BONSOL, JENNYLOU C.

TCW REVIEWER
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MAIN TOPIC I: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF

GLOBALIZATION

AN INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION - Was first coined by Theodore Levitt

ACCORDING TO MANFRED STEGER:

“Globalization is the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-
time and world-space.”
• Expansion: creation of new social networks and the increasing of existing connection
• Intensification: stretching and acceleration of social networks.
• Social relations: interactions between two or more people, groups, or organizations. They are
composed of social, physical, and verbal interactions that create a climate for the exchange of
feelings and ideas.
• Time and Space: in the contemporary era, people begin to feel that the world has become
smaller and distance has collapsed from a thousand miles to just a click away.

Arjun Appadurai’s “Scapes”

“Globalization occurs on multiple and intersecting dimensions of integration”
• Ethnoscape: represents the movement of people around the world. (Ex: refugees: people who
have seek asylum from danger in their homelands/people moving to seek jobs elsewhere; tourists)
• Technoscapes: refers to the ways that technologies help speed up cross-border movements. (Ex:
handheld devices: smartphones, cameras, and personal computing devices; internet: technology
helped us to connect across the globe at an unprecedented rate)
• Financescapes: represent the movement of money across borders. (Ex: stock exchange: trades of
capital occur in seconds all hours of the day across the global stock exchanges; credit cards: for
easier spending)
• Mediascapes: media has an increasingly global reach. (Ex: blogging: people can now get their
news from anyone with an internet connection; BBC: People around the world rely on global
news outlets like the BBC to get their information)
• Ideoscapes: refers to the ideas, symbols and narratives that have spread around the globe. (Ex:
the ideas of liberal democracy as one of the most powerful ideologies in the world.

HISTORICAL PERIODS OF GLOBALIZATION

The Prehistoric Period (10000 BCE - 3500 BCE)
• In this earliest phase of globalization, contacts among hunters and gatherers were geographically
limited. In this period due to the absence of advanced forms of technology, globalization was
severely limited.
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The Pre-modern Period (3500 BCE - 1500 CE)

• In this period the invention of writing and the wheel were great social and technological boosts
that moved globalization to a new level. The invention of the wheel in addition to roads made the
transportation of people and goods more efficient while writing facilitated the spread of ideas and
inventions.
The Early Modern Period (1500 - 1750)
• It is the period between the Enlightenment and the Renaissance. During this period, the European
Enlightenment project tried to achieve a universal form of morality and law. This with the
emergence of European metropolitan centers and unlimited material accumulation which led to
the capitalist world system helped to strengthen globalization.
The Modern Period (1750 - 1970)
• Innovations in transportation and communication technology, population explosion, and increase
in migration led to more cultural exchanges and transformation in traditional social patterns. The
process of industrialization also accelerated.
The Contemporary Period (from 1970 to present)
• The creation, expansion, and acceleration of interdependencies around the world occurred
dramatically and it was a kind of leap in the history of globalization.

DIMENSIONS OF GLOBALIZATION
Economic Dimension
• This refers to the extensive development of economic relations across the globe as a result of
technology and the enormous flow of capital that has stimulated trade in both sources and goods.
Major players in the global economic order: ¨ Huge international corporations (General Motors,
Walmart, Mitsubishi) ¨ International Economic Institutions (IMF, World Trade Organization,
World Bank)
Political Dimension
• This refers to the enlargement and strengthening of political interrelations across the globe.
Political Issues that Surface in this Dimension:
• The principle of state sovereignty
• Increasing impact of various intergovernmental organizations
• Future shapes of regional and global governance.
Cultural Dimension
• This refers to the increase in the amount of cultural flows across the globe.
• Cultural interconnections are at the foundations of contemporary globalization. Cultural diversity
often results in hybridization (a constructive interaction process between global and local
characteristics which is often visible in food, music, dance, film, fashion, and language). As a
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result, there is a scarcely any society in the world that expresses itself in its own unique and
authentic culture.
• Media empires generated and directed the extensive flow of culture. Examples of these are
Yahoo, Google, Microsoft, and Disney. Advertisement plays an important role in this cultural
flow by featuring various celebrities in the television aside from transforming newscast into
entertainment shows.
Religious Dimension
• Religion is a personal or institutionalized set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices relating to or
manifesting faithful devotion to an acknowledged ultimate reality or deity. It is the most
important defining element of any civilization as contrasted with race, language, or way of life.
As such, it is also portrayed as a defining element in future conflicts. Religion is certainly central
to much of the strife currently taking place around the globe.
Ideological Dimensions
• Ideology is a system of widely shared ideas, beliefs, norms, and values among a group of people.
It is often used to legitimize certain political interests or to defend dominant power structures.
Ideology connects human actions with some generalized claims.

MAIN TOPIC II: STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION

THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEMS

• International Monetary Systems (IMS)
• refers to a system that forms rules and standards for facilitating international trade among nations.
• It helps in reallocating the capital and investment from one nation to another.
• It is the global network of government and financial institutions that determines the exchange rate
of different currencies and sets rules by which different nations exchange currencies for
international trade.
Evolution of the International Monetary System
• In 1870 to 1914, with the help of gold and silver, trade was carried without any institutional
support. Monetary system during that time was decentralized while market based and money
played a minor role in international trade in contrast to gold.
• Gold standard functioned as a fixed exchange rate regime, with gold as the only international
reserve.
• Gold Standard is a system of backing a country’s currency with its gold reserves. Such currencies
are freely convertible into gold at a fixed price, and the country settles all its international trade
transactions in gold.
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• After World War I, the use of gold declined due to increased expenditure and inflation which were
caused by war. Major economic powers were on gold standards but could not maintain it and
failed because of the Great depression in 1929.
• In 1944, 730 representatives of 44 nations met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States
to create a new international monetary system called as the Bretton Woods system, the aim of
which is to create a stabilized international currency system and ensure a monetary stability for
all the nations.
• Since the United States held most of the world’s gold, all the nations would determine the values
of their currencies in terms of dollar. The central banks of nations were given the task of
maintaining fixed exchange rates with respect to dollar for each currency.
• The Bretton Woods system ended in 1971 as the trade deficit and inflation undermined the value
of dollar in the whole world. The gold standard has never worked satisfactorily in controlling
inflation or maintaining equilibrium in international transactions.
• In 1973, the floating exchange rate system, also known as flexible exchange rate system was
developed that was market based.

EUROPEAN MONETARY INTEGRATION

• European monetary integration refers to a 30- year long process that began at the end of the 1960s
as a form of monetary cooperation intended to reduce the excessive influence of the US dollar on
domestic exchange rates, and led, through various attempts, to the creation of a Monetary Union
and a common currency. This Union brings many benefits to Member States.
• The European Monetary System (EMS) is a 1979 arrangement between several European
countries which links their currencies in an attempt to stabilize the exchange rate. This system
was succeeded by the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), an institution of the
European Union (EU).
• In June 1998, the European Central Bank was established, and, in January 1999, a unified
currency, the euro, was born and came to be used by most EU member countries.
• According to the European Commission, the first ten years of the EMU were an evident success
for participating countries in terms of increased trade and capital transactions, more integrated
economies, and the utilization of the Euro as the second most widely used reserve currency.
• But from 2008 to 2009, the EU was presented with dramatic challenges brought on by the global
financial and economic crisis.
• The EU in 2010 in response to the crisis, enacted the three-pillar financial rescue program which
includes: the European Financial Stability Mechanism, the European Financial Stability Facility,
and the Financial Assistance of the International Monetary Fund. The future of EMU depends on
the willingness of member states to agree on more fundamental changes in the governance of the
Eurozone.
• The European Financial Stabilization Mechanism (EFSM) is a permanent fund to provide
emergency assistance to member states within the Union.
• The European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) is an organization that aids member states with
unstable economies. The EFSF is a special purpose vehicle (SPV) managed by the European
Investment Bank, a lending institution. The fund raises money by issuing debt and distributing the
funds to eurozone countries.
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution, formed in July
1944, at the Bretton Woods Conference, and is now headquartered in Washington, D.C. It consists
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of 190 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability,
facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and
reduce poverty around the world while periodically depending on the World Bank for its
resources.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND TRADE POLICIES

International Trade
• International trade is the exchange of goods, services and capital across national borders. It is
central to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of many countries, and is the only way for people in
countries to acquire resources.
• The economy of the world is also affected by the exchange of goods as dictated by supply and
demand, making goods and services obtainable which may not be available globally to
consumers.
• Trading globally allows consumers and countries to be exposed to goods and services not
available in their own countries.

2 KEY CONCEPTS IN THE ECONOMICS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

• Comparative advantage (so long as the two countries have different relative efficiencies, the
two can benefit from trade).
• Specialization (countries, as well as individual businesses, can maximize their welfare by
specializing in the production of those goods where they are most efficient and enjoy the largest
advantages over rivals)

2 TYPES OF ECONOMIES IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

• PROTECTIONISM (Policy of protecting local industries against foreign competition by means
of trade barriers) (measures that governments introduce to make imported goods or services less
competitive than locally produced goods and services, e.g. tariffs, embargoes, and quotas).
• TRADE LIBERALIZATION (removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free
exchange of goods between nations).

TYPES OF TRADE POLICIES

• National Trade Policy safeguards the best interest of its trade and citizens.
• Bilateral Trade Policy regulates the trade and business relations between two nations, this
policy is formed. Under the trade agreement, the national trade policies of both the nations and
their negotiations are considered while bilateral trade policy is being formulated.
• International Trade Policy defines the international trade policy under their charter like the
International economic organizations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and
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International Monetary Fund (IMF). The best interests of both developed and developing nations
are upheld by the policies.

TRADE POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY

• In most developed countries where an open market economy prevails, international economic
organizations support free trade policies.
• In the case of developing nations partiallyshielded trade practices are preferred to protect their
local trade industries

THE GLOBAL MARKET INTEGRATION

BRICS ECONOMIES
• BRICS is an acronym for the combined economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa. These five countries were among the fastest growing emerging markets as of 2011.
• China and India will, by 2050, become the world's dominant suppliers of manufactured goods
and services. On the other hand, Brazil and Russia will become similarly dominant as suppliers
of raw materials.
• Due to lower labor and production costs in these countries (including South Africa), many
companies have also cited BRICS as a source of foreign expansion opportunity.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TRADE IN SERVICES (GATS)

• GATS is the first multilateral agreement covering trade in services which came into force in
1995.
• The GATS provides a framework of rules governing services trade, establishes a mechanism for
countries to make commitments to liberalize trade in services.
• Objectives:
o Creating a credible and reliable system of international trade rules
o Ensuring fair and equitable treatment of all participants
o Stimulating economic activity through guaranteed policy bindings
o Promoting trade and development through progressive liberalization.

THE GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM

• Nation and State
• A nation can be defined as group of people who are bound together into a single body,
through history, customs, value, language, culture, tradition, art and religion.
• A state can be defined as a patch of land with a sovereign government.

• Nation-State
• A territorially bounded sovereign polity that is ruled in the name of a community of
citizens who identify themselves as a nation.
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The term nation-state has a dual concept:

• Nation–states: territorial organizations characterized by the monopolization of legitimate
violence (qua states).
• Nation–states: membership associations with a collective identity and a democratic
pretension to rule (qua nation).

Thomas Friedman’s “Golden Straitjacket”

• The belief that globalization imposes a forced choice upon states either to conform to free
market principles or run the risk of being left behind
• Illustrate the forcing of states into policies that suit the preferences of investment houses
and corporate executives (Electronic Herd-live nervous system of the world's capital
markets such as New York, London, Paris, Hong Kong) who swiftly move money and
resources into countries favored as adaptable to the demands of international business and
withdraw even more rapidly from countries deemed uncompetitive.
• Countries are compared to individual stocks where the states and their government are
rewarded and punished similar to buying and selling shares of individual companies.
States also have lost an important element of economic sovereignty and that neo-
liberalism is beyond contestation.
• There are two things that will happen if a country is in Golden Straitjacket: the
economy grows and politics shrinks. It is a straitjacket because it narrows the political
and economic policy choices of those in power to relatively tight parameters

NEOLIBERALISM AND ECONOMIC SOVEREIGNTY

• Neoliberalism
- A contemporary economic ideology that emphasizes the value of free market competition and is
most commonly associated with laissez-faire.
- used to refer to market-oriented reform policies such as: eliminating price controls, deregulating
capital markets, lowering trade barriers, and reducing, especially through privatization, state
influence in the economy.

• Economic Sovereignty
- The power of the national governments to make decisions independently from those made by
other governments.
- Globalization as an increase in the international integration of markets for goods, services, capital
and labor, is also a counterpoint of national sovereignty.
• Four Different Concepts of Sovereignty:
- International Legal Sovereignty refers to the acceptance of a given state as a member of the
international community.
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- Westphalian Sovereignty is based on the principle that one sovereign state should not interfere in
the domestic arrangements of another.
- Interdependence Sovereignty is the capacity and willingness to control flows of people, goods
and capital into and out of the country.
- Domestic Sovereignty is the capacity of a state to choose and implement policies within the
territory.
• The increase of the number of international organizations and the expansion of their functions
have undeniably restricted an individual country's sovereignty to certain extent.
• The most typical example is the increasingly extensive involvement of the world's three leading
financial institutions: The World Bank, the International Momentary Fund (IMF) and the World
Trade Organization (WTO) in domestic economic affairs of their members.
• Many underdeveloped nations that resorted to foreign assistance and interventions resulted to the
deprivation of government as regard control of their economy due to the disorderly domestic
economic establishments.
• More importantly, some of the world's leading economic entities, such as the United States, the
European Union and Japan, by taking advantage of their predominant economic status, are
affecting or infringing upon other countries' economic sovereignty.
• While countries inevitably cede some control over their economic sovereignty to external actors,
it is the “structural power” of sovereign states which still dictates the terms and tenets of
globalization.

EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
• European integration is the process of industrial, political, legal, economic, social, and cultural
integration of states wholly or partially in Europe and has primarily come about through the
European Union and its policies.
• European Union (EU), is an international organization comprising 27 European countries (United
Kingdom has left EU last January 2020) and governing common economic, social, and security
policies.

ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
• Economic integration can be described as a process and a means by which a group of countries
strives to increase their level of welfare.
• It is an arrangement between different regions that often includes the reduction or elimination of
trade barriers, and the coordination of monetary and fiscal policies. Reducing costs for both
consumers and producers and increasing trade between the countries involved in the agreement
are the aims of economic integration
Seven Stages of Economic Integration
- Preferential Trading Area (PTA)
- Free Trade Area
- Customs Union
- Common Market
- Economic Union
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- Economic and Monetary Union

- Complete Economic Integration
• Preferential Trade Areas (PTAs)
- Areas having an agreement on reducing or eliminating tariff on selected goods imported from
other members of countries within the geographical region.
- Agreement can either be bilateral (between two countries), or multi-lateral (several countries).
• Free Trade Areas (FTAs)
- Two or more countries in a region agree to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade on all goods
coming from other members.
• Custom Union
- Removal of tariff barriers between members, together with the acceptance of a common or
unified external tariff against non-members.
• Common Market (CM)
- To be defined as a common market, the following conditions must be satisfied:

• Tariffs, quotas, and all barriers regarding importing and exporting goods and services among
members are eliminated.
• Common trade restrictions such as tariffs on countries outside the group are adopted by all
members.
• Production factors such as labor and capital are able to move freely without restriction among
member countries.
• Economic Union
- Trading alliance that has both a common market between members, and a common trade policy
towards non-members, although members are free to pursue independent macroeconomic
policies.
- It requires coordinated monetary and economic policies as well as labor market, regional
development, transportation and industrial policies.
- In economic union, the use of a common currency and a unified monetary policy is considered.

• Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

- Involves a single economic market, a common trade policy, a single currency and a common
monetary policy which represents a major step in the integration of EU economies.
- EMU involves the coordination of economic and fiscal policies, a common monetary policy and a
common currency, the euro.

• Complete Economic Integration

- Final stage of economic integration in which member states completely forego independence of
both monetary and fiscal policies.
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- States that participate in complete economic integration have no control of economic policy
including economic trade rules.
- There is full monetary union where regulations regarding labor and capital are shared between
member states and this includes a single currency. There is also a complete harmonization of
fiscal policy which includes shared regulation of tax and benefit rates.
- Involved in complete economic integration are single economic market, a common trade policy, a
single currency, a common monetary policy, together with a single fiscal policy, including
common tax and benefit rates or the complete harmonization of all policies, rates, and economic
trade rules.
• Political integration
- Refers to the integration of components within political systems; the integration of political
systems with economic, social, and other human systems; and the political processes by which
social, economic, and political systems become integrated.
- Political integration is mainly based on welfare increasing effects of integrated policy making
according to the Economics of European integration. It brings economic benefits by leading the
recovery of effectiveness in policy making.

THEORIES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION

• Neo-functionalism (Ernst B. Haas and Leon Lindberg)
• It is a theory of regional integration which aimed at integrating individual sectors in hopes of
achieving spill-over effects. The core of neo-functionalism is the use of the concept ‘spill–over’:
situations when an initial decision by governments to place a certain sector under the authority of
central institutions creates pressures to extend the authority of the institutions into neighboring
areas of policy.
• Intergovernmentalism (Stanley Hoffmann)
• Theory which provides a conceptual explanation of the European integration process. The main
concept of the Intergovernmentalism is emphasizing on the role of national states in the European
integration. It argues that "European integration is driven by the interest and actions of nation
states". The theory proposed the Logic of Diversity: “set limits to the degree which the ‘spill-
over’ process can limit the freedom of action of the governments…the logic of diversity implies
that on vital issues, losses are not compensated by gains on other issues”.
• Liberal Intergovernmentalism (Andrew Moravcsik)
• 'state-society relations (the relationship of state to the domestic and transnational social context in
which they are embedded) have a fundamental impact on state behavior in world politics and that
the 'universal condition of world politics is globalization.’
• It is the web of globalized economic, social and political relationships that determines the living
conditions of individual citizens, corporations and civic groups and shapes what they want and
thus what their governments want.
• New Institutionalism
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• Theory which emphasized the importance of institutions in the process of European integration.
Its three key strands are: rational choice, sociological and historical.
• Multi-level Governance (MLG) (Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks)
• This is a new theory of European integration.
• Dispersion of authority across multiple levels of political governance.
• Over the last fifty years, authority and sovereignty has moved away from national governments in
Europe, not just to the supranational level with the EU, but also to subnational levels such as
regional assemblies and local authorities.

THE CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

THE GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
• Global governance or world governance is a movement towards political integration of
transnational actors aimed at negotiating responses to problems that affect more than one state or
region.
• It is concerned with issues that have become too complex for a single state to address alone.
Humanitarian crises, military conflicts between and within states, climate change and economic
volatility pose serious threats to human security in all societies; therefore, a variety of actors and
expertise is necessary to properly frame threats, devise pertinent policy, implement effectively
and evaluate results accurately to alleviate such threats.
• It tends to involve institutionalization, and these institutions – the United Nations, the
International Criminal Court, the World Bank, etc. – tend to have limited or demarcated power to
enforce compliance.

• The two types of International Organizations:

• Universal membership: United Nations (UN), Bretton Woods Institutions and World Trade
Organization (WTO)
• Limited membership: European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO)
• Global governance can be thus understood as the sum of laws, norms, policies, and institutions that
define, constitute, and mediate trans-border relations between states, cultures, citizens, intergovernmental
and nongovernmental organizations, and the market.

THE UNITED NATIONS

• Coined by US Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt when representatives of 26 nations pledged their

Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers.
• The United Nations was established after World War II with the aim of preventing future wars,
succeeding the ineffective League of Nations (LON).
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• In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on
International Organization to draw up the United Nations Charter.
• The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was
not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.
• There are 193 UN member states with the addition of South Sudan in July 14, 2011.
• Philippines joined UN on October 24, 1945, under the administration of Sergio Osmeña.
• Purpose:

• Maintaining worldwide peace and security

• Developing relations among nations
• Fostering cooperation between nations in order to solve economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian international problems
• Providing a forum for bringing countries together to meet the UN's purposes and goals
• Main Organs:
• General Assembly (GA)

• Main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN

• All 193 Member States
• Decisions on important questions (peace and security) require a two-thirds majority Decisions on
other questions are by simple majority
• The General Assembly, each year, elects
• a GA President to serve a one-year term of office (incumbent: Abdulla Shahid of Maldives)

• Security Council (SC)

• Responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security
• 15 Members (5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members).
• Takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression
• The Security Council has a Presidency, which rotates, and changes, every month.

• Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

• Principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on
economic, social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed
development goals.
• 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms
• International Court of Justice
• The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
• Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands).
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• Settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes and to give advisory opinions on legal
questions
• Secretariat
• Comprises the Secretary-General (incumbent: Antonio Guterres) and tens of thousands of
international UN staff members
• The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed by the
General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a fiveyear, renewable term
• Trusteeship Council
• The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, to provide international
supervision for Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of Member States,
and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and
independence.

CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE IN THE 21st CENTURY

• Issues that involve interwoven domestic and foreign challenges include threats at the beginning of
the century which include ethnic conflicts, infectious diseases, and terrorism as well as a new
generation of global challenges including climate change, energy security, food and water
scarcity, international migration flows and new technologies.
• Domestic politics creates tight constraints on international cooperation and reduces the scope for
cooperation.
• Diverse perspectives on and suspicions about global governance, which is seen as a Western
concept, add to the difficulties of effectively mastering the growing number of challenges.

MAIN TOPIC III: THE WORLD OF REGIONS

THE GLOBAL DIVIDES

• The Global divides is “not strictly geographical”. The concept, Global North and Global South,
is used to describe a grouping of countries along socio-economic and political characteristics.
• Global North refers to countries with the highest level of development and industrialization.
These nations are highly industrialized, have political and economic stability and have high
levels of human health. They are also called developed countries (Australia, Canada, Europe,
Russia, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States.)
• Global South refers to countries that’s mostly low-income, often politically or culturally
marginalized and having interconnected histories of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and different
economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy,
and access to resources emerge. They are also called developing countries (Africa, Latin America
and the Caribbean, Pacific Islands, and the developing countries in Asia, including the Middle
East).
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• The global South is not a directional designation or a point due south from a fixed north but a
symbolic designation meant to capture the semblance of interconnection that emerged when
former colonial entities engaged in political schemes of decolonization and moved toward the
realization of a post-colonial international order.

The Primary Concepts of Global South

1. It refers to economically disadvantaged countries and as a post-cold war alternative to “Third World”.
2. It captures a deterritorialized geography of capitalism’s externalities and means to account for
subjugated peoples within the borders of wealthier countries, (there are economic Souths in the
geographic North and Norths in the geographic South).
3. It refers to the resistant imagery of a transnational political subject that results from a shared experience
of subjugation under contemporary global capitalism.

New Internationalism in the Global South

➢ Internationalism

 System of heightened interaction between various sovereign states, particularly the desire
for greater cooperation and unity among states and people.
 Principle of cooperation among states, for the promotion of their common good.

➢ Types of Internationalism

• Liberal Internationalism: cooperation among the state is inevitable for achieving common goals in
the world.
• Revolutionary Internationalism: conflicts within the societies are determined by international
factors.
• Hegemonic Internationalism: world is being integrated based on unequal term with the
dominance of one state over the other.

➢ The ill of the global south is being globalized. Underdeveloped states of the global south are
ravaged by merciless IMF policies in the 1980’s. The economic prescriptions of the IMF as cures are
recommended for countries in the global south. The global south has provided model of resistance like
critiques of international financial institutions from the experiences and writings of intellectuals and
activists from the global south.

➢ A similar globalization of the south’s concern is arising from the issue about global environment.
Amidst the existential threat of climate change the most radical notions of climate justice are being
articulated in the global south. As global problems increase, it is necessary for people in the north to
support people from the south.
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ASIAN REGIONALISM
Regionalism
➢ Regionalism is an expression of a common sense of identity and purpose combined with the creation
and implementation of institutions that express a particular identity and shape collective action within a
geographical region.

➢ Edward D Mansfield and Helen Milner

• Regions are “a group of countries located in the same geographically specified area” organized to
regulate and “oversee flows and policy choices.”
• Regionalization and regionalism should not be interchanged. Regionalization refers to “regional
concentration of economic flows” while regionalism is a “political process characterized by
economic policy cooperation and coordination among countries”

Views of Globalization in the Asia Pacific and South Asia

➢ The Asia Pacific and South Asia refer to the regions of East (Northeast) Asia, South Asia, the Pacific
Islands, and South East Asia.

➢ It includes some of the world’s most economically developed states such as Japan, South Korea,
Singapore, and Taiwan, and highly impoverished countries such as Cambodia, Laos, and Nepal. It also
includes the largest and most populous states like China and India and some of the world’s smallest states
such as the Maldives and Bhutan.

➢ The Asia and South Pacific has emerged over the past decade as a new force in the world. The
economies of Japan, Korea, Indonesia, Vietnam and Pakistan have strategic relevance in today’s global
system.

➢ A foreign policy shift called “Pacific Pivot” was implemented by the United States to commit more
resources and attention to the region. This shift which is also called “Atlantic Century” was termed
“Pacific Century” by US Secretary of States Hilary Clinton. She stated that the Asia Pacific has become a
key driver of global politics. It is the home to several key allies and important emerging powers like
China, India, and Indonesia.

➢ Globalization in the Asia Pacific and South Asia is a phenomenon being pushed into the region by
world powers like US and Europe. It can be viewed as a force bringing economic development, political
progress, and social and cultural diversity
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Asia Pacific and South Asia’s Impact on Globalization

➢ Asia was the central global force in the early modern world economy. It was the site of the most
important trade routes and in some places more advanced in technology than West such as science and
medicine. The following are the Asia Pacific and South Asia’s impact on globalization:
• Japan embarked on procuring raw materials like coal and iron at unprecedented scale allowing
them to gain a competitive edge in the global manufacturing market as well as globalized
shipping and procurement patterns which other countries modeled.
• China pursues similar pattern of development at present and is now the world’s largest importers
of basic raw materials such as iron and surpassed Japan, the US and Europe in steel production. It
also surpassed the World bank in lending to developing countries. It had an enormous impact on
the availability and consumption of goods around the world.
• India opened-up and emphasized an export-oriented strategy. Textiles and low wage sectors have
been a key part of the economy with highly successful software development exports. It also
plays a key role in global service provisions as trends in outsourcing.
• India and China have also become a major source of international migrant labor. This includes the
migration of highly skilled labor into the high-tech industry based in Silicon Valley (home to
many start-up and global technology companies like Apple, Facebook and Google). India, China
and the Philippines were three of the top four recipient states of migrant remittances.
• “Open Regionalism” in Asia Pacific and South Asia aims to develop and maintain cooperation
with outside actors. This is meant to resolve the tension between the rise of regional trade
agreements and the push for global trade as embodied by World Trade Organization (WTO), the
only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations.
• In culture and globalization, the source of a wide variety of cultural phenomena that have spread
outward to the West and the rest of the world is in the region. Examples include Hello Kitty,
Anime, Pokemon, (from Japan) which become regional and global phenomenon; the regional and
global rise of Korean popular culture called ‘K-Wave” (Korean dramas and K-pop).

➢ Asia Pacific and South Asia serves as the source of many aspects of globalization process which can be
seen in history, economy, political structure and culture.

The Region-Making in Southeast Asia and Middle-Class Formation

➢ Regionalization entails complex and dynamic interactions between and among governmental and
nongovernmental actors which resulted to hybrid East Asia. The successive waves of regional economic
development are powered by developed states and national and transnational capitalism.

➢ This nurtured sizeable middle-classes that share a lot in common in terms of professional lives and
their lifestyles, in fashion, leisure, and entertainment, in their aspirations and dreams.

➢ The middle-class occupies different positions in their respective societies as well as in relation to their
nation-states as they constitute the expanding regional consumer market.
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➢ The product of regional economic development in the post war era are the middle classes in east Asia.
Regional economic development took place within the context of the American informal empire in “Free
Asia”:
• The first wave of regional economic development took place in Japan from mid- 1950’s to the
early 1970s and led to the emergence of a middle-class by the early 1970s.
• The second wave took place between the 1960s and 1980s in South Korea, Taiwan, Hongkong
and Singapore and led to the formation of middle-class societies in these countries by the 1980s 
• Third wave: Middle class formation in Southeast Asia was driven by global and regional
transnational capitalism (regional trade). New urban middle classes in Southeast Asia have
created their own new lifestyles commensurate with their middle-class income and status.

Middle Class in The Philippines

• New urban middle classes emerged in the post 1986 Philippines. They were created through
growth in retail trade, manufacturing, banking, real estate development, and an expanding range
of specialist services such as accounting, advertising, computing, and market research.
• Fostered by government policies of liberalization and deregulation, the development of these
new enterprises has been oriented both toward the export and domestic markets and has entailed
increasingly diverse sources of foreign investment and variable subcontracting, franchise, and
service relationships, with a noticeable expansion of ties connecting the Philippines to other
countries in East and Southeast Asia.

Regional Implications of Middle-Class Formation in East Asia

➢ Middle classes are product of regional economic development:

• It has taken place in waves under the U.S. informal empire over a half century, first in Japan,
then in South Korea, Taiwan, Hongkong, and Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and
Philippines, and China.

➢ They are product as well for the development of states:

• Their lifestyles have been shaped in very complex ways by their appropriation of things.
American, Japanese, Chinese, South Korean, Islamic and other ways of life, often mediated
by the market.

➢ Southeast Asian middle classes also exemplify the diversity and complexity of class formation.

• Thai middle classes are clear socially, hegemonic culturally, and ascend politically.
• Malaysian and Indonesian middle classes are socially divided, dependent on the state,
politically assertive and vulnerable.
• Philippine middle classes are socially coherent, less dependent on the state, culturally
ascendant, but politically indecisive