and linguistic theories to develop algorithms and word and there is a change of meaning, then
models for natural language processing. It plays a vital the two sounds represent different phonemes.
role in technologies like speech recognition, machine TWO SOUNDS THAT SHARE SOME FEATURES ARE
translation, and chatbots. SOMETIMES DESCRIBED AS MEMBERS OF A NATURAL
BY STUDYING LINGUISTICS, ONE WILL ABLE TO KNOW: CLASS OF SOUNDS.

 how language operates, THE PREDICTION WOULD BE THAT SOUNDS WHICH

 how language is employed, and HAVE FEATURES IN COMMON WOULD BEHAVE
PHONOLOGICALLY IN SOME SIMILAR WAYS. A SOUND
 how language is changed and preserved
WHICH DOES NOT SHARE THOSE FEATURES WOULD BE
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS EXPECTED TO BEHAVE DIFFERENTLY.
CATEGORIES: MINIMAL PAIRS - are very useful in showing that two
phones are actually two separate phonemes by showing
1. SEGMENTAL SOUNDS (vowels, consonants)
that a change in phone produces a change in meaning.
2. SUPRASEGMENTAL SOUNDS (stress, tone,
juncture) While the PHONEME is the abstract unit or sound-type
(“in the mind”), there are many different versions of
STRESS - is the emphasis given to a particular syllable.
that sound-type regularly produced in actual speech
TONE - a variation in the pitch of the voice while (“in the mouth”). We can describe those different
speaking. versions as PHONES. PHONES are phonetic units and
appear in square brackets. When we have a set of
JUNCTURE - describes how speakers transition
phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we
acoustically from one syllable to the next: the
add the prefix “allo-” (= one of a closely related set) and
relationship between successive sounds.
refer to them as ALLOPHONES of that phoneme.
ALLOPHONES - never occur in the same environment.
Because of this, we describe allophones as occurring in
complementary environments.

FREE VARIATION - is the interchangeable relationship

between two phones, in which the phones may
substitute for one another in the same environment
without causing a change in meaning.

SYLLABLE PROCESSES

ELISION - the process of leaving out a sound segment in

the pronunciation of a word.

SEGMENT DELETION - rules are commonly found in

many languages and are far more prevalent than
segment insertion rules. One such rule occurs in casual
or rapid speech.

EPENTHESIS - a sound change involving the addition of a

sound to a word.

METATHESIS - a sound change involving the reversal in

position of two sounds.