CHAPTER 02: Differential Calculus

Dr R. Netshikweta
Dr B. Maregere

University Of Venda
MAT 1143/1543

First Semester 2023

rendani.netshikweta@univen.ac.za
bothwell.maregere@univen.ac.za
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 Topic: Differential Calculus

Objectives:
✠ Introduces a technique called differentiation for calculating
the gradient of a curve at any point
✠ Introduces some rules for finding gradient functions
✠ Explains what is meant by the terms ”first derivative” and
”second derivative”
✠ explains the terms ”maximum” and ”minimum” when
applied to functions
✠ Applies the technique of differentiation to locating
maximum and minimum values of a function

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 Overview of Differential Calculus

⋇ Differential calculus along with Integral calculus are the

two branches of Calculus, the study of continuous change
or a rate of change of a function.
⋇ Calculus was developed by Newton (1642 - 1727) and
Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) to deal with finding the different
properties of derivatives and intergrals of a function.
⋇ Differential calculus deals with the rate of change of one
quantity with respect to another quantity.
⋇ This, semester we will only dealing with differential
calculus, while in the second semester we will be then
dealing with integral calculus.

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 Overview of differential Calculus Cont....

Gradient of a curve
⋇ The gradient of a straight line is a constant and simply
∆y
determined by ∆x which is the ratio between any two
points on the line
⋇ But, on the curve the gradient is changing from one point
to another
⋇ Thus, we can define the gradient at any point on a curve
to be the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that
point.
⋇ Recall that a tangent to a curve is a straight line that
touches the curve at one point.
⋇ To find a gradient at any point on the curve, we can make
use of the method called a limiting process, sometimes
known as differentiation from the first principle.
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 Increments and Rates

Overview of Increments
Dfn: Let a variable x have a first value x1 , and a second value
x2 . The change in the value of x, which is (x2 − x1 ), is called
the increment in x and is denoted by ∆x.

Let y = f (x), when x has the value x1 , y has the value

y1 = f (x1 ). Similarly, when x has the vale x2 , y has the
value y =2 = f (x2 ). Then the increment in y is
∆y = y2 − y1 = f (x1 + ∆) − f (x1 ). In general
∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x). Alternatively,
y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x)

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 Increments and Rates

Examples of Increments:
i. Given f (x) = x2 , find ∆y if x = 1 and and ∆ = 0.2.
Solution:

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= f (1 + 0.2) − f (1)
= f (1.2) − f (1) = 0.44.

ii. For the function y = x2 , find ∆y for the general values of

x and ∆x.
Solution

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= (x + ∆x)2 − x2
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= x2 + 2x∆x + ∆x2 − x2 = 2x∆x + ∆x2 .
 Examples of Increments:

iii. The size of an insect population at time t (measured in

days) is given by
3000
f (t) = 5000 − .
1+t
Determine the change in the population when t = 2 and
∆t = 3.
Solution:

∆y = f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
= f (2 + 3) − f (2) = f (5) − f (2)
 
3000 3000
= 5000 − − 5000 − = 500.
1+5 1+2

Thus the population increases by 500 during the 3 days

7 / 58 that follow the second day.
 Rates

Dfn: The average rate of change of a function f over an

∆y
interval x to x + ∆x is defined by the ratio ∆x = f (x+∆x)−f
∆x
(x)

Example:

A population of bacteria is introduced to a nutrient

medium. Suppose that the weight of the population in
milligrams changes according to the formula
100t
P (t) = 50 −
21 + t2
where t is the time measured in hours. Determine the
average rate of growth of the population during the five
hour period starting at t = 2hr.
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 Rates

Solution:
Here t = 2 and ∆t = 5. Thus,
∆P P (t + ∆t)
=
∆t ∆t
P (2 + 5) − P (2)
=
 5   
700 200
50 − 21+49 − 50 − 21+4
=
5
40 − 52
= = −0.4mg/hr. (1)
5

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 Limits and Continuity

Overview of Limits
⋇ Limits in maths are defined as the values that a function,
say f , approaches the output for the given input.
⋇ Limits play vital role in Calculus and mathematical
analysis.
⋇ In particular, are used to define concepts such as
continuity, derivatives, and integral.
⋇ Worth mentioning that limits are unique real numbers.
⋇ Mathematicaly, a limit of a real-valued function ”f ” if
given a real number ”c” is defined as:

lim f (x) = L.
x→c

⋇ It is read as ”the limit of f of x, as x approaches c equals

L”. The “lim” shows the limit.
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 Limits and Continuity Cont.....

Properties of Limits: Suppose that lim f (x) and lim g(x)

x→a x→a
exist, and a is an integer, then
1. Law of Addition: lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→c x→a x→a
2. Law of Substraction:
lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)
x→c x→a x→a
3. Law of Multiplication:
lim [f (x).g(x)] = lim f (x). lim g(x)
x→c x→a x→a
h i lim f (x)
4. Law of Division: lim fg(x)
(x)
= x→a
lim g(x) , provided
x→c x→a
lim g(x) ̸= 0
x→a
5. Law of Constant Multiple : lim (k.f (x)) = k. lim f (x).
x→a x→a

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 Limits of polynomial function

Example: Find the limits of the following

(a) lim (x3 + 4x2 − 3) = lim x3 + lim 4x2 − lim 3

x→c x→c x→c x→c
2 2
= c + 4c − 3.

x4 + x2 − 1 lim (x4 + x2 − 1)
x→c
(b) lim =
x→c x2 + 5 lim (x2 + 5)
x→c
lim x4 + lim x2 − lim 1
x→c x→c x→c
=
lim x2 + lim 5
x→c x→c
c4 + c2 − 1
= .
c2 + 5
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.
 The limit of a polynomial f (x) as x → c, may be obtained
by finding the value of a polynomial at c. Thus

lim f (c). (2)

x→c
Example: Find the following limits:
a. lim (x2 − 4x + 1)
x→−3
b. lim (x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 4).
x→−1
Solution:
a. lim (x2 − 4x + 1) = 22.
x→−3
b. lim (x3 + 2x2 − 3x − 4) = 0.
x→−1

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 Limits Evaluation Cont...

Example: Evaluate the limits of the following

(a) lim x2 (x − 2) = lim x2 . lim (x − 2)

x→3 x→3 x→3
2
= 3 (3 − 2) = 9.

x2 + 2x + 4 lim (x2 + 2x + 4)
x→2
(b) lim =
x→2 x+2 lim (x + 2)
x→2
lim x4 + lim x2 + lim 4
x→2 x→2 x→2
=
lim x + lim 2
x→2 x→c
42 + 2(2) + 4 12
= = = 3.
2+2 4
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 Limits containing rational fractions may be
subdivided into three basic groups:
Group 1: lim fg(x)
(x)
→ L where f (c) and g(c) ̸= 0
x→c
q 2 −3q+2
Example: find lim q−1 .
q→−1
2 2 −3(−1)+2
Solution: lim q −3q+2
q−1 = (−1) −1−1 = −3
q→−1

Group 2: lim fg(x)

(x)
→ L where f (c) = 0 and g(c) ̸= 0
x→c
q 2 −3q+2
Example: Find the lim q+1
q→1
2 2
Solution: lim q −3q+2
q+1 = 1 −3(1)+2
1+1 = 0
2 = 0.
q→1

Group 3: lim fg(x)

(x)
→ L where f (c) ̸= 0 and g(c) = 0
x→c
6x+9 9
Example: lim 2 = undefined.
15 / 58 x→0 x −6x 0
 Limits and Continuity Cont.....

Exploring a non-existing limit

✠ Sometime we might have a situation where we can find
ourselves dealing with limits of a function at a point that
makes a function to be undefined.
✠ For instance,
x2 − 4
lim
x→2 x − 2

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 Exploring a non-existing limits (Ground 3):
Indeterminate form 00
If the limit of a rational fraction is being calculated as x
approaches c and both the numerator and the denominator
approach zero as x approaches c, then the numerator and
the denominator have a common factor (x − c) and the
rational function may be simplified.
Example
x3 −125 (5)3 −125 0
lim = = (indeterminate form, factorize)
x→5 x−5 5−5 0

x3 − 125 (x − 5)(x2 + 5x + 25)

lim = lim
x→5 x − 5 x→5 x−5
= lim (x2 + 5x + 25)
x→5
2
= (5) + 5(5) + 25
= 75
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 Special limits containing square roots

In this case we first rationalize the denominator or the

numerator.
√
x+2−2
Example: lim x−2 .
x→2
Solution: We observe that factorization is not an option
to simplify the fraction, so we multiply by 1.

√ √ √
x+2−2 x+2−2 x+2+2
lim = lim ×√
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x+2+2
(x − 2)
= lim √
x→2 (x − 2)( x + 2 + 2)
1
= lim √
x→2 x+2+2
1
= .
4
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 Definition: Limits as x → ∞

⋇ Let f (x) be defined for all sufficiently large real numbers.

Then f (x) is said to approach the limiting value L as x
approaches infinity, provided the difference between f (x)
and L can be made as small as possible by taking any
value x that is sufficiently large. We write
lim f (x) = L. (3)
x→∞
⋇ If f (x) is unbounded, we write
lim f (x) = ∞. (4)
x→∞
⋇ We note that
1
lim = 0. (5)
x→∞ x
⋇ In general
1
lim = 0, ∀ n > 0. (6)
x→∞ xn
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 ∞
Specific limits: Indeterminate form ∞

Some basic rules

⋇ lim x = ±∞
x→±∞
⋇ lim x2 = ∞
x→±∞
⋇ lim 1 = 0
x→±∞ x
⋇ lim k = 0
x→∞ x

x2 −2 ∞
Example: Find the limit: lim x 3 +3x = ∞
(indeterminate
x→∞
form, take out factor x3 )
⋇
x3 x1 − x23


x2 − 2 0−0
lim = lim 3
= = 0.
x→∞ x3 + 3x x→∞ x 1 + 32 1+0
x

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 Example

Evaluate
x3 − 8
lim (7)
x→∞ x2 − 4

⋇ Solution: We divide both the numerator and the

denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator
8
x− x2
lim 4 = ∞. (8)
x→∞ 1− x2

⋇ Example: Evaluate lim √2x+1 .

x→∞ x2 −4
⋇ Solution: The highest power of x in the denominator is x,
so we have
2 + x1
lim q . (9)
x→∞
1 − x42
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 Exercise: Evaluate the following limits

2
1. lim √3x +1
9x 4 −4
x→∞
3
2. lim x4 −8
x→∞ x −4
x3 −8
3. lim 2
x→∞ x −4

4. lim |x|+|8+x|
x
x→∞
2
5. lim √x +2
x→−∞ 4x2 −4

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 Continuous Functions

Definition:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = c

if the following three conditions are met:
i. f (x) is defined at x = c,
ii. lim f (x) exists,
x→c
iii. lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c
If any one of these conditions is not satisfied then the
function is said to be discontinuous at x = c. Roughly
speaking, a function is said to be continuous if its graph
can be drawn without lifting the pen from the paper.

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 Examples: Continuous Functions

i. (
x2 −9
x−3 if x ̸= 3
f (x) =
6 if x = 3.
ii. (
x2 −9
x−3 if x ̸= 3
f (x) =
7 if x = 3.
iii. (
x3 − 2x + 1 if x ≤ 2
f (x) =
3x − 2 if x > 2.

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 Finding Gradient of a Curve From the First
Principle of Differentiation
Defn:
✠ A function f is said to be differentiable at x if

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim exist.
h→0 h
✠ If the limit above exist, it is called the derivative of f at x
dy
and often denoted by the symbol f ′ (x) or dx .
✠ That is,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
represent the gradient or the slope of gragh (curve) of f
at the point (x, f (x)).
✠ Note that, the line that passes through the point (x, f (x))
with the slope f ′ (x) is called the tangent line at the point
(x, f (x)).
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 Example: Finding Gradient of a Curve From the
First Principle of Differentiation

Use the first Principle differentiation to find f ′ (x) if

f (x) = 2x2
Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
2x + 4xh + 2h2 − 2x2
2
= lim
h→0 h
4xh + 2h 2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (4x + 2h)
h→0
= 4x + 0
= 4x.

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 Exercise: Finding Gradient of a Curve From the
First Principle of Differentiation

Exercise: Differentiate the following using the first princible

differentiation method
1. f (x) = x3 .
1
2. f (x) = .
x
√
3. f (x) = x.
1
4. f (x) = √ .
x
2
5. f (x) = x − 4x.

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 Differentiate a Function Using Differentiation Rules

Derivative of a Constant
If f (x) = b, then f ′ (x) = 0 for every x where b is a
constant.

Power Rule
If f (x) = xn , then f ′ (x) = nxn−1 where n is a real
number.

Constant Multiple Rule

If y = kf (x), then y ′ = kf ′ (x) where k is a constant.

Summation Rule
If f (x) = g(x) ± h(x), then f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) ± h′ (x).

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 Example: Differentiate a Function Using
Differentiation Rules

Example:
Differentiate the following
(a) f (x) = 5
Solution: f ′ (x) = 0.
(b) f (x) = x3 .
Solution: f ′ (x) = 3x3−1 = 3x2 .
(c) f (x) = x12
Solution: f (x) = x−2 and hence
f ′ (x) = −2x−2−1 = − x23 .
(d) f (x) = 15 x5
Solution: f ′ (x) = 15 (5x5−1 ) = x4 .
(e) f (x) = x2 + 5x3 − 7x + 3 − x43
Solution: f ′ (x) = 2x + 15x2 − 7 + 15
x4
.
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 Exercise: Differentiate a Function Using
Differentiation Rules

Exercise:
dy
1. Find dx from the first principle:
(a) y = 3x2 + 1 (b) y = 2 − 4x2
2
(c) y = x + x1 (d) y = x2 − x + 3
(e) y = 3 sin 2t + 4 cos 2t (f ) y = e3x − 5e−2x
dy
2. (a) Find if y = x2 + ax + 3, where a is a constant.
dx
(b) Hence, find the value of a if the gradient of the function
y = x2 + ax + 3 is 2.
3. Differentiate A = 2πr2 + 2πrh with respect to r, where h
is a constant.

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 Summary of the gradient function of some
common functions

Figure: Finding the gradient function of some common functions.

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 Other Rules for Differentiating a Function

Product Rule:
If f (x) and g(x) are two functions and y = f (x)g(x), then
y ′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)

Example: Use the product rule to differentiate

y = x3 sin 2x
Step 1: let f (x) = x3 and g(x) = sin 2x
Step 2: differentiate f (x) = x3 and g(x) = sin 2x to have
f ′ (x) = 3x2 and g ′ (x) = 2 cos 2x
Step 3: Using product rule, we get
y ′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)
= (3x2 )(sin 2x) + (x3 )(2 cos 2x)
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= x2 (3 sin 2x + 2x cos 2x)
 Other Rules for Differentiating a Function Cont....

Quotient Rule:
f (x)
If f (x) and g(x) are two functions and y = g(x) , then
f ′ (x)g(x)−f (x)g ′ (x)
y′ = (g(x))2
, where g(x) ̸= 0

sin 2x
Example: Use the quotient rule to differentiate y = x2
Soln: let f (x) = sin 2x and g(x) = x2 . Now, using
product rule, we get

f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)

y′ =
(g(x))2
(cos 2x)(x2 ) − (sin x)(2x)
=
x4
2x(x cos 2x − sin x) 2(x cos x − sin x)
= 4
=
x x3
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 Other Rules for Differentiating a Function Cont....

Chain Rule:
dy dy dx
If y = y(x) and x = x(t), then = × .
dt dx dt

dy
Example: Use the chain rule to find when
dt
y = cos x and x = t2
Soln: Defferentiating y with respect to x and x with
dy dx
respect to t, we get = − sin x and = 2t.
dx dt
Thus, using the chain rule we have
dy dy dx
= ×
dt dx dt
= (− sin x)(2t)
= −2t sin x
34 / 58 = −2t sin t2
 Exercise: Product, Quotient, and Chain Rules

Exercise:
Use appropriate rules to differentiate the following
functionss.
sin x
1. y = .
ex
2. f (x) = 2x ln x.
x+1
3. y = .
x2 + 1
sin x
4. y = .
cos x
5. y = (7x + 3)4 .
6. f (t) = e−2t+3 .
7. g(a) = ln(3x − 2).

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 Higher-Order Derivatives

Finding Higher-Order Derivatives:

⋇ Recall that differentiating a function, f (x), yields f ′ (x)
and this is called the first derivative.
⋇ If the first derivatives is differentiable, it can also be
differentiated.
⋇ Thus, the derivative of the first derivative is the second
d2 y
derivative. We denote this by f ′′ (x) or .
dx2
⋇ This process can be continued.
⋇ Thus, the derivative of the second derivative is the third
d3 y
derivative and is denoted by f ′′′ (x) or and so on.
dx3

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 Example: Higher-Order Derivatives

Finding Higher-Order Derivatives:

⋇ If

f (x) = x5 − 2x4 + 3x3 − x − 1,

then

f ′ (x) = 5x4 − 8x3 + 9x2 − 1,

f ′′ (x) = 20x3 − 24x + 18x,
f ′′′ (x) = 60x2 − 48x + 18,
f (4) (x) = 120x − 48,
f (5) (x) = 120,
f (6) (x) = 0.

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 Exercise: Higher-Order Derivatives

Exercise:
ds d2 s
1. Find and 2 if s = 3t2 − t22
dt dt
d2 y
2. If y = (ax + 2)2 and = 18, find the value of a
dx2
3. If s = 3t3 − 30t2 + 36t + 2, find the values of t for which
ds d2 s
= 0 and the value of t for which 2 = 0.
dt dt
A
4. if y = + Bx, where A and B are constants, show that
x
d2y dy
x2 2 + x = y.
dx dx

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 Applications of Derivatives

Analysis of curves:
Definition: A function y = f (x) is said to be an increasing
function over a certain interval of values of x if y increases
with the increase of x. That is if x1 and x2 are any two values
in the given interval with x2 > x1 , then f (x2 ) > f (x1 ).
In case f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) , then the function is decreasing.

Figure: The sketches depict the situation:

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 Applications of Derivatives

Theorem:
(a) If f ′ (x) > 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b) then f (x) is increasing over the
given interval.
(b) If f ′ (x) < 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b) then f (x) is decreasing over the
given interval.

Example:
Find the values of x for which the function

f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1

is increasing or decreasing.

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 Solution:

f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1
f ′ (x) = 2x − 2

f ′ > 0 implies that 2x − 2 > 0, so f (x) is increasing for all

values of x in the interval x > 1. Or simply put, x ∈ (1, ∞).
Similarly on the decreasing function:
f ′ (x) < 0 ⇒ x ∈ (−∞, 1).

Example:
Find the values of x for which the function

f (x) = x3 − 3x

is increasing or decreasing. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

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 Solution:
We have
f ′ = 3x2 − 3
f ′ > 0 implies that 3x2 − 3 > 0

3(x2 − 1) > 0
3(x − 1)(x + 1) > 0

x < x = −1 < x = x>1

−1 −1 x<1 1
x−1 − - − 0 +
(x + 1) − 0 + + +
(x − 1)(x + 1) + 0 − 0 +
42 / 58
 Solution:
Thus f (x) is increasing for all values of x in the intervals
(−∞, −1) and (1, ∞).
f (x) is decreasing for all values of x in the interval
−1 < x < 1.
To draw the graph, we need the x intercepts and the
turning points. At the turning points, f ′ (x) = 0. This
implies that x = −1 or x = 1. Substituting this values
back in the original equation we get f (−1) = 2 and
f (1) = −2.
For the x-intercepts we√let y =√0.
x3 − 3x = 0 → x = − 3x = 3.
When x = 0, y = 0.

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 Solution:

Figure: The sketch of the graph f (x) = x3 − 3x.

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 Applications of Derivatives

Concavity:
Definition: Let f be differentiable on an open interval I. The
graph of f is concave upward on I if f ′ is increasing on the
interval and concave downward on I if f ′ is decreasing.

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 Theorem (Test for concavity):
Let f be a function whose second derivative exists on an open
interval I.
(a) If f ′′ > 0 ∀ x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave upward
on I.
(b) If f ′′ < 0 ∀ x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave
downward on I.

Example:
Determine the open interval (values of x) on which the graph
of f (x) = 6(x2 + 3)−1 is concave upward or downward.

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 Solution:
Observe that f is continuous on the entire real line. Now
−12x
f ′ (x) = −6(x2 + 3)(−2x) = ,
(x2 + 3)2
(x2 + 3)2 (−12) − (−12x)(2)(x2 + 3)(2x)
f ′′ (x) =
(x2 + 3)4
36(x2 − 1)
= .
(x2 + 3)3

To test for concavity, we let f ′′ (x) = 0, and so

36(x2 − 1)
= 0 =⇒ x = ±1.
(x2 + 3)

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 Solution:
x < x = −1 ≤ x = x>1
−1 −1 x≤1 1
x−1 − − − 0 +
(x + 1) − 0 + + +
(x − 1)(x + 1) + 0 − 0 +

For concave upward, f ′′ (x) > 0. Thus the graph is

concave upwards for x < −1 and x > 1 or in the open
intervals (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞).
For concave downwards, f ′′ (x) < 0. Thus the graph is
concave downwards for −1 < x < 1 or in the open interval
(−1, 1). (See the graph on next slide).

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 Solution:

Figure: The sketch of the function f (x) = 6(x2 + 3)−1 .

Exercise:
Determine the values of x for which the graph of
x2 + 1
f (x) = 2 is concave upward or downward.
x −4
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 Applications of Derivatives

Points of inflection:
A point of inflection on a curve is a point where the curve
changes the direction of concavity.
Theorem: If (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph
of f , then either f ′′ (x) = 0 or f ′′ is not defined at x = c.
From the graphs, observe that at the point of inflection
the graph crosses its tangent line.

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 Example:
Determine the points of inflection of the graph and discuss the
concavity of the graph of f (x) = x4 − 4x3

Solution:

f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x2

f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 24x = 12x(x − 2)

Possible points of inflection occur when f ′′ (x) = 0, that is

x = 0 and x = 2.
Concave upward when f ′′ (x) > 0.
Concave downward when f ′′ (x) < 0.
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 Solution:
x<0 x=0 0 < x < x = x>2
2 2
12x − 0 + + +
(x − 2) − − − 0 +
12x(x − 2) + 0 − 0 +

Concave upward: x < 0 and x > 0.

Concave downward: 0 < x < 2.

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 Maxima and Minima

Maxima and Minima:

Definition:
i. A function f (x) is said to have a local maximum at x = c
if f (c) > f (x) for all x sufficiently near c.
ii. A function f (x) is said to have a local minimum at x = c
if f (c) < f (x) for all x sufficiently near c.
iii. The term extremum is used to denote either a local
maximum or a local minimum. Extrema is the plural of
extremum.
iv. The value x = c is called the critical value for continuous
function f if
a. either f ′ (x) = 0 or f ′ (c) fails to exist at x = c and if
b. f (c) is well defined.

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 Figure:

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 To determine whether the critical values are a maximum or
minimum we will consider a special method called the second
derivative test as follows:
⋇ Find the critical values of x.
⋇ Substitute each critical value of x into the second
derivative.
⋇ If the sign of the second derivative is positive for the
critical value, the function has a minimum at that point.
⋇ If the sign of the second derivative is negative, the
function has a maximum at that point.

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 Second Derivative Test

Theorem
Let f (x) be defferentiable at x = c. Then
i. x = c is a local maximum of f whenever f ′ (c) = 0 and
and f ′′ (c) < 0;
ii. x = c is a local minimum of f whenever f ′ (c) = 0 and
f ′′ (c) > 0.

Example:
Find the local maximum and minimum values of

f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 4x − 8.

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 Solution:
First find the critical values, f ′ (x) = 0.

f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 4x − 4.

For extrema, f ′ (x) = 0.

=⇒ 3x2 + 4x − 4 = 0
=⇒ (3x − 2)(x + 2) = 0.

Critical values x = 23 or x = −2.

Find the second derivative:

f ′′ (x) = 6x + 4
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 Solution:
⋇ When x = 23 , f ′′ ( 23 ) > 0 =⇒ f (x) has a local minimum
when x = 23 , whose value is given by f ( 23 ) = − 256
27 .
⋇ When x = −2, f ′′ (−2) < 0. This implies that f (x) has a
local maximum when x = −2, given by f (−2) = 0.

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 Exercise:
i. Determine the local maxima and minima for
ln x
f (x) = .
x
ii. Determine the local maximum and minimum values of

h(x) = x(x2 − 6x + 9).

iii. Determine the local maximum and minimum values of

h(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 4x − 8.

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