Wellington College

Geography Department

82

Complete
Geography
for Cambridge IGCSE®

David Kelly
Muriel Fretwell

Oxford and 'Or-Nesloyuletexe

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Pre dote Wn ey

BACB
Complete
Geography
for Cambridge IGCSE®

David Kelly
Muriel Fretwell

Ob eronsmrnelemOrvileyeterxe Od. 6X0) SD)

ReFeXohtarem=tolerer-la(elamnole(-1aal-1¢
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
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Welcome to your Cambridge IGCSE® Geography course. The material
on the CD-ROM has been specially written to support your learning.
On these two pages you can see what you will find on the CD-ROM.
Everything in the book and CD-ROM has been designed to help you
prepare for your examination and achieve your best.

Complete
even @-linleydrele=

Welcome to your Complete Geography for

Cambridge IGCSE CD-ROM. On this CD-ROM you
will find:
e Additional questions for every chapter in the book
e Acomprehensive glossary
Revision checklists
Interactive multiple choice tests
Past exam paper questions
Answers to all the questions in the book and
CD-ROM.

Click here for content

A comprehensive revision tool that
unpacks the vocabulary of the subject
and carefully explains tricky terms.

itional questions
1 (pages 8-9) ‘© Compare the proportions of:
a How has the world’s total human population I the elderly Abrasion See corrasion. stage concentrates on one part of Biomass The mass of animal and
changed In the last 50 years? WW children in China's population in 2000, Accessibility How easy iL is (or people the production process, mates
b When Is the total world population expected to with those expected in 2050, as shown 10 (ravel to and trom a particular Atmosphere The mixture of gases that Biome A major division of the word's.
start falling?
How is the natural increase (or decrease) of
In Fig. 1.12.
(pages 26-7)
every chapter in point, usually (a terms of ime
bavelled.
encircle the Earth. tis about 99%
nitrogen and oxygen, with sai
‘amounts of other gases such as
vegetation that Is adapted to a
particular climate.
Biotechnology Using biological
population calculated? What major population problem does Japan have? Aerospace industry Making vehicles
How and why did the Agricultural and Industrial
Revolutions change the world’s total population? b State three problems facing Japan's economically
active population, the book that trovel in the Earth's atmosphere
and beyond,
Afforestation Pianting trees, usually
waler vapour, methane and ozone,
Atoll A circular of oval coral reef around
@ shallow lagoon.
processes or living micro-organisms
in industry.
Bipolar survey A scale from +3to ~3
(pages 10-11) List three ways in which the Japanese government
List three economic reasons why some countries has tried to increase the workforce. over a lage area. Attrition The process of erosion when is used to evaluate aspects of the
have high birth rates.
List three different reasons why death rates (pages 28-9)
How did Botswana's death rate change:
Pull together all the Age-sox pyramid A diagram used to
show thestructure of a population. It
fragments of the river's toad become
smaller and move rounded by
envitonment. Each is assessed
subjectively and given a score.
have fallen. is also called a population pyramid. collision with the bed and banks and Birth rate The number of babies born
1 between 1984 and 1991?
Why do you think that countries in the Middle
East have lower death rates than countries in I between 1991 and 2001?
M between 2001 and 20117
aspects of the work that Agriculture Another word for farming.
itis me artificiat cukivation of plants
each other.
Automated A process that is made
ach year per 1000 peopie.
Bituminous coal A black coal which is
Europe and North America? Give a reason for the change: (crops) and rearing of animots for aotomatic. (ypically about 85% carbon.
(page 12)
How Is net migration calculated?
1 between 1991 and 2001
WW between 2001 and 2011. you have considered food and other products,
Afluvlum/atlavial soll The deposits tid
Backwash The water in a wave that
flows back towards the sea after the
Blow-out a large depression,
sometimes going right across a dune,
What is calculated by adding net migration to the down by 0 everints flood plain or ‘swash has reached its highest polat. where sand has been removed bythe
10 (pages 29-30)
natural Increase of apopulation?
What term is used for a person who leaves an a Which settlement in Botswana has the highest,
population density?
earlier, and test your delta. They give mingral-rich,
fertile soils.
Bar A ridge of sand or shingle that
extends dght across @ bay.
wind, leaving a hollow.
Borehole A tube-shaped hole drilled
area to move to another area? Altocumulus Medium-level cloud with Bar graph Bar graphs can usvally be into the rock, generally 10-20 om
b Name a region in Botswana which has a low
(pages 12-13)
What Is the correct definition of overpopulation?
population density because it's:
1 dry and sandy
knowledge on this @ flat base and globular upper
‘surface.
used ia similar circumstances to
fine graphs. A bar graph (s preferred
in diameter.
Braided channel A aver channel which
1 Many people living in a small area. Il a large salt pan
Altostratus Layer cloud formed ata when there are a number of separate splits and rejoins (often foond in
Il A population that is growing very rapidly.
Mil A population that Is too large for the area's.
li infested with tsetse flies
Wv a swamp.
material. medium level.
Anemometer An instroment used to
tems that can't realy be joined,
because they do not appear in a
deltas)
Brownfield site A site that hos been
measure wind speed. definite order. Previously built oo and could be
resources to sustain it.
Wy Many migrants moving into an area with a 11 (pages 33-5) Anerold barometer An insivument Barograph An instrument used 10 re-developed.
large population.
a What group of people emigrated temporarily from containingacollapsible metal box measure thepressure of thealrand Bustee & termused for a shanty in
Name an example of an under-populated country. Botswana before the 1980s and where was their used 10 measure the alc pressure, make a continuous recording of on some south Asian countries.
What do many under-populated countries destination? Anoxic When conditions are graph papec. Capltat Technically, this is something
do to try to solve the problems caused by Name a country from which a lot of migrants waterlogged and there Is little oxygen. Barrier reef A cor) ree! separated reqpited to help in producing other
under-population? moved to Botswana over many years because of Apartment Sometimes used to mean from the maintand by a wide and.
civil war. deep lagoon.
Goods. e.g. machinery oF storage
(pages 13-14) From which country have the most recent
the samo as a fat ~ a self-contained buildings However. in the sense that
Name a country that ls densely populated over immigrants to Botswana come in large numbers housing wait within a larger bulging, Bay An approximately semi-circular it's used here, you can take it to
most of its land area, and also overpopulated. and why have they moved? sometimes & multi-storey block. indentation in a coasting between mean money,
Explain why the country Is overpopulated. However, it's sometines used when two headiands, Carbon sink A natural store for carbon
12 (pages 34-6) the individual units have separate Beach A deposit of sand o¢ shingle ‘9nd carbon dioxlde (e.g. the tropical
(pages 14-19) a What is an economic migrant? private owners. Detween the highest level ceached ralnforests).
Complete the sentences to describe the changes b What name is given to describe an enforced Aquifer A rock thot contains water in its by storm waves and the lowest Carbonation The process of chemical
that would occur in the shape of a country’s movement of people? Pore spaces that can be extracted. water mark.
© What is the correct definition of urbanisation? weathering where calcium carbonate
population pyramid if it developed from Stage 1 to
1 The movement of people from the rural areas Arable Growing crops. Beaufort Scale A measure of different in Kimestone (s attacked by carbonic
Stage 5 of the Demographic Transition Model. Arch Ahole with a roof that extends wind strengths.
1 The base would ... to live in towns and cities. acid produced in rainwater,
MW The height would ... li The movement of people from smaller towns fromonesideof a headlandto Bias A distortion which causes the Carbonic acid A naturally occuring
I The proportion of people aged over 65 would ... to live in bigger towns and citles, the other, Population to be misrepresented. weak 200, formed when carboo
Draw the overall shape of a population pyramid of Ill The increasing proportion of a country's Area sampling Certain gid squares on Mt often results trom subjective dioxide ia the airs dissolved in
a country in; population that lives in towns and cities. 2 map are studied orquadrats used Judgment by the researcher, rainwater.
| Stage 1 Iv The increase of population In a city or town. in the field, Blodiversity The variety of species of Cash crop A crop produced to be sold
W Stage 3 What do you understand by the term Ash The fine dust produced by a plants and animals in an area. for money.
MI Stage 5 transmigration’? volcanic eruption, Biofuel Any fuel which comes trom Cave An indentation with 2roo! atthe
State the disadvantages of Indonesia's Aspect When used in geography, this biomass. it includes liquid (uels base of cliffs, where rock has been
(pages 20-22) transmigration programme.
Which country has been the most effective in means the compass direction in, (bioethanol and biodiesel), various removed by erosion.
controlling its population growth? whic 9 slope faces, Diogases and soild biofuels. Central business district (CBD) The
Why has the country you named in (a) been so Assembly fine The method of Biological weathering When rocks at centaal area ina town orcitywith
successful (n controlling Its population growth? Production, for example In a car the Earth’s surface are orokea down the highest land prices, greatest
factory, where each car passes and plant or animal matter playsan accessibility, aad a concentration of
through a series of stages and each important pan. big shops and offices.

© OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012 © OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012 S

 Revision checklist Chapter 1
You need to: Revision checklists
OD know the meaning of the following terms: birth rate, death rate. demographic
transition model, dependency ratio, dependent population, economically active
Population, economic migrant, emigrant, enviconmentat rofugee, fertility rate,
Immigrant, infant mortality, internal migration, international migcation, (avoluntary
Check that you have covered all the essentials by printing out these
Migrant. LEOC, life expectancy, MEOC, migration, natural decrease, natural
inerease, ever-population, physical, population density, population distiMbution,
Population (age-sex) pyramid, population structure, refugee, rurabto-cural migration, handy revision tools and ticking off those topics that you are confident
furalitourban migcation, seasona) migrant, social, sustainable, transmigration,
under-population, urbanisation, urban-to-rural migration, urban-to-usban migration,
voluntary migrant
O be able to describe and expiaia the rapid increase in the world's population
be able to describe the problems that can result (rom rapid population growth,
with reference to a case study
7 now about the causes and consequences of overpopulation and under poputation,
and be able to describe a countty case study for each one

J understand the causes of diferent birth and death rates {including infant mortality
fates) in countries at various stages of development
7 ve abie to describe the impact of migration on the populations of countries with
positive anct negative net migeations
7 know about the different rates of popolation growth in LEDC and MEDCs, and
be able to describ a case study for each
Interactive multiple choice tests
eB
1 understand how population (age-sex) pyramids are constructed and be able to.
interpret population structure from their shapes
2 know about the demographic transition model and how and why countries at
Test your knowledge on every chapter of the book with interactive multiple
choice tests that encourage reflection and revision.
each stage have different-shaped population pyramids:
1 know the difference between popuiation distribution and population density
1 be adie to describe and explain the population distribution and density of at
teast one county (including knowledge of place names for examples withia it)
0 be able to explain the reasons for an area with high population density (such
9s the delta of the Ganges and Brohmaputra Rivers in Bangladesh)
[1 be abie to explain the reasons for an avea with low population density (such as
te Kalahari Desert in Botswana or the Rocky Mountains of Canada)
CO be very ctear about the differences between push and pull factors
1 know about ditferent types of population migration and be able to deseribe and
et
HU
i i
explain examples of each type

5 Drag the following influences on world population change into order from
the earliest to the latest.
oo

HIV/AIDS

Agricultural and industrial Revolutions

© OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012

Emancipation of women

Major fall in the death rate due to medical advances | |

——

Major fall in the birth rate

Past paper questions

Past paper questions are reproduced by permission of University of Cambridge International Examinations.

Chapter 1: Population dynamics

QUESTION 1: Cambridge IGCSE Geography 0460/11 Q1 June 2009
Past exam paper
(a) Study Fig. 1, which shows the number of international migrants to the USA from
selected countries in 2000.
questions
An extensive range of wers to additional questions
real University of a
a The world’s total human population has increased
4
a Overpopulation Is defined correctly in Option ii:
in the last 50 years — but it's now increasing at ‘A population that Is too large for the area's
Cambridge International halfthe rate it was in the 1960s,
The total world population is expected to start
resources to sustain it”
b Australia and Canada are both examples of
falling after 2183, under-populated countries, but there are others

1AMAICA DOMINICAN
EUSAADORWis Eataia | Examinations past The natural increase (or decrease) of population
\s calculated using the formula:
that you could suggest.
¢ Many under-populated countries encourage
number of births per 1000 — number of deaths immigration to try to solve the problems caused
paper questions for th e ;
per 1000
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions
increased the world’s total population, because 5
by under-population.

greater use of more efficient farm machinery a Bangladesh is densely populated over most of its
most effective revision freed people from jobs in agriculture to move to land area, and also overpopulated.
b Bangladesh Is overpopulated because it has few
resources, apart from agricultural produce, It
U
urban areas (to work in factories instead), Greater
prosperity resulted, which allowed these people to
and practice. support larger families. cannot afford to import raw materials, so it has
few industries to produce exports to increase its
GDP — and therefore its ability to support Its large
—+ 20.000
orfewer ~—= 40001 to 60.000 Economic reasons why some countries have high population.
—+ 20.001 to 40.000 [I over60.000 birth rates: 6
* To provide labour far the family farm.
Fig.1 * To boost the family's income in other ways.
a Ifa country developed between Stage 1 and
Stage 5 of the Demographic Transition Model, its.
* People are too poor to buy contraceptives, population pyramid would change as follows:
(i) What is meant by international migration? * The country Is too poor to bulld family planning 1 The base would become narrower.
clinics or subsidise contraception.
Mi The height would increase.
Poverty causes high child mortality, so couples
(ii) Using Fig.1 only, name: have more children to ensure that at least lil The proportion of people aged over 65 would
Increase.
Answers to all
some will survive.
A acountry from which there were more than 40 000 migrants to the USA }_ Different reasons why death rates have fallen:
b The overall shape of a country’s population
in the year 2000; The development of medical knowledge and pyramid in Stages 1, 3 and 5 Is:
medical facilities, including more doctors and ‘Stages Stage 3
B acountry from which there were fewer than 20 000 migrants to the USA
in the year 2000. (2) questions nurses.
The eradication of some diseases by
vaccination programmes.
Ae

(iii) Describe three pull factors of MEDCs to migrants from LEDCs. [3] Improved sanitation and more access to clean

(iv) Many people from LEDCs who have migrated to MEDCs still end up
Every question in the water supplies.
Better nutrition and access to food.
with a poor quality of life. Suggest reasons for this. (4)
book and CD-ROM, both ’ OL AaMING TE dni eintielditeon a China has been the most effective country in
reasons, do not use very similar ones, ¢,g. more doctors controlling its population growth,
_ from activities and past and more nurses. Better medical care might be thought
of as one reason, as might a better water supply and
sanitation,
b China has been so successful in controlling its
population growth because it has rewarded
families who only have one child and penalised

papers, has a model Countries in the Middle East have lower death c
families who have more than one,
| The population of elderly people In China’s
rates than countries in Europe and North America, population is expected to Increase from about
answer included to because they do not have such a large proportion
of elderly in their populations. Their life expectancy
16% to about 55%.
il The proportion of children is expected to
reduce from about 34% to about 25%.
\s lower.

really enhance learning. Net migration is calculated using the formula:

8
a Japan's major population problem is that it has an
ageing population, with a very high elderly
number of Immigrants — number of emigrants dependency ratio.
Population growth is calculated by adding net b Japan’s.economically active population will
migration to the natural increase of a population. have to:
A person who leaves an area to move to another * pay more taxes to help support the increasing
ayea is known as a migrant (they are an omlgrant needs of the country’s growing elderly
from the area they leave and an immigrant to the population
area they move to).
Introduction
The purpose of this book is to prepare you for University > Chapters 1-11 provide the knowledge and
of Cambridge International Examinations in IGCSE understanding needed to answer IGCSE Paper 1
Geography. It is intended to provide you with a good questions.
preparation for studying geography at a higher level. It >) Chapter 12 provides preparation in the skills and
provides a background to some of the key issues facing analysis needed for Paper 2.
the world today, such as food and water shortages, *> Chapter 13 provides preparation in the investigative
climatic change and natural disasters. skills needed for Paper 3 (Coursework) and Paper 4
(alternative to coursework).
The Cambridge IGCSE® Geography syllabus is covered
as follows. This book provides an active approach to the subject,
with questions for you to answer and tasks for you to
CIE syllabus section | Pages Chapter
do both within and at the end of each chapter. Specimen
1.1 Population 1-37 1 Population dynamics answers to all of the questions can be found on the
dynamics, 1.2 Migration,
accompanying CD.
1.3 Population structure,
1.4 Population density The final part of each question on the Cambridge IGCSE
and distribution Paper 1 asks you to describe an example that you have
1.5 Settlements and § 38-88 2 Settlement studied in detail - a case study. Each chapter contains
service provision, 1.6 case studies to help you answer these questions. You
| Urban settlements, 1.7 may, of course, choose to do different case studies that
Urbanisation
are more relevant to the area where you live.
2.1 Earthquakes and 89-109 3 Plate tectonics
volcanoes As well as answers to all of the questions in the book,
| 2m Rivers 121-137 5 River processes and the accompanying CD also contains:
¢ . landforms —
> a full glossary of key words related to each chapter
2.3 Coasts 138-166 6 Marine processes and > additional questions based on the material in the
landforms
book (some of them interactive)
2.4 Weather 167-200 7 Weather — > additional Cambridge IGCSE past paper questions,
2.5 Climate and natural 201-228 8 Climate and vegetation which you can print off.
vegetation
3.1 Development 11-20, Economic development is A note about terms
47-55, . described in Chapters 1, 2, This book uses the terms ‘more economically developed
63-88, 9 and 10 countries’ (MEDCs) and ‘less economically developed
(1243-253, countries’ (LEDCs). These terms are often referred to
258-265 in examination questions. This classification is used
3.2 Food production 229-253 9 Agriculture throughout the book but it must be remembered that
3.3 Industry, 3.4 Tourism 254-282 10 Industry there is no generally accepted, up-to-date definition of
3.5 Energy, 3.6 Water 283-309 11 Energy and water the terms and not all countries are easy to classify.
3.7 Environmental risks 71-72, Environmental risks and Two other terms used throughout the book - which
of economic 238- benefits are described
often cause confusion - are physical and human when
development 2535 throughout the book
referred to in geography. Physical geography is the
284-309
natural features of relief, drainage and vegetation, while
Paper 2 310-333 12 Geographical skills
human geography is the non-natural features such as
Papers 3 and 4 334-355 13 Geographical
settlement, agriculture, industry and transport.
investigations
 Human population growth
: How fast is the world’s population
growing?
' As you can see in Fig 1.1, human population growth
was very small until around 1500 - when there were
about halfa billion people on the planet. Three hundred
| years later, the population had doubled to 1 billion.
i Then, in the 100 years between 1820 and 1920, the
population doubled again - and again in the next 50
years. The rate of increase quickened until the 1960s,
when the planet supported more than 3 billion people.
I This figure had risen to 6.93 billion (6 930 000 000)
_ by July 2011. (The 2011 population figures quoted in
: this chapter are estimated for July 2011 by the US
Census Bureau). A glance at Fig. 1.1 suggests that the
bigger the population, the faster it has grown - but is
that still the case?

(billions)
Population

O
1000 1100 41200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2050
Year

Fig. 1.1 World population growth since 1000

The changes shown in Table 1.1 suggest that the rate

of population growth might be slowing down. In fact,
6.79 billion
the highest growth rate in world population was 2.2%
in the 1960s - when there was an increase in the global
population of more than 200 people a minute. By 2011,
the growth rate had halved to 1.1%. It is difficult to
estimate future population numbers, but they are likely 216000
j Be eee aa Pe
to continue rising for many years - with serious Be= i
150 =
implications for the world’s resources. The United
Nations expects world population to peak at about Table 1.1 A comparison of world population growth in 2009
and 2011
10 billion around the year 2183.

@ LEARNING TIP Be clear about the difference between growth in {

).C) Discussion point
total numbers and growth rates. Always look carefully at the units used on
How can the young people of today influence
graph axes. Remember that a fall in the growth rate does not result in a fall how many people will be living in the world
in the total population until the growth rate becomes negative. in 2050?
Why has the population growth Niger has the highest birth rate in the world, and Russia
rate changed? has one of the highest death rates. Niger has a positive
The natural increase or decrease of population population growth rate but Russia’s is negative because
depends on the difference between the birth and death its death rate exceeds its birth rate. Although now there
rates. The birth rate is the number of babies born each are differences between countries, until the 1960s
year per 1000 people, and the death rate is the number almost every country had an increasing population.
of people who die each year per 1000 people. Population growth rates, 1700-1939
The rate of natural increase, or decrease, is the birth Population growth rates really started to rise significantly
rate minus the death rate. For 2011, the calculation is in the late 1700s, as a result of the Agricultural and
19.15 per 1000 - 8.12 per 1000 = 11.03 per thousand Industrial Revolutions in North America and Europe.
increase, which can be expressed as a percentage growth New agricultural machinery led to greater crop yields
rate of 1.103%. with fewer workers. With less need for farm workers,
many rural people were free to move to urban areas to
Surprisingly, in the 1300s, the world actually had a work in the rapidly expanding industries there.
negative growth rate - or natural decrease in population
- when bubonic plague devastated the populations of As countries became more prosperous, they were able
Europe and China (see Fig. 1.1). to support larger populations. Families with more than
ten children were common in the late 1800s. Then
death rates began to fall rapidly - due to tremendous
Look again at Fig. 1.1. Describe what the
relationship between the birth and death rates
advances in medical care and the supply of clean water
would have been like in (i) 1100, (ii) 1800, and and sanitation - particularly in Europe and North
(iii) 1960. America. Because the birth rate was still high while
i Copy and complete Table 1.2 by calculating the death rate was falling rapidly in most countries,
how many years it is estimated it will take to there was a great population expansion, referred to as
add each extra billion people. a ‘population explosion’.
ii If this projection is correct, what trend does
Population growth rates since 1939
it show?
The eventual slowing down of population growth was
eye) ser)onFe]0)(<n partly due to women in MEDCs (More Economically
i Calculate the natural population growth rates Developed Countries) joining the permanent workforce
of Niger and Russia in 2011.
after the Second World War (1939-45), during which
What do your answers tell you about the they had temporarily taken over the work of absent
populations in those countries?
servicemen. More women also extended their education
i Compare the birth and death rates of Niger and delayed having children - aided by the availability
and Russia.
of the contraceptive pill. Family sizes began to fall.
Even though life expectancy was increasing as a result
of improved medical care, the total populations of
countries such as Italy and Sweden began to fall. People
realised that they could have a better standard of living
if they had a smaller number of children to support. As
the desire for material possessions grew, the number
of children being born decreased.
In some countries, including the UK, many women are
delaying having children until they are in their 40s.
Some of them fail to have the children they desire, so
the birth rate is reduced even more.

Table 1.3 Birth and death rates for Niger and Russia in 2011
1 Population dynamics

Many LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) or not to put her career before having children. In many
have been experiencing the same pattern, but their countries, however, the status of women is still inferior
changes started later and they are not so far along the and they do not have the right to decide how many
path to low birth rates and low death rates as MEDCs. children they will have, and when. Populations are still
From the 1970s, the birth rate dropped in many LEDCs, growing rapidly in many countries, particularly in Africa
where the falling death rate meant that more children and South East Asia - regions that are expected to hold
survived, so there was no need to have such large more than 60% of the total world population by 2050.
families. Also, agricultural machinery replaced the
The birth rate depends mainly on the fertility rate (the
need to have many children to work on farms. Some
average number of children born per woman) and the
countries have introduced population policies to control
age structure of the population. If the fertility rate is
birth rates.
less than 2.1 (the official replacement level), the population
In others, attitudes to women are slowly changing , so will fall (discounting migration patterns).
that a woman has the right to work and decide whether
{
.C) Discussion point
Look at Table 1.4.
1 Isit right that in some societies women are not allowed an
a_ In which continents were the countries with
education?
(i) the five highest birth rates and (ii) the five
Why do attitudes to women vary in different cultures, and
lowest birth rates in 2009?
how might the spread of the Internet and ready access to
How have the birth rates changed in general other media lead to a breakdown of traditional practices?
since 2000, and which country is the main
Elalelaatel
Wace
In which two countries did the birth rate Reasons for high birth rates
decrease the most? |
Cultural and social reasons
Compare the general amounts of decrease in the
> Inmany cultures the greater the number of children
countries with the highest birth rates with those
with the lowest birth rates.
a man has, the greater is his prestige and standing
in society.
>) A desire for a son to carry on the family name is
important in many cultures, and parents will keep
trying to have.children until a son is born.
©) Incountries without good care services for the elderly,
and without adequate pension provision, people
have children to ensure that they are looked after
in their old age.
©) In polygamous societies, aman might have children
with more than one wife. One of the most extreme
examples of this was the former King Sobhuza of
Swaziland, who had 70 wives and 210 children!
* In many societies girls marry and start giving birth
fe oo tf ue ee
at a young age, so that they produce many children
Singapore. w (Bs ize)” in their lifetimes.
Table 1.4 The countries with the highest and lowest birth rates
per 1000 in 2009. The numbers in brackets show their birth rates Religious reasons
in 2000. Some religions oppose any form of contraception and
encourage families to have children. LEDC countries
@ LEARNING TIP Questions 2b and 2d ask for your
with high Catholic, Hindu and Muslim populations
often have particularly high birth rates. However, this
analysis of the general situation. If the same questions is not always the case, as natural birth control is permitted.
were asked on an examination paper without the inclusion
Demographic reasons
of ‘general’, you should answer by generalising and mention
any anomalies to the normal situation. Do not state the Countries with a high proportion of females of child-
change in each country, although you should mention the bearing age will tend to have higher birth rates.
ones with the greatest and smallest changes.
Economic reasons With the exception of countries ravaged by HIV/AIDS
*) One of the reasons why parents have children in and wars, death rates have normally been falling steadily.
LEDCs is to provide labour for the family’s farm, or Reasons for this include:
extra workers to boost the family’s income.
the development ofnew medical knowledge and medicines,
a

2 Inpoorer economies, the chances of a good education better-trained doctors and greater access to clinics - even
are limited to a privileged few. Without the ability in rural areas. Smallpox has now been eradicated and
to read, many people have no knowledge about polio almost eradicated by vaccines. There are also better
contraception, especially if they live in rural areas. treatments for typhoid, cholera and HIV/AIDS. There
Other people are too poor to buy contraceptives, have been major attempts to reduce the incidence of
while some countries are too poor to develop family- malaria through drugs, and by providing people in
planning clinics and subsidise contraception. infected areas with sleeping nets.
*> Another reason why people in the poorest economies *) programmes in many LEDCs to increase access to
have many children is to ensure that some survive clean water and proper sanitation - both of which
into adulthood, because the medical provision is so are necessary for good health. Aid agencies from
inadequate. Also, where poverty prevails, diets lack MEDGCs, such as WaterAid, play a part in assisting
variety and people are undernourished and too weak these projects.
to fight infections. There is a high mortality or death
> the spread of knowledge about what constitutes a
rate - particularly child and infant mortality (the
better diet and a healthy lifestyle. This has been
number of children who die in their first year of life).
helped by the development of global communications
and the wider spread of media, together with more
List as many reasons as you can why the birth rate access to better education.
might fall as a country develops its economy.
*) a general improvement in access to food supplies,
although questions are now being raised about
Reasons for falling death rates whether there will be enough food to sustain future
population growth. Wealthier areas, where people
oe) @r-)olFo]0)(= toy are able to afford good diets and healthy lifestyles,
a_ What do the countries with the five lowest death are likely to have lower death rates, especially as
rates have in common? increased demand pushes food prices up.
b Suggest reasons why countries in Europe and
North America are not in the top five for the
lowest death rates. Reasons for high death rates
Reasons for high death rates are complex and can change
c What do the countries with the five highest death
rates have in common? rapidly. War and natural disasters have an effect for a
limited time, whereas changes in standards of living,
health and nutrition affect death rates more slowly and
are likely to be more permanent.
1 Swaziland
As time goes on, most countries should continue to
experience falls in mortality as people’s health improves.
However, they will also experience a rise in death rates,
due to a greater proportion of their populations living
into old age. Also, not all countries have populations
that take care of their health:

United Arab Emirates — ©) The death rate in Russia has actually increased since
Tec > { ]
1990, partly because of problems with alcoholism
J
Br wat ae 2.6
and smoking that have led to high rates of cancer.
—. ‘Qatar
yi ae Sea > Obesity, resulting from a fast food diet, is also likely to
Saudi eve
result in higher incidences of heart disease in the USA.
5 Jordan Zail (2.6) .

Table 1.5 The countries with the highest and lowest death
.C). Discussion pekeytele
rates per thousand in 2009. The figures in brackets show People in other parts of the world are increasingly eating a
their death rates in 2000. Note: the effect of HIV/AIDS is western diet, high in fat, salt and refined sugar. How can they
shown by the changes in death rate in Swaziland and stay healthy?
Lesotho since 2000.
The influence of migration on
RESEARCH Find out about the population of your own
population growth rates
country, or another country you are interested in. The main
Changes in overall world population only have two
source of your information might be the government's
influences - birth and death rates - but the population website. The CIA World Factbook on the CIA website contains
growth rates of individual countries, or areas within relevant information about all countries. Type ‘CIA World
them, are often influenced by another factor - migration. Factbook’ into your search engine. Try to find out the
Migration is the movement of people from one place to following information about your chosen country. Because
another. The source area loses the people who leave, this is quite a large research task, you could start the work
the emigrants, and the host area to which they move now and add to it as you work your way through this chapter.
has people added to it, the immigrants or in-migrants. The total population in 1900, 1950, 2000 and last year.
(Show the information in graph form, so that you can see
Net migration for an area is calculated by: the trend or trends clearly and write a note about it.)
number of immigrants - number of emigrants The birth rate, fertility rate and death rate. Use this
lf more people come in than go out, the net migration is a information to calculate the natural increase (or decrease)
positive figure. If more leave than come in, it is a negative of the population. How does it compare with the world
figure. average of 11.03%?
The population growth (orfall) of an area is calculated by: Use the birth and death rates to find out where your
natural change + net migration country fits into the demographic transition model (pages
14-15). What does this suggest will happen to the
The formula, showing all components, is:
population of your country in the future?
(birth rate - death rate) + (number of immigrants - number of
emigrants) The population structure - how many males and females
are there in each five-year age group? Plot a population
pyramid (page 16) using five-year age ranges. Draw
horizontal lines on it at 15 and 65 years. Do the working
Moye) ars)alFe]0) (aeo
population (aged 15-64) have to support a lot of young
a_ Calculate, showing your working, the population people or elderly people, or both?
growth rate per 1000 for (i) Italy and (ii) Mexico.
How many people moved in from other countries last
Describe the contrasts in natural increase and
year (the number of immigrants)? Which two countries
net migration between Italy (an MEDC) and
were the main sources of these people? Why did they
Mexico (an LEDC).
leave their countries to live in your chosen country?
Explain the contrasts you described in (b).
How many people left the country (emigrants) to live in
another country? To which two main countries did they
move? Why did they leave and why did they choose their
destination countries, do you think?
Does the country have a population policy to try to
control population growth, or to increase it? If not,
Italy 9.18 9.84 4.86 e should it have one and what do you think it should be?
Mexico 1913 48600 3.2400 2
Table 1.6 The population growth rates for Italy and Mexico in 2011

Over-population and
under-population {
.C) Discussion point
These conditions depend on the relationship between What would be the problems for you if you lived in an over
the population of an area and its resources. In an ideal populated region of your country? What could you do to
situation, the entire population ofa country should have overcome them?

a good standard of living by using the country’s resources

to build a strong economy. If there are too few people
to use all the resources of a country to maximum
efficiency, the country is said to be under-populated. @ LEARNING TIP Do not think that all sparsely
Over-population is where there are too many people to populated areas are under-populated, or that all densely
be supported to a good standard of living by the resources populated areas are over-populated. It is the balance
of the country. These descriptions can be applied to between population and resources that must be considered.
areas, as well as to countries.
 CASE STUDY
Australia - an under-populated country
With a population of only 21.7 million and a labour force per person was US$41 300. The service sector employs
of only 11.6 million, Australia is under-populated. It is very 75% of Australians. The unemployment rate is low.
rich in resources, with large reserves of iron ore, coal,
Australia’s low birth and death rates give a natural population
goid, copper, natural gas and uranium — and abundant
increase of only 1.15% a year. Its population density is
potential for solar and wind power development. Australia
only 2.6 people per square kilometre and, although a large
therefore needs to attract migrant workers to exploit its
proportion of the country is desert or semi-desert, there
many resources. The positive net migration rate of over
is ample suitable land for an increase in settlements.
6 per 1000 is the 14th highest in the world.
Education standards in Australia are high. 99% of Australians
The quantities of many of Australia’s resources are greater
are literate, and education is available for 21 years of a
than the country’s needs, so any surpluses can be exported
person's life. Health care is also good, e.g. the infant
— particularly coal from Newcastle, iron ore from Iron Knob
mortality rate is only 0.46%.
and gold from Kalgoorlie, meat, wheat, machinery and
transport equipment. Australia’s exports were worth over With all of these different factors combined, Australia
US$200 billion in 2010. Its gross domestic product (GDP) could support a larger population.

to exploit their resources efficiently, support their retired and goods, so many items have to be imported - which
populations and provide enough services. As their total increases their cost and adversely affects the countries’
domestic markets are small, it is difficult to attract balance of payments. As a result, under-populated
foreign investors to promote industrial growth. countries often encourage immigration.

CASE STUDY

Bangladesh - an over-populated country

Almost the whole of Bangladesh is made up of the Ganges support. Its GDP is only US$1700 per person, which is far
delta and the wide floodplains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra too low to provide a good standard of living. Its exports of
rivers. Therefore, the country is frequently flooded — both garments, tea, seafood, jute and leather are worth only
by river floods and by coastal floods, which occur as a result US$16.24 billion a year. An estimated 40% of the population
of storm surges caused by cyclones approaching from the are under-employed. Many exist on low wages for a few
Bay of Bengal. Floods have caused the deaths of more than hours’ work a week.
a million people there in the last 200 years.
There are alSo not enough schools and hospitals. Only 48%
Bangladesh has few natural resources and relies on farming. of the population are literate, and education is provided for
Of the 73.8 million labour force 45% work in agriculture — only eight years of a person’s life. Most people have no
mainly as subsistence farmers. Minerals like iron ore are qualifications. Access to health care is also poor. For
the basis of the manufacturing industry, and raw materials example, the infant mortality rate is 5.07%.
such as this are so expensive that industries based on
The outlook for the future is not good:
imports would not be profitable.
7) The agricultural land on the floodplains of the Ganges
Bangladesh has the seventh largest population in the world
and Brahmaputra rivers is already over-cultivated.
— 158 million — but only ranks 94th in the world in terms
of land area, so it has a high population density of more There has been widespread deforestation for firewood
than 1000 people per square kilometre. The net migration on the foothills of the Himalayas — increasing the flood
rate is negative at -1.57 per 1000. risk.

Muslims make up 85% of the population. Some leaders do The capital, Dhaka, is heavily congested with traffic and
not advocate the use of contraception. With a high birth has overcrowded housing — often lacking basic amenities.
rate of nearly 23 per 1000, and a high death rate of 5.7
per 1000 (resulting in a population growth rate of 1.6%), The cost of repairing damage to infrastructure after
Bangladesh has far more people than its resources can flooding is a frequent drain on the economy.
 Look again at the two case studies.
a Copy and complete Table 1.7 to highlight the differences between the two
countries.
Which statistics indicate that Bangladesh has few resources but Australia has
many?

Table 1.7 Comparing an

under-populated and an
over-populated country

@ LEARNING TIP
You can use Bangladesh
as an example of a densely
populated country, as well
as an over-populated
one. The only areas in
Bangladesh which are not
very densely populated are
Infant mortality rate (%) coastal mangrove swamps
and the Chittagong Hills
in the south-east.
The demographic transition model
The demographic transition model is a simplified explanation of
how the population patterns of countries alter over time - due to
changing birth and death rates - as they move from rural, poorly
educated societies to urban, industrial, well-educated ones. The model
fits what happened in Europe, the USA and Japan - but poorer countries
might not follow the same pattern.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

Birth rate Total

population

Births and deaths

per 1000 people
per year

Low

tne———
Fig. 1.2 The demographic transition model
 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Death rate High because of Starting to fall because Still falling, for the Remains low. Goes up slightly
disease, famine, lack of improved medicine, |same reasons as because more of the
of clean water, lack of cleaner water, more Stage 2. population is elderly.
medical care. and better food,
improved sanitation.
Birth rate High, due toalack of Still high, for the same Starting to fall, Low, because of birth Remains low, and can
birth control; women reasons as Stage 1. because fewer people __ control - people are fall below the death
also marry very young; are farmers who need _—snow having the number rate; changes in
children are needed to children to work; birth of children they want. lifestyle mean people
work in the fields to control is now have fewer children
support the family’s available; numbers of later.
income. infant deaths are
falling; women are
staying in education
longer and marrying
later.
This ... Natural increase is ... Natural increase is ... there’s still some ... there is little or no ... f more people die
means low; population doesn’t high; population natural increase, but natural increase, so than are born, the total
that... increase much. increases quickly. it’s lower than it was; population doesn’t population will
overall population increase much. probably fall
increase is slowing (depending on
down. migration patterns).
Places at Perhaps just a few Poor countries with low Countries where Richer countries which A few richer countries,
this stage remote tribes in levels of economic economic development are more economically like Japan, Italy and
today tropical rainforests, development, such as is improving, like India developed, such asthe Germany.
isolated from the rest Nigeria and and Brazil. UK, USA and France.
of the world. Afghanistan.

Table 1.8 What happens at each stage of the demographic transition model?

The demographic transition model shows how population patterns

ole) ere) elf ena Jae fF]
0)(=Yi
can change over time. Below is asummary of some of the factors that
help to explain this change. a At which stage of the
demographic transition model
are most LEDCs?
What is happening to the birth
Changes to farming methods Urbanisation :
rate, death rate and natural
If people rely on farming, and ; As farming methods change, and
increase at that stage?
there is little technology, they fewer people are needed to work
often have large families to on the land, many rural people At which stage of the
provide extra workers. i move to urban areas to work. demographic transition model
As technology increases, and | They need fewer children there, are most MEDCs?
countries develop, fewer people so they have smaller families. What is happening to the birth
are employed in farming and the rate, death rate and natural
need for large families declines. increase at that stage?
gh

Factors affecting population change

>

Education and women

As society and the economy develop, women tend to stay in
{
).C). Discussion point
education longer. This means that they get married and start having
children later, and usually have fewer children as a result. Why might some LEDCs not pass through all
Educated women also know more about birth control, and so can i of the stages of the demographic transition
limit their families more effectively. : model?
== z SSS
 “1Population dynamics
a Sania ee

Changing population structures Constructing a population pyramid

Population pyramids e Draw a vertical scale showing age ranges in five-year

Population pyramids are diagrams designed to show bands, with the youngest group at the bottom. If there
the population structure (the composition of the are insufficient numbers in the highest age ranges to
he diagram,
ee combine two or more bands. For
population). This means the proportions or numbers sey Cn
; example, you could have an ‘over 75’ band. The vertical
of males and females in three broad age bands - usually scale is often placed in the centre of the diagram.
sub-divided into five-year age ranges. When describing. _aw a horizontal scale to cover the biggest age group
the population structure, divide it into these three broad size on each side.
bands: e Plot bars for males in each age range on the left and for
females on the right.
> the young dependent population below 15 years
of age
> the economically active or working population
aged from 15 to 64 &
> the elderly dependents aged 65 and above. LEARNING TIP A population pyramid does not
: show the birth or death rates of a population, nor does it
Taxes paid to the government by the economically active show life expectancy. An impression of these can, however,
are needed to support the needs of the two dependent be inferred from the shape of the pyramid. An age-sex
groups. The population pyramid is a population history pyramid is another name for this kind of diagram.
for the time since the oldest age group on it was born.

Why is Mexico’s population structure changing?

1980 as
oe en a ee over 100
Smite - +
pvce ie
90-99
soe Ao
hi iia : me

= Females: 707g" LimuMales © ae

70-79 Males im 60-69 a i we eae
60-69 ES —
eka ge =f came
ae

ee
ow

Pita
50-59
50-59

40-49
_ ea

a a —
30-39 Pattee
— 20-29
10-19
10-19
3 0-9
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
Millions
TERN TTT RT TT TTT THT

LJ Age 65 and o Age 15-64

Fig. 1.3 Mexico’s changing population structure E49 ver E’s MM Age 0-14

Look at Table 1.9.

a_ The shapes of population pyramids differ. Match the q
descriptions on the left with the statements on the right, (in
order to show what each pyramid shape indicates and what |
might be causing it). |
Describe and explain the structure of Mexico’s population |
in 1980.
ea Wit dlc anata, ee
© wide base ... What it indicates:
caused by ... ° few elderly
© narrow top ... * fewer people in each older age group
Caused by ... © many children
¢ low top ... e fewer children than before
caused by ... ¢ more elderly than in earlier times
© pyramid shape ... ¢ low life expectancy caused by high death rate
caused by ... e long life expectancy
¢ almost straight sides ... e low death rate in young and middle aged
© narrow base ...
caused by ... Reasons:
¢ wide top... e deaths in war
* shorter bars between longer ones ¢ low birth rate
above 15 years caused by ... ¢ high birth rate
¢ high top caused by ... e low death rate
Table 1.9 Reasons for the
e high death rate
shapes of population
¢ increased death rate with each older age group pyramids

Mexico, an LEDC, has a large youthful population. Under- It is expected to take at least 50 years before Mexico’s
15s currently make up 28% of the population, and 6.6% population levels out. Today’s young people will then be
are over 65. The average age is 27. moving into old age.

However, Mexico’s population structure is slowly starting Mexico’s governments have used a number of different
to change, because: population policies to influence the country’s population
growth rate:
*> it has now managed to achieve a much lower death
rate — just 4.86 deaths per 1000. Not only are more > 1936 A law was introduced to encourage marriage,
babies being added to the population, but people are child bearing, women’s health and immigration.
living longer as well! This is due to more childhood
7) 1947A new law promoted greater immigration.
vaccinations being introduced in an effort to reduce
infant mortality, and improved health care generally. However, the Mexican population grew very quickly after
1950 — doubling in the 20 years to 1970 — because Mexico’s
*) although the birth rate is starting to fall, it remains
fertility rate was very high and the death rate was falling,
over 19 per 1000. Therefore, Mexico still maintains a
because of improving health. The population growth rate
large percentage of young people. Even if they have
was now too high.
fewer children than their parents, the population of
Mexico will continue to rise for some time to come. =) 1974 A new law aimed to reduce Mexico’s population
growth in orderto promote the country’s development.
It gave men and women equal rights to
family planning and to work. It also
emphasised the use of education, information
and communication to achieve its aims.

The 1974 law was successful in reducing

Mexico’s birth rate, slowing population
growth, and saving the need to fund the
education of the 40% more Mexicans who
would otherwise have been alive today.
However, policies are still needed to
encourage later marriage, because on
average a Mexican mother still has her first
child at the age of only 21.9.

Fig 1.4 A suburb of Mexico City, whose total

population is more than 19 million
y | 1 Population dynamics |2 : ¢ ;
re SS

CASE STUDY 1950 E

over 90 E
:
Why is Japan's’ population
:
structure 80-89
Ferns Farol :
:
changing? 60-69 F
By contrast with Mexico, Japan has a population that is 50-59 ; :
ageing — and starting to get smaller. Japan has the oldest 40-49 oe % :
population in the world — over 65s make up nearly 23% pe :
(with under-15s just 13.6%). The average age is almost 40-19 . :
45 (the highest of any country). 0-9 35.4% E
Japan’s population structure is changing because: 6 4 2 0 2 a 6 P

> people are living longer. The average life expectancy

in Japan is 79 for men and 86 for women. This is due |
to a healthy diet (low in fat and salt) and a good quality
of life. Japan is one of the richest countries in the world
and has good health care and welfare systems. There
are 210 doctors for every 100 OOO people.

* the birth rate in Japan has been declining since 1975.

This is partly due to the rise in the average age at
which women have their first child. This rose from 25.6
years in 1970 to 29.2 in 2006. Throughout this period, 6 4 2 O 2 4 6
the number of couples getting married has fallen, and
the age at which they get married has risen. a) Males 2050 (Projection) Females
over

Key
Age 65 and over
MM Age 15-64

MM Age 0-14

Fig. 1.5 Japan’s changing population structure

6 4 2 O 2 4 6
Millions

Look at Table 1.10. Year Mexico’s birth §Japan’s birth

ae . rate per 1000 rate per 1000
Use the information in the table to draw a graph showing : ae
birth rates in Mexico and Japan from 1950 to 2010. Use a eee 24
different coloured line for each country. Leave a lot of space 1960") 47.5 17
above your graph. 1970 843 19
Add the following label to the Mexico line at 1974: ‘In 1974, 1980 34 12
to reduce the Mexican birth rate, women were given equal 1990 28 10
rights in family planning and at work. Female education was 5000 93 oF
LISom o)ce)galelccyefe
Look at Fig. 1.5. ent? u
i Japan was involved in the Second World War from 1941 to Table 1.10 Birth rates for Mexico and Japan,
1945. How does that show up in the population pyramid for 1950-2010
19507
People who served in Japan’s armed forces between 1941
and 1945 would have been over 75 in 2006. How did the CC). Discussion point
Second World War influence the 2006 pyramid? What problems would Japan's population
i There is often a growth in the birth rate after a war. How structure cause for the government in 1950
does this show up in Japan’s 2006 pyramid? and in 2050?
Population pyramids and the
demographic transition model 10 At which stage, or between which two stages, of the
Countries at different stages of the demographic transition demographic transition model was Japan in (a)
1950 and (b) 2006? Explain your answers.
model have different-shaped population pyramids. If
you can recognise the different basic shapes, and
understand what they're showing, then you can tell Fig. 1.6 The changing shapes of typical population pyramids at
which stage of the model a country is at (see Fig. 1.6). different stages of the demographic transition model

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 <p Stage 5 /

Rapid population growth GDP (gross domestic product) is the value, in dollars, of
What’s happening where? the goods and services that a country produces in a year.
Worldwide, the human population is still growing - but e GDP is divided by the country’s population to give GDP
per capita.
is it the same everywhere? The short answer is no, as
e@ ppp means purchasing power parity. GDP is adjusted
Fig. 1.7 shows. Generally, higher levels of population
because a dollar buys more in some countries than in
growth are happening in developing or poorer countries,
others.
and lower levels of growth, population balance - or even
decline - are happening in developed or richer countries.
Look at Table 1.11 and concentrate on the columns for
population growth rate and GDP per capita (GDP shows Fig. 1.7 The natural increase in population around the world in
how wealthy a country is). You should notice that there’s 2007. In 2011, 16 of the 20 countries with the fastest-growing
a link between them. populations were in Africa, and three were in the Middle East.

N
of

Key
Percentage natural
increase

| >3.0%
Me 2.0-29
 1 Population dynamics }

Country Infant mortality Population Fertility rate Life expectancy GDP per capita
growth rate (%) (years) (USS ppp)
Afghanistan 151.95 2.63 6.53 44.6 $700
Nigeria 94.35 1.99 4.91 46.9 $2300
India 30.15 1.55 2.72 69.9 $2900
China 20.25 0.66 1.79 73.5 $6000
Brazil 22.58 1.20 2.21 72.0 $10 200
Mexico 18.42 ic 2.34 76.1 $14 200
Table 1.11 Indicators of population change (all figures are for 2009, except GDP which is for 2008)

Problems of rapid population growth

For many poorer countries, rapid population growth is
11. a Look again at Fig. 1.7.
slowing down their development. They're struggling to Describe where population is growing fastest
(i.e. countries where the natural increase is
earn enough money from farming and basic industry
over 2%).
to provide for more and more people. The ever-growing
Describe where population is declining (i.e.
population puts too much pressure on their resources.
countries where the natural increase is below
Some countries: 0%).
find it difficult just feeding everyone - but the Create a diagram to show how rapid
population keeps on growing. The result: millions population growth can affect a country’s
of people go hungry. development.
Highlight the social impacts in one colour,
can't afford to provide enough schools and teachers. and the economic impacts in another colour.
The result: millions of people don't get the education
and skills that would help to raise them out of poverty,
and help their countries to develop.
can't afford to provide good basic health care, with
enough doctors and hospitals. The result: millions
of people suffer and die from illnesses and diseases
that could have been cured or prevented.
Sustainable development is defined as: ‘meeting the
needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs’. But what
is the link between population growth and sustainable
development? For a population to be sustainable, the
rate at which it grows must not threaten the survival
of future generations. You can probably see that a
population that is growing too rapidly, or one that is
falling, won't be sustainable.
Take the example of Afghanistan. It might not be the
first place you'd think ofifyou're talking about rapid
population growth, but it’s got the fourth highest birth
rate in the world (38 per 1000). Only Niger, Mali and
Uganda (all in Africa) had higher birth rates than
Afghanistan in 2009. Not only that, but its population
is growing faster - in percentage terms - than countries
like China and India, as Table 1.11 shows. Afghanistan
is a dangerous place in which to be born. More than
150 babies out of every 1000 born will die before they
reach their first birthday. As a comparison, in Japan
fewer than 3 babies out of every 1000 die before their
first birthday.

20 Fig. 1.8 A typical Afghan family

CASE STUDY

China's population policy

Many countries around the world have introduced population
policies to either promote or reduce population growth.
These policies encourage people to have more or fewer
1.33 billion
(2010 estimate)
|
|
children, depending on the country’s circumstances.
|
The best-known population policy is China’s one-child
policy. During the 1950s and 1960s, China’s population
grew rapidly — the birth rate reached 48 per 1000, which
was seen as unsustainable. China didn’t have enough
food, water and energy to provide for such a rapidly growing 600
population. Therefore, in 1979, the Chinese government
introduced rules to limit population growth — its one-child
Total400
population
(millions)
policy. Couples who only had one child received financial
rewards and welfare benefits. Those who had more than
200
one child were fined — and there were also reports of forced
abortions and sterilisations. 0 E
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Has China’s policy led to sustainable development? The
Year
policy has prevented around 300 million babies being born,
so China’s population now — and going into the future — is
Fig. 1.9 China’s population growth since 1950
lower than it would have been. However, by controlling one
problem, has China just succeeded in creating other
problems?

The impacts of China’s one-child policy

China’s chosen method of population control has had a
range of social and economic impacts.

Social impacts

The Beijing Ren Ai Geracomium (old people’s home) is grate

ina drab, dusty village just outside Beijing. It’s an unusual
place, mainly because it exists at all. Old people’s homes
are rare in China - most elderly people live with their |
families. However, in future there willbe amuch greater _
need for old people’s homes in China, because its strict
population control policy means that there are now too
few young people being born to take care of all of their
elderly relations.
Adapted from ‘China’s predicament’, an article in The Economist,
25 June 2009
EOE
RA
METRE

=) Atypical Chinese child today will have two parents and

four grandparents to look after when they reach old
age (a married couple might have up to four parents
and eight grandparents to look after). So more old
people’s homes, like the Beijing Ren Ai Geracomium,
will be needed.
a)
bd

Fig. 1.10 One of China’s problems - there are now fewer young
people to support a growing population
*) Chinese society traditionally prefers boys, especially
if couples are only allowed to have one child. So, baby
girls have often been abandoned — with many ending
up in orphanages. The lucky ones are adopted.

~) By 2020, itis estimated that men in China will outnumber

women by 30 million, which might lead to social tension
and unrest as more and more men find themselves
unable to get married.

Economic impacts
>> China’s population is ageing rapidly. About 22% of
Shanghai’s residents are over 60, and that’s expected
to rise to 34% by 2020. They will all need supporting
financially in their old age, which includes an increasing
need for expensive health care.

7 The percentage of people aged over 65, compared to

people of working age, is going to increase rapidly —
from 10% in 2009, to 40% by 2050. And, from 2025, Fig. 1.11 An orphanage in China
China is expected to have more elderly people than
children (see Fig. 1.12).

> As aresult of the changes outlined here, many experts

feel that China’s growing economy won't have enough 100
workers in the future to keep it expanding, while also Forecast
supporting the growing number of non-workers in the
population. The number of young people starting work
between the ages of 20 and 24 will drop by half from
2010 to 2020.

Positive impacts of the one-child policy

~) The policy has reduced the fertility rate from 3 births
per woman in 1980 to only 1.5 in 2011. This is well
below the 2.1 rate which would keep a population
stable and has successfully reduced the population
growth.

~> By reducing the number of children born, China has

also reduced the problems of overpopulation in its
most crowded regions. There is less pressure on social
SMO We, 2.0
services, waste disposal, and housing, and less danger SFSO SFOeOe & 3S2 Oo
of epidemics spreading.

Will the one-child policy change?

Reports in 2009 suggested that China’s one-child policy
was changing. In Shanghai, couples were being encouraged
[J Children |
to have two children (if they were single children themselves).
But Xie Lingui, a Chinese family planning official, said that A

Fig. 1.12 The changing proportions of elderly and children in

this had been the case for many years, and it was nota
China’s population
sign that the policy was changing. However, the Chinese
government may have to relax the policy in future to address
the problems it has created.

Why did China implement a one-child policy? tC). Discussion point

To what extent has China’s one-child policy Was China's one-child policy cruel but necessary?
achieved its aim?
What problems will the policy cause in the
future?
Iran's population policies
*) In 1967, a new policy aimed to stimulate economic The UN Family Planning Association described lIran’s
growth by improving the status of women, encouraging population control programme as a ‘textbook example’.
women to work, and acknowledging family planning as However, in 2021, the Iranian president said that two
a human right. children were not enough, and that he planned to allow
women to work part-time for full-time pay in order to
=> However, in 1979, the policy was changed as a result
encourage them to have more children.
of the Islamic Revolution. Family planning programmes
were stopped. During the war with Iraq, which ended
in 1988, it was considered beneficial to have a large
population to provide soldiers for the army. As a result,
the population grew by more than 3% a year. But, by
the end of the 1980s, the Iranian economy was in
decline, and the rapidly growing population was thought
to be preventing development. Unemployment was very
high and Iran’s cities were polluted and overcrowded.

*> The situation deteriorated so much that, by the end of

1989, the family planning programme had been
reinstated. Women were encouraged not to have children
Annual
before they were 18, to space their children three years growth rate
apart, and to have no more than three children.

> In 1993, anew law restricted maternity leave benefits

to three children for each mother. Family planning was
included in the Education Curriculum and advertised
by the media and by religious leaders. Family planning
population
Annual
growth
(%)
rate
was mainly funded by the government, and mobile Total
clinics were sent to rural areas. Both men and women population
had to attend classes on contraception before being
granted a marriage licence. Sterilisation of both sexes
was also made possible. Other factors in the success
of the policy were that many homes had television, and
literacy rates had increased greatly — especially for
=
(milltons)
otapoputati
ejee
7s
Me e
ce
women. The population growth rate halved in 15 years
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
from the highest level reached in 1986 — one of the Year
fastest drops ever. This prevented a water shortage STRESS

crisis and problems caused by a shortage of arable Fig. 1.13 lran’s population growth
land.

> a_ Explain why the total population curve on

Fig.1.13 continued to rise when the annual
population growth rate fell sharply after 1986.
How important was education in lran’s
successful population control? In what
different ways did the government ensure that
the population was educated about birth
ore)ahacelitg

{
).C ) Discussion point
Was Iran's proposed 2011 change in population policy
sensible?

HT
NNER
THER
AN
TT
NET
NUNN
ATTRA

Fig. 1.14 Iranian children at school

CASE STUDY

Population control in the Indian state

of Kerala
The south Indian state of Kerala has a population of
32 million. Kerala is one of India’s most densely populated
states, but it has the country’s lowest birth rate. Its
population growth rate (9.4% per decade) is less than half
the Indian average (21.3%). What is Kerala’s secret?

What makes Kerala different from the rest of India is its

focus on health care and education. Kerala’s levels of both
are the highest in India. For instance, its literacy rate is
91%, compared with 61% in India as a whole.

Although Kerala is one of India’s poorest states — its

people have an average income of US$293 per year, and
its GDP per capita is 90% lower than the USA’s — Keralans
can expect to live nearly as long as Americans.

This success story is the result of two things: a»

> political decisions to invest in education and women’s _ Fig 1.15 The location of Kerala
health; almost all villages have access to a school and
a modern health clinic within 2.5 km

~) Economics. Kerala relies less on farming and more on OS SEO HE ess

service industries than other Indian states, especially \ @ 9s =.= 2 40 AE seset
tourism.

How Kerala compares with India as a whole

*) From the late 1970s, Kerala has led India in public

services — building roads, post offices, primary and
secondary schools, medical facilities and banks.

*> Rural poverty in Kerala is the lowest in southern India.

2 Women’s health and education are the best in India.

Food programmes focus on mothers and children, using
ration cards and free school lunches.

~> Attitudes toward women are positive. There are more

girls than boys in higher education, and women hold
some of the top jobs.
Fig. 1.16 Most children in Kerala complete 10 years
7) Women in Kerala marry on average four years later, ateenbel
and have their first child five years later, than other
Indian women. They have only two children on average,
and experience very low infant mortality (see i
Table 1.12).

* Over 95% of babies are born in hospital.

Quayside tala acom cmos Uk

Table 1.12 How Kerala compares with India as a whole, and with other countries

Adult literacy rate (%) 61 39 96

Lifeexpectancyinyears (males) ar ea om Ce ee ee lias
Life expectancy in years (females) lo n/a
“Infant mortality per1000, i ia a8 ea ™ a
Birth rate per 1000
 Has Kerala’s approach led to sustainable development?
Kerala has managed to control its population growth by
investing in health care and education — while stil allowing
people the freedom to choose their own family size.
However, it looks as if Kerala’s population could stop
growing altogether within 30 years. The projected changes
to Kerala’s population structure, as illustrated in Fig. 1.18,
could then create new problems.

Kerala’s population greying fast

A steady rise in the percentage of the population over _
the age of 60, combined with a low population growth |
rate, will have social and economic effects, says a study |
by Sabu Aliyar. With an increasing number of couples |
having only one child, or no children, Kerala’s age ratio :
will alter dramatically. ‘As Kerala is 25 years ahead ofthe |
rest of India, and in the final stages of demographic _
transition (low fertility and mortality), the ageing of the
state is an important issue,’ said Sabu Aliyar.
Adapted from an article in the Hindustan Times, 4ers 2009 - Fig. 1.17 Medical care in Kerala

: Oe TIP (fa question

asked you to compare these population
pyramids, you would be expected to
describe any similarities and differences
between them.
If aquestion asked you to contrast the
population structures shown, you would
only identify the differences.

Millions

2021
(Projection)
pomales

Key
Age 65 and over
GH Age 15-64
CASE STUDY

Japan’s ageing population Coping with an ageing population

By July 2011, Japan had a population made up of 13.1% Strategies to increase the workforce
young (aged under 15), 64% economically active (aged
= In 1994, Japan adopted a population policy to try to
15-64), and 22.9% elderly (aged 65 and over).
encourage more births, but it had little effect.

The dependency ratio is calculated using the number of In 2009, the government began a programme aimed
people in the three groups. Japan’s dependency ratio in at enabling mothers to remain in the workforce (to help
2011 was: bring in the income needed to maintain a good standard
of living), while also bringing up children. The cost of
16 500 000 (young) + 31 900 000 (elderly) living in Japan is high, so couples have to consider
TS X 100 = 59.8 whether or not they can afford to bring up a child.
80 910 000 (economically active)
Japanese men are also being encouraged to spend
more time at home to share the child-rearing and
This means that, in 2011, every 100 workers in Japan had household duties — allowing mothers to stay in the
to support the needs of almost 60 people. The taxes that workforce.
workers pay to the government need to cover what should
Employers, encouraged by a government grant to do
be provided by the State for the care of the young and the
elderly. so, have allowed workers to continue working after
reaching pensionable age. Nearly 36% of Japanese
As the population pyramids for Japan on page 18 show, over-65s were still working in 1999.
there are now fewer children growing up to become workers,
so the dependency ratio will get worse. Meanwhile, more In the past, Japan was not very keen on immigration,
people will become pensioners — a lot more when the but labour shortages in key manufacturing industries
post-war baby bulge reaches 65. Japan ranks fifth in life have led to the country accepting an increasing number
expectancy in the world at 82.25 years. Japan is in common of skilled migrants (many from South Korea and the
with European countries like France, Sweden, the UK, Philippines).
Germany and Italy in having low birth and population growth
rates and high and increasing life expectancies. Strategies to cope with the increasing costs of an
ageing society
Japan had a negative growth rate in 2011 of —0.28, so
not only is the country’s population getting older, but it is As a population gets older, the cost of providing health
also shrinking. This will make the problem worse. By 2055, and personal care for more.and more elderly people
Japan’s population is expected to shrink from 127 million increases quickly. And, as more people live longer in
in 2011 to only 90 million — and by then the elderly are retirement, the cost of providing state pensions also
expected to make up 41% of the total population. Their increases considerably. In Japan, the cost of social security
children will have to save instead of spend to help support benefits is expected to nearly double in the 30 years
them. Reduced spending is already causing retailers in between 1995 and 2025.
Japan to drop their prices. The Japanese people will be
Japan has tried to reduce the financial burden on the
unable to maintain their high standard of living as the
government in several ways. For example:
dependency ratio worsens.
The age at which a person can receive a state pension
Having a smaller proportion of young people in the population
has already caused a number of problems for Japan: has been raised from 60 to 65, and the working
population have to pay more in taxes.
= Some under-used — and therefore uneconomical —
schools and colleges have had to be closed, so students In 2000, a long-term care insurance scheme became
have to travel further. available — allowing people to ensure that their medical
and care costs in later life will be met. It requires that
A shortage of recruits for the armed forces has weakened the elderly share the costs of the social services care
Japan’s ability to defend itself. they need.
A shortage of labour, especially of innovative workers,
has caused Japan’s high-tech electronics industries
to stagnate. As aresult, companies like Sony have had
to increase their rates of pay to attract foreign workers.
These high wages might deter foreign investment in
Japan in the future.
 Strategies to cope with the needs of increasing In March 2011, a report in the Japan Press Weekly
numbers of elderly people had a headline which stated that 420 OOO elderly
> An ageing population is more prone to degenerative Japanese were waiting for a place in a care home.
diseases like cancer, dementia, arthritis and heart The article quoted a representative on the Budget
disease. So increasing access to specialist health care Committee, who said that 130 000 Japanese workers
is required. had been forced to give up their jobs so that they could

Many elderly people also need homes without stairs, look after elderly relatives.
or with adaptations for wheelchairs. The representative blamed cuts in government subsidies
As they age, most people need more care and may to local authorities to help them build nursing-care
homes for elderly people needing specialist care.
have to move to live in a care home. Japan has had to
build more care homes and provide more health care. The Japanese government promised to consider the
The cost of providing for all of the needs of its ageing situation, but almost immediately part of the country
population is proving to be a real challenge for a Japanese was devastated by an earthquake and massive tsunami,
government, which is now receiving less tax income because which will cost Japan millions of yen to clear the
of the declining size of the workforce. destruction and rebuild.

CASE STUDY

Sweden’s approach to coping with an >> giving fathers 13 months’ paid leave after the birth
ageing population of a child, at 80% of their salaries (and 120 paid days
off work a year to care for sick children)
Sweden is trying to change its population structure by
increasing the birth rate, so that it will have a larger working *) providing all-day childcare or all-day schools, which is
population in the future. The Swedish government has a great benefit for working parents.
offered incentives, such as:
However, by 2011, Sweden’s birth rate had hardly changed
7 paying a generous benefit for each child born at all since 2000.

How does an ageing population affect an economy? (

).C) Discussion point
How has Japan’s elderly population been affected by government In 2011, the UK government proposed
measures to reduce its costs? measures to deal with the problem of its
ageing population. The measures were
Explain why an increase in the dependency ratio can lower the
similar to those adopted by Japan, rather
standard of living.
than Sweden. Consider why some people
expressed anger about the proposals.

Discussion point
Should countries prepare for an ageing population by making every worker pay
into a compulsory insurance fund to provide for their care in old age?

Variations in dependent populations and

standards of living
There are various indicators of standards of living, including GDP
per person ppp (purchasing power parity), literacy levels, energy
consumption, calorie intake and so on.
*) The above indicators are highest in MEDCs. However, MEDCs
face the costs of dealing with increasing elderly dependency ratios.
¢) Onthe other hand, LEDCs have: low numbers of elderly dependents, {
)C). Discussion point
but many young dependents instead.
How do you expect your own country’s
An increase in either group will result in lower living standards for dependency ratio to change by 2050?
the economically active in the country.
CASE STUDY

Natural increase
expected without AIDS

Actual natural
(%)
increase
Natural increase

O
OAL 1981 oon
Census year

Fig. 1.19 Natural population increase in Botswana, 1971-2011

Botswana —- The impact of HIV/AIDS

on the population
Southern Africa has much lower population growth rates 28:9) 9223
than the rest of the continent. This is the result of the
spread of the HIV virus and the AIDS illness that it causes.
AIDS became a problem in southern Africa in the late Infant mortality rate
1980s. It led to many deaths because those infected had per 1000 live births)
their immune systems destroyed, leaving them unable to
resist secondary illnesses like tuberculosis and pneumonia.

Botswana’s first case of HIV/AIDS was identified in Table 1.14 Changes to population characteristics in Botswana,
1985. 1971-2011
The infection spread rapidly. By 1998, one in four
Botswanans between the ages of 15 and 49 was HIV- What is being done to deal with the problem?
positive. This was still the case in 2009.
~> From 2002, antiretroviral drugs were given to pregnant
In 2000 44% of pregnant women in Francistown, the women with HIV in Botswana (the virus can be passed
second largest settlement, had HIV/AIDS, compared from mother to baby in the womb). But a shortage of
with only 7% nine years earlier. medical staff reduced the number who could be treated.

About 5800 Botswanans died from HIV/AIDS in 2010. Despite the high costs involved for the government,
the numbers of people being treated rose steadily until
rate wit 0) 170 000 had received the drug by 2010.
rate with AIDS Botswana also carries out routine testing for the HIV
mor virus, and has an awareness campaign to promote the
effectiveness of the antiretroviral treatment.
a} elf
Condoms are being distributed and their use is increasing.
Life expectancy at birth with AIDS (years) Roadside signs have been erected bearing the message
‘Avoiding AIDS is as easy as ABC: Abstain, Be faithful
Table 1.13 The effect of HIV/AIDS on death rate, infant mortality
and, if you have sex, Condomise’. Even so, a large
and life expectancy in Botswana in 2002
number of young, particularly female, Botswanans have
the illness.
 Why is HIV/AIDS such a problem in Botswana? (largely due to diamond mining) when HIV/AIDS first
emerged. Nevertheless, funding the antiretroviral drug
Only about 18% of Botswanans are married. Many have
programme has been very costly. Also, bringing in doctors
more than one sexual partner and do not use protection.
from other countries raised wages, which had to be paid.
Some men are polygamous.
People who are ill cannot work or contribute to the
Until the government awareness campaign, there was
economy. There has been a particular shortage of
considerable ignorance about HIV/AIDS and its prevention.
skilled labour in the workforce.
Botswana lacked sufficient medical staff to cope with
HIV/AIDS has also caused very severe reductions in
the numbers needing treatment. Many doctors and
the wealth of individual families, as adults become too
nurses had to be recruited from abroad.
ill to work but medical and funeral expenses still have
Poverty caused some vulnerable young women to become to be paid.
prostitutes, which increased the spread of the virus.
There are now many AIDS orphans in Botswana, and
The incidence of HIV/AIDS is particularly high in mining not enough care workers or funds to provide help for
towns, such as Selibi-Phikwe, where 52% of the population all in need. About 13% of orphans have received no
was HIV-positive in 2003. form of help. Many have to care for siblings and can
no longer find time or money to go to school. In 2008,
HIV/AIDS has had serious consequences for Botswana’s
only 65% of those who were bedridden were receiving
economy and society:
care — about 41% were in hospital and 24% were being
The country was fortunate that it had a strong economy cared for by relatives and friends.

Which population characteristic has reduced over time because of {

)C). Discussion point
AIDS and for other reasons? Explain your answer. Why is it important to both individuals and
Describe the other impacts of HIV/AIDS on the population of governments that all people should be
Botswana since 1991. made aware of how to avoid catching
HIV/AIDS? Consider the best ways of
Note any ways in which the statistics suggest that Botswana might
raising awareness in your own country.
be winning the battle to reduce deaths from HIV/AIDS.

Population density and distribution

The density of the population is calculated by total Population distribution is how the population is
population divided by area. It is important to remember spread over an area. Both density and distribution are
that it is an average for the area and is not spread evenly influenced by physical (natural), human (to do with
over it. people) and economic (to do with money) factors.

CASE STUDY

Population density and distribution in Key

Botswana
(More than 10 persons
per square kilometre
Population distribution
fais 1 to 9.9 persons per
Most Botswanans live in the east of the country, with square kilometre
very few living in the north, centre and west. Away from __| Less than 1 person per
the east, the population is concentrated in small, square kilometre

widely scattered areas.

Population density
Most of Botswana has a very low population density :
of less than one person per square kilometre — especially
in the Kalahari Desert, which makes up a large part
of the country. . ‘a a

Fig. 1.20 Population density and distribution in Botswana

A

Fig. 1.21 Factors influencing population density and distribution

in Botswana

Physical factors
The Kalahari is a region of semi-desert, where annual
rainfall is less than 400 millimetres, unreliable and
evaporates rapidly in the hot temperatures. There is
little surface water and water from boreholes is often
saline. The soils are sandy, easily mobile and contain
few plant foods. Some areas are used as Same reserves
and national parks.

Human factors
Sedentary families live together in nucleated villages
with their chief on their communal land. However, the
Basarwa people of the Kalahari are nomadic hunters
and gatherers. They have no permanent homes.

Economic factors
The physical difficulties limit farming in the Kalahari to
—400— 400mm annual raint
pastoral farming. The carrying capacity of the land is
very low, SO cannot Support many animals or their fi Area with less than
400mm of rain a yee
owners. There are very few roads and they are unpaved,
== Railway
so villages are isolated.
—— Tarred road

Other areas with low population densities District, it has many wild animals and is infested with
The Okavango Delta, Chobe District and Makgadikgadi tsetse fly, which transmit sleeping sickness to humans
Pans in the north (see Fig. 1.21) also have very low and livestock. Areas are set aside for game reserves and
population densities of less than one person per square national parks. The Makgadikgadi is an enormous desolate
kilometre. The Delta is wet and swampy. Like the Chobe area of salt pans without any drinking water.

More densely populated areas => The areas around the capital, Gaborone, and around
Although nowhere in Botswana can be considered densely the second largest settlement, Francistown, are the
populated, more people live where farming and mining are most densely populated. Employment is available in
possible. shops, offices and industry, such as the abattoir at
Lobatse.
* There are a number of villages on the southern and
western edges of the Okavango Delta, where fertile > Diamond-mining towns, such as Orapa, are islands of
soils are used for arable farming. denser population within low-density areas. On density
shading maps, population is averaged over areas, so
*> Maunis a tourist centre with a small airport for visitors
towns raise the population of the whole area but on
who go to see the wildlife of the Delta.
dot distribution maps (where one dot represents a
> Eastern Botswana receives over 400 millimetres of certain number of people and each dot is positioned
rain a year. It also has seasonal rivers, which flow in in the area where the people live) they would stand
the wet Summers, So crops can be grown and cattle out as a number of dots surrounded by a blank area.
raised. There is also access to water from boreholes.

~» Areas with a population density of over 20 people per List reasons for the higher population density in
square kilometre are found only in the east, where the eastern Botswana under two headings: Physical
railway line, tarred road and nearness to the South and Economic.
African border are important factors for stimulating
trade and industry (See Fig. 1.21). Electricity is also
produced in the east and most of the towns there are @ LEARNING TIP Although Botswana has a low
connected to the transmission line.
population (just over 2 million in a large area), it cannot
now be considered under-populated. An increase in
population in rural areas has already caused overgrazing
and raised the possibility of desertification.
CASE STUDY

Population density and distribution in Canada

Look at Fig. 1.22. Use atlas maps and any other available means of
research to explain the main reasons for the density and distribution
of population in Canada. Include the terms north Canada, the Rocky
Mountains, coniferous forest, the prairies of central Canada (a
wheat-growing area), the St Lawrence Valley, and Vancouver.

WFOUNDLAND
AND. LABRADOR PRINCE
EDWARD

NORTHWEST
TERRITORIES j |
5 Wy, to, Wii bs fa y is

Ge Ya/ yg ee QUEBEC
COLUMBIA /

@, St a es
| @ Ys “ZRiver’ Wier
| MANITOBA / ONTARIO ”
ek /A lO

Population density Major cities

(people per square kilometre) (population in millions) USA
| GZ over 10 @ Over 3
WA 1-10 O 1-3
[J Under 1 © 0.5-1 —
¢ 0.1-0.5 a
Se Ne MEMEO: a

Fig 1.22 Population distribution and density in Canada

Human factors influencing population density and 7.

ibution in Canada :
piatriput LEARNING TIP Human factors include economic
One reason why the St Lawrence Valley has the highest , ‘
: oe influences and also social ones.
population density is because this was the part that the
first French and English colonists moved into. People of
French origin tended to congregate in the province of
Quebec, and those from England in Ontario and British (J.C) Discussion point
Columbia. Since the 1990s, the majority of immigrants
What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in
have originated from Asia, especially from China, the
densely populated and sparsely populated areas?
Philippines and India. -
Migration Involuntary - people have to
Migrations are either internal (within the country) or move, or they'll face extreme
international (from one country to another). They can hardship, persecution, and
be further classified as voluntary (where the individual Voluntary - people choose to even death. They are called
move for better jobs and refugees. (Environmental refu-
decides to move) or involuntary (where there is little
higher wages. They are called gees are those fleeing
choice but to move).
econom environmental disasters.)

Push and pull

The reasons why people migrate are often described as
push and pull factors. Migration

@ LEARNING TIP Push and pull factors are often

Temporary - e.g. seasonal | Permanent - people move
migrants, like those who arrive - and don’t return home.
direct opposites. Do not use both in examination questions.
to pick fruit and vegetables
For example, ‘People move to towns for better-paid jobs, and then go home when the
because they get low pay in the countryside.’ is stating the picking season ends.
same factor twice. You might be asked to write about only
push or only pull factors, so be clear what the difference
Fig. 1.23 A classification of migration
is between them.

Push factors that can force people to leave their own

country include:
Y not enough jobs
> low wages
> poor educational opportunities
*) poor health care
>) war with another country
> civil war and lawlessness
© drought and famine.

Fig. 1.24 Conflict, or the threat of conflict (as here in Afghanistan),

Pull factors that can attract people to a new country often forces people to flee their homes. They may never return
include:
> hope of finding a job
> higher wages than at home
> better health care
> chance of a better education
> a better standard of living
> family and friends may have moved there already
> lower levels of crime, and safety from conflict.

Fig. 1.25 Seasonal work, such as cutting celery, attracts migrants for
a short period of time
In 2010, the top country for immigration was the USA Laws were passed to make migration into the USA from
- with nearly 43 million of its citizens born in another Mexico more difficult. Many Mexicans were deported,
country. The top country for emigration was Mexico - but a large unknown number still cross the border
with nearly 12 million born there living in another illegally.
country. The biggest migration route was from Mexico
to the USA, followed by Bangladesh to India. a_ List the pull factors which an MEDC (like the
The mass migration of Mexicans to the USA started in USA) might have to attract migrants from LEDC
countries (like Mexico).
about 1950, when they went to work in California and
Texas as farm labourers at harvest time. They were also b What do the top two migration routes have in
common?
employed as maids or factory workers, or in any poorly
paid or dirty job which Americans didn’t want to do
OC). Discussion point
themselves. Then a recession hit and many Americans
became unemployed. Resentment soon built up against Should people be free to live in whichever country they please?
Why would such a worldwide policy cause problems for some
Mexicans who held jobs that Americans now wanted.
countries but not others?

CASE STUDY

Internal and international migrations However, the absence of so many young Botswanan men
in South Africa caused problems for the families they left
in Botswana
behind. Children were deprived of their fathers, except for
Botswana has experienced every type of migration since
short visits once or twice a year, and the women were left
1966, except transmigration.
to do the work on the subsistence farm as well as look
Temporary international economic emigration after the children — so agricultural productivity remained
When Botswana became an independent country in 1966, low.
it was one of the world’s poorest countries, and less than
1% of its population lived in urban areas. With a GDP per Botswana’s economy eventually became one of the fastest

capita ppp of only US$300, the standard of living was very growing in the world, especially after diamond production

low. Botswana’s economy was weak and based on subsistence started in 1971 (followed by copper and nickel mining at

farming, which suffered in drought years. Many men Selebi-Phikwe). This economic growth was helped because,

migrated to neighbouring South Africa to work in the gold during the 1980s, South Africa reduced the number of

mines. AS many as 40 OOO men, about 1 in 12, worked

migrant workers that it allowed in from neighbouring

in South African mines each year between 1970 and 1980. countries. As a result, Botswana suddenly had a greater
number of skilled men aged 15 to 50 available for its own
This benefited Botswana because the men’s earnings
workforce.
helped the economy to grow.

Age

100

90

80

70
Females
60

50

40
Gd Present WZ Present
HB Abroad 30 22H Abroad
20

4106)490".80 70° 60) 50 “40 30° (20 20 “30 40 50) 605 “70
Population in thousands Population in thousands
 Internal permanent rural-to-urban migration that have set up in Gaborone. In addition, employment
In 1964, only 21 000 people, or 1% of the population, opportunities occur in financial institutions, the University
lived in towns. This figure rapidly increased as the economy of Botswana, Debswana (diamond sorting) and shopping
grew — reaching 61% by 2011. The change has been caused centres.
by rural-to-urban migration — the movement of people
In many developing countries it is mainly the young men
from rural areas to live in towns. The term used for the
who migrate to urban areas, but the status of women in
increasing proportion of a country’s population who live
the home and workforce in Botswana’s society is such
in towns is urbanisation.
Botswana’s capital, Gaborone,
that there is little difference between the sexes in this
has experienced enormous population growth, because it
respect. It is mainly the 15 to 50 age groups that move
has the most employment opportunities.
— drawn by job prospects and the desire to have access
Work is available in the capital city’s administrative offices to more entertainment (the bright-lights effect). More than
and in the headquarters of numerous international companies 70% of the migrants have been educated to secondary
level or higher. They have the skills needed to work in the
industrialised urban areas. About 34% of Gaborone’s
200 population are young dependents, with only 2% elderly
dependents. The proportions of both young and elderly
dependents are higher in rural than in urban areas.
175
As in other developing countries, not all incoming migrants
get jobs. Many live in improvised shelters made of scrap
materials on the edge of the urban area. A shanty town
150 called Old Naledi grew up on the edge of Gaborone —
occupied by both unemployed and low-income workers.
It lacked sanitation and electricity until the City
125 Council supplied tarred roads, a sewerage network and
street lighting.

Other internal migrations

100 Urban-to-urban migration is also common in Botswana
now, but the main direction of movement for people aged
over 55 is back to rural areas. This is urban-to-rural
(thousands)
Population
TEs migration. Rural-to-rural migration is of minor importance.

In most societies, the main reason for migration is to get

better pay, but a Survey indicated that moving for employment
50 was the second most frequent reason in Botswana after
rejoining parents. Marriage and education were also
relatively important reasons.
25
Some people move daily from their rural homes to work
in cities like Gaborone, and then return home at night.
This temporary type of voluntary movement is known as
1964 ale)gal TOS toot 2001 2014 commuting. It is much more important in large cities
Year
in MEDCs where many workers prefer to live out
a
of the congested cities in the more peaceful rural areas
Fig. 1.27 The growth of Gaborone’s population surrounding them.

>)
Recent international immigration the freedom of their people. Large numbers of refugees
Voluntary also flooded in to escape the long civil war in Angola.
Since 1980, Botswana has experienced net immigration.
>> By 1996, almost all of those refugees had returned
Many of the migrants are skilled professionals from other
home. Then there was another influx of refugees from
African countries, Europe, Asia, the Americas and Caribbean.
Namibia and from Angola (where the civil war, which
They have been attracted by Botswana’s fast-growing
had previously lasted more than 20 years, started up
economy and shortage of skilled workers.
again).
In the 1970s and 1980s Botswana was under-populated,
> After 2000, Botswana was swamped with refugees
with a population of only about a million, so the country
fleeing political oppression and catastrophic economic
had an open immigration policy to make sufficient skilled
decline in Zimbabwe. There are no accurate figures for
labour available. Incentives, such as free education for
how many Zimbabweans were in Botswana at this time,
children, were offered to attract immigrants. The number
because many had crossed the border at places other
of legal immigrants living in Botswana in 2001 was six
than official entry points, but some estimates put the
times higher than in 1971.
number as high as 800 000 by 2004.
Meanwhile, few of Botswana’s citizens emigrated, because
The Botswanan government responded by tightening border
there was widespread satisfaction with the standard of
controls and issuing harsher punishments for illegal
living there. Many Botswanans also returned to the country
immigration, but net migration was still high at 4.2 per
after living elsewhere. However, a large number of immigrants
1000 in 2011.
can push up house prices in the host country and also the
price of food, petrol and other necessities. The government withdrew the incentives that had previously
been given to skilled workers, but economic migrants still
Involuntary increased in numbers from Zimbabwe. The Botswanan
>> Inthe 1970s and 1980s, large numbers of refugees
people became increasingly anti-immigration, and disputes
entered Botswana. They came from Namibia, South about the higher wages given to non-Botswanan workers
Africa and Zimbabwe, whose governments had restricted occured. Immigrants in such high numbers can cause
problems, especially if they cannot find work or if they
compete with the local people for work.

Atlantic
Ocean

SWAZILAND Indian —
Ocean

Fig. 1.28 International

migrations into Botswana

Suggest as many reasons as you can to explain involuntary

migrations. Divide them into two groups: those likely to be
temporary and those likely to be permanent.
What difficulties are international migrants likely to experience
(i) before they move and (ii) after they have moved?
What are the benefits of immigration for the host country?
CASE STUDY

Transmigration in Indonesia - an The migrants were allocated two hectares of land on

their new island home, enough food to last the family until
involuntary internal economic
the first harvest, plus equipment and fertilisers. However,
migration
the scheme has not been a great success:
Indonesia’s population is very unevenly distributed. Most
Indonesians live on four densely populated islands — Bali, > It has resulted in rainforest destruction, which has
Java, Madura and Lombok. These make up only 4% of caused soil erosion and soil degradation.
Indonesia’s surface area but hold more than 60% of its
Many of the host islanders felt that their culture and
200 million people.
way of life were under threat from the transmigrants.
7) Between 1900 and 1950, over halfa million Indonesians Many migrants were moved from Madura to Kalimantan.
were moved from the over-populated islands to those The Madurans and Dayak people of Kalimantan have
less populated. different religions and cultures. Also, the jobs in industry
created by the programme were for the Madurans only,
Since 1950, a further two million have been moved to
which caused resentment among the Dayaks. Eventually,
Indonesia’s under-populated islands, such as Sumatra
in 2001, violence erupted and so many Madurans were
and Borneo (the Indonesian part of which is called
killed that many of the remainder fled back to Madura
Kalimantan).
as refugees.
The transmigration programme aimed to:
Java’s population continued to grow rapidly and many
spread the population more evenly over the country in migrants returned home as a result of conflict between
a controlled manner the local residents and the newcomers.

improve the living standards of the impoverished But, as a result of the transmigration policy, the previously
migrants under-developed islands now have better roads, more
hospitals, clinics and schools, which will benefit the local
reduce population pressure in the over-populated
population.
islands.

6 Indian Ocean
el

km

Fig. 1.29 Transmigration in Indonesia

4U How could Indonesia have taken a different {

).C) Discussion point
approach to the problem of over-population? 1 Does population need to be controlled for the sake of the
natural world?
2 Are the world’s resources infinite?
CASE STUDY

Voluntary and involuntary international migration in Libya, 2011

Migration to Libya Many Egyptians were working in the western oilfield, so
Estimates of the number of foreign-born people living in they had no alternative but to cross into Tunisia from where
Libya at the start of 2011 were as high as 2.5 million — out they did not have the money to pay for a flight home. In
of a total population of 6.5 million. About 1.5 million came the two weeks between 20 February and 3 March,
from sub-Saharan Africa. There were also thought to be 180 O00 people had fled from Libya. Within three weeks,
30 000 Chinese, 28 000 Filipinos, 55 OOO Bangladeshis 100 O00 had fled into Tunisia. From the eastern oilfields
and 80 000 Pakistanis in Libya, as well as people from workers escaped to Egypt. Journeys across the desert
many other countries. The majority of the immigrants were were very difficult because there were few roads and the
economic migrants, who had moved to Libya because they refugees often walked for days without food.
lived in poverty at home and could earn more there (a
Across the borders there were insufficient shelters and
relatively wealthy country with an economy based on oil).
camps had to be built to house the refugees. Tunisia was
Involuntary migration from Libya in the spring forced to shut its border with Libya from time to time
of 2011 because it could not cope with the number of refugees.
What came to be known as ‘The Arab Spring’ started in At one time 40 OOO people were stuck on the Libyan side
Tunisia with an uprising of the people against the ruler. of the border. Egyptian refugees had to be moved out of
Unrest spread quickly through several North African and Tunisia before more could be allowed in.
Middle Eastern countries, where sections of the population
Black Africans had a particularly bad time; they could not
had been oppressed and many of the people lived in
afford to pay to get home and many were too scared to
poverty while their rulers gained in riches. People demanded
leave their homes for fear of being attacked by mobs.
democracy in place of forms of government in which their
Reports had been spread that black Africans had been
voices were not heard. The Libyan leader, Colonel Gaddafi,
fighting as mercenaries for Colonel Gaddafi against the
was one of those facing an uprising. After 41 years in
anti-government protestors from the east.
charge, he was determined to hang on to power and a
bitter civil war started in mid-February 2011. The emergencies director at Human Rights Watch reported
at the beginning of March that many thousands of foreign
Then a desperate struggle began to escape from Libya.
workers were Stranded in the port of Benghazi, having
European countries had the wealth and means to send in
been forced out of the factories where they had worked
ships, planes and even helicopters under a United Nations
and robbed of their possessions. Sub-Saharan Africans
mandate to evacuate their 10 OOO nationals, but those
were said to be in dire need of evacuation because of the
from poor countries had to try to escape as best they
racist threats they faced. A camp was set up for 1200 of
could. China and South Korea also evacuated their nationals.
them in Benghazi. Four hundred were from Ghana and the
Thousands of Moroccans, Algerians and Syrians were
others from eleven other sub-Saharan countries. Volunteers
evacuated from Benghazi by ship.
attempted to provide food and water but the camp was
crowded, unsanitary and subject to raids by armed robbers.
Another camp at the port housed 2300 Asians. Many more
were hiding in company compounds.

Many agencies, including the International Red Cross and

ANTATNTATNANNTAENTTNTTTTT

the United Nations Refugee Agency and International

Organisation for Migration (IOM) appealed for funds and
provided the refugees with tents, food and water. The |OM
also organised flights home from neighbouring countries
but could not cope with the 3000 new arrivals daily.

By the end of May, nearly 874 O00 had fled the violence
— including more than 342 000 displaced Libyans. Many
were still waiting for help to evacuate.

TT
TT
TERT

Fig. 1.30 Migrant workers fleeing unrest in Libya, February 2011

 ‘
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 In this unit you will learn about: Hierarchy of settlements
>) the different types of settlement and settlement A settlement is a place where people live. Settlements
hierarchy vary greatly in size - from a single dwelling to cities
*) the services provided by different types of housing millions of people. A hierarchy puts items in
settlement order. A hierarchy of settlements would normally do
*) the location of rural settlements and rural this in order of population size. An example of a hierarchy
settlement patterns of settlements is shown in Fig. 2.1.
*) examples of rural settlements in MEDCs and
LEDCs, their location and the problems and Settlements higher up the hierarchy, e.g. large cities,
changes they face are called high-order settlements. These are fewer
*) urbanisation — how towns and cities have in number and they are spaced further apart. Settlements
developed across the world lower down the hierarchy, e.g. villages, are called low-
©) the locations of towns and cities order settlements. There are more of these and they
©) different types of land use in towns and cities are more closely spaced. This is shown in Fig. 2.2.
*) the problems faced by towns and cities.
Nges
rake
Wits:
ERNE
A
TANT
STMT

Large

1S)
122) U
a {o)
= oS
2) =
8
2
23}
ee =
®y

Isolated dwelling
Small Small

Fig. 2.1 A hierarchy of settlements

Key
¢ Village
@® Town

@ City

What is a city, a town, or a village?

There are no internationally agreed definitions for any of these
terms. For example, villages are normally thought of as fairly
small settlements, but in some countries quite large settlements
are still classed as ‘villages’, e.g. the village of Molepolole in
south-éast Botswana has a population of 70 000!

‘Urban’ and ‘rural’

In broad terms, urban refers to towns and cities and rural
refers to the countryside. However, this definition is also
complicated, because rural countryside can contain large OLL} 10 e
villages and small towns. km

Fig. 2.2 The distribution of high-order and low-order settlements

2Settlement or A

Hierarchy of services Services (Sometimes called functions) are anything that is

Smaller settlements usually provide a limited range of provided in a settlement for the population. They include
services and goods for sale. These are likely to be services goods that can be bought in shops and other retail outlets,
that people use almost every day, such as a primary e.g. food, petrol or clothing. They also include businesses
school, or a small shop selling bread, milk and fresh like hairdressers, which are sometimes called retail services,
vegetables. People tend to travel short distances to these. as well as public services like schools, hospitals, government,
Large towns and cities provide a wider range of goods police, water and electricity.
and services. People travel long distances for some of
these services but less frequently, e.g. to buy furniture.
Sphere of influence {
).C). Discussion point
This is the area served by a settlement. The sphere of Think about the people who live near you. How far do they
influence of a small village will be very small, but the travel to get different services? How frequently do they use
these services? You should find that some services are usually
sphere of influence of a city might be very large - and
found fairly locally and used frequently. However others are
the sphere of influence of a capital city is the whole
used very infrequently and people will travel much further to
country. use them.

Manchester United is a football club in north-west

England. What do you think its sphere ofinfluence is?
Many years ago, the people who went to watch Manchester
United’s football matches lived in the city of Manchester
and its surrounding area. But today - because ofimproved
transport, a wealthier population and good marketing
- people from all over the UK go to their matches.
However, the club’s sphere of influence is even larger
than that. It also makes money from international
activities. Its matches are watched on global TV and its
football shirts are sold in every continent.
The size of the sphere of influence depends on the
following factors.

The settlement’s A large town with many services, and

size and the high-order services (See the next page), will
services it provides have a large sphere of influence.
The area’s In a Sparsely populated area, services will be
population density widely spaced and spheres of influence will
be very large.
The wealth of the In wealthy areas, people have more money
people in the area to buy goods and services. Therefore there
will be more service outlets and their
spheres of influence will be smaller.
The transport Good transport links allow people to travel
facilities further to reach services, so the spheres of
influence can be larger.
Competition from If there is a settlement nearby that provides
other settlements similar services, the sphere of influence will
be smaller.

Table 2.1 Factors influencing the sphere of influence Fig. 2.3. Manchester United, an international brand
 i ees
ee
For each town, different services will have different
spheres of influence. This is shown on Fig. 2.4.

Look at Fig. 2.4.

a Why is the sphere of influence of the local shop
so small?
Why are the spheres of influence smaller and
‘squashed’ in the east?
Why are the spheres of influence bigger in the
north-west?

Spheres ofinfluence can also overlap, as shown on

Fig. 2.5.
Key
a= Vain road
Most people living in the area shown on Fig. 2.5 go
—— Hospital
to the nearest supermarket to buy goods. However
--~- Furniture store
people living in area X go to either supermarket.
Suggest why this might be so. —-- Secondary school

swceee Local shop

@ Town
Threshold population
This is the minimum number of people needed to Fig. 2.4 The spheres of influence of different services in a town
provide a large enough demand for a service. Some
companies, such as supermarkets, require a minimum
population size before setting up a store. Services with
a small threshold population, such as a local shop or a

wy
primary school, are called low-order services. There
are usually large numbers of these. Services with a large
threshold population, such as a furniture store or a
university, are called high-order services. There are
usually small numbers of these.
High-order services will usually only be found in the
larger settlements. These settlements will also have
large numbers of low-order services.
eS
CC ) Discussion point
In the area where you live, does everyone choose to go to the
same place for a particular service? Are there spheres of
influence which overlap? For example, do different people
prefer different shops? Why is this? Do people support the same Key
football team? You will probably find that pattern of spheres @ @ Supermarkets
of influence is quite complicated and is affected by a variety IJ Spheres of influence
of factors.
O
a)
10
km

Fig. 2.5 The overlapping spheres of influence of two supermarkets

 eae

Range
This is the maximum distance that people are prepared
to travel in order to obtain a particular service. Low-
order services, such as the local shop or primary school,
will have small threshold populations and a small range.
They include convenience shops that a person might
visit almost every day to buy, for example, bread and
milk. High-order services, such as a furniture store or
a university, will have large threshold populations. These
have a large range and include comparison shops, Village
where a person might want to look in different shops
before buying things bought less frequently, such as Table 2.2 The settlement hierarchy in the area where | live
shoes.

Draw up a table like Table 2.2. From what you know

about the country or area where you live, add
information to show examples of settlements and
the types of services that they provide.

All over the world the petrol filling stations (gas stations
in USA) usually provide other services too. As well as
car repairs they often act as convenience stores, providing
basic foodstuffs for travellers and the local community.
They do not fit into the normal pattern of spheres of
influence as they provide low order goods but sell to
more than just local people.
TE 6298:AE

RESEARCH Hierarchies of settlements and services

are very easy to investigate and provide good coursework Fig 2.6 Petrol stations don’t fit into the normal pattern of spheres
topics. You can find out about size and spacing of settlements of influence

using maps and population census information if available.

You can find out about services and their spheres of influence
by recording the number and types of service you can see
in an area. You can produce questionnaires to find out about (
).C). Discussion point
the range and sphere of influence of different services.
If you live in a town or in a village, where do the people who
live there go for different services? How has this changed over
With the help of your teacher, find out where everyone in time and what are the causes of this?
your class lives. Produce a map to show the sphere of
If you live in a city, how big is the sphere of influence of the
influence of your geography class. city? Has this changed over time and, if so, why?
Rural settlements
Settlement patterns
The settlement pattern is the shape that a settlement
forms on the map - and how clustered or scattered it
is. Three common rural settlement patterns are nucleated,
dispersed and linear. As well as being described below,
they are also illustrated in the survey map questions in
Chapter 12 (page 325). These settlement patterns
develop because of the physical geography of the area,
the local culture or traditions, and the needs of the
farmers in the rural area.
pcan Q er ake r ea mm
Reasons fo! \ age iy tee ak:

-Nucleated are 3 7 “id ag # i “People can enjoythe socialbenefits ofving closeto theirneighbours. i
: "Le
ne oe aka oe ee ceriaSa No ‘They have easyaccess to services like shops and schools. Ny aia
eo of attack. a ES
and more square proce
ta o hae ae ey Beingcloseto others may be helpful fordefence in times
Scere =
J e This pattern often develops in areas with rich agriculture, where farmers can
Five arth ule ae
live in the village but still be near their fielSe
his.
et ee
*
re
3 2
¢ a “at ‘might favourthispattern, ‘“ aff a3 mn ¢.2 me
* . The culture ofthe people

“4 a 6 ied vind a hy Ik
ee i ee: id * ai vg
Reasons forthe location oftheindividual villagesaregivenin thenextsectionon
i ‘. on -—
sitethand a situation. ye ¥ x i ra i x i Cin Pi
Yi ig oh
*
siete J
‘
ad i? we “a a a] f iv
+ . oe

Linear x ” :
a
- é
ie
vi ¢e@
EL R TOE IGT
This pattern allows each dwelling to have access to aroad 0iffrankfor
a
aap

Settlements are in long thin rows, often alongroads_ =~==——_—_transport, and also to an area of farmin land atright angles tothe r ee
-ortracks. Ale Le ss ee ‘ : e Physical geography can also play ap rt. ba Na might be along a
aay _ river,
or a line of springs, Bewater supply, 0 bimeas ey goer to avoid the
steep valley sides. — zs > = 3 “ y §
© Settlements mightalso be ina line ee the flood plain of iver. 3
° In other cases, peo le don't waste go Tsaninig Jalicixeie: irrigate lage tale
~ buildings but eee he in a line nextto thefertile land.
ee = se ae = 3
i - . sa
“a ae oe : : ae - ‘
SEITE ae ae a= =. 7 Ls 77 * Pa cn th af e

Table 2.3 Nucleated, dispersed and linear rural settlements

 Site and situation *> crossing point of a river
The terms ‘site’ and ‘situation’ mean slightly different things *) natural resources, such as minerals.
and should not be confused. The situation means the position of the settlement in relation
The site is the land that the settlement is actually built on. to the surrounding area. Features of the situation often allow
The site’s features are very important when establishing the a small settlementto grow into a larger town or city. The features
original settlement. They include: include:
> altitude *> transport routes
*> gradient of the slope *> agricultural productivity of the area
> water supply *) position in relation to other settlements.

Factors influencing the sites and

development of rural settlements
Agricultural land use Relief
Most villages came into being as agricultural settlements. This includes altitude, gradient and aspect.
The surrounding land provided a food supply for the
Altitude alone is rarely a factor in influencing the site
village. For this reason, the available agricultural land
of settlements. However, in mountainous regions, the
was a key feature of their origin and development. The
highest areas might be so cold that agriculture is extremely
relief, soils, drainage and accessibility of the site had to
difficult - they could be covered in snow for much of
allow agricultural land use to take place. In many cases,
the year. Therefore, these areas might be left uninhabited.
this was wholly or partly subsistence agriculture. However,
By contrast, the lowest areas are sometimes sparsely
it is also true of purely modern commercial farming
populated because of poor drainage, diseases (see
systems, such as on the land reclaimed from the sea in
Drainage and flooding on page 46), and dense vegetation.
the Netherlands.
Gradient is an important factor in the site of settlements.
Villages have also developed as a result of mining mineral
Gentle slopes have the advantages of being well drained,
deposits, or tourism. In MEDCs, villages have become
easy to cultivate and easier to build on. Settlements are
desirable places to live. People often live in villages but
often located along valley floors - avoiding the steeper
work in nearby towns - commuting to work each day.
valley sides (as shown in Fig. Di):
These settlements are referred to as dormitory villages.

Fig. 2.7 Settlement along a

valley floor in Franschhoek, in
the Western Cape of South Africa
However, in the past, steep slopes often provided sites slopes, as, for example, in rural settlements on the island
that were easier to defend against enemies. This has of Madeira in the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 2.8). Steep slopes
meant that, in areas where conflicts were frequent, make transport more difficult and they can also be
hilltop villages often developed. Also, where flatter land prone to landslides, which can destroy roads and buildings.
is in short supply, people are forced to live on steep

Fig. 2.8 Rural settlements on very steep slopes on the island of Madeira

Aspect is the direction in which a slope faces. It is an Soils

important factor in mountainous areas, especially in Areas with fertile soils are often more densely settled,
valleys that run east-west. The sun always rises in the because the greater productivity of the land can support
east and sets in the west, but in the northern hemisphere a larger population. Examples of this include the alluvial
it moves around the southern sky and in the southern soils found in river valleys and the soils that develop on
hemisphere it moves around the northern sky. This is certain volcanic rocks, such as basalt:
critical in areas further away from the equator (the high
*) The dense rural population of the Nile Valley, in
latitudes), particularly in the winter when the sun is so
Egypt, contrasts with the sparsely populated
low in the sky.
surrounding desert.
Some slopes are warm and sunny and some are cold *) Areas with rich volcanic soils, such as the island of
and shaded. Agriculture and settlements tend to be Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean or the island of
concentrated on the sunny slopes. Java in Indonesia, have relatively dense populations.
The opposite is true of the areas of the savanna plains
of Africa, which have infertile latosols (red or yellow
soils rich in iron and aluminium) and sparse populations.
In the above examples, the density of rural settlements
is greater but the soil rarely influences the actual sites
of the settlements within the area. In some rural areas,
1 LEARNING TIP Remember that the south side of |
such as desert oases, rich soils are too important to
ja valley is north facing, and the north side of a valley is |
south facing. | build houses on, so the settlements are built on less
CL —
y
4
fertile land next to the fertile fields.
“2Selement ae
senonmennettt

Water supply populations and a shortage of land, such as Bangladesh,

Many settlements were first established next to a river, flood plains are sometimes densely settled.
spring or well that could supply water for drinking,
Areas slightly higher than flood plains, with gentle
washing and, in some cases, crop irrigation. Transporting
well-drained slopes, are good for farming and provide
water is hard, time-consuming work, so the settlements
good sites for rural settlements. Higher points in otherwise
needed to have their own supply. Sites - in otherwise
poorly drained areas are known as dry point sites.
dry areas - with reliable water supplies from rivers,
springs and wells, are called wet point sites.
Accessibility
Even the remotest settlements benefit from contact with
Drainage and flooding
other settlements to sell produce or to buy goods and
Very low-lying areas, such as flood plains (see page 129),
services. This is one reason for the development of linear
might have very fertile soils, but ifthey flood frequently
settlement patterns along roads or tracks.
they are not easy places to settle. They might also be
waterlogged permanently and difficult to farm. Where roads meet (route centres), or at the bridging
points of rivers, larger villages and regional service
In tropical regions, these areas might also be prone to
centres may develop. These are described on page 56
water-borne diseases (such as bilharzia and river
under urban settlements.
blindness), or diseases carried by insects (such as malaria
or sleeping sickness). Nevertheless, in areas with a

Study Fig. 2.9. How has the location

and development of the settlements
in the area been affected by each of
the following factors: relief
(gradient), soils, drainage/water
supply, and accessibility?

Key
— River

— Contours (metres)

=— Road
@ Village
= Dwelling
“Marsh
Cultivation

Fig. 2.9 Settlements in a rural area

(
.C). Discussion point
You have learned about the factors that affect the site and
situation of settlements. Which of these factors are important
today and which are only of historical importance?
CASE STUDY

Rural settlement in the Tsoelike

Valley, Lesotho
Site and situation
Most rural settlements in Lesotho, an LEDC in southern
Africa, have a nucleated or dispersed pattern.

The nucleated settlements originally developed partly

because of the need for defence in the past. Today, it is
easier and cheaper to provide services such as health
clinics, schools, piped water and shops in nucleated
settlements. Rural craft industries, such as weaving and
basket making, are also more easily organized in nucleated
settlements.

In the more mountainous areas, crops are grown and cattle

keeping is also important. Settlements here are more
often dispersed — consisting of a few huts and a kraal
EE Se = OTE ==
(enclosure) for cattle. The shortage of flat land is a problem
Fig. 2.10 Traditional stone and thatched houses in
for these settlements. Some can only be reached by tracks,
Lesotho
rather than by proper roads.

>> Most of the settlements in the Tsoelike Valley are below

an altitude of 2250 metres, where it is warm enough *» The valley floor, which is boggy, poorly drained and

to cultivate crops. liable to flooding, is avoided.

>) The highest land can only be used for grazing. The > Settlements are usually at the margins ofthe cultivated
settlements on the high ground are cattle posts, which areas and along roads and tracks. Flatter areas, like

are only inhabited in summer. benches on the valley sides, are common sites for
settlement.
>) Most settlements are on the north-facing slope — which
receives more sunlight than the south-facing slope — *) Water supply is generally not a problem, because there

making cultivation easier. are various small streams and springs in the area.

High ‘ 2750
(i
a p lang

TSOC/ike R,
ive |_|

——_ River

=== A4 road

Height above
sea level (metres)

® Building

Small rivers have not 0 5

Fig. 2.11 The location of settlements in the —_| been shown on the map
Tsoelike Valley
 Vs
Sun’s rays

Fewer Village and

settlements cultivation

level
above
Metres
sea

\ Tsoelike #
\River

Fig. 2.12 A cross-section through the Tsoelike Valley in Lesotho

Problems and changes The main road through the Tsoelike Valley to the South

percentage of the land is suitable for crop farming. It improved.

HES NOUS TOMALES PANN The nearest town, Qacha’s Nek, has a Farmer Training
There is a short growing season, with a risk of late Centre, which aims to introduce better agricultural
frosts. Communal grazing also discourages the growing methods — especially methods of soil conservation.
of winter crops. Services

Soil erosion by wind and running water is a constant Services are provided in Qacha’s Nek, which is about
threat. 15 kilometres from the Tsoelike Valley. The population of
the town is about 8000. It provides: shops, primary and
Crops can be damaged by hailstorms and locusts. secondary schools, the government hospital, the Lesotho
A complex system of allocating land to people (the land Bank, the Farmer Training Centre, local government offices,
tenure system) has led to the land being fragmented achurch, Forestry Division Offices and Nursery, and a hotel.
into small plots, with one person’s land being scattered
There is one bus a day to Maseru, the capital of Lesotho,
over the village area. which takes nine hours.
A lack of employment is a significant problem.

In the past, many men left the Tsoelike Valley to work a Look at Fig. 2.11. me side of the valley has
in the South African mines. This led to a shortage of the most buildings?
Aine? How far from the river is
labour at peak times — like harvest. the nearest building:
Is the settlement pattern in the Tsoelike Valley
The growing population has increased the pressure on nucleated, linear or dispersed?

peoava op cealavieland. Study Fig. 2.11 and Fig. 2.12. Explain how
As in other countries, many young people no longer each of the following factors has affected the
want to work in agriculture. site and development of rural settlements in
upland areas of Lesotho, like the Tsoelike
Apart from agriculture, employment is now provided by Valley: agricultural land, relief (gradient and
forestry, public services and administration. aspect), drainage/water supply, and
accessibility.
 CASE STUDY

Rural settlement in the Rio Poqueira J)

Valley, Spain LEARNING TIP Fig. 2.13 shows a contour map
Site and situation of a steeply sloping valley. Contour maps are explained
This rural example from an MEDC shows a different in detail in Chapter 12. The contours on Fig. 2.13 are
settlement pattern to that of the Tsoelike Valley in Lesotho. close together, which means that the slopes are very
Whereas the settlements in the highlands of Lesotho were steep and there is no flat land.
mostly dispersed, in this area they are mainly nucleated.

| Key
m — River

see Vain road

| -1300- Contour (metres)

Capiliera
| @ \illage

Fig. 2.13 The location of villages in the Rio Poqueira Valley in

southern Spain

There are three nucleated villages: Pampaneira, Bubién

and Capiliera, although isolated dwellings do occur as well.
The villages were nucleated for the reasons of defence,
ease of providing services and cultural reasons. As in
Lesotho, the valley floor has not been settled. The areas
favoured for settlement are slightly flatter areas on the
otherwise steep valley sides. The villages are SUPTOUNGEC —-=eee
pe ser r errr ener en srn nme aT
by terraced plots, which are irrigated bya system of canals Fig. 2.14 The villages of Bubién (nearest to the camera) and q
fed by melting snow from the mountains. Capiliera in the Rio Poqueira Valley |
Problems and changes Some properties have been bought (sometimes by foreigners)
to use as holiday homes. Often these properties are empty
Common problems in villages in remoter areas of MEDCs for much of the year. As described in the panel on the left,
this can have a major impact on a rural area’s population
Because of low wages and a lack of jobs, structure and services, as many of the young people leave
young people leave their villages to work in and the ageing population that remains puts more of a
urban areas. strain on medical and social services.

A significant number of the valley’s residents now travel

outside the area to work. The villages have become
dormitory settlements for people who work in larger
The average age of the remaining population
settlements further away, such as Orgiva and Lanjar6n.
increases.
Services
The villages currently provide a full range of services,
including: shops, schools, churches, banks and hotels.
Services such as schools, post offices, public Only the higher-order services, such as department stores,
transport and shops begin to close, because are not present.
there are fewer people to use them.
The roads are good, although the steep slopes and winding
roads (see Fig. 2.13) make journeys slow. There is a regular
bus service.

Rich people from outside the area buy up

properties as holiday and weekend homes,
Look at Fig. 2.13 and Fig. 2.14.
which drives up house prices. Local people,
a_ In which compass direction was the camera
especially young adults, cannot afford these
pointing when Fig 2.14 was taken?
prices and more are forced to leave the area.
Suggest why the valley floor has not been
settled.
Why are the sites of the two villages good for
This encourages even more people to leave, defence?
and a downward spiral of depopulation occurs.

For years, agriculture in the Rio Poqueira Valley has been

{ ).{ ).Discussion perey nels
unable to employ everybody from its settlements. Many
of the isolated dwellings have been abandoned and have In these pages you have learned about some of the problems
fallen into disrepair. But, despite this, property prices are affecting rural areas. Are the problems affecting rural areas

quite high. in LEDCs and MEDCs the same or are they different? You
should find that some problems apply to both types of area
Recently, tourism has been developed because of the but that others apply to only one type of area.
sunny climate, nearby places of historical interest and
outdoor activities like mountain biking and hill walking.
This has led to some alternative employment in hotels and
restaurants, and also providing transport and tour guides.
Rural settlement in the Val Gardena
in Italy
Site and situation
The Val Gardena in Italy (another MEDC) is an area where
the original rural agricultural settlements have changed, IT
TIRE

due to the development of international tourism. Part of

the area had a dispersed settlement pattern on relatively
gentle sloping upland areas. These are shown in Fig. 2.14.
eT
TTT
aT
STE
During summer, these upland areas were used for grazing
and producing a crop of hay for winter fodder. In winter,
when the slopes were covered in snow, the animals were
kept indoors. Some of the people moved to the warmer
valleys for the winter.

Villages in the main valley like Selva (Wolkenstein), S.

Cristina (St Christina) and Ortisei (St Ulrich) provided the
services for the area.

Problems and changes

In recent years tourism has become the main industry,
and Val Gardena is now a famous international ski resort.
Tourist accommodation of various types, and facilities like
restaurants, have developed all along the valley floor (see
Fig. 2.16).

EE = = SS = cere

Fig. 2.15 Dispersed settlement in the Val Gardena area, Italy

Fig. 2.16 Part of the tourist village

of Ortisei/St Ulrich
The separate villages have now become one continuous
linear settlement. The steep valley sides have only a few
isolated dwellings.

The problems of the Val Gardena are largely a result of

the success of tourism. New roads have been built in the
valley, but they can become congested at peak times.

Tourism in the Val Gardena has two peaks:

*> in the winter for skiing

> in the summer for mountain walking and climbing.
Between these peaks there can be a decrease in employment
in hotels, restaurants and other tourist-related jobs.

There is a big demand for property and prices are very

high.

Services
There is a full range of services in the towns, including
some high-order ones. There are excellent public bus
services. Cable cars and ski lifts allow the tourists to get
to the upper slopes of the surrounding mountains.

Fig. 2.18 A view of the Val Gardena looking east, showing the
development of linear settlement. The main road is shown in red,
the valley floor is green and buildings are shown by the dark dots

Fig 2.17 Settlement in the valley floor of the Val Gardena

Which side of the valley shown in Fig. 2.18 has © In what. ways are the three rural areas described in
the most settlement - the north side or the the case studies:
south side? Suggest why this is so. a_ similar in the problems that they face?
Why is the main settlement in the Tsoelike Valley b different in the services that they provide?
(Fig. 2.11) on the other side of the valley?
Urban settlements
populations of over one million (millionaire cities),
Urbanisation Paris and London. Today there are over 400. In 1975,
Urbanisation is the growth of towns and cities - leading the largest city in the world - New York - had a population
to an increasing percentage of the population living in of 16.5 million. Today, the largest urban area - Tokyo-
urban areas. In 1900, there were only two cities with Yokohama - has a population of over 35 million.

Urban population
percentage of the population living in
urban areas

over 80%
60—80%
40—60%
| 20—40%
i under 20%
no data

1975

2004

projected 2015
Fig. 2.19 The percentage of the population living in towns and cities
 >| 2 Settlement i zx

As Fig. 2.19 shows, urbanisation took place earlier in

the richer countries of Europe and North America, and
in other MEDCs. Today, more than 90% of the populations
of MEDCs tend to live in towns and cities. Urbanisation
started over 200 years ago when these countries went
through the Industrial Revolution. People left their
jobs in agriculture in rural areas and migrated to the
growing towns and cities to work in factories. In these
richer countries, urbanisation is now either very slow
or has stopped completely, because most people already
live in urban areas.

The LEDCs of Africa and south-east Asia have much

lower levels of urbanisation, because industrialisation
began later there. But LEDCs in South America have
higher levels of urbanisation than those in Africa and
south-east Asia. Several South American countries have
urban populations of over 75%.
Urbanisation in LEDCs has increased since 1950 and
is now extremely rapid. There are various reasons for
this, including:Cc

overall population growth

rural-to-urban migration (see page 34)
increasing numbers of people working in secondary
and tertiary industries, which are concentrated in Fig 2.20 Cityscape of Tokyo, the world’s largest urban area
urban areas.

As cities have grown outwards, they have merged with Rank Urban area Country Population
other towns and cities to create conurbations. One (millions)
example of this pattern is the world’s largest urbanarea 4 Tokyo-Yokohama Japan 35
(Tokyo-Yokohama), which was formed by the merger 9 Jakarta Indonesia 22
of those two cities. 3 Nfurab ai India 1
4 Delhi India 20
5 Manila Philippines 20
6 New York USA 20
7 Sao Paulo Brazil 20
8 Seoul South Korea 19
9 Mexico City Mexico 18
10 Shanghai People’s Republic of 18
China

Table 2.4 The ten largest urban areas in the world, in 2010,
according to population size

LEARNING TIP Population statistics for cities are

sometimes confusing. This is often because some figures
are for the area within the city’s boundaries, while other
figures include the whole conurbation. The limits of an
urban area are not always easy to define.
The accuracy of censuses, including difficulties like illegal
immigration, also lead to data problems. The figures in
Table 2.4 are for urban areas, rather than single cities, and
nae 2 Fig 2.21 The centre of Sao Paulo, Brazil are estimates based on censuses up to 2009.
 1975 Largest cities
—
- : =

6 Los ; ©
- _ 2 Tokyo
4 Shanghai

7 Buenos Aires

Key
Black MEDC city

Red LEDC city Look at Fig. 2.22 and the material

on pages 53-54.
2010 Largest cities
a a_ Of the world’s ten largest cities
in 1975, how many were in
LEDCs and how many were in
MEDCs?
Yokohama
How had this changed by 2010?

Me
10 Shanghai
‘
How has the population of New
85 Manila
i]
is}
of
York changed during this period,
and how has its ranking
changed?
Which continents are the most
urbanised and which is the least
urbanised?
In 2015 will there still be
countries with less than 20% of
the population living in urban
areas?
Fig. 2.22 The location of the ten largest urban areas in 1975 and 2010

Some of the fastest-growing cities today are in south-east Asia. Dhaka

(Bangladesh), Karachi (Pakistan), Delhi (India) and Bangkok (Thailand)
all doubled their populations between 1985 and 2000. Many of the
fastest-growing cities are in the tropics.

Counter-urbanisation
In many MEDCs, e.g. the UK, urbanisation lasted until about 1970.
Since then there has been some movement of people back from urban
areas to rural areas. This has been called counter-urbanisation. Many (
).C) Discussion point
of those who have moved are relatively wealthy. They have either What do you think are:
retired;r still work in urban areas but now commute from their new the advantages and disadvantages of
homes in more rural areas. living in a city?
the advantages and disadvantages of
This movement has often been due to the problems of urban life and living in a village?
the desire for the peace and quiet of rural areas. High housing costs Would an older person think differently
in cities have allowed people to sell city properties and buy large houses about this compered with a teenager?

at lower prices in the countryside. The effects of this on rural areas

have already been discussed on page 50.
TMM vsectemt
Mega-cities Factors influencing the size, growth and
This term has been used to describe cities with populations functions of urban settlements
of over ten million, including extremely large conurbations
like Tokyo-Yokohama. In the section on rural settlements, you learnt that
features of the site - such as altitude, gradient of the
The largest rural-to-urban migration in history is slope, water supply, crossing points of rivers, or natural
happening in China today. It began in the late 1980s, resources - were very important when the settlement
when industrial development occurred in China’s coastal was originally established. Other factors, usually of the
cities. China is now planning to merge nine cities in situation, often allow a small settlement to grow into a
the south of the country around the Pearl River Delta larger town or city.
to create a mega-city with a population of about
42 million (see Fig. 2.23).
LEARNING TIP Survey map questions on Paper 2
The transport, energy, water and telecommunications frequently ask about site, situation and growth of settlement.
networks of the nine cities are currently separate. A There are examples of these in Chapter 12.
series of projects will merge these into systems to serve
the entire mega-city. For example, it is planned that Nodal points (route centres)
residents will be able to use a single railcard to travel These are where natural routeways, such as river valleys,
throughout the area. About 50 km of new rail lines will meet. These points often develop into important transport
be added, and there will be an express rail line to the junctions. As a result, they become the most accessible
important economic centre of Hong Kong. points in the area, and are seen as the best places to
The area of the new mega-city is important for provide shops, social services (such as schools), and
manufacturing industry. Rapid industrialisation there administration. Examples include Khartoum in Sudan
has led to serious pollution problems, and the mega-city (where the Blue Nile and the White Nile meet) and
will have a united policy to help deal with this. Lyon in France (at the meeting point of the rivers Rhéne
and Saéne). Another excellent example is New York,
which is described in a case study on pages 79-84.

Agricultural centres
The growth of some towns and cities has been because
haoging Dongguan they lie at the centres ofrich agricultural regions. They
Im 6.4
Fra a have become the collection and marketing points for
the produce of the area. Transport links have been built
to focus on these points, and they have developed further
into administrative centres providing high-order services
for their surrounding areas.
The Prairies in Canada are important for commercial
cereal farming (see Chapter 9) and provide good examples
of cities that have grown up as agricultural centres.
Each of the three Prairie provinces has its state capital
centrally placed at the focus of main transport routes:
Edmonton (in the province of Alberta), Regina (in the
South
province of Saskatchewan) and Winnipeg (in the province
China Sea °)
ed 20 of Manitoba).
km

Fig. 2.23 The planned mega-city

in southern China
 MANITOBA
ALBERTA

Fei
Fate
bay
ME.
EP
IO
ee
Se

Key
-—— Province boundary
— Main roads

Fig. 2.24 The Canadian Prairie

provinces: agricultural and route
centres

Ports
A number of factors help to promote the growth and development of seaports:
> The presence of deep water close to the shore, where ships can anchor to unload
their cargoes
>) shelter from strong winds and rough seas, provided by bays and river estuaries
> a gap into ports in the Tropics in a coral reef through which ships can pass
> the presence of a large area linked to the port from which goods are exported
and to which goods are imported. This is known as the hinterland (meaning
the land behind). Big ports are often entrepots (places where goods are imported
and then re-exported without paying taxes).
2 good transport links with the hinterland. The biggest port in Europe, Rotterdam
in the Netherlands, is linked to much of Europe by road, rail and the navigable
river Rhine.
> a location at a strategic position on world shipping routes. This is illustrated by
the Cape Town case study on pages 85-8.
Administrative towns and cities {
).( ) Discussion point
These are the capitals of different regions of the country - or the whole
What is the best location for the capital of a
country - and are the towns and cities where the government and country? What factors should be important?
civil service (administration) are based. They are often located centrally,
or for other strategic reasons.

In the 1800s, powerful European countries colonised areas elsewhere

in the world. The economies of these European colonies were often
based on the export of raw materials and the import of manufactured
goods. For this reason, seaports were often chosen as their capitals.
When the colonies became independent countries, especially in the
1960s, their new governments often established capitals inland to
unify the country, develop the local economy, and reflect the changed ! Explain the difference between
politics. Three examples of this are shown on Fig 2.25. the terms ‘site’ and ‘situation’.
List the causes of urbanisation.
Many capitals have been neutral choices, to avoid favouring one group c Explain how urbanisation has
within the country. For example, Canberra was chosen as the capital been different in MEDCs and
of Australia - within its own territory - to avoid having the capital LEDCs.
within one of the existing states. Ottawa was chosen as capital of Draw a bar graph to represent
Canada to avoid favouring either the English- or French-speaking the data in Table 2.4.
communities.

Conakry® >
Freetown

Dar es Salaam

Key
e@ Capital city
© Old colonial capital
© Other capital cities which are seaports

Fig. 2.25 Examples of seaport capitals, plus three examples of countries that changed
their capital cities after the countries gained independence
Urban land use
Central Business District (CBD)

Features of the CBD

Government buildings
High-order retail services, such as department stores
in the middle of the CBD and highly specialist shops
on the outskirts
Offices, including major company headquarters
Theatres, hotels and restaurants
Old historic buildings
Multi-storey buildings, developed in response to the
high land values

Concentration of public transport services, including multi-storey buildings in the centre is the CBD, with lower buildings
buses and underground railways surrounding it
Few residents - the number of people in the CBD
at night is low
Zoning of different functions in different parts of
the CBD. This is because certain shops, e.g. shoe
shops, are better next to shops of the same type for
comparison shopping. Businesses like banks and
legal services also prefer to be next to each other for
business contacts
Vertical zoning, e.g. retail on the lower floors, offices
on upper floors
> High numbers of pedestrians

Pedestrianised areas

> Sse s i < : x i

Se BR. i s BE

Fig. 2.27 The CBD often includes old historic buildings - like these in Fig. 2.28 In smaller towns, the CBD will be more modest - like this
Tallinn, Estonia shopping street in Barrow-in-Furness in the north of England ae >
Be 2 Settlement = @

Reasons for the development of the CBD result, land prices in the CBD became higher, and
In many towns and cities, the CBD was the original only certain services could afford to locate there.
‘core’ of the settlement - so it contains the oldest Buildings in the CBD began to be built taller to make
the best use of the expensive land.
buildings and the town expanded outwards from
that point.
The CBD was also the point where roads from the
outskirts converged. This made the area the most with certain functions or services. Use your own knowledge
accessible part of the town, i.e. the easiest place for or the Internet to find out what function or service each of
all the people to get to. the following areas of London is associated with: Westminster,
Oxford Street, The City, Soho, The West End, Harley Street.
This, in turn, made it a very desirable place for
services like retailing to locate themselves. As a

Fig 2.29 Harrods in London - a famous department store Fig. 2.30 The British parliament - government buildings are usually
found in the CBD

Residential areas
These are the areas where people live. Different styles In parts of northern Europe, long rows of houses joined
of housing are found in different countries, so it is not together (called terraces) were built when the towns
easy to generalise about different types of housing. expanded rapidly during the Industrial Revolution. In
other areas, flats (apartments) form the high-density
High-density housing housing. In some towns and cities, the high-density
This is where dwellings are relatively small and there housing is several hundred years old (as shown in Fig.
is little or no open space between them. It is often found 2.31). The high-density housing in Fig. 2.32 is more
in the older parts of towns and cities, closer to the centre. modern.

Fig. 2.31 An old high-density residential area close to the centre of Fig. 2.32 A high-density residential area in Cartagena, Colombia
Granada in southern Spain
Low-density housing
In these areas there are fewer dwellings per square Describe the differences between the houses in
kilometre, and there is open space between the housing Fig, 2.33:
- usually in the form of garden plots for recreation. The Which housing is the more expensive, do you
areas are usually more modern and further away from think?
the city or town centre. Who is likely to live in each set of houses?

@ LEARNING TIP Question 11a asked you to write

about differences. When this is the question, don’t do two
separate descriptions - compare the two things, giving
pairs of points.

Fig. 2.33 Low-density housing areas in Mbabane, the capital of Swaziland

Flats (apartments)
These are multi-storey buildings containing a number
of different units. In some European countries they are
owned by local government, or a single owner who
rents out the individual units. In theory, they allow
more open space by building upwards.
This type of housing can be found in any part of the
town or city. It can be very high quality and expensive,
but it is not always suitable for families with children.
Flats are also known as apartments and condominiums
(condos), usually when the individual units are privately
owned.
Shanty houses
Known in parts of South America as favelas, in parts
of Asia as bustees - and by the United Nations as informal
settlements - these are a type of slum housing. They Fig. 2.34 Flats surrounded by public open space
are often built spontaneously out of any available
materials, such as plastic sheets, metal sheets or even In LEDCs, the open spaces have often developed much
cardboard. They often lack normal services, such as a more informally and they are not necessarily well-kept
water supply and sewerage. areas. The case studies of New York (pages 79-84) and
Cape Town (pages 85-8) provide good examples from
Shanty houses are associated with the outer areas of
an MEDC and an LEDC.
cities in LEDCs, although they may occur even in
relatively small settlements (like the one in Fig. 2.35).
Industrial areas
They are described in detail on page 68, and in the case
Industrial areas are present in most towns and cities.
studies about Mumbai (pages 73-7) and Cape Town
They are of different types, including:
(85-8).
> older industries located close to railways or canals
- and often quite close to the centres of older cities
©) industries associated with sea or river ports, which
involve imports or exports

©) newer industrial areas closer to the outskirts of cities.

These might be on greenfield sites and have good
access to road transport.

Transport routes
Transport routes are a key feature of urban land use.
They are dealt with in more detail on pages 68-70.
There are big differences in transport between those
cities which are very compact and have buildings located
close together, and those cities with low-density housing
spread over a large area. The high-density cities are
easier to serve by public transport. There are great
Fig. 2.35 Informal housing on the edge of Springbok, a small town in differences between cities in different parts of the world,
the Northern Cape of South Africa as illustrated in Question 12 on the next page.

Open spaces
Open spaces are found in most towns and cities - with
few exceptions. In MEDCs, they are usually planned
features like public parks or sports grounds. There may
also be less-attractive areas waiting for re-development.
Planning regulations preserve these spaces and they
are not allowed to be built on.
 12 Look at Fig. 2.34, epe0° Houston
a_ What type of relationship is 70000
shown - a positive correlation or USA
a negative correlation? If you 60000 @Los Angeles
have not studied correlation it is Ge Washington
explained on page 332 in = 8 50000
Chapter 12. ae New York |
Which country has the lowest 3 & 40000 lbourne
urban population density and the 5 ee Australia and
highest petroleum consumption Bree c 000 Sven @Toronto Canada

per person? ! ner :

2 20000 @Paris
Which region has the highest London , . Europe
urban population density and the 40000 ios eSing
Sanaa —— —@ @Singapore Sal PITH VTC
lowest petroleum consumption Far East role pone, Kong
per person? and Russia Moscow

d_ There is little difference in 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

population density between the Population density (persons per hectare)
cities of the USA and those of
Fig. 2.36 The relationship between petroleum consumption per person and population
Australia and Canada. Suggest
density for selected world cities
some reasons why much more
petroleum is used per person in
the USA: |

Urban structures in MEDC cities = New immigrants moving into a city tend to move
Urban structure, or urban morphology, is the distribution into inner-city areas with cheap housing, close to
of different types of land use in a town or city. sources of employment.
In urban areas, the different types of land use (the CBD, ©) Housing quality and social class change with increasing
4

different types of housing, industry and open space) distance from the centre. Increasing affluence and
usually exist in separate zones. This is because: developing public transport allow people to live long
distances from their places of work.
>> the value (cost) of the land is different, e.g. in the
CBD rents are too high to allow much residential u As the city grows, all the circles push outwards. The
4

use area next to the expanding CBD is called the transition

zone, where residential areas change to commercial
> certain types of land use do not mix, e.g. people in
use. This is like the modern core and frame concept
high-quality housing would not want to be next to (explained on page 65).
ugly industry
> particular types of land use, once established, tend
to continue that way.
Urban land use is often explained by models. A model
is a simplified theory that attempts to explain how things
work. No model works perfectly, but they do help to
explain some of the features of urban structures.

Burgess’s concentric zone model

This model (Fig. 2.37) was developed in 1925 and based
on the stfucture of Chicago in the USA.
©) The CBD develops at the original growth point, at
the intersection of major roads. Here there is the
greatest accessibility (due to public transport) and
the highest land values.
©) Beyond the CBD is a manufacturing zone. Fig. 2.37 Burgess’s concentric zone model
Hoyt’s sector model
Hoyt’s model (Fig. 2.38) was developed in 1939 and
was based on transport routes and the idea (referred to
earlier) that certain types of land use repel each other.
Industry develops along major roads or rivers. Heavy
manufacturing industry and high-class residential areas
are never next to each other; there is always a ‘buffer
zone’ between them.

4
Urban structures in LEDC cities 2, Light manufacturing
The Burgess and Hoyt models of cities in MEDCs do 3 Low-class residential
not work for LEDCs. The most obvious reason is that 4 Middle-class residential
in many LEDC cities, the high-class residential areas 5 High-class residential
are close to the centre and the low-class residences are
6 Heavy manufacturing
on the periphery - the exact opposite of MEDCs.
Fig. 2.38 Hoyt’s sector model
The model illustrated in Fig. 2.39 is based on Latin
American cities. The CBD is based on the old colonial
centre, and has a sector of shops and offices leading
from it along a major transport route. Either side of this
are high-class residential sectors. These contain open
<

CBD
areas, parks, homes for the upper and middle classes, Commercial
and amenities such as good schools. The streets here
High-class residential
are well maintained.
Better residences
The other residential areas are based on concentric Active improvement of houses
zones. Recent squatter settlements are found on the Recent squatter housing
outskirts. Housing conditions closer to the centre are SO Industry
CLS
eae
WN
better, and there is older, more established squatter
housing. It is easier for people living closer to the centre Fig. 2.39 A model of a Latin American city

to find work. Manufacturing tends to be scattered

throughout the city, although there may be industrial What is meant by each of the following terms?
sectors along transport routes.
a_ Greenfield site
Urban structure

@ LEARNING TIP Examination questions often ask

Sector theory
Shanty
you to describe a model and then explain how well it fits Accessibility
an example you have studied. Case studies are given later
in this chapter, particularly of Cape Town, but you could
use a Study of your own nearest town or city.
RESEARCH Get a map of your nearest urban area that
you Can use as a base map. Mark on your map: the CBD,
industrial areas, residential areas (Showing any different
{
).C). Discussion point types) and open spaces. Describe how well your chosen
area is like any of the models of urban structures (urban
You have learned that residential areas sometimes occur close
morphology). If you do this in detail, you could use your
to the CBD and sometimes far away from it. Which part of an
example to answer an examination question asking for a
urban area would you prefer to live in, and why? Would an older
person answer that question in the same way?
case study.
Problems associated with the growth Decentralisation of companies and administration
of urban areas The same issues of poor accessibility and car parking,
plus high land values, have led many companies to think
Problems of the CBD about whether the CBD is necessarily the best location
The CBD is a zone of constant change - whether it’s in
for their offices. Modern electronic communication
a large city or a small town. Problems arise because of
systems have also reduced the need to be near the offices
this change, and also because there is a lack of space of similar types of company. Now, when a company
in the CBD and land there is expensive. In many decides that its premises needed renewing, it might
countries, people are worried that the CBDs of towns decide instead to re-locate to new purpose-built premises
and cities are in decline. Areas of the CBD in many on the outskirts of the town, where land prices are lower
towns and cities have been almost abandoned - with and employees can drive to work and park more easily.
shops boarded up and properties in a poor state of
repair. The CBD in the evening
The CBD can be very empty in the evening. If the only
The decline of retailing services open are bars, restaurants and nightclubs, the
One of the original reasons for the development of the CBD can become an unsafe place at night - with high
CBD was that it was the most accessible place in the crime rates.
urban area for people to congregate. This is usually no
longer the case. Increased car ownership has led to The twilight zone
congestion - slowing down journey times, including This name has been used to describe the problem areas
bus journeys, and leading to a lack of parking space. in the transition zone on the edge of the CBD. Land
The first retailers to leave the CBD were the smaller uses at the centre and outsides of the CBD are different.
independent shops, which could no longer afford the They have been described as the core and frame (see
high rents. However, larger shops have now moved out Fig. 2.40).
as well: The edge of the CBD is likely to be particularly affected
=> Shops suchas DIY stores, furniture shops and carpet by change. It might be improved if the CBD expands
shops have often moved to brownfield sites in the in that direction. However, it can also be an area of
inner-city area. decline and suffer from:

= Major department stores and hypermarkets have

a > derelict land and buildings
moved to greenfield sites on the outskirts of towns. > high rates of crime and social problems.
Here the land is cheaper. People with cars can also
drive easily to these locations, often along ring roads,
and there is plenty of parking space.
If more and more shops move:
> fewer people will go shopping in the CBD
>) more shops will be forced to leave
> there will be a downward spiral of decline
> people’s perception of the CBD might become one
of a run-down area with empty derelict buildings,
which is unsafe and dirty and suffers from litter and
graffiti.

Fig. 2.40 The core and frame of the CBD

Solutions to the problems of the CBD Visual improvements
The following solutions have been proposed to address These can be achieved by providing flowerbeds, seated
the problems of the CBD. areas, trees and hanging baskets. Pavement cafés and
bars are introduced. When a building becomes vacant,
Pedestrianisation every effort is made to find a new tenant to occupy it
Pedestrianised areas are traffic free, or only allow access quickly, rather than letting it stand empty. Street cleaning,
to delivery vehicles at certain times of day. The aim of litter and refuse collection are priorities. Many city
this policy is to create a safer, more relaxed environment, centres have pieces of sculpture at important locations.
with less pollution from vehicles - especially air and
noise pollution. Security
Shoppers need to feel safe. This is helped by regular
Shopping malls patrols by police or by private security firms. Closed
These are undercover shopping areas. Shoppers can circuit TV is also a deterrent to pickpockets and shoplifters.
look around, compare goods and prices - and ignore This is especially relevant in the evenings.
the weather. They are air-conditioned in warm climates
Some of the more general problems of urban areas also
and heated in cold ones. Shopping malls are successful
apply to the CBD and these are discussed later in this
when they are new and purpose-built. They often try
chapter on pages 67-72.
to have at least one major department store (an ‘anchor
store’), which encourages other shops to locate in the
mall. The mall will also contain cafés and small
restaurants.

Fig 2.41 and 2.42 Different types of pedestrianised areas in cities.

14 a Copy and complete Table 2.5. You might not find pea Sa, Sadr lh
a solution for every problem. You will find other

b
issues on page 67.
What are the main causes of the problems ofthe
ee ee en ae
CBD?
iis. Mee. Waa ee
Table 2.5 Problems with the CBDs of cities today
 CASE STUDY

London - improving the CBD’s The London Congestion Charge is a fee payable by L
transport system motorists driving in central London. It aims to deter
London has always had traffic jams. The first ones happened motorists from bringing their cars into central London, to
with horses and wagons long before motor vehicles were reduce congestion, and to raise funds to improve London’s
invented. public transport system. It was introduced on 17 February
2003 and extended into parts of west London on NTN
ANN

Underground railways, known as ‘The Tube’, were first 19 February 2007. A payment of UK£10 (US$15) is required
developed in London in 1863 and have been extended each day for each vehicle which travels within central
ever since. The most recent extensions have been the London between 7am and 6pm (Monday-Friday only). The
Docklands Light Railway in 1995 and the Jubilee Line system is mostly run on electronic technology, using
extension in 2001. The underground trains carry about automatic number plate recognition.
600 people each, run every few minutes, make frequent
Electronic ticketing. This allows fares for buses, underground a
stops, and are not slowed down by traffic on the surface.
trains and surface trains to be paid using a swipe card
Bus lanes, which private cars cannot use, allow buses (the Oyster Card), without the use of cash. This speeds
and taxis to move at their own speed — independent of up queues to pay for fares. It also allows cheap fares and j
other traffic. bonuses for using public transport — encouraging people 7
not to use their cars.

Crime and racial conflict Housing shortages

Cities in both MEDCs and LEDCs have areas where Housing shortages are a particular issue in larger cities
there are high levels of poverty. These areas usually have in MEDCs, because:
higher levels of crime and are less safe places to live.
» > older properties nearer to city centres require
Cities have also always attracted high levels of renovation or renewal
immigration. Immigrants from a particular country or
© there has been a population increase through
area tend to live in the same part of the host city. This
immigration and natural growth
might be because they are poor and need cheap
housing, but also because they want to live near to > property prices are too high for those who are
people with their own culture and language. unemployed or on low wages.
An area of poverty, which also has a concentration In the UK, between 1930 and 1970, there were major
of people from a particular immigrant community, is slum-clearance schemes in inner-city areas. The older
called a ghetto. Conflict can arise between immigrant housing was replaced by blocks of flats or new houses
communities and the native population, or between in the suburbs. These new properties were owned by
different immigrant communities. Both the Cape Town the local government authorities. Several completely
and New York case studies at the end of this chapter new towns were also built in the countryside. Many of
have examples of crime and racial conflict. the replacement properties are now owned by private
landlords, and there is no longer a policy of
The solutions to these issues go beyond the scope of this
government-owned housing.
book, but they include:
In some Japanese cities similar problems are made
> providing social facilities such as sports clubs
worse by the shortage of flat land. As a result, the houses
* job-creation schemes to provide employment are sometimes extremely small and the population
density is very high, as shown in Fig 2.34. In the urban
> speciai projects that bring communities together
area of Osaka-Kobe there are population densities of
>a zero, tolerance on crime up to 10 000 people per square kilometre. The city has
been forced to reclaim land from the sea to build more
>) ensuring adequate policing on the streets
residences. Port Island and Rokko Island were reclaimed
> providing language lessons for immigrants. and new flats were built there. There was a great demand
for this housing, even though it was expensive and the
names of the first occupants were drawn from a hat.
 a RE PSE EEF PSS eT
_.,

Squatter settlements >> The residents might be recent immigrants with no

As described earlier, these informal settlements are a connections to the area.
type of slum housing - often located in the outer areas
>> People face long journeys to the central areas of the
of cities and towns in LEDCs. The residents face the
city for work, and there may be little public transport.
following difficulties:
Providing solutions to these problems is difficult, because
> They do not own the land or have a legal right to
the countries concerned are poor and the number of
occupy it, so they could be evicted at any time.
people living in these areas is so great. However, some
»> The houses are not weatherproof and can be cold solutions include:
in winter.
>> low-cost housing schemes that provide basic dwellings
> There is no proper sanitation and water supply, which for families, with running water, electricity and
can lead to outbreaks of diseases like cholera. proper sanitation. This approach often involves
people who have some sort of employment and are
> There may be no refuse collection.
able to pay a small amount of rent.
>) Insome cases they have no electricity supply, or it’s © self-help schemes which provide groups of people
illegal. with the materials they need to build proper houses.
> The location of their settlement on the outskirts of These schemes can help produce a sense of community.
the urban area means that there is no local employment. > the provision of basic services such as sewerage,
> They suffer from extreme poverty and high piped water and refuse collection by the city authorities.
unemployment.
The case study on Mumbai (pages 73-7) describes some
> There is extreme overcrowding, with whole families of these solutions.
living in one or two rooms.
> There are high levels of crime and drug and alcohol
abuse.
> The favelas of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, are built on
steep slopes, and landslides and mudflows often 15 Question 14 asked you about the problems of the
CBD. Repeat the question but this time for problems
destroy the housing (250 people were killed in April
facing other urban areas.
and May 2010).

CASE STUDY

London - traffic congestion > of people visiting the CBD for sightseeing, shopping
(Also see the previous case study on transport in London’s or entertainment — estimated to be around 28 million
CBD.) people each year

Traffic congestion occurs in London because: of people passing through the city on their way to other
places, because London is the focal point of the UK’s
* it’s an old city with an historic centre that was built
road and rail systems.
long before the need for mass public transport
Integrated transport policy
of the increased use of private cars
London’s underground railway (The Tube) and its bus
of people commuting to work. The population of London services are co-ordinated by a single organisation — Transport
is 8 million, but 2 million extra people travel into the for London. The overland train services are operated by
city each day to work. This means that there is enormous different companies, but they must plan their services
movement inwards in the morning rush hour and jointly to link them together.
outwards during the evening rush hour. Many of the
trains and buses that carry these people are not needed
during the rest of the day
 Road
Approximate limit
London has inner and outer ring roads. The
of built-up area
motorway loop (the M25) is located at the
asae= {VIOtorwayS
edge of the built-up area, and allows traffic
to avoid travelling through the city. This is — Other roads

important because the UK’s national

motorway network focuses on London. An
inner ring road (the North and South Circular
roads) performs a similar role for inner
London. Traffic lights control the traffic. In
places, traffic lights above the carriageways
allow tidal flow — more lanes are available
for traffic travelling inwards in the morning
and outwards in the evening. Roundabouts
(circles) are used on the major intersections.
Smaller urban areas in Britain, for example
Oxford and Cambridge, have park-and-ride
schemes to increase the use of buses.
Rail Fig. 2.43 London’s motorway network and ring roads
The Uk’s national railway network focuses
on London. Planning in the 1800s prevented
the main national terminus railway stations
from being built in the centre of the city,
so they are located slightly further out.
Suburban and national train services run
from these stations.

Eurostar
Eurostar is a high-speed passenger train
service connecting London with Paris (France)
and Brussels (Belgium). Great Britain is an
island, so all of the trains travel through
the 50 km long Channel Tunnel — under the
sea between Britain and France. The London
terminus is St Pancras, with the main Paris
terminus at Gare du Nord and the main
Brussels terminus at Midi/Zuid station.
The service uses 18 coach trains, which
can reach speeds of up to 300 kilometres
an hour. Eurostar services began in 1994, Fig. 2.44 London’s main terminus railway stations
and now carry more passengers than aircraft
do between those three cities. Unlike the
airport services, Eurostar transports international travellers
from city centre to city centre.

Underground railway
The importance of the underground railway in the CBD has
already been described. There is an extensive suburban
network too, especially in north London. South of the River
Thames, the soft rock makes tunnelling more difficult, so
the underground network is not as extensive there. The
river running through the centre of London causes road
traffic congestion at the various bridges, but this is nota
problem for the Tube service under the river.
 Crossrail
Crossrail is an ambitious engineering project
to reduce overcrowding on London’s transport
network. It will: Shenfield

be a completely new railway — running

118 km from Maidenhead and Heathrow
Airport in the west, through new twin-
bore 21 km tunnels under central London
to Shenfield and Abbey Wood in the
east

bring an additional 1.5 million people

within 45 minutes, commuting distance
of London’s key business districts
| x River Thames
use mainline-sized trains, each carrying —— Underground railway
more than 1500 passengers during
— Surface railway
peak periods.

The main construction works began in the

Fig. 2.45 The Crossrail Project
central section in 2010 and the first train
services are expected to begin operating
by the end of 2018.
Stansted
Air wx
London is served by five airports. The main
airport, Heathrow, is said to be the busiest
in the world. Gatwick also has many inter-
continental flights. London City Airport was
developed on a derelict industrial site in
the London Docklands area. It is used by
North Sea
short take off and landing aircraft, and
serves the business and banking quarter
known as ‘The City’. The other four airports
are further from the city centre and are
reached by rail and motorway.

Gatwick |

Fig. 2.46 London’s airport connections

( C ) Discussion point
If you were in charge of improving the transport system of a town or city, what
would you do? What might be the barriers that you would have to overcome?

{
).C) Discussion point
This section has dealt with a range of problems faced by urban areas: crime and
racial conflict, housing shortages, squatter settlements, various types of pollution,
traffic congestion and problems of the CBD. Not all these problems affect all
urban areas. Which of the problems affect the urban area(s) that you know best?
Can they be solved? How should this be approached?
The effects of urbanisation on the
environment
These include the different types of pollution and the
problems created by urban sprawl.

Air pollution
The major sources of air pollution are motor vehicles,
industry, power stations and open fires (all involving
the burning of fossil fuels), so it’s not surprising that
urban areas have less clean air than the surrounding
countryside. In MEDCs, the strict regulation of vehicle
and industrial emissions has greatly reduced air pollution
over the last 60 years. Reducing traffic congestion has
also helped. It’s in the major cities ofLEDCs and NICs @ LEARNING TIP In examinations, don’t just refer
that the highest levels of air pollution now occur. This to ‘pollution’. Make your answer specific to the types of
is especially true in countries which are rapidly pollution described on the following pages.
industrialising, such as China and India.

Pollutant Source Problem

Carbon monoxide Vehicle exhausts. Concentrations will generally be At very high levels, it can lead to a significant
highest close to busy roads. reduction in the supply of oxygen to the heart,
particularly in people suffering from heart disease.
Carbon dioxide Vehicle exhausts, power stations, other industrial No direct health effects. It’s an important ‘green-
processes and domestic heating. house gas’, which contributes to global warming.
Therefore, the effects go beyond urban areas.
Nitrogen dioxide (one of a The majority of nitrogen oxides emitted from a At very high levels, nitrogen dioxide gas irritates and
group of gases called nitrogen vehicle exhaust are in the form of nitric oxide, which inflames the airways of the lungs. This irritation
oxides) is not harmful to health. However, this gas can react Causes worsening symptoms for those with lung or
with other gases to form nitrogen dioxide. Power respiratory diseases. It’s an important component in
stations also release nitrogen oxides. the formation of ozone (see below).
Ground-level ozone Formed by a complex set of reactions involving While the naturally occurring ozone in the upper
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (largely from atmosphere (the ozone layer) protects the Earth,
vehicle exhausts) in the presence of sunlight. It’s a ground-level ozone is harmful to health. Ozone
particular problem in big cities with sunny climates. causes photochemical smog. Although often
invisible, this can be extremely harmful - leading to
irritations of the respiratory tract and eyes.
Particulate matter Sand, sea spray, construction dust, soot from open This is less of a problem for MEDCs today. But smog
fires and diesel vehicles. (fog + smoke) caused many deaths from respiratory
diseases before the introduction of Clean Air Acts.
Sulfur dioxide Coal- and oil-fired power stations (65% of the total Short-term exposure to high levels of sulfur dioxide
emissions) and vehicle exhausts. The highest levels can Cause coughing, tightening of the chest and
of sulfur dioxide are recorded in areas where Coal is irritation of the lungs. It increases the acidity of rain,
used extensively. which can be an issue outside urban areas.
Hydrocarbons (Including Vehicle exhausts. Levels are therefore highest close Contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone.
benzene) to busy roads or in the vicinity of petrol filling Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene and
stations. Levels are strictly monitored in MEDCs 1,3 butadiene has been linked to leukaemia and
today. cancer.
Lead 4s Exhaust gases from leaded petrol. Lead can harm the kidneys, liver, nervous system
and other organs.

Table 2.6 The main air pollutants, what causes them, and the problems they cause
Water pollution
This is a particular problem in rivers that flow through RESEARCH In groups, look at all of the photographs
urban areas, and also in the groundwater that might in Chapter 2. Which ones do you think show visual pollution?
You will not reach complete agreement, but draw up a list
be used to supply drinking water from wells and boreholes.
of what you think is visual pollution. Are there other things
Raw sewage is a health issue in both LEDCs and MEDCs. that should be included?
It can occur in areas such as shanty settlements, where
there is no sanitation system at all and raw sewage is
The problems of noise pollution have been addressed
simply dumped or left in open drains to be collected
by the ‘night soil men’. In other areas, sanitation systems in some countries by:
are in place but the sewage is not treated and is simply > introducing laws which limit the noise from
emptied straight into rivers or the sea. This leads to factories, bars and homes
contamination of water supplies. It causes a variety of
>> separating noisy industrial areas from residential
diseases, such as diarrhoea and dysentery, which can
lead to death. The solution is for proper sewage pipes areas
to be installed and for the sewage to be treated to make > building solid fences along motorways and major
it safe before it’s released into rivers. roads to reduce the amount of traffic noise reaching
Liquid industrial waste emptied into rivers from factories residents
is also an issue for urban areas. Fifty years ago, many > restricting night flights from airports.
of the urban rivers of Britain and Europe (e.g. the River
Thames) were considered to be ‘dead’, because fish were
In many densely populated countries, there is simply
nowhere you can go to experience complete silence.
unable to survive there. However, the strict regulation
of industry has now improved this situation greatly and
fish have returned to many rivers.
In some LEDCs solid domestic waste is also dumped
into rivers.

Visual pollution
This means things in the urban area that look ugly or
even offensive. There is a saying that “beauty is in the
eye of the beholder’ - in other words different people
have different ideas about what is and what is not
beautiful. Do you think that the graffiti in Fig. 2.47 is
ugly and should be considered as visual pollution?

Noise pollution
Sources of noise pollution in urban areas include: cars
and lorries, trains, aircraft taking off and landing,
factories, large congregations of people (e.g. football
crowds), late-night noise from bars and nightclubs, and
noise in residential areas (e.g. from house parties). The
amount of noise pollution that each of these sources Fig. 2.47 Graffiti
produces depends on their location in the urban area,
the time of day and the day of the week. In some cases,
noise can be seriously disturbing - especially to people {
.C) Discussion point
trying to sleep. Noise pollution problems tend to be This chapter has described air, water, noise and visual pollution.
worst where cities have developed rapidly without Which, if any, of these affect the area in which you live and in
proper planning (e.g. with industrial and residential what ways?
areas right next to each other).
 Sunita’s story
I’m Sunita and this is my story. Two years
ago, my parents brought my brother Ma

Rakesh and | to live in Mumbai - in an

area called Dharavi. People say it’s a
slum. Maybe it is - we're all poor here
- but my father says at least we have
work. And one day maybe Rakesh or |
will be rich.

Dharavi is very crowded and very noisy.

Everyone is busy all the time. Just outside
our house people wash laundry, sew
clothes and bang the dents out of used
oilcans, so they can be recycled. There
are small workshops everywhere.
Somebody told me there are 15 000 in
Dharavi.

It’s smelly, too, |suppose. There are lots

of open sewers. | like to walk down to
the biscuit factory where it smells nicer!

| go to school every morning. The lessons

are literacy and maths. In the afternoon
| help my mother clean our house. It only
has two rooms, butwe do have electricity.
Afterwards, | often go rag picking with
my friends to earn a little money.

Fig. 2.49 Dharavi, Mumbai

>)
The informal economy Living and working in Dharavi
Many people in squatter settlements think that if you're Dharavi lies between two railway lines in Mumbai. A lot of
old enough to walk and carry a bucket, you’re old enough the homes there are pretty solid — made from brick, wood
to work and earn your keep. Many people work for themselves and steel. And a lot of them have electricity (like Sunita’s).
in the informal sector. Although people live there illegally, Dnaravi has well-
established communities that provide self-help clinics,
People who work in the informal sector don’t do a job that
food halls and meeting places — as well as thousands of
earns a regular wage. They make and sell goods and
small workshops like those in Fig. 2.50 and Fig. 2.51.
services unofficially —often on a ‘cash-in-hand basis’. They
don’t have a contract, so there’s no job security. They also But average incomes in Dharavi are low. Rakesh Pol, a
don’t have any health-and-safety protection, health insurance, leather worker, earns about £40 a month. He can rent a
or pension scheme to fall back on. If they can’t work they room for about £12 a month. Gradually, families can
don’t earn anything. But they don’t pay any taxes either! acquire extra building materials to improve their homes,
but few of them can afford to move out of Dharavi, because
the rest of Mumbai is far too expensive.

Fig. 2.50 Re-cycling soap in Dharavi

Fig. 2.51 One of the many small

potteries operating in Dharavi
Improving squatter settlements
Around the world, people are trying to leave their homes, so that they can be demolished to make way for the
improve their quality of life. If you live in a new buildings.’ And Dharavi doesn’t just provide homes — it provides
squatter settlement, improving your home jobs too. Where will all the small workshops and businesses, like
is a good place to start. Ways of doing this those shown on page 74, go when the area has been redeveloped?
might involve the local authorities, or the
In 2009, it was announced that the plans to ‘makeover’ Dharavi would be
residents themselves — or both.
delayed, because of the global economic crisis. Some of the organisations
Vision Mumbai that had signed up for the Dharavi project had also dropped out. This may
The city authorities in Mumbai have a big mean that Sunita will keep her home, at least for now, life won’t get much
plan, called Vision Mumbai. Part of this better.
plan is to try to tackle the poor quality of
As you can see from the pictures of Mumbai, one of the problems facing
life of many Mumbai residents. Over the
this and many other shanty areas of the world is the size of the problem.
years, Mumbai’s slums have multiplied and
It is very difficult to improve such large areas of settlement where so many
grown out of control, and pollution and
people live. Even where improvements are going on, it is often difficult to
water problems have rocketed. This situation
cope, aS more migrants move into the area.
has to be dealt with if Mumbai is to become
more prosperous and successful in the Fig. 2.52 Vision Mumbai plans to replace Dharavi with buildings
future. more like those in the background

Dharavi’s buildings might be poor quality,

but the land they’re built on is worth a
fortune — US$10 billion! As part of Vision
Mumbai, the plan is to demolish Dharavi’s
existing buildings and sell the land to property
developers. As part of the deal, these
developers will have to use some of the
cleared land to build better homes for
Dharavi’s current residents. Up to 1.1
million low-cost, but higher-quality, homes
could be built (many of them in high-rise
tower blocks to fit in more homes in a
smaller land area). This should cut the
number of Mumbai residents living in slum
housing by 90%. The water supply, sanitation,
education and health care would all be
improved too.

But what’s in it for the property developers?

Vision Mumbai has encouraged the
developers to get involved by offering them
the land for less money than it’s worth.
Plus, as well as building high-rise tower
blocks for Dharavi’s existing residents, the
developers will be able to use the land area
saved by building upwards to build profitable
shopping malls, office blocks and upmarket
apartments for sale and rent to Mumbai's
richer residents.

So, everyone’s a winner? Not quite.

Remember Sunita at the beginning of this
case Study? She says, ‘Vision Mumbai has
a problem. What happens to the people
who live in Dharavi now, while their new
homes are being built? Where do they go?
Some people have already been forced to
Water pollution
Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation in poorer parts
of the world have created big problems for the environment
there. For example, getting rid of waste (of all kinds) has
led to serious pollution in the Mithi River, which flows
through Mumbai. Fora long time, this river has been treated
as a watery waste disposal unit — leading to pollution from
a number of different sources:

*) Big industries in Mumbai dump their untreated industrial

waste straight into the river.

> The airport uses it to dump untreated oil.

> Every day, 800 million litres of untreated sewage go

straight into the river. Dharavi

* It’s also used for dumping other waste, including food

and cattle slurry, metals and old batteries — some of
which is very toxic.

And in Dharavi, which sits right next to the river — apart

from dumping human waste - the river is also used for A
things like washing out used oil drums. N Le7 ee

Flood risk
km
The solid waste dumped in the Mithi River (the metals and
plastics) clogs it up and blocks the drains. Plants then Fig. 2.53 Mumbai and the Mithi River
grow on some of this waste, which helps to increase the
risk of flooding.

In July 2005, the Mithi River flooded after

a metre of rain fell in just 24 hours. Nearly
a quarter of Mumbai was flooded. Roads
and railway lines were under water for more
than 24 hours. The airport was closed and
many areas had no electricity for several
days. People had to wade through water
that was sometimes neck deep. The floods
cost the city US$100 million, and 406
people died.

What’s being done? After the 2005 flood,

the Mithi River Project was set up to try to
prevent such a serious flood happening
again:

*> The river channel was dredged to make

it deeper and increase its capacity to = SS
hold more water. It was also widened and obstacles Fig. 2.54 The Mithi River is heavily polluted .
were removed — and the banks were smoothed near q
bends in the river. All of this was designed to allow the 7
water to flow more easily down to the sea. :

7) But none of those actions made the river any cleaner,

so waste discharges from factories are now checked.
More public toilets have also been built, to reduce the
amount of raw sewage being dumped in the river.

a OP EE
 Air pollution
Air pollution is a major problem in Mumbai. Exhaust gases
from vehicles, and smoke from burning rubbish and factory
chimneys, pollute the air. And, as the Indian economy
grows, more and more electricity is needed — most of
which is generated by burning fossil fuels like coal. As a
RTT
FEAR
RTA
result, large amounts of greenhouse gases, including
carbon dioxide, are being released into the air.
ATT
Mumbai’s residents, especially those who live in squatter
settlements like Dharavi, suffer from very high rates of
breathing problems. Illnesses like bronchitis are common.

» ; +%

TT
AER

ore ESE ee See ES Seed S MN TES

RET
"Se
TE
NA
TM
EE
TTT
HPT
ETT
ENT

Fig. 2.55 Dredging along the Mithi River helps the water to flow Fig. 2.56 Serious air pollution in Mumbai
faster to the sea (along with all its waste)
What’s being done? Mumbai has concentrated its efforts
to cut air pollution on transport. Vehicle exhausts are the
Part of Vision Mumbai involves rebuilding homes in Dharavi biggest single source of air pollution there.
and improving the area’s water supply, sanitation and
= A new metro system in the city aims to encourage
drains. That should mean that less untreated sewage ends
people to use more public transport. By 2021, the
up in the river.
planned metro system should have nine lines, and
Dharavi’s workshops are also a source of pollution. But 32.5 of its 146.5 kilometres of track will be underground.
many are recycling materials that would otherwise be
*) The city has also banned diesel as a fuel in all of its
thrown away and add to Mumbai’s waste disposal problem.
taxis. Many of Mumbai’s 58 OOO taxis now use
*> Keeping the workshops going — but in a more compressed natural gas instead, which reduces
environmentally friendly way — will therefore help to greenhouse gas emissions.
reduce the overall amount of waste.
*) The main roads in and out ofthe city have been upgraded
= Education projects are also needed to help people with 55 new flyovers. Smoother-flowing traffic should
understand why they shouldn’t dump rubbish straight mean less congestion and less pollution.
in the river.
P| 2 Settlement

Urban sprawl
Urban sprawl is the spreading outwards of a city and inadequate facilities within the spreading suburbs,
its suburbs - leading to changes in the surrounding e.g. entertainment, shops, doctors, transport
rural area. It occurs in all areas of the world, but is
higher costs to provide social facilities
particularly noticeable in countries like the USA, Canada
and Australia - where urban areas tend to have low- high costs for public transport
density suburbs (single- or two-storey houses with large
lost work time spent commuting, and lower productivity
gardens).
high levels of racial and socio-economic segregation
In those countries, urban sprawl has caused problems
such as: changing the character of the countryside and the
loss of the rural way oflife.
high car dependence and increased vehicle emissions

Fig. 2.57 Denver in the USA.

Can you pick out the CBD,
high-density inner suburbs and
low-density outer suburbs?

In Europe, planning regulations have reduced urban »> park-and-ride sites

sprawl. For example, in the UK, greenbelts (where
airports
development is restricted) were established around
many cities. This was to protect the countryside and hospitals
agriculture from urban sprawl and force developers to
sewage facilities
use brownfield sites instead (previously developed sites
in urban areas). Nevertheless many rural areas and large out-of-town shopping facilities, e.g. large
villages have become urbanised and turned into dormitory supermarkets
villages for long-distance commuters. A

golf courses ¢
In Europe, it has become common to refer to the rural-
parks and nature reserves.
urban fringe (the transition zone where urban and
rural land uses are mixed). The rural-urban fringe is Despite these urban uses, the fringe remains largely
characterised by agricultural land use alongside other open, with the majority of the land used for agriculture
types of land use linked to urban areas, for example: or woodland.
roads, especially motorways and bypasses
recycling facilities and landfill waste sites
New York, USA - urban settlement Site
The area of New York was explored by the Dutch in 1609, *) The sheltered, natural harbour formed by the Hudson
and was originally called New Amsterdam. Two or three and East Rivers provided a safe, deep anchorage.
years after the first visit by Captain Henry Hudson in 1610, There was an extensive waterfront for the development
the Dutch occupied the southern end of Manhattan Island. of docks.
The growth of the city was rapid. The population rose to
The Island of Manhattan was a rocky ridge extending
21 700 in 1700, 60 489 in 1800, 123 706 in 1820 - and
north and south. The southern part was easy to defend
20 million today. By the 1950s, it was the most populous
and was the site of the first settlement.
city in the world — although it had fallen to sixth place by
2010 (depending on the counting system used). New York The country to the north was able to be cultivated.
had great natural advantages that led to its growth.
The solid bedrock which formed the ridge later provided
good foundations when congestion on the island led
to the development of skyscrapers.

Fig. 2.58 The Statue of Liberty at the entrance to New York y }: ( a

Harbour Ly
|" @eiec of B ewnen (LONG 1GLANG
L Liberty
Cre.
Ly
Lo :
Queens |
” As : : : :
& Governers _
We island
Si as s { c

oe : oe a — é oe fe

SAIEN uC
ISLAND” Co) nee

Fig. 2.60 The site of New York

16 Using Fig. 2.60, identify the areas shown by the

letters on Fig. 2.59.
== = = ee

Fig. 2.59 Looking north over Manhattan

Situation
New York is a natural route centre.
The navigable Hudson River provides
communication with a large inland area.
This was extended by the building of the
Erie Canal (completed in 1825), which links
ow
~ ENGLAND
the Hudson with the Great Lakes. Shortly Montreal“ ,
a
afterwards, the construction of railways
into the continent began. There are also
the coastal routes to New England in the
north and Philadelphia in the south.

Urban structure Ae Boston

New York is made up of five boroughs: Oe)

Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx i y a mor

and Staten Island. Brooklyn and Queens

New York
are on the western end of Long Island.
SOR .Philadelphia
The CBD has two zones — Midtown Manhattan
: ki Atlantic
Ocean
and Downtown Manhattan. a Vashi pton DC

*) Downtown includes the finance district O

SSS
500
(Wall Street) and — until 11 September km
2001 — the Twin Towers of the World
Trade Center. Fig. 2.61 The situation of New York

*) Midtown includes the shopping district (Fifth Avenue),

the theatre district (Broadway), some of the main hotels
(Plaza, Waldorf Astoria) and the Empire State Building,
Chrysler and United Nations Buildings.

There are other regional business districts, e.g. in downtown

Brooklyn and local ribbon shopping centres. Manhattan
has a grid layout with 12 north-south Avenues and 219
east-west Streets.

SS a Sa

Fig. 2.63 Manhattan has a few older buildings. This is Macy’s '
department store, built in 1902
 Sess

Fig. 2.64 The docks and waterfront of Manhattan, with the Empire Fig 2.65 Central Park
State Building in the background

Riverfront locations are important to the industrial and *) Businesses have relocated to the suburbs because of
warehouse areas. These include the South Bronx, the west cheaper land and better accessibility. In wealthy suburbs,
side of Brooklyn, the west side of Staten Island and either like Westchester County, most people no longer commute
side of Newtown Creek in Brooklyn and Queens. to the city for work.

The highest-density housing — consisting of apartment 7) Some suburban growth north of New York City has been
blocks — occurs in Manhattan. Other high-density housing attributed to worried city residents moving after the
is found in areas of The Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens. 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks.
Low-density housing occurs mostly in Staten Island, eastern
Queens, southern Brooklyn and north-western and eastern *) House hunters have been priced out of more expensive
areas of The Bronx. areas closer to the city.

Public open spaces make up 25% of the area. This is In addition to the problems listed on pages 82-4, there
greatest in Staten Island and least in Manhattan — although are concerns about the new housing being too dense and
New York’s famous Central Park is in Manhattan. not in character with the existing housing. This has led to
the existing residents feeling that their quality of life has
Problems and solutions deteriorated.
Urban sprawl
There is a movement of the middle classes to the outer Poverty and unemployment
areas, and a movement of lower-income families to the Almost a million New Yorkers receive welfare payments.
inner city. As a result, the suburbs are expanding into the The situation is most serious in the inner areas. For
surrounding countryside. As well as residential land use, example, in South Bronx about a third of the people receive
employment is also developing in the suburban areas. welfare support, and the population has declined by about
There has been growth outside the city in mid-Hudson 50%. Many people in these areas are unemployed,

Valley areas like Orange County. From 1990 to 2000, underprivileged and poorly educated — which causes strains
Staten Island (Richmond County) was the fastest growing in society. The decline — in the 1980s — in the clothing
county in New York State. Over that decade, the borough industry and industries based around the port, led to job
grew by 65 000 people and added 24 000 new housing losses. These lost jobs have not been replaced.
units — an increase of approximately 17%.

There 4re a number of reasons for this:

> The overall population is growing. The US Census

Bureau reported that between 2000 and 2009 the
population of New York increased by 383 195 people.

= People, especially the affluent middle classes, often

leave the inner-city areas for a better lifestyle in the
outer suburbs.
| 2 Settlement | ie. @

Urban decay and housing problems High cost of land

In inner-city areas, like Harlem and the South Bronx, there
The high cost of land in Manhattan — which led to the
are apartment blocks that have become empty, are ina
development of its famous skyscrapers — also forced many
poor state of repair, or are lacking modern amenities.
smaller businesses to move to the outskirts, where land
Some schemes have now been introduced to tidy up these
is cheaper. Land prices in Manhattan remain high.
derelict houses. This creates jobs and also helps to reduce
the number of homeless people. Crime
In the 1980s, violent crime such as muggings and murder
Racial inequality and tension
led to parts of New York becoming very dangerous. The
The US population includes people whose families have Subway (underground railway) had a particularly bad
originated from all over the world (for example, Chinatown reputation. Rudolf Giuliani, the Mayor of New York from
and Little Italy are famous areas in Manhattan). At first, 1994 to 2002, became famous for his ‘zero tolerance’ of
immigrants tend to occupy the poorest inner-city areas. crime. He increased the number of police on the streets,
Then, in time, those who become wealthy tend to move to and minor offences and anti-social behaviour were not
the outer suburbs. However, many immigrants become overlooked.
trapped in poverty in the inner city and ghettos develop.

Fig. 2.66 Rundown apartments and a discarded fridge in the ig. 2.68 The New York Subway
South Bronx
 Air pollution
The large number of vehicles in New York is the main the creek from several on-land spills. This has damaged
source of the city’s air pollution. The air contains high wildlife. The oil is now being pumped from the ground to
levels of ozone and particulates, and residents in some remove it. In June 2006, the New York State Department
neighbourhoods have very high rates of asthma and of Environmental Conservation announced that it would
respiratory conditions — especially in Manhattan. sue Exxon Mobil to speed up the completion of the cleanup.

Despite this, a greater use of public transport than in other Visual pollution
areas of the USA, means that greenhouse gas emissions Unattractive elements of a vista such as graffiti and derelict
in New York are lower than the national average. The city housing may be considered to be visual pollution. NNT
ATT

accounts for only 1% of the USA's greenhouse gas emissions,

Energy supply LD
despite being home to 2.7% of its population. mn
Although the average New Yorker consumes less than half
New York has made efforts to reduce its particle pollution the electricity used by a resident of San Francisco, New LW

by adopting measures like: York faces growing energy demands. This has led to a
number of ‘green projects’, which include:
> fitting catalytic converters to the exhausts of diesel
city buses > switching more than 11 000 traffic lights and ‘Don’t
Walk’ signals to energy-efficient light-emitting diodes
> developing a biodiesel processing plant in Brooklyn to AAT
(that use 90% less energy)
distribute biodiesel to filling stations in the city.
> replacing ‘cobra head’ street lights with new energy-
The city’s government is also required to purchase only
efficient types
the most energy-efficient equipment for use in city offices
and public housing. New York is also a leader in the *> powering the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island and 22 other
construction of energy-efficient ‘green’ office buildings, federal buildings in New York City using wind power
including the Hearst Tower.
*) installing underwater turbines in the East River to take
Water pollution advantage of tidal currents
The Greenpoint neighbourhood of Brooklyn was once the
location of many oil refineries. In 1950, the oil company = constructing windmills on a hill in the former Fresh
which later became Exxon Mobil was alleged to have spilled Kills Landfill to power 5000 homes on Staten Island

a large quantity of oil into Newtown Creek. Although the *) introducing tax advantages for builders of energy-
oil industry has now moved elsewhere, oil still seeps into efficient buildings.

Fig. 2.69 Rush hour in Times Square

Water supply
Providing one of the world’s biggest
cities with water is not easy. New York
City is supplied with drinking water
from the Catskill Mountains, up to
200 km away. The area is in one of
the largest protected wildernesses in
the USA. The water from the Catskills
is naturally filtered and pure enough
to require only the addition of chlorine
to ensure its purity for drinking. The
water travels to the city downhill along
aqueducts and does not require
pumping. New York is now using 28%
less water than it did in 1979. This is
mostly the result of installing water-
saving plumbing fittings, finding and
fixing leaksin water supply pipes, and lanai nail naam " . anti
metering residential customers’ water Fig. 2.70 The Verrazano Narrows Bridge between Brooklyn and Staten Island
use.
Traffic congestion
Waste disposal Even though more than half of the households in New York
New York’s households produce 12 000 tonnes of waste do not own a car (the figure is even higher in Manhattan),
a day. Until 2001, the refuse was disposed of at the Fresh its streets do become blocked with traffic — including yellow
Kills Landfill on Staten Island. After this closed, most of taxis. The daily commuter movement into and out of
the city’s waste was taken out of the city to landfill sites Manhattan is about 2 million people, which is similar to
in other states. This led to a large amount of lorry traffic that of London. People travel by car, bus and subway. The
through low-income neighbourhoods. There is now a solid bridges and tunnels linking the various New York islands
waste management plan, which uses barges and trains also produce bottlenecks that add to the problem.
to export 90% of the city’s waste.

17 a Copy and complete Table 2.7 to summarise

the urban problems of New York. You will not
be able to find solutions to all the problems in ){ ).Discussion pexey bale
the text. Do you think New York would be a good place to bea
b Which of the problems are environmental? teenager? What would be the best and worst things?

Problem Details Solution

Urban sprawl
Poverty and unemployment
Urban decay and housing problems
Racial tension
High cost of land
Crime
Air pollution
Water pollution
Visual pollution
Energy supply
Traffic congestion
Water supply
Waste disposal

Table 2.7 The urban problems of New York

 CASE STUDY

Cape Town, South Africa - urban Situation

settlement Cape Town was established at a critical point on the |
Cape Town is a city of great contrasts: shipping routes between Europe and Asia. Whoever controlled
the Cape controlled these routes. The Dutch ruled Kaapstad,
*) Its CBD is modern, successful and attracts tourists, as it was then known, for 150 years before the British |
but on its outskirts are some of the biggest shanty took over in 1814. There is still a naval base at Simon’s_ |
settlements in the world. Town, just outside Cape Town.

*) Its population is about 2.8 million, and consists of | Gold and diamonds were discovered in the hinterland in
many races. However, the population was shaped by the centre of South Africa in the 1870s and 1880s, and
Apartheid
— the political system adopted in South Africa’ -— as a major port — Cape Town benefited. That mineral
between 1950 and 1991. Apartheid segregated the _ wealth provided the basis for the development of the city.
races and discriminated in favour of the white population. ; j ' i E
‘ ' wah There is also a rich agricultural hinterland, with wheat
There are still great social and economic differences :
between the white and black populations, despite the ce ea Batis one pale ears
ending of Apartheid over 20 years ago. vineyards (introduced by French settlers) immediately }
inland.
Site
Cape Town developed because of its strategic location at
the southern tip of Africa. The city originated around the A
sheltered natural harbour of Table Bay, which helped its 2
development as a port. 2
km

Sea routes
to Europe and
North America

2 Koeberg ‘iy
enciiecaibpimain , , ita iii (nuclear power
Fig. 2.71 The sheltered harbour of Cape Town station)

The existing flat land next to the sea was extended by the Cape To
original Dutch settlers through land reclamation, as they Atlantic
had done in the Netherlands. Ocean
M

Cape Town is built around Table Mountain, which is 1086 Pepe

metres high. There are buildings on the gentle lower slopes
but not on the steep and windy upper slopes. (
Cape
Agulhas
Sea routes Sea routes to .
to South America Asia and Australia Indian a
Ocean

Fig. 2.73 The situation of Cape Town

. ae son TIP Cape Town is a smaller city than

New York or Mumbai. It provides a good example of how
a city does and does not fit the models of urban structure
described earlier in this chapter. The activity at the end
of this chapter helps you to examine this.

Fig. 2.72 The lower slopes of Table Mountain are settled but not
the upper slopes >)
 | 2 Settlement |

Urban structure

Victoria and
Alfred
waterfront

Durbanville

International
Oranjezicht
Guguletu . ener Ww
District 6°
Newlands Crossroads
4 Nyanga©

® Constantia
Philippi
(industrial)
Khayelitsha Fig. 2.75 The City Bowl

ec eae The older part of the docks has been redeveloped through
private finance. Warehouses have been converted into
shops, restaurants, expensive loft-style apartments and
z> hotels. This is the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront, which
remains a working harbour for smaller boats.

The centre of Cape Town has not suffered the decline of

other town and city centres, and property prices are
booming. There are shopping districts and malls in the
suburbs. The large Canal Walk Shopping Centre has been
Fite built on a brownfield site close to one of the main motorways
that lead into the heart of the city.
Fig. 2.74 The urban structure of Cape Town, showing the location
of places named in the text

The CBD
The original growth point of Cape Town was around the
harbour, which has developed into the CBD. So it’s not in
the centre of the city (like Burgess’s concentric zone
model). The commercial centre — with government buildings,
the offices of major companies and specialist shops — is
known as the City Bowl.

eeu

Fig. 2.77 The CBD of Cape Town, shown by the taller buildings, Fig. 2.76 The Victoria and Alfred Waterfront, with Table Mountain
with the harbour to the left and Table Mountain to the right in the background
 Industry Shanty settlements
There is little heavy industry within the city. The main iron The Cape flats area is 15 to 20 km from the centre of
® nd steel plant is at Saldanha Bay, 110 km to the north, Cape Town, on the western edge of the city next to the
a) n o there is a nuclear power station at Koeberg, 30 km international airport, is the Cape Flats area. This area is
to the north. Other industry is close to the commercial home to about a million people — nearly half the population
port and at isolated locations in the suburbs, « fle —= D of the city. It includes Khayelitsha, Crossroads, Mitchell’s
Philippi industrial area. These may be closer to the area c
> Plain, Guguletu, Nyanga and Langa.
of4 poorer housing.
©

hese suburbs share the problems of other shanty

Open space settlements described earlier in this chapter. The communities
There is a lot of open space within Cape Town’s built-up are split along racial lines and suffer from economic, health
seh) rea. Some of it is land that is too steep to build on, such and crime problems. In particular, the city and national
as Table Mountain. The environment of this area — including governments have to try to deal with the HIV/AIDS pandemic
[Ss unique vegetation — is carefully protected. Ther @ ® A @ and drug-related crime. Some improvements have been
also well-managed public parks, like Company’s Gardens made, but the size of the problem is so great that
n the City Bowl or Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens in the improvements will be slow.
inner suburbs. On the outskirts of the city
in the Cape Flats area, close to the
nternational airport, there is also a lot of

District Six (Zonnebloem)

District Six is close to the City Bowl. It was
y a multi-racial area, but in 1966
South Africa’s apartheid government
ified itas a whites-only district. Fifty
residents were evicted to
the Cape Flats area and their houses were
demolished. The district remained empty
for many years, but the land is now being
handed back to the former residents under
semeneeneeneeeneeemenem
the District Six Beneficiaries Trust. Four
thousand new homes are planned.

Fig. 2.79 Informal housing on the Cape Flats

Fig. 2.78 District Six with the City Bow! beyond. The buildings in the foreground are
some of the first new developments in the area
 Inner suburbs °> World-wide environmental effects such as air pollution
Many of the inner suburbs are affluent areas with luxurious
and global warming
houses. These include Tamboerskloof, Observatory,
Gardens, Oranjezicht, Newlands and Constantia. Bo- > Increased global population migration
Kaap is a more densely settled inner-city area, and home
to Cape Town’s Muslim community. There are also highly
Globalisation began centuries ago but the speed has
expensive suburbs along the coast to the south, such increased. The causes of globalisation include:
as Clifton. © The growth in Trans-national corporations (TNCs)
Urban sprawl
*) Advances in transportation allowing the movement
Affluent areas have also developed on the outskirts of
of people
the city and beyond the built-up area. Examples are at
Somerset West (40 km west of the CBD), Durbanville (to > Advances in communications infrastructure such
the north) and Bloubergstrand on the north coast. These as the internet and cell phones allowing the movement
areas have low-density housing with their own local of knowledge
shopping and business districts, such as Tyger Valley.
> The growth of international political alliances such
as the European Union.
Development The great cities of the world are now world cities with
In Chapters 1 and 2 you have met the terms LEDC (less economic, cultural and political significance beyond
economically developed country) and MEDC (more the boundaries of their own countries. Production of
economically developed country). You have seen goods has become dispersed to places with cheaper
differences in the population and settlements of LEDCs labour, often in LEDCs. Management and service
and MEDCs. In other chapters differences in agriculture industries have become more concentrated in world
and industry are also discussed. Levels of development cities where there are financial, professional and creative
can be defined by indicators of development such as services. From these world cities, global brands are
differences in: managed.
=) GNP per capita There is a case study of aTNC in Chapter 10.
> Literacy levels
Look at the bullet points on this page.
> Life expectancy
Give examples of these features that you can See in
Other indicators combine these features. One of these the area where you live.
is the United Nations Development Programme’s Human
Development Index (HDI). This combines life expectancy,
educational attainment and income into a single index.
An updated Human Development Index (HDI) was
released in 2013 and the list of the countries can be
found at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-
development-report-2013

Globalisation
Globalisation is the growth of international integration,
in other words the increase in links between different
parts of the globe. As people sometimes say, “the world
is becoming a smaller place”. Features of globalisation
include:

> Cultures in different countries becoming more

a

similar in terms of languages, food, clothing

> Increased trade and availability of goods from other
countries
») Economies being affected by economic changes in
other countries
 In this unit you will learn about:
Fold mountains
A glance at a world map, like Fig. 3.1, shows that the
+>) major features of the Earth’s surface, such as
mountain ranges, earthquakes and volcanoes
main mountain ranges are often long narrow belts, like
¢> the major scientific breakthrough of plate
the Andes in South America. Fold mountains form the
tectonics, which changed our understanding of highest of the world’s mountain ranges. They are long,
planet Earth relatively narrow belts of mountains, with parallel ridges
> volcanoes and their effects on human activity and valleys. The main range is made up of a series of
> earthquakes and their effects on human activity. ranges. Flatter areas form plateaux within the mountains.
Active volcanoes form high conical mountains within
the ranges. The highest mountain in South America is
Earth in motion Aconcagua, which is 6960 metres above sea level and
Earth is the name of the planet that we live on. Its surface an active volcano. Fold mountain ranges, such as the
constantly changes - sometimes leading to spectacular Andes and the Alps, tend to be sparsely populated - but
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. But sometimes the some communities are still found in these areas (see
changes occur very slowly over millions of years. The pages 51-2).
reason for this is that, deep within the Earth, heat is being
produced by radioactivity. This makes the rocks very hot 1 Name three ranges of fold mountains shown
and, in some situations, they actually melt. This heat is on Fig. 3.1.
the energy which produces volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes, causes continents to move, and leads to the
development of high mountain ranges.
Fig. 3.1 The global distribution of fold mountains

£ gal
Mount
Everest

Pacific Ocean

Fold mountains

Fig. 3.3 Mount Fitzroy in the Cerro Torre area of the Andes in
land height and sea depth Argentina
metres
5000
2000
Highlands \y
we ? 1000
500
200
=| Sea level
—/200
/ 4000
7000

Fig. 3.2 The Andes in South America are an example of a fold

mountain range
 ‘
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Volcanoes and earthquakes

Fig 3.5 shows the global distribution of
active volcanoes (volcanoes which have
Fig. 34 The formation of
et tA
fold ree
mountains
erupted in the Jast 80 years). There are
about 540 of these. Other volcanoes are
described as dormant (resting, but which
may erupt again in the future), or extinct
(dead and wil] not erupt again). Notice
how
I the active volcanoes form a series of -- o ,
“am

s g <6 5
relatively narrow belts around the planet.
-_ . mal

The Pacific Ring of Fire isthe most famous i 2 s 3

of these belts, and goes al] the way round 4 > - ee

A & ‘ La -

the rim of the

the
ise Pacific Oce can. Fig. 3 6 shows 3
& s
Bn, é sa
s
the globaJ distribution of earthquake “ig
:
Ah
am
y
‘“i
activity. Earthquakes occur more frequently s ; 4 a
z A s
than volcanic eruptions. ig’

4s
fs Z-.a4
rs
Z Look at Fig. 3.5 and Fig. 3.6.
a What ae the similarities between :
)
s
Von

Key
ogee
as
«
&
7s

the two? AVA

cane i shit
£

be
ee ee va *
) ist the areas that have
earthquakes but not volcanoes.
bal distribution of active volcanoes

v a 1a
Key Ca ’ “- &

Fig. 3.6 Earthquake activity around the word

 Plate tectonics the rocks underneath them reach temperatures of more
than 1300 °C and behave plastically (in other words,
A scientific revolution they can flow rather like a jelly). The plates interlock
The idea that the continents have not always been in - a bit like the panels that make up the outside of a
the same place, but have moved slowly over immense football. However, unlike the panels on a football, the
periods of time, has been around for about 100 years. plates can move relative to each other - flowing over
However, it was never fully accepted. the hotter, more plastic, rocks below (that act like a
Then, in the 1960s and 1970s, the theory of plate lubricating layer).
tectonics was developed. This theory quickly became
accepted, and has completely changed our understanding @ LEARNING TIP Remember that ‘the plates’ and
of the Earth and how it works. A lot of supporting
‘the crust’ are not exactly the same thing. Make sure that
evidence for the theory was gathered around this time, you know the difference between the two.
as a result of the first surveys of the deep ocean floors.
This evidence was very important in convincing other
scientists about the new ideas.
Why do the plates move?
No single scientist can claim to have invented the theory Deep within the Earth, heat is being produced by
of plate tectonics. It was developed through a series of radioactivity. This heat is not evenly distributed, so there
ideas by scientists at Princeton University in the USA are hotter areas and colder areas. At the hotter areas,
and Cambridge University in the UK. the plastic rocks in the Earth’s mantle become lighter
and rise - causing convection currents (see Fig. 3.7).
What is a plate? These convection currents drag at the rigid plates sitting
The Earth’s surface is made up of a series of sections above them - causing them to move.
- known as plates. On average, these plates are about
The plates typically move at rates of between 1 and 10
50 km thick. They include the Earth’s crust and the
centimetres a year. The plate movements can be measured
upper part of the layer below (called the mantle). The
using stars in the sky as reference points.
plates themselves are relatively cold and rigid. However,

Key
EesPlate movement
*-~€- Convection current
in mantle

Continent Continent

Ocean basin Oceanic ridge Ocean basin

<— Oceanic plate <—— Oceanic plate

Heat
source

Se Fig. 3.7 How convection currents in the mantle cause the plates to move
Plate boundaries OlORN tn rn
cta6 ae Bien geese (plate boundary )? Ify es Living near to a plate margin can be hazardous. There are
ny certainly experience large earthquakes examples in both MEDCs (e.g. New Zealand and the West Coast
from time to time. You might also be ona plate boundary | of the USA) and in LEDCs (eg, the Philippines and Peru). Why
where there is volcanic activity. And you might live in, | do people live in these areas?
or close to, high fold mountains.
Ifyou live closer to the centre of a plate, any earthquakes
near your home will be relatively small. There willalso — |Key
be no active volcanoes, and any mountain ranges will |~*~ Direction of plate movement
be smaller. ““~. Constructive margin
=== Destructive margin
” i. ae Be gt. n 1. “ +
FT od rag 3i Conservative margin ap ve

> a, itn tin

rs 7 = << A =

Oe
ehaa q hw
*- ~ = a t Bat ; 5 iq fa) @

& y ( ee Psccc he
4 Bait bee

Pacific

South):
American

_ oN ?
Australian A

Bip Antarctic

Fig. 3.8 Plates, plate boundaries and plate movements (if you have
the Oxford International Students’ Atlas, there is a more detailed map
on pages 8 and 9)

3 Look at Fig. 3.8.

a Name a plate which includes both part of a
continent and part of an ocean.
b Name a plate which contains just ocean floor
and no part of a continent. (There are no very
large plates which are just made up of a
continent.)
Name a place where two plates are moving
towards each other.
Name a place where two plates are moving away
Fig. 3.9 The 2011 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand,
from each other. -
brought down many buildings and killed 65 people
Destructive (convergent) plate margins © As the oceanic plate is subducted beneath the
Destructive margins are places where plates move continental plate, friction between the two plates
towards each other (collide). They are called destructive causes earthquakes. The earthquakes get deeper
because oceanic plate is destroyed. A good example is and deeper the further down the subduction zone
along the west coast of South America, beneath the they are. Shallow earthquakes occur beneath the
Andes (see Fig. 3.10). Here, an oceanic plate (the Nazca Peru-Chile Trench but deeper earthquakes occur
Plate) collides with a continental plate (the South American below the Andes.
Plate). Because the oceanic plate is denser, it is forced *) Eventually, the oceanic plate is forced so deep into
beneath the less dense and more buoyant continental the Earth that it is partially melted, becomes part
plate at an angle of about 45 degrees. This process is of the mantle and is destroyed. Partial melting
known as subduction. The ocean floor is dragged down of the subducted plate and the overlying mantle
by this process to form a long and relatively narrow, but produces magma (molten rock), which rises to form
deep, ocean trench (called the Peru-Chile Trench). the stratovolcanoes that occur in the Andes (see
Ocean
page 90).
Fold
trench
mountains > The powerful compression of the colliding plates
Sea level also crumples the rocks of the continental plate and
forces them up to form the fold mountain range of
: Oceanic the Andes (see page 91). This process continues
EI today.
Other plate collisions involve two oceanic plates. One
example is Japan. The features here are exactly the
same as in the Andes, except that - because there is no
continental plate - there are no fold mountains. Instead,
the longer of the two oceanic plates is subducted. The
Key
rising magma then produces a chain of volcanic islands,
E> Plate movement
known as an island arc.
V Volcano
Island arc
A Earthquake focus

Fig. 3.10 A cross-section through the Andes, showing the destructive

plate margin and the process of subduction trench

Ocean trenches are the deepest areas on the Earth’s

surface. The deep ocean floor is normally between 2000 Oceanic
and 5000 metres below sea level, but the deepest point plate

on the Earth’s surface (the Mariana Trench in the

Pacific Ocean) is 11 034 metres deep. This is deeper
than the highest mountain (Mount Everest) is high, as
Fig. 3.11 shows.

Key

E> Plate movement

Vv Volcano
A Earthquake focus

Fig. 3.12 A cross-section through Japan, showing a destructive

12000m margin involving two oceanic plates

Fig. 3.11 The highest and lowest points on the surface of the Earth
In the case of the Himalayas (the highest mountains in Himalayas
the world), there is a collision between two continental
Indian Plate Eurasian Plate
plates (see Fig. 3.13). Fold mountains form and earthquakes (continental (continental
occur ~ but there is no subduction ofan oceanic plate, crust) crust)
so there are no volcanoes in the Himalayas.

Explain the meaning of the terms: subduction,

magma, plate, plate margin, compression.

Constructive (divergent) plate margins

Constructive plate margins are the places where new
oceanic plate is created. Continental plate is neither
created in the same way nor destroyed by subduction.
At constructive plate margins, the stresses within the
Earth are of tension (stretching) rather than compression Fig. 3.13 A cross-section through the Himalayas
(see Table 3.1).

a => = an =>
om

Plates diverge. Plates converge. Plates slide past each other

sideways.
The Earth’s surface is stretched The Earth’s surface is squashed The Earth’s surface does not
and gets longer. and gets shorter. change in length. Table 3.1 Types of stress

The only constructive plate margins on the planet are Lava cooling and
the great ocean ridge systems (e.g. the Mid-Atlantic solidifying at the
sea bed
Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, and the Carlsberg Ridge
in the Indian Ocean). These ridges are huge submarine Oceanic
mountain ranges, which form some of the largest features ridge
on the Earth’s surface. They are mostly below sea level,
but occasionally rise above it. One example of this is
the volcanic island of Iceland in the North Atlantic
Ocean (see pages 103-4).
Beneath these great ocean ridges, deep in the Earth’s
mantle, there is a concentration of heat, which causes
partial melting (see Fig. 3.14). Small pockets of magma
slowly collect and rise towards the Earth’s surface -
where they cool and solidify to form new oceanic crust.
This new rock forms below as well as on the surface.
The lava often flows out from long cracks (fissures). As
-_-
COMeah wae ee = ee
Ction Currey ~~ poe
a result, gently sloping areas are built up, rather than ie Fe “Gow

Partial
conical mountains. The oceanic crust cracks and diverges
melting
- pushed apart by the newly formed crust and dragged
by the convection currents in the mantle (see page 92). Fig. 3.14 A cross-section through a constructive plate margin
 A
Look at the oceans shown on Fig. 3.8 (noticing, in N
particular, the types of plate margin within them). San Francisco
Name one ocean that is getting bigger and one 0es 200
ocean that is getting smaller. Give reasons for your km
choices. North American Plate
moving north-west tom

@ : uy
Fs
®q a year. ‘

LEARNING TIP [fyou are explaining how a volcano 4 Cy, USA

forms, tell the whole story - from the production of magma oa - \
in the Earth’s mantle, all the way to the lava solidifying on Pacific Plate
the surface. Simple sketches can be very helpful with moving north-
explanations. bal :a eV Gs j

LEARNING TIP Don’t confuse destructive and

constructive margins! Some candidates get mixed up
because fold mountains form at destructive margins. These
plate margins are called destructive because plate is ieee Cea
destroyed Fig. 3.15 California and the San Andreas Fault system

Conservative plate margins

Conservative plate margins are called that because the plates are being conserved.
In other words, they are neither being created nor destroyed. Shearing stress occurs
at these margins (see Table 3.1), and the plates slide past each other sideways. Friction
between the two plates causes earthquakes but volcanoes do not occur.
The San Andreas Fault system in California (in the USA) is an example of a
conservative plate margin. Although Fig. 3.15 shows both plates moving in the same
direction, their speeds of movement are different. As a result, the Pacific Plate is
moving past the North American Plate and shearing occurs.

Type of plate margin Examples Type of stress Features

Destructive with an oceanic plate Andes Compression Earthquakes
and a continental plate Fold mountains
Volcanoes
Ocean trenches
Destructive with two oceanic Japan Compression Earthquakes
plates ' Philippines Island arcs
West Indies Volcanoes
Ocean trenches
Destructive with two continental Himalayas Compression Earthquakes
plates Fold mountains
Constructive Mid-Atlantic Ridge Tension Earthquakes
East Pacific Rise Ocean ridges
Carlsberg Ridge Volcanoes
Conservative San Andreas Fault Shearing Earthquakes

Table 3.2 A summary of the features of plate margins

Volcanoes
A volcano is a hole or crack in the ground through which have very little pyroclastic material associated with
gases, lava (liquid) and pyroclastic material (solid) them
are erupted. The vent is connected toa magma chamber
are mostly formed by runny lava that flows easily
beneath the ground.
down the slope away from the summit vent. This
DW gy eee a ae ces an lava is dark in colour and has a low silica content.
What
WwW
J
comes ou Af , as
of GAa VUIL
Dy
volcano?
ee

(It is sometimes called basic lava in older textbooks.)

Gases The low viscosity of the magma allows the lava to
The main gas to be emitted by volcanoes is water vapour flow quickly down a gentle slope. But - as it cools
(50-80%), but there may also be emissions of sulfur and gets less runny - its thickness builds up on the
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon lower slopes, which explains their steeper profile.
dioxide. Some of these gases are poisonous.
The gases can become trapped in the viscous lava - Layers of lava Crater

causing pressure to build up and leading to frothing of Sea level

the magma and explosive eruptions.

Sea bed
Vent
Liquids
Magma chamber
Magmais molten rock material below the Earth’s surface.
Lava is the flows of molten rock material which have
erupted onto the Earth’s surface. Fig. 3.16 A cross-section through a shield volcano

Solids
These are known as pyroclastic material.
Ash is made up of the smallest particles (less than
4 mm in size). However, blocks of the coarsest material
are much larger.
The smallest particles can be held in suspension in
the air, as clouds, for months or even years.
The particles get finer the further away they are
from the volcanic vent. Because of its weight and
size, the largest material is dropped nearest to the
vent. More material is therefore found close to the
vent than further away.

Shield volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are formed in the oceans - often at
constructive plate margins. They occur on the Hawaiian
Islands (e.g. the volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea), as
well as on Iceland. They:
rise from the deep ocean floor
) have gentle upper slopes (at an angle of about
5 degtees), and steeper lower slopes (at an angle of
about 10 degrees)
usually have a roughly circular or oval shape in map
view, and cover a wide area
Fig. 3.17 The shield volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands, as seen from
are composed almost entirely of long thin lava flows, outer space. These volcanoes are some of the biggest features on the
built up over a central vent Earth’s surface.
¥E

97
Stratovolcanoes

> They have steeper slopes and narrower bases than

shields - with slope angles of 6-10 degrees at the
bottom ofthe volcano and up to 30 degrees near the
sumuit,

> The steep slopes result from short, wide and very
viscous lava flows that don't travel very far from the
vent.
> There are alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic
material. Pyroclastic material can make up over halt
the volume ofa stratovolcano.

> Due to the higher viscosity ofmagmas erupted from

stratovolcanoes, they are usually more explosive
Fig. 3.18 Stromboli, Italy, a stratovolcano in the Mediterranean Sea
than shield volcanoes. Their lava is paler in colour
and has a higher silica content. (It is sometimes
called intermediate lava.)
> Long dormant periods (of hundreds or even thousands
of years) make this type of volcano particularly
Alternate layers
dangerous, because people are reluctant to heed >
of lava and Y ash
ac *
Crater
warnings about possible eruptions. Sometimes the
eruptions have two phases - first an explosive phase Parasitic cone

that unblocks the vent and produces pyroclastic Steep, concave

material, and then a second phase which produces sides
lava.
Discussion point
Thich of the twp Mam tunes af wolean
Vent
Which of the two main typesof volcan
SND TS SARS ES SEEN A ee SESS
and NOW IS it Telatea to the chemistay of te Mm
_.Magma chamber

Features of volcanoes
Craters Fig. 3.19 A cross-section through a stratovolcano
Craters are circular depressions that are usually less
than 1 kilometre in diameter. Both types of volcano
sometimes have a crater at the summit. It is formed by
the explosive ejection of material from a central vent.

Calderas
A caldera is a huge crater
caused when a volcanic
cone collapses into a partly
empty magma chamber
after a powerful eruption.
Yellowstone National Park
in the USA and the
Ngorongoro Crater in
Tanzania are well-known
examples.

Fig. 3.20 The crater of Mount St Helens in the USA

Fig. 3.21 A crater in a small volcanic cone in
Timanfaya National Park, in Lanzarote, Canary
islands
Parasitic cones
An example of a parasitic cone is shown on Fig 3.19.
These are smaller cones which develop on the sides of
a bigger volcano. They form when the main vent becomes
blocked and the magma finds another outlet. Fig 3.22
shows part of Mount Etna in Sicily, which has many
parasitic cones covering its slopes.

Lava domes
Lava domes are features that often grow on the sides of
stratovolcanoes. They form from very viscous lava that
is pale in colour and has a high silica content. (It is
sometimes called acid lava in older textbooks.) This
lava cannot flow very far before solidifying, so the cones
produced have steep convex sides. Lava domes often
Fig. 3.22 Parasitic cones on Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy
collapse - leading to explosive eruptions and pyroclastic
flows, like those seen on the Soufriére Hills volcano on
the island of Montserrat in the Caribbean.

Ash falls Fine ash is blasted into the atmosphere, where it can stay in
suspension for many months - affecting areas far away from
the volcano. It mostly damages property by burying buildings;
people are not usually harmed directly. Ash can also be a
hazard to aircraft and lead to the cancellation of flights.
Sometimes ash clouds can block the sun, causing the weather
to be cooler and affecting crops.
Pyroclastic flows Very hot solid material can travel rapidly down valleys and
slopes. It is impossible for people to escape, so pyroclastic
flows can be responsible for many deaths. A famous example
was the eruption of Mt Pelée in Martinique in the West Indies
in 1902, when a white-hot glowing ash cloud killed 40 000
people.
Lateral blasts Sometimes a volcano can explode sideways, which can be
very destructive for areas within 40 km of the volcano. It can
destroy houses and property.
Mudflows (lahars) | These form when ash mixes with water and travels down river
valleys. Because mud is much denser than water, mudflows
are very destructive - washing away buildings, roads, bridges
and people.
Volcanic gases Carbon dioxide is a dense, non-toxic gas that can flow
downhill, causing suffocation. Other gases that are poisonous
can burn or cause lung diseases.
Acid rain Because of the sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide released,
very large eruptions cause acid rainfall. This can damage
buildings, and may have had very serious effects on plant and
animal species in the past.
Post-eruption The disruption to homes, roads and services caused by the Fig. 3.23 The ash cloud emitted during the
famine and disease effects described above can result in famine and disease, eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in
especially in LEDCs. 1991
Tsunami The collapse of volcanoes into the sea can result in tsunami
(see page 10.6).
Lava flows Although lava flows can destroy buildings, they rarely result in
a direct loss of life - they travel slowly enough for you to walk
away! Table 3.3 The many hazards of volcanic eruptions
99
 ( ).CO) Discussion point
RESEARCH The Internet has a wealth of material about
Which of the volcanic hazards described in Table 3.3 pose the active volcanoes around the world. Sites such as that of the
greatest threat to people, and why? United States Geological Survey (http://volcano.si.edu/
reports/usgs/) give up-to-date information about volcanic

@ LEARNING TIP Examination questions will often

activity. Choose a volcano and keep a log of its activity.
Sometimes these sites have webcams which show the current
ask you not just to explain what the hazard is but to activity. Choose a volcano from close to your time zone,
explain its effect on people's lives, such as their homes or otherwise it might be night time at the volcano when it’s
their jobs. daytime where you live!

6 Look at Fig. 3.24 and Fig. 3.25.

a_ List the main hazards and explain what risks they
could bring to people living in the area.
Suggest reasons for the pattern of the hazards
on the map.

What can be done to reduce the risk?

Lava flow Mechanical excavators can be used to channel
diversion lava flows away from buildings. Lava flows can
also be sprayed with water to cool them down
and make them solidify and stop flowing.
Mudflow These are walls built across valleys to trap
barriers mudflows and protect settlements further down
the valley.
Fig. 3.24 Mount Rainier, a stratovolcano in the north-west USA
Building Although little can be done to stop a violent
design volcano, stronger roofs can be built to stop them
collapsing when covered with ash.
Volcano Recently active volcanoes can be monitored to
monitoring give early warning of future eruptions. This
usually involves measuring features that happen
before an eruption - such as small earthquakes,
ground deformation (the ground tends to swell
before an eruption) and gas emissions (the
mixture and amount of gases released from the
vent changes before an eruption).
Remote Monitoring the location of ash clouds from
sensing satellites is useful for warning aircraft.
Hazard This involves looking at the pattern of past
mapping and eruptions, in order to predict future eruptions. It
planning can lead to a ban on building in high-risk areas,
or simply the preparation of emergency response
plans such as constructing evacuation routes.

Table 3.4 Ways to reduce the hazards of volcanic eruptions

Key
“> Rivers
e
rs 3 Limit of area most likely to
BSSs

be affected by lava and

pyroclastic flows
Area most likely to be
affected by lahars (mudflows)
—

Fig 3.25 A hazard map for Mount Rainier

 | = ps 1 —
Advantages brou
Geothermal In some volcanic countries, such as Iceland, Gan
power great use is made of the fact that the rocks
beneath the surface are very hot and water in ° ICELAND'S (EUROPE'S) LARGEST ®
the ground is also hot. Electricity is generated,
HOT SPRING
either directly from steam in volcanically active
FLOW: 180 I/sek, 97°C
areas, or by water pumped down and heated
from hot rocks. Hot water from the ground can SINCE 1981 UTILIZE BY
be used directly in central heating systems and AKRANES AND BORGARFJORDUR
even in swimming pools. DISTRICT HEATING COMPANY
Fertile soils Some types of lava and ash weather rapidly in
tropical conditions and form a rich, thick soil
” THE MAIN PIPELINE TO BORGARNES
layer, abundant in trace elements. This soil can IS 34 KM AND TO AKRANES 64 KM
be extremely fertile and produce high crop Fig. 3.26 Geothermal power in Iceland - how hot is the water in the
yields. pipeline?
Volcanoes Volcanoes produce new islands and enlarge

@ LEARNING
creating existing landmasses.This is shown in the Iceland
landmass case study on pages 103-4.
TIP Examination questions often ask
Tourism When safe, volcanoes tend to attract tourists.
you to use case studies of chosen volcanoes (and earthquakes).
This has helped the economy in places such as
Make sure that you know about the different plate tectonic
Iceland and the Canary Islands (Tenerife and
settings of your chosen volcanoes, how they formed, their
Lanzarote) and creates jobs, e.g. for tour guides
features, and their effects on people’s lives when they
and hotel workers.
erupt.
Minerals and Much of the sulfur mined is from around active
mining volcanoes. Other mineral deposits were formed
by volcanoes that are now extinct.
And long in the Volcanoes supply large volumes of gases to the (
).C ) Discussion point
past... atmosphere, which initially created the Earth’s If the Earth's internal heat died away, there would be no more
atmosphere. All the water now in the oceans mountains being formed, no more earthquakes and no more
originated as volcanic gas in the form of water volcanoes. Would this bring any disadvantages to people? If so,
vapour. what are they and over what timescale?

Table 3.5 Volcanoes - not all bad!

7 Lookat the two photographs of Mount Etna in Fig.

3.27. Describe the features of tourism shown, which
bring employment to the area.

Fig. 3.27 The slopes of Mount Etna, an active volcano in Sicily, Italy
How volcanoes form
Earlier in this chapter, you learned that volcanoes form be held in solution in the magma and it begins to
at constructive plate margins (like the Mid-Atlantic form bubbles, which expand.
Ridge), destructive plate margins (like the Andes), and
*) Inrunnier magmas, the gas is able to escape. But in
occasionally away from plate margins (like in Hawaii).
thick viscous magmas, the gas is released explosively
Magma is produced deep within the Earth, in areas at the surface - producing very violent eruptions
that are hotter than the melting point of the rocks. The that spray lava high into the air.
magma rises because it is less dense than the surrounding
> Bubbles of liquid lava burst explosively in the air
solid rocks.
and then the material cools and solidifies and falls
An effect can then take place that is like taking the top to the ground. This is how the pyroclastic material
off a bottle of fizzy drink that has been shaken: (solid) is produced.
*) Magma often contains water dissolved within it as >) The build-up of this material leads to the formation
gas. As the magma rises, it may reach a depth where of the volcano.
the pressure is lower. The dissolved gas can no longer

Table 3.6 A summary of volcano types and eruptions

Constructive margins — Destructive margins with an oceanic plate

Mid-plate volcanoes

Copy and complete Table 3.7. Show which features occur at which types of plate
margin by writing either yes or no in each box.

Destructive - two
continental plates

Conservative

Table 3.7 Features of plate margins

| CASE STUDY
Volcanoes in Iceland
Iceland is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the
constructive plate margin of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The
country has experienced many volcanic eruptions over the
centuries, including the eruptions of Eyjafjallajokull in
March and April 2010, which caused an ash cloud that
prevented all air travel over much of Europe for many days.
However, this case study concentrates on the eruptions
at Heimaey (the largest of the Vestmannaeyjar islands,
off the south coast of Iceland) in 1973.

On 22 January 1973, all of Heimaey’s fishing boats (plus

some others from other ports that had taken shelter there)
had to stay in the island’s harbour all day, because of a
storm and very rough seas. That night the islanders went
to bed as normal, but from 10pm onwards they began to
experience a series of weak earthquakes.

Then, at 2am the following morning, the police station in

Heimaey town centre received a report that a volcanic
eruption had started near Kirkjubeer, on the eastern edge
of the town. The eruption had begun from a 1600-metre-
z2>
long fissure (crack) in the ground. When the police officers
drove to the area, they found that the fissure had opened
up right along its length as far as they could see — and
was erupting with a row of lava fountains like a wall of fire.
A new volcano, later known as Eldfell, was beginning to
form.

The fire alarm was sounded to wake everybody up, and

police cars patrolled the streets with their sirens going to
make sure. The islanders put on warm clothing, gathered
a few belongings and began to meet down at the harbour. Atlantic
Ocean
The town council immediately decided to evacuate the ~Old E
coastline 4
whole population of the island — apart from those employed
on essential work. The first fishing boat left for the mainland
Line of
at 2.30am, followed by many others. fissure (crack)

The airport was in danger if the fissure were to open up

southwards. But, despite this, aircraft from the mainland
landed on Heimaey and 300 people — mostly the sick and
aged — were taken to the mainland by air during that first Atlantic Ocean
night. Altogether, about 5000 people were evacuated from
Heimaey on the night of 22—23 January.

The houses on the eastern side of the town began

disappearing under lava and ash up to 4 metres thick.
Many houses collapsed under the weight. As the eruption Fig. 3.29 A map of Heimaey showing the effects of the 1973
continued, a dark cloud often hung over the town. eruptions. Changes to the area of the main town are not shown.

o
zu)
| 3 Plate tectonics

By 6 February, there was a real danger of the harbour =) One third of the houses in the town were destroyed
entrance being blocked by the lava. The fire brigade started and another third damaged.
to pump seawaterto cool the edge of the lava flow heading
By 1975, most of the ash had been cleaned away and
for the harbour — to try to make it solidify and stop.
moved to the new lava field, where it was used to make
Bulldozers were also used to build a dam to try to stop
roads, enlarge the airstrip and make foundations for new
the lava from reaching people’s homes. However, the lava
houses. 3500 out of the 5300 islanders came back after
was travelling at a speed of up to 40 metres per hour and
the eruption. The total population is now about 5000.
it went right over the dam. By 25 March, it had buried or
burnt about 111 houses. But, on 26 March, the lava flow What was the first warning of the Heimaey
that had been threatening the harbour was finally halted eruption?
— the water cooling had worked.
From what feature did much of the lava flow?
The eruption was declared finally over on 3 July. It had Why was the storm on 22 January lucky for
lasted for five months and ten days. the islanders?

7) Ash and pumice made up 10% ofthe material it produced;

How many people were evacuated from the
the rest was lava.
island?
What were the effects of the ash from the
The Eldfell volcano had grown from nothing to around eruptions?
225 metres above sea level.
What were the effects of the lava from the
The land area of Heimaey had increased by 2.5 square eruptions?
kilometres. The island had previously been 12 square The eruptions had some advantages for the
kilometres in area, but that was extended to 14.5 island. What were they?
square kilometres by the end of the eruption. The new Eldfell, a new volcano, formed during the
land that was created gave the harbour extra shelter eruptions. How high was it?
from rough seas.

Fig. 3.30 Aphotograph

ofHeimaey in 209.
from the 1973 eruptions in the foreground.
 Earthquakes The shallower the focus,
the worse the shaking
Fig. 3.8 shows the location and type of plate margins
around the world. Strong earthquakes occur at all of
these different plate margins, as shown in Fig. 3.6.
The shock
What causes earthquakes? waves travel
out in alll
Earthquakes are caused by plate movements - either directions
towards each other, away from each other or sliding
past each other. The plates don’t always move at a
constant rate; they are often ‘stuck’ in one position. / \When the pressure
is released, it sends
Stress and pressure builds up as the plates try to move. out huge pulses of
Then there is a sudden release of pressure when the energy
plates break free (along a crack in the Earth called a
fault). Huge amounts of energy are released and the | Key
Two plates try to move past each
shock waves or vibrations travel through the Earth as P a P
other, building up pressure ~<— Plate movement
an earthquake wave or seismic wave. The point within
the Earth where the earthquake originates is called the Fig. 3.31 How earthquakes occur
focus. The point on the Earth’s surface directly above
the focus is called the epicentre.

Assessing earthquakes
The effects of an earthquake can be assessed on a
12-point scale - named after the seismologist Guiseppi
Mercalli (see Table 3.8). These effects can also be shown
on a map using the Mercalli Scale (see Fig. 3.32).
Earthquakes can also be assessed using the Richter
Scale of magnitude, which measures the total amount
of energy released by an earthquake. Powerful earthquakes
have Richter values between 5 and 9. An increase of 1
on the scale means that the energy released increases
by about 30 times.
‘Value Intensity Description 2
1 Instrumental Not normally felt.“Animals uneasy.
5 eea Feeble biFeltonlyby a fewpeople at(eat yy ®
3 Slight Vibrations like a lorry passing. Felt.
people at rest.
“Felt indoors by many. Cars rock,
5 “Rather strong. Sleepers awakened. Some windows
: broken.
oo 3 : -Strong me Bells ring.Trees sway. Loose objects fall.
7 Very Strong Difficult to stand up. People run
outdoors. Walls crack.
8 Destructive -Collapse ofsome buildings. Trees fall.
Bo Ruinous Ground cracks. Pipes break.
10 ; ae“Disastrous -Landslides. ‘Many buildings destroyed.
Fig. 3.32
: Lines of equal intensity around the epicentre of an
11 Very Few buildings left standing.
earthquake
disastrous
on - Catastrophic “Total damage. Ground surface rises_
:
f
and
| Hy)
falls in waves. Objects thrown into
the E air. i 4
@ LEARNING TIP Notice how the lines on Fig. 3.32
\ie x <- OE eo pris
go around the numbers not through them. To draw lines of
Table 3.8 The Mercalli Scale of earthquake intensity
equal intensity on a map don’t try to join the points.
The amount of damage that an earthquake causes will Tsunami
be affected by the following factors: A tsunami is a giant ocean wave (or series of waves) that
is generated by an earthquake when there is displacement
*> the amount of energy released (as measured by the
Richter Scale)
(movement) of the seabed. The wave is magnified as it
travels into shallower water. It becomes slower moving,
*> the depth of the focus beneath the surface (shallower more closely spaced and much, much higher. It can
earthquakes have a greater effect) travel across whole oceans and can have devastating
*> the density of the population in the area of the effects on coastal lowlands, especially when they are
earthquake epicentre densely populated. The tsunami caused by an earthquake
at Banda Aceh, Indonesia, on 26 December 2004
*) whether or not the buildings have been built to resulted in 289 601 deaths in 12 countries around the
withstand earthquakes Indian Ocean.
*) how solid the bedrock is; weak sands and clays can Because a tsunami can take hours to travel across an
turn to liquid (known as liquefaction), causing ocean, it is possible to provide warnings of its arrival.
buildings to collapse. The Pacific Ocean has had a tsunami warning system
The ability ofan area to recover from a major earthquake in place for many years. After the terrible tsunami in
is affected by how wealthy a country is. This is illustrated 2004, the Indian Ocean countries also introduced a
by the case studies on the following pages. tsunami warning system, together with emergency
drills and procedures to keep casualties toa minimum.

me

oe later depth i

Water depth -
5500m 2
|

B __ ——_ Displacement

Fig. 3.33 How a tsunami forms

Fig. 3.34 The aftermath of the 2004 tsunami at Banda Aceh,

Indonesia

{
).C) Discussion point
If a tsunami waming is given, what can be done to protect @ LEARNING TIP Do not refer to a tsunami as a
people and property? What are the barriers which might
‘tidal wave’. It is nothing to do with the tides.
prevent this happening?
 The Haiti earthquake in 2010
Haiti is an LEDC in the Caribbean, near Cuba. Before 2010,
there had been no major earthquakes there in living
memory, so its buildings were not constructed to withstand
them. People in the capital, Port-au-Prince, were housed
in crowded conditions. The government was not well RUM
RM
ATATAMT
NEAT
RTT

Organised and the country was very poor.

Then, on 21 January 2010, a 7.0 magnitude earthquake

occurred 25 km from Port-au-Prince (with a focus depth
of 13 km). The cause of this earthquake was movement
along the destructive plate margin between the Caribbean
Plate and the North Atlantic Plate (see Fig. 3.8).
A
N

0 2000
km
North Atlantic Z> N ITN
TT
NENT
+}ART
NTT

Ocean 200

Fig. 3.35 The location of Haiti

Li Haiti is part of the long chain of the Caribbean

LLM
AAAI Islands
(the West Indies). This is another example of an island
arc. The plate margin has a collision between two oceanic
plates. As well as earthquakes like that in Haiti in 2010,
Santo @ many of the islands have active volcanoes which sometimes
Domingo
erupt violently. The eruption of Mt Pelée in Martinique in
1902 was very destructive. More recent eruptions occurred
Fault lines on Montserrat. You can research these eruptions on the
SrA
TTInternet.
ARIPMTNETPNEN

Fig. 3.36 The Haiti earthquake in January 2010

Effects Responses

More than 20 O00 people were killed and about *) Damage to the port and roads meant that aid supplies
300 OOO injured, according to estimates. were difficult to deliver. The airport couldn’t handle
the number of relief aircraft required.
Many buildings were destroyed and 1.3 million people
were made homeless. American engineers helped to clear the port and
airport.
Hospitals and government buildings were destroyed.
The USA sent 10 000 troops and police.
The port was destroyed and many roads were blocked.
Temporary tented camps were set up and over
Looting became a problem.
200 000 people were moved to less damaged cities.
Over 2 million people were left short of food and water.
*) Bottled water and water purification kits were provided.
Power supplies were cut.
*) Field hospitals were set up.
There were outbreaks of cholera, a disease caused by
poor sanitation in the temporary camps. *> Because of its poverty and other problems, Haiti is
relying on overseas aid to help it recover — but this
will take time. Over a year after the earthquake, many
Haitians were still living in tents.
 i >
| >

*_ 3 Plate tectonics | see.

country. Its modern buildings are constructed to withstand

Sea of
earthquakes. Schools and other public buildings have Japan
regular earthquake drills, so that people are prepared
when an earthquake strikes. There are substantial sea
Eurasian
walls to defend against tsunami. However, the country is Plate ,
mountainous and the coastal lowlands are very densely
populated. That coastline is particularly vulnerable to Ishino

tsunami waves, because it has many deep bays that amplify

the waves and cause the land to be inundated by the sea. @, Pacific
- Plate
On 14 March 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred
off the north-east coast of the main island, Honshu. This 4 Epicentre:
was related to the plate boundary where the Pacific and | magnitude 9.0
Eurasian Plates collide (See Fig. 3.12). The plates are moving
A
towards each other at a rate of 83 millimetres a year. N

The earthquake epicentre was beneath the Pacific Ocean,

129 kilometres east of the port of Sendai and 373 kilometres Philippine
Plate O 200
north of the capital city, Tokyo. The depth of the focus was a

32 kilometres. km

There were a series of large foreshocks over the previous Key

two days and major aftershocks. E> Direction of
plate movement

7~— Plate boundary

Fig. 3.37 The epicentre of the Sendai earthquake and the plates
in the area

ST
TOT
TT
TEETAT
Effects > Incentral Tokyo, 373 km from the epicentre, a number
> The earthquake triggered a tsunami which was up to of office workers spent the night in their offices because
10 metres high. It passed over the defensive sea wall the lifts stopped working. Millions of commuters were
and caused great destruction inland. stranded overnight and others walked home after train
services were suspended. Food supplies ran short in
By 4 April, the death toll was 12 000 (with 15 500
the shops.
people still missing).
About four million homes in and around Tokyo suffered
Police said that 215 000 people had fled their homes.
power cuts.
Whole villages were simply washed away, and the town
Responses
of Sendai was badly hit. The town of Rikuzentakada
*> Ahuge relief mission swung into action in north-eastern
was mostly under water — with barely a trace of any
Japan, the day after the devastating earthquake.
buildings left. About 1800 homes were reported destroyed
in the city of Minamisoma. One third of the city of The country’s military mobilised thousands of troops,
Kesennuma was also under water. 300 planes and 40 ships for the relief effort.

A muddy torrent of water swept cars and homes far Prime Minister Naoto Kan visited the disaster zone by
inland, turning residential areas and paddy fields into helicopter, including the Fukushima nuclear plant.
a lagoon of debris-filled seawater.
Rescue teams from South Korea, Australia, New Zealand
A dam burst in north-eastern Fukushima prefecture, and Singapore arrived.
sweeping away homes.
An American aircraft carrier was already in Japan and
Japan Railways said it could not trace four trains along another was sent for.
the north-eastern coast, anda ship carrying 100 people
At the time of writing, it is too soon to evaluate Japan’s
was also reported missing.
long-term recovery, but the country’s record of recovery
The Fukushima nuclear power station suffered a partial from events like the Kobe earthquake in 1995 is very
meltdown, with leaks of radioactive material into the good.
environment. A major disaster did not happen but, at
the time of writing, the full extent of the problems
caused was still unclear.

Describe the cause of an earthquake. Use the CC) Discussion point

words fault and energy in your answer. How should the world respond to natural disasters such as
Explain the difference between the Mercalli earthquakes and violent volcanic eruptions? Who should be
Scale and the Richter Scale. responsible for paying for and organising relief efforts? What
happens today?
Explain how the Haiti and Japan earthquakes are
linked to: plate tectonics.
a_ Make a table comparing the effects of the two
earthquakes. RESEARCH Keep monitoring the United States
Geological survey website (http://earthquakes.usgs.gov/
How well prepared were both countries and why
earthquakes/) for recent earthquake activity. This shows
were more people killed in the Haiti earthquake?
earthquakes that have occurred in the last week, day and
How good were the responses to the
hour. You will find reports of earthquakes before they appear
earthquakes?
on the TV news programmes.
Weathering

@ Weall tend to think that rocks last forever.

The rocks that we see in cliffs or in buildings
seem permanent features — and you would
be forgiven for thinking that they will always
be there. However, if you look at a very old
building (like the one in Fig. 4.1), you will see
that it is showing its age.
@ The rocks at the Earth’s surface are rotting
away and crumbling, as conditions in the
EFarth’s atmosphere affect them. For example,
those of you who live in frosty climates will
notice how potholes develop in the roads
after a cold winter. This sounds very bad —
the buildings, bridges and roads that we
construct from rock and stone are being
attacked by weathering and slowly
destroyed over time. But weathering also has
advantages. Without weathering, we would
have no soil and no food — and the world as
we know it could not exist.
@ The ways in which weathering takes place
are different in different parts of the world,
which is what this chapter will explain.
 ‘2
ean cores ,
fa no is,sete

In this unit you will learn about: Why is weathering important?

=) what weathering is and why it’s important
Weathering is a very helpful process. It has been involved
-)» the physical, chemical and biological processes
in the formation of most of the soil that covers. the
of weathering Earth’s surface. Weathering breaks down rocks at the
ws why different rocks weather at different speeds Earth’s surface to produce the minerals in the soil that
why weathering is different in different climates. provide vital nutrients for plant growth. Without
weathering, these nutrients would not be available for
plants to use.

What is weathering? But weathering can cause problems too. It can affect
The definition of weathering is: ‘the decay and rocks that have been used as building stones (like the
disintegration of rocks in situ, involving physical, chemical ones in Fig. 4.1). This process is usually so slow that it
and biological processes, resulting from the conditions doesn’t matter but, if it’s more rapid, it can be very
in the atmosphere’. This means that the rocks that form damaging to buildings.
the Earth’s surface are slowly broken down over long
Weathering produces rock fragments, sand, clay and
periods of time. dissolved minerals, which - over immense periods of
Weathering is often confused with erosion. Weathering time - eventually go on to form new rocks.
is different, because it takes place in situ - in other
words, without movement. The processes that carry out
weathering do not transport the products away. Rivers LEARNING TIP Make sure that you are very clear
about the difference between weathering and erosion. It
and waves in the sea (and the wind and glaciers) carry
is a common mistake in exams.
out erosion - they do not carry out weathering.

4Gn Xe onvarclaremexeyinle){cicc¥@ Fele)(<¥r/ed edo\’as lV Ladi afoar-yecyarcdlcm tte] coli mt=Yole1 imCon

Weathering Erosion
Rivers
Plant roots
Frost action
Waves in the sea
The wind
Carbonation Table 4.1 Weathering and erosion

Fig. 4.1 The Temple of Poseidon at Attica in Greece, which is about 2450 years old.
Notice the effects of weathering on the stone used to build it.
pe aa 4 Weathering

Type of weathering — Processes A WRG eet Gos

,* » during the day
Physical (mechanical) @ Freeze-thaw action ns
: @ Exfoliation
Chemical © Carbonation : ‘A few centimetres
© Oxidation Natural crack— |to 1metre” “4
Biological © Wedging effect of tree roots een
® Release of acids and carbon dioxide to B
The water freezes during
produce chemical weathering the nighvand exeaqne
Vegetation trapping water to encourage
chemical weathering

Table 4.2 Weathering processes The crack

~ deepens
Physical (mechanical) and widens
weathering
After repeated freezing and
The processes of physical weathering are most rapid in
thawing, the rock splits apart
deserts and in the cold environments on high mountains
and closer to the Poles.

Freeze-thaw action (frost shattering)

In cold climates and on high mountain ranges, water
trickles into cracks in the rocks. At night this water
freezes. When water freezes, it expands by about 9%. Freeze-thaw
action on cliff
This forces the cracks to widen. The water may then
thaw the following day. Repeated freezing and thawing ee {
results in the disintegration of the rock. Scree slope

The main product of this process is scree - angular Helle

rock fragments. When freeze-thaw action affects cliffs
on mountain slopes, the scree falls to the bottom and
accumulates
ae
in loose slopes of rock fragments on the Fig. 4.2 How freeze-thaw weathering works
mountainside.

For freeze-thaw action to take place, intense cold is not {

CO). Discussion point
needed. What is needed is for the temperature to fall How could you prove that water expands when it freezes? How
below and rise above 0 °C many times to produce many {could you prove that this has the power to break rocks?
cycles of freezing and thawing. Constant frost is not
effective.
Fig. 4.3 Scree slopes ona
mountain in north-west
Scotland
Exfoliation
Exfoliation is the ‘onion-skin effect’, where thick layers
of rock peel off parallel to the rock surface. In deserts,
this process is often seen on crystalline rocks like
granite. It leads to the formation of large domed hills
(exfoliation domes), or great piles of boulders.
The key feature of the desert climate that leads to
exfoliation is the large diurnal temperature range.
This means that temperatures are very hot during the
day and very cold at night. The diurnal temperature
range in some deserts can be more than 50 °C.
Rocks are relatively poor thermal conductors. Therefore,
when rocks are strongly heated during the day, the
heating and expansion effects are confined to the surface
layers. This encourages the development of cracks
parallel to the surface. Then, during the cold nights, Fig. 4.4 Exfoliation of rocks in the Northern Cape, South Africa
the rocks cool down and contract - which leads to
cracking at right angles to the rock surface.
Experiments have been conducted to try to produce
exfoliation in the laboratory. These have involved heating Layers peel off
and cooling rocks many times to simulate many years
Night-time contraction
in the desert climate. It seems that the process is only (cracks at 90° to Daytime expansion
very effective when some water is present. This could the surface) (cracks parallel to
be from the occasional rain shower, or from night-time the surface)

dew. This might produce a chemical effect or increase

the rate of cooling.

@ LEARNING 50 metres Scree

and rock
TIP You need to learn about two different fragments
processes of physical (mechanical) weathering. Remember
that they are linked to two very different climates. Both
involve temperature changes that take place between day
and night, but in very different ways. Water (and ice) plays
an essential part in freeze-thaw weathering.
Fig 4.5 How exfoliation works

Fig. 4.6 An exfoliation

dome in Mbabane,
Swaziland
1 4 Weathering
SESE LUIRISTIEa ace ianetiimieiie canine a
(be ee
Chemical weathering The effects of carbonation can often be seen on bare
limestone surfaces, where the joints are widened to
Carbonation form deep cracks. Caves often form when the limestone
Carbonation is a process that happens when the rock dissolves away under the ground.
type in an area is limestone. Limestone is a type of
rock with a large percentage of calcium carbonate Carbonation is a completely natural process, but the
(CaCO,). The rest of the rock is mud (clay). rate of carbonation can be increased by air pollution
from thermal power stations, industry and fires.
All rainfall is slightly acid (its pH value is often These produce gases like sulfur dioxide and oxides of
about 6.5). This is because naturally occurring nitrogen, which make the rain much more acidic than
carbon dioxide (CO,) in the air is dissolved in the it would be normally. In cities, this can result in increased
rainwater (HO) to produce a weak acid, carbonic acid damage to buildings and statues by carbonation.
(H,O + CO, > H,CO,). This weak acid dissolves the
calcium carbonate in the limestone to form a solution,
which is then washed away as a solution of calcium
ions (Ca**) and hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO,).Any i) ) Discussion point
impurities in the limestone are left behind as clay or sand.
How acidic is the rainfall where you live? How could you
If you live in a limestone area and your water supply test this?
comes from the limestone, it might be difficult to form
a lather (bubbles) with soap. This is because the calcium
hydrogen carbonate in the water makes the soap less
effective. Limestone often has prominent joints (cracks)
@ LEARNING TIP Remember that rainfall is naturally
in the rock, down which rainwater trickles. These joints acidic. Pollution may increase this acidity.
are widened by carbonation.
Oxidation
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a mineral (in
science lessons you may also have learned that it is the
removal of an electron from an atom or ion). The process
of oxidation affects rocks in dry areas, where oxygen is
in direct contact with the rocks (oxic conditions).
The opposite process to oxidation is reduction. This
occurs in wet, anoxic conditions (where oxygen is not
available). Repeated oxidation and reduction of iron
minerals in rocks causes them to disintegrate. This is
common in sandstones, where the chemicals that stick
the sand grains together (the ‘cement’) are oxidised,
causing the rock to crumble.
Biological weathering
Wedging effect of tree roots
This is a way in which biological weathering has a
physical effect. Where the soil is shallow, the seeds and Fig. 4.8 Rocks that contain iron are affected by oxidation. The
roots of trees find their way into natural cracks in the rocks ‘rust’ and become coated with bright red or yellow iron oxides.
bedrock. As the seeds germinate and the roots get bigger, These rocks in the Cederberg Mountains in South Africa have been
they have the effect of making the cracks wider and reddened by oxidation.

deeper - eventually breaking up the bedrock. This effect

can often be seen in road cuttings and quarries.
A Discussion point
OC). Discussion point Think of ways in which you could do experiments to simulate
the effects of weathering. In nature, weathering processes are
What evidence is there in the area where you live that weathering very slow and could take hundreds of years. You would have to
is taking place? It could be in buildings, roads or gravestones. It find ways of speeding them up, so that you could see the
could be in natural rock features or in road cuttings. results.

Fig. 4.9 (right) The wedging

effect of tree roots - they have
penetrated the rock and then
broken it
Fig. 4.10 (far right) This tree in
Mexico has grown around a —
boulder and then lifted it into the
air as it continues to grow taller
Release of acids and carbon dioxide to For each of the following descriptions, name the
produce chemical weathering process involved and state whether it is physical,
This is a way in which biological weathering has a (olaYedanl tore] ace)ao)(0)(ey24exe]8
chemical effect. Decaying plant matter (e.g. on the floor a Where calcium carbonate in limestone is
ofa forest, or beneath a cover of grass) produces chemicals attacked by carbonic acid produced in rainwater
such as humic acids and carbon dioxide. These chemicals Weathering that occurs in deserts, where layers
then cause chemical weathering processes, e.g. of rock peel off parallel to the surface
carbonation, to occur. IWfekenaateYalayoandarclexevererU|ecmmlameze)(ome |Ttite ckon
involving water freezing in cracks and causing
Vegetation trapping water to the rocks to shatter
encourage chemical weathering The addition of oxygen to a mineral
This is another way in which biological weathering has
Bedrock being broken down by tree roots.
a chemical effect. Most chemical processes will take
place far more quickly if water is present. On dry rock
surfaces, weathering might be very slow. However, water
can be trapped beneath a cover of vegetation - speeding Closely spaced Widely spaced joints
up the rates of chemical reaction and increasing the joints
rate of weathering. Ground surface

How rock type affects

weathering Closely
spaced
The presence of lines of weakness joints
50
metres
Natural cracks in rocks (known in geology as joints,
bedding planes and cleavage) are lines of weakness.
They allow water to penetrate the rocks and increase
the physical and chemical effects of weathering. These
weaknesses also control the size and shape of the
weathered fragments.
The rounded boulders often seen on the kopjes (isolated Water
hills) of the African landscape are due to the weathering penetrates
joints, causing
of granite or similar rocks which have a rectangular weathering
pattern of joints. Water penetrates the joints and
weathering occurs. This has the effect of changing the Deeper
original rectangular blocks into large, rounded boulders. weathering
where more
joints occur

Erosion removes the

weathered material (clay)
to reveal the kopje

Fig. 4.12 How joints in the rock allow weathering to penetrate the

.
ground. In the Tropics this leads to the formation of kopjes.

LEARNING TIP Remember that weaknesses in the

rock, such as joints, are natural features. They are not
caused by weathering. All types of weathering, physical,
chemical and biological, are helped by these natural
weaknesses.
Grain size of the rock
In general, the bigger the grains or crystals that make
up the rock, the faster the rate of weathering will be.
This is because the weathering of one mineral in the
rock tends to weaken the rock to a greater degree.
Rea
eaeeentnenls
Crystalline rocks (igneous and metamorphic rocks)
have a greater resistance to physical disintegration
than rocks made out of grains or fragments
(sedimentary rocks). This is because of the greater
strength of interlocking crystalline textures in
comparison with granular ones (see Fig. 4.13).
Processes such as oxidation can weaken cements
made of iron minerals, causing sandstones to
crumble.

Mineral composition
Minerals are the chemicals that form the building blocks Granite
of rocks. Some minerals are chemically resistant and interlocking crystals

only weather very slowly. Others will react in various

ways.
>> As described on page 114, limestone is made from
calcium carbonate and is susceptible to carbonation.
It also contains cracks, which allow water to penetrate
and increase the surface area vulnerable to chemical
attack.

> Rocks that contain iron minerals, e.g. some sandstones,

shales, dolerite and basalt, are prone to oxidation.
=) One of the most common minerals, quartz, is
chemically resistant and does not weather chemically.
>> Granite is often thought of as a resistant rock, but it
ay

is prone to breakdown - especially in hot and wet

climates, and when water is able to penetrate. Joint
systems in the rock allow this to happen, and also
amplify both the physical and chemical actions. The Sandstone
kopjes that are prominent features of many African grains cemented together

landscapes (see Fig. 4.11), may have formed in the Fig. 4.13 The structure of granite and sandstone - granite is made
past when the African climate was wetter. up of interlocking crystals, but sandstone is made from grains
cemented together

3 Explain how the following rocks might be affected by

weathering.
a_ Limestone in a wet climate.
b Awell-jointed granite in a frosty climate.
c Sandstone containing iron minerals in a climate
with wet and dry seasons.

Fig. 4.14 Weathered sandstone in Utah, USA

Think about the experiments that are done in a school
chemistry laboratory. It is common there to use chemicals
held in solution in water, and then to heat them up with
a Bunsen burner. This is because chemical reactions
are faster in hot and wet conditions. This tells you a lot
about the rates of weathering in different climates.

Frost climates
These are found in the areas of high mountain ranges
(high altitudes), and also closer to the North and South
Poles (high latitudes). The main process here is freeze-
thaw action. The amount of weathering depends on the
number of freeze-thaw cycles, rather than how severe
the frost is. Therefore, the amount of weathering in very
Fig. 4.15 The Alps in France - a mountain area
cold areas is smaller.
affected by freeze-thaw weathering
Chemical weathering is slow in frost climates, because
the cold temperature slows down the rates of chemical
reactions.

Temperate areas
These areas have generally moderate temperatures.
This means that freeze-thaw action is not important,
and exfoliation does not occur. The main type of
weathering in these areas is chemical, but the relatively Fig. 4.16 A shallow soil showing the slow rate of
low temperatures mean that the rate of weathering is weathering in temperate areas. The soil in the
less than in the Tropics. centre of the photograph is about 30 cm deep.
Tree roots are growing in the bedrock.
SINS Ee,
 Deserts
The main weathering process in deserts is exfoliation,
due to the large diurnal temperature range. Chemical
weathering in deserts is extremely slow, because of the
lack of moisture there. In fact, weathering rates in
deserts are the slowest on Earth, as demonstrated by
the well-preserved archaeological remains often found
in desert countries like Egypt.
Cleopatra's Needle (Fig. 4.17) is an ancient stone column
that was taken from its original site in Egypt and brought
to Britain in 1877 (similar columns were taken to Paris
and New York). It was said that it weathered more in
10 years in the wet, polluted atmosphere of London
than it did in 3500 years in the Egyptian desert!
Desert landscapes lack soil, so the bedrock is often
exposed and the landscape appears to be quite ‘angular’,
as Fig. 4.18 shows.

Fig. 4.18 The Namib Desert

Humid (wet) tropical areas

These areas have the fastest weathering rates on Earth.
The layer of weathered material lying on top of the
bedrock is often up to 40 metres deep, and rocks are
seen to weather significantly within decades. Rates of
chemical reaction are accelerated by the hot and wet
conditions. Kopjes form due to the sub-surface weathering
ofgrariites (see Fig 4.12).

Fig. 4.19 A deep soil in Lesotho, showing the rapid rate of

weathering in wet tropical and sub-tropical areas. The soil is several
metres deep, unlike that shown in Fig. 4.16.
ME 4 Weatherin p ‘ Rd eo ee . : i" He eae oh

Changes to global climate, which have taken place over

long periods of time, can make interpreting the landscape
complicated. For example, previously hot and wet areas
are now hot and dry. As a result, features previously
formed by chemical weathering can be found in deserts.
There are many similar examples from other climates.
Polar region Humid temperate region Tropical desert region Tropical rainforest region

Temperature Low Moderate High High

Rainfall Low Moderate Low High
Depth of weathering Ground surface

Weathered
rock
30 metres

Unweathered rock

Table 4.3 The rate of weathering in different climates

@ LEARNING TIP Examination questions about

4 a Explain how rainfall becomes acidic through a
natural process.
weathering could easily include sections from other parts b How will air pollution affect the acidity of the
of the syllabus. For example, a question on exfoliation could rainfall?
include work on aspects of desert vegetation and climate.
Choose one physical weathering process and
one chemical weathering process and explain
how rainfall plays a part in them.
RESEARCH Find out what the main rock type is in (yo)o)Varerare hcexe)uny e)(saucwmte]
0) (cme
your area. What is the climate like? Use this information
to help you decide which weathering processes are most Climate Speed of Main type of
likely to be occurring in your area. Are there any examples weathering - fast weathering
of places where you can see the effects of weathering? or slow?
Cold
Wet temperate
Tropical deserts
Wet tropical, e.g.
rainforest

Table 4.4 Weathering in different climates

5 — Study Fig. 4.20 and describe the physical features

shown.

@ LEARNING TIP when answering questions like

Question 5, it is important to know what NOT to include in
your answer. The question asks you to describe the features,
so do not include points about their formation. Also, do
not describe how freeze-thaw weathering works. The question
also asks for physical features, so do not describe features
of human geography. You can refer to relief and vegetation.
River processes
| and landforms

@ Most rain that fails on the land eventually

travels to the sea through rivers. Large
numbers of people live near rivers, which
provide great benefits for them. In some
countries (e.g. Bangladesh), almost the
whole population lives on river flood plains
and deltas.
@ Why do people live near rivers and what
benefits do they bring?
@ Rivers can also cause problems and hazards
for people.
@ What are they and how do people cope with
and respond to them?
@ The photograph on this page is of the Iguazu
Falls in Brazil. It helps to show the immense
power of rivers.
@ What effect does this power have on the
land?
@ How dorivers shape the land over which
they flow?
 In this unit you will learn about: River processes — the work
=> the work carried out by a river — erosion,
carried out by a river
transportation, deposition * Ariver gradually wears away and removes material
=> the landforms that occur in a river valley from its channel (the river bed and banks). This is
=> how flooding can be a hazard in river valleys. called erosion and it can make the river channel
(The use of rivers for water supply will be described in deeper and/or wider.
Chapter 11
aptel it) ©) The boulders, pebbles, sand, silt and mud eroded by
the river are carried downstream - a process called
transportation. The material being transported is

@ LEARNING TIP Don’t confuse erosion with weathering.

called the river’s load.
©) When the river no longer has enough energy to carry
Weathering is a different process and is described in its load, it gradually drops it on the river bed - a
Chapter 4.
process called deposition. The largest and heaviest
material (like boulders) is deposited first, while the
lightest material (like silt and mud) is deposited last.
By corrasion (abrasion) — where
sand and pebbles are dragged along By hydraulic action — where fast-flowing
the river bed, wearing it away. water is forced into cracks, breaking up
; ' the bank over time.

By attrition — where rocks and

_ stones wear each other away as they
By solution — where rocks
_ knock together, becoming smaller
such as limestone are
and more rounded.
dissolved in acid rainwater.
Fig. 5.1 How a river erodes its channel - there are four processes of river erosion

Smaller stones or pebbles are picked up and then dropped Large stones are dragged
again. This results in a ‘skipping’ motion called saltation. along by traction.

a eo aI i

Dissolved chemicals are carried along

in solution, invisible to the eye.

Tiny particles of sediment are carried Heavier material is carried along the
in suspension in the river’s current bottom. It is called the bedload.

Fig. 5.2 How a river transports its load - there are four processes of river transport

1s a_~ Work in pairs and test each other. b For each set of words below, decide which is the
i One partner should try to describe the four odd one out and explain your choice.
types of erosion. * solution, attrition, valley, abrasion
: ¢ suspension, channel, traction, load
ii The other partner should try to describe the AvCralili ; a (a :
: : : : ° rauli
a2 é four ways in which a river transports its load. y ¢ action, saltation, suspension, traction
° corrasion, hydraulic action, attrition, traction
mf
The different processes that a river might be carrying
out at any one time vary according to the following
factors:
> The velocity of the running water. This is sometimes
called the energy of the river. The faster the river
is flowing, the larger the material will be that can
be transported in the load. Large boulders can only
be transported by very fast flows. After heavy rain,
rivers often look brown because of the suspension
load.

The volume of the running water. The more water

there is in the river, the greater the volume of the
load.

>> The bedrock along the course of the river. Hard Fig. 5.3 The River Rhine in Germany after heavy rainfall
rocks (like granite) are very slow to erode. Soft rocks
(like shale) erode easily. Some rock types (like
limestone) are soluble and can be dissolved by the
river water.

/ 2 Look at the colour of the water in the main river in

Fig. 5.3.
a_ What is the cause of this? What type of transport
is taking place? What size of particle is being
transported?
b Suggest why the tributary’s water is clear.
TAT 7 : rest é
AW
Wily QeNnOosITT
ANS }. Th
ILULLVEL ie
LIGih AornsEF!

Deposition occurs when a river loses velocity (energy).

This can be caused by:
> a decrease in gradient
>> a decrease in river flow (discharge) as water drains
away after heavy rain Fig. 5.4 A river channel in the Northern Cape of South Africa during
the dry season
=) the river meeting the sea or a lake, often forming a
delta
> the river flowing more slowly on the inside of bends.

Discharae
(
.C) Discussion point
This is the volume of water flowing down the river at
For a river or rivers that you have seen in your area, what is the
any one time. It is measured in cubic metres per second
evidence that erosion, transportation and deposition are going
(often referred to as ‘cumecs’). In climates with wet and
on? Are the banks being eroded? Are there areas of deposition?
dry seasons, or those that are affected by melting snow Is the water brown at any time? When do these processes
in spring, the discharge can vary considerably (see happen?
Fig. 5.4).

123
 5 River processes and landforms
nce =

The river channel

Draw a diagram of a meandering river that enters a
The river channel seen on a map or from the air has
lake. On your diagram, label two different places
three main forms, as shown in Table 5.1. The cross- where deposition is taking place.
section of the river channel is described on page 128.
Meandering Straight Braided
Ree Sa Sree ar

The river flows in a series of broad bends There are very few bends in the channel. The river continually splits into smaller
(see page 128). channels and then re-joins - flowing around
banks of material that it has deposited.
When there is a lot of water flowing in the
river, the small channels may join up for a
time to form one large river.

Table 5.1 Different river channel patterns

The upper course of a river

The place where a river starts its course is known as
the source. This might be in an upland area, or mountains,
and the gradient of the river could be quite steep. In
cross-section, the river valley at this point is a V-shape
(see Fig. 5.5). The valley floor is very narrow and the
river channel may occupy the whole of it. The valley
sides are steep. The river also winds its way around
interlocking spurs (see page 127). Large boulders in
the river - the bedload - are only moved after heavy
rainfall, when the river becomes a powerful torrent.

@ LEARNING TIP Because the gradient is steep,

people often think that the river in its upper course is flowing
quickly. In fact this is not true, because there is a lot of
friction between the relatively small river and its channel,
which makes the water flow more slowly. Remember that :
a steep gradient does not always mean a faster flow. Fig. 5.5 An upper-course river valley in the Sierra Nevada
mountains of Spain, showing a typical V-shaped cross-section
The river is carrying out vertical erosion. Occasionally,
the vertical erosion can be much greater than any
sideways (lateral) erosion. This might lead to the formation
of gorges, or even canyons like the one in Fig. 5.6.
Potholes are smooth, rounded hollows formed in the
bedrock of the river bed by vertical erosion. They are
often about 30 cm across, and are formed by stones
trapped in hollows on the river bed. Eddies in the water
swirl the trapped stones around, causing corrasion (see
page 122), which drills down into the rock. The hollows
become deeper and wider and eventually join together.
Rapids are common features in the upper course of a
river. They form at places where the water is shallow
and the river bed is rocky and irregular - making the
water rough (see Fig. 5.8). The gradient here is often
steeper than at other points in the river’s course. Rapids
are often a barrier to river navigation (unless you are a
white-water rafter or a kayaker). They can be caused
by a band, or bands, of hard rock in the river bed.

Fig. 5.7 Potholes in the Cederberg Mountains, South Africa

Soft rock

Fig. 5.9 How rapids might form

Fig. 5.8 Rapids on the Orange River at Augrabies in South Africa

125
 5 River processes and landforms
a

Waterfalls and gorges

>> Waterfalls form where a horizontal layer of hard
rock lies on top ofa layer of soft rock in a river valley.
> The soft rock underneath is eroded more quickly by
the river, and gradually a plunge pool develops.
*) The splashing water and eddy currents in the plunge
pool undercut the hard rock layer above. The hard
rock eventually creates an unsupported overhang
and collapses.
> Ifthe processes of undercutting and collapse are
repeated over a long period of time, the waterfall
will retreat upstream - forming a deep, steep-sided
valley called a gorge.
Waterfalls, especially famous waterfalls like Victoria
Falls on the Zambezi River (on the border between
Zambia and Zimbabwe), can bring major economic
Fig. 5.10 Skogarfoss, Iceland
benefits to an area. They create beautiful scenery, which
encourages the development of the local tourist industry.
This can lead to employment for local people in hotels,
transport and tour companies, as well as providing a
market for local produce and handicrafts.
The massive power of large waterfalls can also be used Soft rock
to create hydroelectric power (see Chapter 11). These
HEP schemes then attract even more development (a
regional multiplier effect). Economic development then Plunge pool

often becomes concentrated at the location of a waterfall

(e.g. at Niagara Falls on the US-Canadian border).
Collapse Waterfall retreats
However, waterfalls do have disadvantages as well. In upstream

particular, they cause problems with navigation - and

crossing the river may also be difficult.

(
).C ) Discussion point
Think about a river or rivers that you know from your own area
Waterfall
(particularly if they have waterfalls). What benefits and
disadvantages do they bring?
Gorge Original posit
Wi

RESEARCH Use books or the Internet to find an

example of a large waterfall on one of the world’s major
rivers.
1 Explain, with diagrams, how the waterfall formed.
2 Describe the effect of the waterfall on the economy of
the surrounding area.
Fig. 5.11 The formation of a waterfall and also the formation of a
gorge by waterfall retreat
 <p «

Fig. 5.12 Interlocking spurs on the upper course of a river in the Western Cape, South Africa. Notice how the
Spurs prevent.a view along the valley floor. Contrast this with a river valley in its middle course (Fig. 5.13).

Interlocking spurs Draw a large simple sketch of Fig. 5.12. Add labels
In the upper course ofa river, where the valley is narrow, identifying the features of the valley.
spurs of land on either side of the valley force the river
to adopt a winding course around them.

The middle and lower courses of

a river
Further downstream, the river valley begins to change
shape. Usually, the whole valley widens - the slopes
become gentler and the valley floor becomes wider and
flatter. The gradient of the river also lessens. Fig. 5.13
is a typical example ofthe valley ofa river in its middle
course.
Vertical erosion becomes less important in the middle
course of a river, and lateral (sideways) erosion and
deposition start to take over. In the lower course, vertical
erosion may stop altogether.

Fig. 5.13 The valley of a river in its middle course

in Cumbria, northern England

Fig. 5.14 The lower course of a river in

the Northern Territory, Australia
Ma 5 River processes and landforms |d @ = ——

Meanders and oxbow lakes

Meanders are sweeping bends in a river, which tend to occur in its
middle and lower courses, as shown in Fig. 5.14. They are natural
features, which form as a result of both erosion and deposition.

@... water in a river flows naturally in a corkscrew pattern. This is called O qorieccc erosion sometimes creates a narrow neck
helical flow. between two meanders (X). Eventually, the neck is cut
through at, and the river creates a new channel for itself
across the neck of the meander (an easier route for the
water). The old meander then becomes an oxbow lake (Z)
when deposition seals the ends - completely separating it
from the river.

© ica flow sends the river's energy to the sides (laterally).

The fastest current is forced to the outer bend (A), where it
undercuts and erodes the bank to form a river cliff.

The helical flow then transports sediment from (A) across the
channel to the inner bank (B), or slip-off slope, where the
slower-moving water deposits it to form a point bar.

Fig. 5.16 A river meander. Notice the gravel deposited on the inner
bank of the river (left side of the photograph). Erosion will occur at
Fig. 5.15 The formation of a meander, slip-off slope and river cliff the outer bank (right side of the photograph).
Flood plains and levées Flood plain
A flood plain is the flat land next to a river which is
liable to flood - sometimes every year, sometimes once
in 10 years, sometimes once in 100 years. The flood
plain could be less than 100 metres across in the case
of smaller rivers, but more than 100 kilometres across
in the world’s largest river valleys. Flood plains are often
marshy and poorly drained. Occasionally, the river
flows above the level of the surrounding flood plain but
is enclosed by raised embankments, or levées.
Three types of deposition help to build up the flood = _ Bedrock
plain: tae
Fig. 5.17 The valley of a river in its lower course
* the deposition of point bars on the insides of meanders
(see page 128). These deposits are spread across the
valley as the meanders migrate - both sideways and
downstream
2 sire . River
*) the deposition of gravel on the river bed (part of the
bed load) Deposition on banks
when river overflows Flood plain
*) the deposition of fine silt and mud (part of the
suspension load) on the flood plain itself, when the
river overflows its banks during floods.
Levées are formed naturally when the river floods.
When the water overflows the river channel, it slows
down (loses energy). As a result, the coarsest part of the
river’s load is deposited close to the channel - making
the banks naturally higher. However, during normal
flows, the river deposits material from its load on the
river bed within the channel - causing the bed to be _ Fig. 5.18 How levées form
higher than the surrounding flood plain (see Fig. 5.18).
Often, natural levées are raised or strengthened in an
attempt to stop flooding. Sometimes, artificial
embankments are built, but they should not be confused
with naturally formed levées.

Deltas
A delta is an area of low-lying, flat, marshy land where
a river meets the sea or a lake. There are often lakes or
lagoons within the delta. The river channel divides into
distributaries, which re-join to form a braided drainage
pattern. The Greek letter D is delta, which describes
the shape of a river delta.
Deltas form when a river carrying its load (mostly mud
and silt*by this stage) meets the still water of a sea or
lake. The loss of velocity (energy) leads to the deposition
of the river’s remaining load, which builds up gradually
to form the delta. Over time, the delta expands out into
the sea or lake. Continued deposition blocks the river’s &
main channel, which then leads to the formation of Fig. 5.19 A lake delta in the right foreground of the photograph.
distributaries. Notice how low and flat the land is.
| 5 River processes and landforms |: @ ee

Draw a sketch of Fig. 5.14. Add the following

labels: flood plain, meander, site of erosion, site
of deposition, site of a future cut-off, future
oxbow lake.
Draw a cross-section of a river channel in its
middle or lower course. Label on it fast flow, slow
flow, slip-off slope, river cliff.
Explain the meaning of the terms levée, flood
plain, delta, distributary.
Copy and complete Table 5.2. Decide whether
the features listed are formed by erosion or
deposition and place a tick in the correct
column. Low, flat land

Landform Formed by erosion Formed by

Sea or lake
deposition
Pothole
Levée Fig. 5.20 A river delta
Rapids
Flood plain &
Waterfall LEARNING TIP Remember that tributaries are
smaller rivers that join with larger rivers. Sometimes
Dellg examination candidates think that a tributary flows away
Gorge from the main river, which is not correct.
Interlocking spurs

Table 5.2 Features formed by erosion or deposition

Upper course Middle course Lower course

@ LEARNING TIP Remember that the formation of

meanders and oxbow lakes is partly by erosion and partly
by deposition.

The long profile of a river Long —e Steep long ¢ Profile © Gentle long
profile i i
The long profile of a river is a line drawn from the source
: ; e pine
Rapids oe
gentle aod
of the river to the mouth, showing how the gradient ® Waterfalls
changes. A typical long profile is steep in the upper © bales
course with waterfalls, rapids and lakes, and more gentle
and smooth in the lower course. Over time, erosion and
deposition remove irregularities in the profile, making
it smooth and concave.

6 a List the landforms which are common.in the Cross ¢ Cross profile * Cross profile © Cross profile is
upper course of a river. profile steep and more gentle very gentle
: : V-shaped © Flood plain © Wi
b List the landforms which are common in the ms P i ee ies
ewer course ora river Valley floor beginning to plain
: narrow or develop
non-existent © Cross profile is

)CO). Discussion point satiaees :

You have learned a lot about the landforms that result from with river cliffs
erosion and deposition by rivers. How long do you think these and slip-off
features take to form? Do they form slowly and gradually, or do slopes
occasional major events play a part?
Table 5.3 the long and cross profiles of a river valley
Living in river flood plains and Flooding
deltas The discharge of a river is the volume of water flowing
These are often some of the most densely populated down the river at any one time. It is measured in cubic
areas on the planet. This is because they offer great metres per second. When the discharge can no longer
advantages for settlement, including: be contained within the channel, the river overflows
and floods the surrounding area.
> flat land which makes it easy to build roads and
settlements and carry out agriculture From rain to river
How does the water get into a river in the first place?
*> soils that are often mineral-rich and fertile, due to
When it rains, very little falls directly into the river
the silt and mud deposited by the river during floods
itself - most of it falls elsewhere. Fig. 5.22 shows what
(alluvium) - so agriculture is profitable
happens next.
> river valleys that are often natural route ways
* rivers which may be navigable (allowing transport
and trade), plus they provide water for drinking and
other uses, as well as fish for food

There is a case study about Bangladesh in Chapter 1

(page 13) that discusses these issues.
However, flood plains and deltas also present problems
for human activity:
*) Inthe Tropics, these areas often suffer from diseases
carried by insect pests, such as malaria (mosquitoes)
and sleeping sickness (tsetse flies).
> In all climatic zones, flood plains and deltas are
liable to flooding. The dense population can make
the effects of the flooding particularly severe.

5 Some water continues |”

into solid rock to form |.
groundwater. This flows |
1 Leaves and branches
slowly as groundwater
catch rain. This is called
flow.
interception.
6 A mixture of surface
2 If ground is hard or
run-off, throughflow and
very wet, rain flows
overground. This is
called surface run-off.

3 Rain soaks into the

ground. This is called
infiltration.

4 Some water flows

through the soil as
throughflow.

Permeable rock (allows Impermeable rock (water

water to infiltrate) cannot infiltrate)

Fig. 5.22 How water reaches a river

Factors affecting discharge
Fig. 5.22 shows how water gets into a river. But the
volume of water in a river can change due to the factors
outlined here.

Rainfall
The amount and type of rainfall will affect a river’s discharge:
Weather conditions
> Antecedent rainfall is rain that has already happened. : ©) High temperatures increase
It can mean that the ground has become saturated. Further _ evaporation rates from water
rain will then flow as surface run-off towards the river. | surfaces, and transpiration from
plants - reducing discharge.
©) Heavy continual rain, or melting snow, means more water
flowing into the river. =) Long periods of extreme cold
weather can lead to frozen ground,
so that water can’t soak in.
Relief
Steep slopes mean that rainwater is
likely to run straight over the surface
before it can infiltrate. On more gentle
slopes, infiltration is more likely.
Rock and soil type
*) Permeable rocks and soils (such
as sandy soils) absorb water easily,
" so surface run-off is rare.
Land use
> Inurbanareas, surfaces like roads are impermeable - water : = Impermeable rocks and soils
can't soak into the ground. Instead, it runs into drains, | (such as clay soils) are more closely
gathers speed and joins rainwater from other drains - packed. Rainwater can’t infiltrate,
eventually spilling into the river. so water reaches the river more
© In rural areas, ploughing up and down (instead of across) quicldy.
hillsides creates channels which allow rainwater to reach ©) Permeable rocks (like limestone)
rivers faster - increasing discharge. allow water to pass through joints
> Deforestation means less interception, so rain reaches the 4
in the rock, and porous rocks (like
ground faster. The ground is likely to become saturated and chalk) have spaces between the
surface run-off will increase. rock particles.

Hydrographs 50 Peak discharge

A flood or storm hydrograph is a graph showing how a
river responds to a particular storm. It shows rainfall
and discharge (see Fig. 5.23). When it rains, it takes a second
per
while for water to reach the river (as shown in Fig. 5.22).
Once water does enter the river, discharge increases.
cubic
in
Discharge
This is shown by the rising limb on the graph. The gap
between the peak (maximum) rainfall and peak discharge
(highest river level) is called the lag time.
metres
=nmokRO
Changes to land use can mean that water gets into the Rainfall
(mm) Qoooce
river faster. This makes the lag time shorter, the rising Time (hours)
limb steeper, and the peak discharge higher. Fig. 5.23 A storm hydrograph
The following two case studies describe floods in very
different parts of the world - inan LEDC and an MEDC.
The effects of the two floods, and people’s responses to
the flooding, were very different.
CASE STUDY

The 2010 floods in Pakistan (an LEDC)

Despair of Pakistan’s flood victims

Liaqat Babar is a farmer from Sindh, in southern Pakistan. The
catastrophic floods of 2010 brought hunger, loss and torment to
his family. ‘When | see my kids, | feel like killing myself,’ he says.
‘They are crying out for food.’

Liaqat queued for hours — under a blistering hot sun — waiting for
food to be handed out in the town of Daur. Like many other Pakistani
towns, Daur was cut off by the floodwaters, so food had to be
brought in by helicopter. But the single helicopter that arrived
didn’t have enough food for all the people waiting. And Liaqat was
forced to leave with nothing.

Fig. 5.24 Adapted from an article about the 2010 Pakistan floods

The Pakistan floods ETON

TO
At the end of July 2010, unusually heavy monsoon rains Continuing heavy rain hampered the rescue efforts. After
in northwest Pakistan caused rivers to flood and burst their _ visiting Pakistan, the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon,
banks. The map shows the huge area of Pakistan affected said that this disaster was worse than anything he had
by flooding, and the graphs show how the floodwaters ever seen.
gradually moved down the Indus River towards the sea.

Tarbela Dam Chashma Barrage

1.2m 1.2m

0 0
28 July 13 Aug 28 July 13 Aug

Taunsa Barrage Guddu Barrage

O 0
28 July 13 Aug 28 July 13 Aug

| Key
[-] Moderately affected districts
[4 Severely affected districts
|B Flood areas

Fig. 5.25 The extent of Pakistan’s floods in 2010 >)

EEE a === 8 = gE KZ | 88 FE E-
 5 River processes and landforms

The effects of the floods

*> At least 1600 people died.

7) More than 20 million Pakistanis were

affected (over 10% of the population),
and 6 million needed food aid.

*) Whole villages were swept away, and

over 700 000 homes were damaged
or destroyed.

7) Hundreds of thousands of Pakistanis

were displaced, and many suffered
from malnutrition and a lack of clean
water.

*> About 5000 miles of roads and

railways were washed away, along
with 1000 bridges.
Fig. 5.26 The floods destroyed everything in this village
7) About 160 000 square kilometres of land were affected.
That’s at least 20% of the country.

*> About 6.5 million acres of crops were washed away in

Punjab and Sindh provinces.

7) Punjab, alone, needed US$1.3 billion for immediate

relief and the short-term repair of roads, dykes, the
electricity network and the irrigation system.

=) Three months after the flood, 7 million Pakistanis still

had no proper shelter.

Responses to the floods

*) Appeals were immediately launched by international
organisations, like the UK’s Disasters Emergency
Committee — and the UN — to help Pakistanis hit by
the floods.

7) Many charities and aid agencies provided help, including

the Red Crescent and Médecins Sans Frontiéres.

7) Pakistan’s government also tried to raise money to

help the huge number of people affected.

*> Butthere were complaints that the Pakistan government

was slow to respond to the crisis, and that it struggled
to cope.

*> Foreign governments donated millions of dollars, and

Saudi Arabia and the USA promised $600 million in
flood aid. But many people felt that the richer foreign = a

governments didn’t do enough to help. Fig. 5.27 Pakistani soldiers loading up relief supplies {

=) The UN’s World Food Programme provided crucial food

aid. But, by November 2010, they were warning that
they might have to cut the amount of food handed out,
because of a lack of donations from richer countries. {
).O). Discussion point
*) Pakistan asked the World Bank and the Asian Development All river flood plains flood from time to time. That’s why they
Bank to work out the total cost of the damage. get their name! It could be every year or once every 50
years. How easy is it to predict major floods from rivers? If
floods can be predicted, what can be done about them?

134
CASE STUDY

The 2011 floods in Queensland,

Australia (an MEDC)
The state of Queensland is located in north-eastern
Australia. It covers an area of 1.73 million square kilometres,
and mining and cattle ranching are important industries
there. Queensland has a largely tropical climate, and its
coastal regions include the Great Barrier Reef (a World
Heritage Site). It is always prone to flooding in the summer
months, but the floods of December 2010 and January
2011 were particularly severe. The state capital, Brisbane,
experienced its wettest December since 1859.

The causes of the floods

=) The floods were the result of heavy rainfall caused by
tropical cyclone Tasha, combined with the La Nina
weather pattern (which brings wetter conditions to
eastern Australia).

=> On 24 December, a low-pressure system crossed the

coast from the Coral Sea, bringing torrential rain. The
main rivers affected by flooding were the Fitzroy River,
the Burnett River and the Condamine/Balonne Rivers
(plus their tributaries). The upper courses of these
rivers are in the Great Dividing Range mountains. The
steep mountain slopes caused the rainfall to run off } 1 Fitzroy River 3 Condamine/Balonne River
quickly into the rivers. | 2 Burnett River 4 Brisbane River

> On 10 January, heavy rainfall occurred further south.

‘This caused flooding in the state capital of Brisbane,
as well as in Toowoomba.

>> The affected rivers collect water from very large areas. Key
For example, the Fitzroy River drains an area of Rainfall in mm
142 665 square kilometres — which can mean a lot of
discharge.

=> The lower courses of the rivers have broad coastal

flood plains, on which towns like Rockhampton have
been built (increasing the amount of impermeable
surfaces like roads).

Remember the flood hydrograph on page 132. To make

the hydrograph steep, there needs to be heavy rainfall,
steep slopes and impermeable surfaces. All these factors
came together in Queensland. The large amounts of rainfall
ran off the steep slopes quickly to reach the rivers. The
amount of discharge of the rivers was greater than the
capacity of the river channels and they overflowed.

Queensland |

~
Fig. 5.29 Rainfall in part of Queensland in December 2010 (data
from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology) New South Wales
 5 River processes and landforms

The effects of the floods The residents of Condamine were forced to evacuate
> Twenty-six people were definitely killed and another 28 the town on 30 December. The Condamine River reached
were missing presumed killed. a peak of 14.25 metres on 30 December (the highest
level ever recorded there).
More than 20 towns were cut off or flooded, including
Rockhampton, Emerald and Warwick. Over 200 OOO In Brisbane, more than 30 000 homes and businesses
people were affected. were flooded, and a similar number were left without
electricity.
Even though Rockhampton had nearly a week to prepare
for the flood peak on the Fitzroy River (which flows Police urged people to stay out of the snake-infested
through the centre of the city), 75 OOO people were waters, and warned that flooded houses could be
still affected when the river peaked 9 metres above occupied by snakes and crocodiles.
normal.
The Goonyella railway line, which services a number
Emerald was cut off by road on 29 December, as the of coalmines, was closed for a week (and shipments
Nogoa River rose. By the following day, the river had of grain were also delayed). At the state’s coalfield,
surpassed the 2008 flood peak level of 15.36 metres. which supply half of the world’s coking coal (needed
At its height, 80% of the town was flooded — more than for manufacturing steel) 75% of operations were halted.
1000 homes. It was the worst flooding that Emerald The port of Gladstone reduced its export capacity
had ever experienced. By 3 January, the city’s air, road because the coal stockpiles at the port were saturated
and rail links to the rest of Australia had all been cut. and further coal deliveries could not be made by rail.

Gayndah and Mundubbera saw major flooding on The flood crisis also had a huge impact on the region’s
28-29 December. Both towns were isolated for several wheat and sugar production.
days and there was major disruption to the drinking
The state treasurer of Queensland, Andrew Fraser,
water supply and local agricultural production.
said: ‘The cost to the state will be huge — in direct
Bundaberg experienced severe flooding — the worst in costs, such as rebuilding roads and other damaged
4O years — after the Burnett River flooded the city. infrastructure, and providing relief payments to families
Floodwater forced 300 households to leave their homes. — but also in lost income while the mining, agriculture
Chinchilla and Jericho were also inundated. and tourism sectors recover.’

Fig. 5.30 Flooding in Rockhampton, Quee

136
 The responses to the floods Rockhampton’s airport was closed, supplies continued
*) Some towns were evacuated and
temporary to be delivered to the city by military helicopter and
accommodation was provided for the evacuees. The barge.
Australian military helped by transporting residents by
Food supplies to northern Queensland were badly
helicopter to evacuation centres.
disrupted and some food had to be transported to
*) In Emerald, a metal flood barrier was built around the Townsville by ship.
airport terminal to prevent flood-borne debris from
Emergency teams set up a ‘tactical medical centre’
causing damage to the structure. An evacuation centre
with dozens of tents at the small airport in the coal
was set up at the Central Queensland University.
port of Gladstone, 100 kilometres south of Rockhampton.
=) Drinking water (112 500 litres) had to be transported
The Prime Minister of Australia, Julia Gillard, toured
to the town of Dalby for the 14 000 residents.
flood-affected areas on 31 December. The day before,
>> Operators at the Wivenhoe Dam opened all five flood Queen Elizabeth || sent the Governor of Queensland,
gates to prevent further flooding. Penelope Wensley, her expressions of concern and
sympathy for the victims of the floods. The US Secretary
>> Around 80 military personnel were engaged in flood-
of State, Hillary Clinton, said: ‘Australia is an important
relief activities. A Hercules military aircraft was used
partner and close friend of the United States and we
to transport supplies to Rockhampton. When
stand ready to provide assistance.’

a_ What were the causes of the flooding in the two The River Nile is a good example of river landforms.
case studies? Using page 77 of the Oxford International Student’s
b. Describe the differences in the effects of the Atlas, or any other atlas, draw a sketch map showing
flooding in these case studies from an LEDC and the coastline of Africa and the course of the river
an MEDC. Nile and its main tributaries. Add the following
labels to your sketch map: Nile delta, lower course
c Describe the differences in the responses to the
in the tropical desert, upper course in the highlands
flooding in the two case studies.
of Ethiopia, upper course in DR Congo and Uganda,
the cataracts (rapids) and the Owen Falls (waterfall).

Flood prevention and defences

Planting vegetation _, %\*' Artificial levées ~
Planting vegetation, such as trees, in the area drained These increase the capacity of the channel, just like
by a river works in two ways. The trees take in rainwater dredging. Usually the banks are strengthened, for
through their roots and lose it by transpiration, so it example with concrete or stone, so that they are less
does not reach the river. Vegetation also acts like a likely to break. a
sponge, intercepting the rainwater and releasing it
slowly, so that flood peaks are reduced. Bridge design~
~\ Bridges with wide pillars and walls on top act like dams,
Reservoirs —/ which hold back the water and allow it to spread. Modern
Water can be trapped in reservoirs on the tributaries bridges are slim and streamlined to prevent this
and then released slowly over a longer period of time. happening.
SS
Straightening the channel ~ Wash lands ~ ~
This shortens the river and gets the water away faster. Because floods cannot be completely prevented, land
oo
3
use on flood plains should be carefully controlled.
Dredging the channel ~~ Ideally, residential land use should be prevented and
Making the channel deeper increases its capacity and these areas used for things such as recreation. The flood
makes it less likely to overflow. waters can then be channelled into areas where the
damage will be less.
SSoS SS
 Explaining waves
Freak waves can be caused by movements of the seabed
during earthquakes, or by very large ships passing too
quickly near the coast, but most waves result from
friction between the wind and the surface of the sea.
_ This causes part of the sea to rise at right angles to the
wind. Seen from above, the resulting wave is long and
narrow. The wave form increases in height as it is driven
forward by the wind.
The size of a wave depends on:
Introducing the coast > the wind speed
=> The coast is a zone where the land meets the sea.
a»

> the length of time during which the wind blows in

> The coastline (the outline of the edge of the land the same direction
on a map) follows the mean high water mark ona ©» the length of sea over which the wind blows (the
lowland coast, and the foot of cliffs on a steeply fetch of the wave). The greater these factors are, the
sloping coast. bigger the wave.
> The sea rises to high tide (high water mark) and Hawaii is famous for its big waves - some are more than
falls to low tide (low water mark) normally twice a 20 metres high. Sometimes they are formed by storms
day. This results in the high and low water marks. that occur far away from where the waves eventually
This tidal range varies both from coast to coast and breakon to the shore. An example is the North Pacific
with the time of year. Swell that reaches Hawaii on some winter days. The
> The area between the lowest tide level and the highest wind in Hawaii might be very light when these large
point reached by storm waves is known as the shore. waves arrive at its coast.

> The tide’s only importance in the formation of coastal

landforms is in controlling how high and low the
waves can work. It is the action of
waves that produces the
coastal features.

HAWAII
Sas
North Pacific
Ocean

Equator.

.
Bee

Fig. 6.1 Influences on the waves that reach Hawaii

© MMMBML oearine processes andlandforms F.@
A boat with its engine switched off bobs up and down > The wave length is the distance between two wave
as a wave passes beneath it - but it does not move towards crests.
the shore. This is because only the wave form moves
> The wave height is the difference between the
beneath it (see Fig. 6.2):
height of a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough.
»> Each water particle moves ina vertical circle to form
Water particles can no longer move in a circular manner
the wave.
when the wave reaches shallow water, so the wave
=> As water rises, it forms the wave crest. As it falls, it breaks
forms the wave trough.
Fig. 6.2 The terms used to
Wave crest Wave crest
Wave length describe waves

Wave height

Key
—-»> Movement of individual
water particles

Out at sea, the wind tugs When a wave moves into From this moment on, the
at the surface of the water, shallow water near the water moves forward.
causing the wave shape coast, it is distorted until
or form to move. it ‘breaks’.

Water rushes up the

beach - this is called
the swash.

_ And then it drains back

down the beach - this
is called the backwash.

Fig. 6.3 The effect on waves of entering shallow water

Marine processes - work carried

out by movements of the sea

Why do some waves erode and others

deposit material?

Destructive waves Breaking wave

Waves that have a weak swash and plunges
Waves close Steep
a strong backwash pull sand and downwards
together beach
pebbles back down the beach when Steep wave
front
the water retreats. They are called
destructive waves, because they
remove material from the beach. They
are often steep, high waves that are
close together and crash down on to
the beach. If you were counting them, —__—_—_—
they would be coming in very quickly
- 10 to 15 every minute. Another
name for them is ‘plunging waves’.
Fig. 6.4a Destructive waves - erosion
 Constructive waves
Waves that have a very strong swash Breaking wave
and a weak backwash are known as Gently sloping spills forward
Wave crests far apart
constructive waves, because they wave front
build up the beach. They push sand
and pebbles up the beach and leave
Pa :
them behind when the water retreats, = i

because the backwash is not strong oe

ec i. Strong swash Dusies
@ Cole beccs
=
enough to remove them. They are | sand and even pebbles ge
often low waves with a longer time up the beach
between them. As they break, they
Spill up the beach, so they’re also Fig. 6.4b Constructive waves - deposition
known as ‘spilling waves’. They come
in at a rate of 6-8 every minute.

LO). Discussion point

Some students have never been able to stand
in the sea and feel the power of waves
washing in and out. If you have experienced
the force of waves at the coast, tell your
classmates what they were like and how
powerful they felt.
Why should people relaxing at the coast
always keep an eye on the sea?

Oamaru is located on an exposed straight stretch of the east

coast of New Zealand’s South Island. The headland in the background
of the photo can only give shelter when the winds come from the
south-east. Destructive waves are being driven by strong winds
approaching from the east, over a very long fetch. The waves are
plunging and digging down at the sand. The swash is small and the
backwash powerful. :

Fig. 6.5 Destructive waves attacking the coast of New Zealand just south of Oamaru

The waves in this photo are in a sheltered bay. Note

that the wave crests are a greater distance apart. The
swash has moved a long way up the beach and the
backwash is sinking into the porous sand, so it is weak.
These waves have a much lower height and the beach
has a very gentle gradient.

Fig. 6.6 Constructive waves on Zihuatanejo Beach on the west coast of Mexico
Marine erosion
The processes of marine erosion (see Fig.
d ‘ : oe Lage rocks, called
6.7) are like the processes of river erosion. - Egaciment are trewa
The effects of attrition are increased the | eon tp dst
further the distance and the longer the time | Water is forced into hi cneveeniemae
: . an cracks in the rock. Sey yA ee
period over which materialismoved bythe | 4), compresses the _ bits of rock off. This
waves. An angular boulder will eventually | air inside. When the wave _ is called corrasion.
be broken down into small, round grains of retreats, the compressed penance iy
sand (composed of the very tough mineral a oe
: ‘ _ force the rock apart.
quartz), which are very resistant to further | This is called hydraulic
breakdown. Rounded beach material of action.
intermediate size between boulders and
sand is known as shingle.

@ LEARNING TIP When writing the

terms ‘corrasion’ and ‘corrosion’, be sure to
make the ‘a’ and ‘o’ clear, so that your meaning
is clear.

There is another process of erosion - called corrosion. This

happens when seawater dissolves material from the rock. It Loose sediment knocked off the cliff by hydraulic
q : action and abrasion is swirled around by the waves. It
happens along limestone and chalk coasts, when calcium constantly collides with other sediment, and gradually
carbonate is dissolved. gets worn down into smaller and rounder sediment.
This is called attrition.

Fig. 6.7 The processes of marine erosion

Marine transportation
The sea transports the load or sediment that it obtains
by erosion in the same ways that a river does.

ion — Dissolved material is carried

solution, so youcan’tseeit,
= eo TS

when one pebb

_ it to bounce. T

Fig. 6.8 The processes of marine transportation

As well as being moved up and downa beach, sediment
can also be moved along it - if the incoming waves are @ LEARNING TIP The prevailing wind is not always
driven by onshore winds at an oblique angle to the responsible for the direction of longshore drift. In some
coast. This movement of sediment along a beach is locations, the strongest winds - known as dominant winds
called longshore drift (see Fig. 6.9). - approach from a different direction. Many spits are
recurved, or hooked, as a result of material being moved
On coasts where longshore drift occurs mainly in one
in two directions.
direction, beach sediment is transported further down
the coast. If an obstruction prevents its replacement
from further up the coast, the beach will be depleted.
This causes two problems for the local authorities: J)
LEARNING TIP Do not confuse longshore currents
The smaller beach is less attractive to tourists, causing
offshore with longshore drift, which has a much greater
a loss of income. influence on coasts. Longshore currents are alsodifferent
It removes the protection from erosion that the beach from the major ocean currents that circulate in the oceans.
provides for cliffs.
To counter this, some local authorities put barriers
called groynes at right angles to the beach - to trap the J)
sediment and reduce longshore drift (see Fig. 6.11). LEARNING TIP Longshore drift does not form
landforms. It supplies the sediment for the process of
Material may also be moved along some coasts in the id
deposition to form them.
offshore zone by longshore currents. These are like
rivers of water moving through the sea along the coast.

A Oblique onshore winds drive the wave

crest at an angle to the shore.

B The swash of the wave carries the

pebble at an oblique angle up the beach.

C The backwash of the wave brings the

pebble straight down the beach under the
influence of gravity. As this process is
‘, repeated, the pebble is moved along the
beach. The direction of longshore drift is
from left to right in this example.

Fig. 6.9 The process of longshore drift Pebble —~~— Wave crest
—> Movement of pebble 1-7 Successive positions
of the pebble
m= Onshore wind

Fig. 6.10 Waves breaking on a shingle beach Fig. 6.11 Groynes on a sand and shingle beach
ce oes
 6 Marine processes and landforms E:
waite=

Was longshore drift moving material to the left or

the right of the photograph when Fig. 6.10 was
@ LEARNING TIP Do not confuse tsunami with normal
taken? What is the evidence for your answer? marine processes. They are exceptional freak waves caused
Describe the waves in Fig. 6.11. by sudden movements of the seabed due to earthquakes.

What evidence is there in Fig. 6.11 that the

groynes are being successful in reducing
longshore drift?
Why might a local authority further down the Landforms formed by marine erosion
coast be concerned about these groynes?
Cliffs and wave-cut platforms
What evidence is there in both photographs that,
as rivers do, the sea sorts material during Cliffs are vertical or steeply sloping rocks. The angle of
deposition. their slope depends on the nature of the rocks that form
How is the slope of a beach related to the size of them, and also the amount and ferocity of wave attack
asm tied tclarelica at their bases. Many cliffs have an indentation - called
a wave-cut notch - at about the high-tide level, where
wave attack has undercut the rock.

Marine deposition
When the strong swash of a constructive wave moves
up a beach, it carries sand or shingle with it.

> The largest material is deposited at the upper limit

reached by the swash.
The backwash then carries smaller material back
down the beach - but it progressively loses water,
and therefore energy, as it does so. This is because
a beach is very porous - water passes down through
spaces between the individual beach particles. The
flow of the backwash is weakened as a result, until
it can only carry only the lightest material.
Consequently, as the backwash weakens as it flows
back towards the sea and gets weaker, it deposits shingle
and sand particles of progressively smaller size.
The material on a beach is, therefore, sorted by wave
deposition - the largest shingle is deposited at the
top of the beach and the finest sand is deposited
near the sea. The smallest mud particles settle in
the low-energy environment offshore.
When a storm occurs at the time of the highest tides,
large shingle is tossed above the usual high tide level
to form a ridge at the top of the beach.
Landforms formed by marine
processes
Every coast is unique, because its features depend on
the nature of the local rock, the processes acting upon
it, and how long they have been operating. However,
there are relatively few different types of coastal landform,
but they occur frequently.
Fig. 6.12 An undercut cliff made from layers of sedimentary rock,
with fallen blocks of rock at its base. In this cliff (at Burton
Bradstock, England), less resistant sandstone layers have been worn
back more than more resistant layers cemented with calcite.
Waves continue to attack the base of the cliff until the Look at an atlas map of South Africa and note how
rock above becomes unsupported and collapses. This exposed the headland called the Cape of Good Hope
process continues and the cliff is steadily worn back. is. Fig 6.15 shows the wave-cut platform nearest to the
The retreat of the cliff leaves a wave-cut platform clifflittered with boulders broken from the cliff face by
where the cliff once stood, Vig, 6.13 shows alow cliff at destructive waves. The boulders have been shaped by
Cape lown in South Africa, with a wave-cut platform different amounts of attrition.
int front of it

ee
COP Annes ti BE,

Fig, 6.12 A low cliff and wave-cut platform at Cape Town, Fig. 6.15 The cliff and wave-cut platform at the Cape of Good Hope
South Africa

Wave-cut platforms extend between the low-water mark

and the cliff base at the high-water mark. They slope
gently towards the sea and may have rock pools eroded
into them at weak points. These solid rock platforms
are often covered with debris eroded from the cliffs.

hy ‘a

28 ‘Drow Ga

Hightide
level

7
,
a Dlatforrn \ Low-tide
jeve)

Fig. 6.16 The outer edge of the wave-cut platform at the Cape of
Good Hope
Fig. 6.14 The formation of a wave-cut platform
 6 Marine processes and landforms }: Disb aN oa boa 1 cco

The profile ofa cliff varies according to the nature and

dip of the rocks which form it (see Figs. 6.12, 6.15, 6.17
and 6.18).

Compare the cliff profile at the Cape of Good

Hope (Fig. 6.15) with the one in Fig. 6.17.
Suggest why they are different.
What was the state of the tide when Fig. 6.16
and Fig. 6.18 were taken? Give a reason for your
answer.
What type of wave is breaking in Fig. 6.16?
Describe the wave-cut platform at the Cape of
Good Hope.

Headlands and bays

Coastlines with alternate hard and soft rocks consist
of a series of headlands and bays.
Fig. 6.17 The base of the cliff below the red rock is a soft rock. The
A headland: ete
rock layers are horizontal, so the cliff profile is vertical.
> projects out into the sea.
> is usually longer than its breadth
has sides which form cliffs.
A bay usually has:
an approximately semi-circular shape of sea extending
into the land
a wide, open entrance from the sea
>) land behind it that is lower than the headlands on
either side.

Headlands and bays form most readily on discordant

coasts, where different types of rock lie at right angles
to the sea and are subjected to differential erosion. The Fig. 6.18 Here the rock layers dip steeply away from the sea, so the
soft rocks are more easily eroded than the hard rocks, cliff profile slopes more gently. Rock pools are visible in the extensive
so they are worn back more quickly to form bays. The @¥@Cut Beeea
hard rocks resist erosion and form headlands, which
protrude out into the sea between the bays.
Active undercutting at the base ofa cliffkeeps it vertical.
When this ceases, the slope becomes less steep as
weathering and sub-aerial erosion become dominant. ek off
headland

Sea

Soft rock

Sand or shingle

Fig. 6.19 A discordant coast

Caves, arches and stacks
As oblique waves enter shallow water,
they tend to turn so that their crests are
parallel to the coast. This is known as
wave refraction. Waves can be seen
refracting around the headland and bay
in Fig. 6.20.

This refraction concentrates wave attack

on all sides of the headland. Any line of
weakness in the rocks is then subjected
to hydraulic action and corrasion - forming
caves and narrow inlets and, eventually,
arches and stacks.
If the rock contains soluble minerals,
corrosion will also weaken the rock.

Arches and stacks are most common on

discordant coasts. They are rarer on
concordant coasts, where the rock layers
are parallel to the sea.

Fig. 6.20 Wave refraction on a headland and bay coast on the island of St. Kitts in the
Caribbean Sea

Headland

Fig. 6.21 How caves, arches and stacks form

CASE STUDY
The Bay of Islands, New Zealand maps. Although now located a considerable distance from
1 . . .

The Bay of Islands is on the north-east coast of New _ the headland, itis in fact a stack.
Zealand’s North Island. Cape Brett is the bounding headland Fig 6.22 shows a major joint being widened at and above
on the south side. sea level! by corrasion and hydraulic action. Fig. 6.23,
All the photographs in this case study were taken on one taken nearby, shows a later stage in the erosion process.
rocky island — Piercy Island — in this bay with many islands. A sizeable cave, known as the Grand Cathedral Cave, has

Piercy Island, which lies at the seaward end of the bay (off been formed.
Cape Brett), is too small to be included on most atlas
Ms 6 Marine processes and landforms @

RATTAN
AATNT
TTT

NA
LLL

saa —

Fig. 6.23 A larger cave has formed

Both islands were once part of a long headland, which is

now eroded back to a position to the right (off the photograph).
Stacks have steep or vertical sides and, if the rock strata
are horizontal, have flat tops. Otherwise the top is pointed,
like the stack in Fig. 6.24.

The whole of Piercy Island is made from the white rock These landforms have been a boost to the tourist industry
seen on both of the above photographs. This rock is of the Bay of Islands. Several companies specialise in
limestone, which is composed of calcium carbonate that boat trips taking people to circle Piercy Island. If the tide
becomes soluble in slightly acidic water. As a result, not and waves allow it, the boat even passes through the 70-
only have corrasion and hydraulic action formed this cave, metre-long arch —an experience described as ‘going through
but corrosion (solution) is also playing a very important the eye of the needle’. All of the photographs in this case
part in enlarging it: study were taken on one of these boat trips.

*) When big waves break inside the cave and their spray
hits the roof (especially at high tide), solution readily
OcCUIS.

~ The roof of the cave then becomes weak (as solution

widens joints in it) and eventually blocks of rock fall
off.

*) Corrosion also attacks the steep inside walls of the

cave.

> As Fig 6.23 shows, the cave is now much wider inside
than it is at the entrance — as a result of corrosion.

Two caves previously formed on opposite sides of the

island — along a major line of weakness. These caves
eventually met up to form the arch in Fig. 6.24. A stack
can also be seen to the right of this arch. It was once
connected to the larger island by a second arch. However,
further erosion caused the roof of this arch to collapse
— leaving the stack as an isolated pillar of rock, surrounded
by sea.
 Fig. 6.25 About to go through the ‘eye of the needle’ Fig. 6.26 The arch is 70 metres long and the indentation in its
roof suggests that a vertical line of weakness is located there.
Trips to Piercy Island are often combined with dolphin
watching. The companies running these boat excursions
are very concerned to help sustain the local ecosystem
and protect the biodiversity of the bay. Among the measures
taken are placing bins on board for litter disposal and also
@ LEARNING TIP When answering questions that
discharging effluent at controlled sites on land, instead of require case study information, make sure that you name
at sea. They also use the most economical cruise speed and locate the study and also use place names to locate
to reduce fuel consumption and help conserve the world’s features within it where possible.
fuel resources.

The stacks and arch shown in Fig. 6.28 have formed at

Cabo San Lucas at the tip of the long peninsula known
as Baja California, in western Mexico. This is another
zp
exposed location where wave attack is strong, especially
when hurricanes track through. The end of the headland
is shown on the right of the photograph. Steep lines of
weakness are clearly visible in its rocks. At one time,
the three stacks would have been part of this headland. Ooo 40
Now they remain as the detached but most resistant km
parts of it.
Cabo San
FV ucas Bay
The Arch

Fig. 6.27 The location of the arch and stacks at Cabo San Lucas Bay
in western Mexico

@ LEARNING TIP When explaining the formation of

caves, arches or stacks, you must referto a line of weakness
- not a layer of soft rock - as the cause of them.

Fig. 6.28 The arch and stacks at Cabo San Lucas j 149
6 Marine processes and landforms |_
SRS SSS mr

CASE STUDY

Can cliff erosion be stopped? 7) By the end of December 2010, even more of the cliff
Pacifica is a settlement on the coast just south of San had fallen during storms — and a third of the apartment
Francisco in the USA. It is situated on top of a sandstone building was hanging over the ocean! The cliff had been
cliff, 27 metres above the Pacific Ocean. In the winter, eroded back by almost 7 metres in just a year.
waves approach from the south-west — driven by prevailing
south westerly winds that blow over an enormous fetch. The owner of apartments further down the road wanted a
very large sea wall to be built to deflect the incoming
In January 2010, two apartments in a block on the waves’ energy and prevent the cliff from continuing to
edge of the cliff were evacuated, due to cliff falls. erode back towards his apartments. However, this would
be a very costly project. Planners had to weigh this cost
Some attempts had already been made to slow down
against the value of what would be lost if it was not done.
the erosion ofthe cliff. Large boulders had been placed
at its base, to try to break the energy of the waves. Another way in which wave energy can be reduced is by
Engineers also tried to strengthen the cliff by reinforcing putting gabions at the base of the cliff. These are metal
baskets filled with stones. They can be used in a single
it and surfacing it.
layer, or piled up to form a wall. Gabions are a cheaper
However, by the end of April, people living in the last alternative to concrete sea walls.
four apartments had been forced to abandon their
homes, because a 3-metre section of cliff had been ).O), Discussion point
undermined — making the building unsafe.
Should owners of houses destroyed by cliff falls be able to
claim compensation from their government, because it
failed to protect the base of the cliff from erosion?
Landforms of coastal deposition
If you have access to Google Earth ona
Beaches eoracute look closely at some coasts. You may choose
Beaches are composed ofsand or shingle,orboth.When J those mentioned in this chapter or others. Try to look at
both sediments are present, the shingle forms a steep ff the Twelve Apostles on the coast ofVictoria, Australia. One
slope at the highest parts of the beach and the sand a_ |} of the stacks is 45 metres tall. Erosion has reduced their
gentle slope on the lower parts (as shown in Fig. 6.11). | number from 12 to 8. The Acapulco area of Mexico is also
On a purely sand beach, the coarse sand will be at the 4 worth looking at.
top and the finest particles will be by the sea.
All beach material has been eroded from further along
the coast and then transported by longshore drift. Often
sand is deposited in the relatively calm waters of a bay, | Consider the different ways in which countries with coasts }
or at the head of an inlet (see Fig. 6.30). have advantages over landlocked countries. What are the
disadvantages of coastlines? |
Some beaches are remarkably straight. One example,
is the beach that runs for much of the length of the
Pacific coast of Baja California (see Fig. 6.27).

Are coastal depositional processes beneficial or a disadvantage

for human activity, or both?
ST

The water in this long inlet is deep, so the beach has only formed at
the head of the inlet, where it is most sheltered and shallow. Beaches
like this tend to be semi-circular in plan, while beaches formed in bays
tend to have a crescent shape (like the one in Fig. 6.31).

Fig. 6.30 Cala ’n Porter Beach in Minorca

On this photograph, half of the crescent is hidden beneath the wall,

but the wet patch on the sand shows the extent covered by the long
swash. It is also possible to see how the waves fan out in the bay to
approach parallel to the shore. The backwash is moving down the beach
and two wave crests are about to push more sand up the beach.
4°

a note of place-names which locate the advantages and

| disadvantages of the coast. ; Fig. 6.31 Hout Bay beach, a crescent-shaped beach south of =. ~~
 CASE STUDY
Table Bay
Low cliff and wave-cut
platform (Fig. 6.13)
The features referred to above (and shown in Figs. 6.13,
6.15, 6.16 and 6.31) are all located on Fig. 6.32. This
coast is under almost constant wave attack. For most
of the year, winds are onshore from a westerly direction,
and the fetch from their origin is more than 2000 Atlantic
Ocean
kilometres.

Hout Bay
Crescentic bay and
beach (Fig. 6.31)

Groynes are often used to try to reduce beach erosion. a |

The other method is to add sand to the beach from an . i
area where Sand is plentiful. This appears to have been |
successful at Teluk Chempedak, a bay beach near
Kuantan on the east coast of Malaysia. The beach in False Bay
front of two five-star hotels there was replenished with :

nearly 180 OOO cubic metres of sand in 2004. That

replacement sand was still in place three years later. f

Cape of Good Hope : f

)C). Discussion point Cliff and wave-cut platform fy) 6 i
on headland (Figs. 6.15, 6.16) ee ae i
Should artificial alterations to a beach be subject to permission . km
from neighbouring coastal authorities?

3 Identify as many coastal features as possible on Fig.

6.33. Try to identify more than five.

Fig. 6.33 Landforms at a coast

Spits and bars
Straight coasts differ from bays in having straight ” Saltwater
beaches. They can be made of either sand or shingle, Change in “marsh _
coastline Ee
which has been moved along the coast by longshore
drift from the area where the sediment was eroded.
The material is deposited where the coast changes
direction, at a river mouth or bay. As deposition continues
it builds up and the beach continues to grow out across Spit . &
the bay or river mouth to form a spit. This landform is >
Curved
a long, narrow, ridge of sand or shingle, with one end hook -
attached to the land and the other ending in open water.
Some spits become curved at their ends, as shown in Prevailing winds
Figs. 6.35 and 6.36. This happens when onshore winds
blow waves from a different angle to that of the prevailing Fig. 6.35 How a spit forms
wind. If the spit then grows in the original direction
again, it will have a hooked form.
The Copalita River in Fig. 6.36 is being deflected by
the spit. The river’s flow is preventing the spit from
extending out to join the other bank. However, if a spit
grows out across a bay, it can sometimes reach right
across to the other side - forming a bar. The area of
water enclosed by the bar is called a lagoon. At first it
contains salt water but that is replaced with freshwater
ifrivers enter it. The lagoon will be a temporary feature
ifrivers continue to deposit their load into it and gradually
fill it up to form a marsh. Some very large spits, bars
and lagoons are found on the south coast of the Baltic
Sea. Ifa river enters a lagoon, it replaces the salt water
with fresh water.
Fig. 6.36 A recurved spit across the mouth of the Copalita River in
The Kennedy Space Centre at Cape Canaveral in Florida south-west Mexico
occupies a large area made of shingle ridges which may
have been formed by the joining of two shingle spits.
The lagoons formed behind them are large enough to
see on an atlas map.

Fig. 6.34 A sand spit with small sand dunes on top of it

Fig. 6.37 A bar and lagoon

CASE STUDY

The effects of coastal deposition on

part of Mexico’s west coast
Fig. 6.38 shows the effects of coastal deposition on the
west coast of Mexico, south of Mazatlan. The original river
estuary and bays have been blocked off by the northward
growth of a long bar. The inland edge of the lagoons is the
former coastline. Some of the rivers now end in lakes

As the prevailing winds in this area are offshore north-east

trades all year, they can have no influence on the direction Pacific
of longshore drift. This is towards the north along this Ocean

coast when hurricanes and storms move over the area in

summer and autumn.

Fig. 6.38 The effects of coastal deposition on the west coast

of Mexico

CO) Discussion point (

.C) Discussion point
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the site and Articles removed by the tsunami, in March 2011, from coastal
location of Kingston's international airport? areas of Japan (on the west side of the Pacific Ocean) were
expected to arrive on Californian beaches (on the east side of
the Pacific Ocean) three years later. Use atlas maps and your
knowledge to discuss how this could occur.

CASE STUDY

The site of Kingston’s International

Airport
The Palisadoes is a long, narrow spit near the capital of
Jamaica. It is so large that the international airport’s
runway fits into it with room to spare. This spit was flattened
easily and cheaply to provide a suitable site for the airport.
It has sand dunes on its south side and mangrove swamp
at its northern edge, which could be reclaimed if there \}

¥
OA
was a need to expand the airport. Kingston

Kingston Harbour

Terminal
BERNE building

Caribbean Sea
Fig. 6.39 The site and location of the international airport at
Kingston, Jamaica km
Salt marshes and mangrove swamps
The water behind a spit is a low-energy environment Like all marshes, the area shown in this photograph is very
flat. At high tide it is covered by water, and at low tide the
in which small particles of mud can settle. The mud
water drains back to the sea through tidal channels like this
brought in when the tide rises sinks in the sheltered
one, which meander across the marsh. The deposited mud
water. Gradually it accumulates to form a mud flat on that is building up the marsh can be seen clearly in the banks
which plants tolerant of saltwater - and of being covered of the tidal channel. At high tide, water flows in from the sea
by water twice a day - begin to grow. These plants through channels like this one and floods over the marsh -
encourage more deposition by showing the water depositing more mud. Eventually, the level of the marsh on
movement further. Their roots help to trap more mud the landward side will be raised so that it is rarely flooded.
and hold it firmly in place. As the surface level of the A considerable proportion of the marsh surface is occupied
mud rises, vegetation increases and the area becomes by water in the form of tidal channels and saltwater pools.
a salt marsh or mangrove swamp forest in tropical Some pools can be seen in the background. In the far
sheltered waters. background are low hills, which formed the coastline before
the spit and marsh developed.

Fig. 6.40 A tidal channel crossing a salt marsh

The spit behind which this marsh formed can be seen in

Fig. 6.41 A salt marsh nearer the sea the background. Most of the marsh is only just above the
low-tide level. See

€
CASE STUDY

Salt marshes along the Texas coast Pollution by heavy metals or oil, in run-off from nearby
The long coast of Texas, south of Houston in the USA, has towns and cities, is always likely.
spits, bars and long sandy islands offshore. These provide
In the same way, pesticides and fertilisers from farmland
the quiet water environment necessary for mud to settle
pollute marshes when they enter watercourses that
in the inter-tidal zone of the mainland. Extensive mud flats
flow down to the marsh.
and salt marshes have been formed.
Spilt fuel and litter from passing boat traffic is another
However, these marshes are under threat in many ways:
source of pollution.
*> This areais an important oil and gas field, with at least
In accessible parts of the marsh, people and animals
one oil well in the middle of a salt marsh. Other possible
can kill vegetation by trampling it.
sources of oil leaks washing over the marshes are from
tankers leaving the ports of Houston and Galveston. If the marsh is used for animal grazing, the normal
Any wildlife and plants covered by oil would be killed development of vegetation is stopped.
and a spill would lead to infertility in some animal
One other potential serious threat would result from
species. Habitats would be destroyed, too. Erosion of
flooding if the sea level were to rise because of global
the marsh may then occur, especially in the hurricane
warming.
seasons of Summer and autumn.

One of the greatest threats to salt marshes and mangrove

swamps is the artificial drainage of their inland edges
for agricultural purposes. Other areas are drained to
provide space for port facilities and urban areas.

Copy and complete a larger version of Table 6.1 to summarise the importance of
salt marshes.

... a recreational resource

Table 6.1 The importance of salt marshes and mangrove swamps

(
.C) Discussion point
Should the coast be left in its natural state or exploited for
human enjoyment and gain?

@ LEARNING TIP Deltas have extensive areas of

marsh (some of which are salt marsh) at their seaward
edges, but deltas are classified as landforms of river
deposition. You must not choose deltas when you are asked
to write about features of coastal deposition, even though
they are found at the coast.
Fig. 6.42 Aerial view of salt marshes, South Carolina
Destruction of an important coastal ecosystem , wa

‘i
In the tropics and sub-tropics, mangrove swamps are
formed on coastal mudflats. Some species of mangrove
have stilt roots that anchor the plant in the soft mud
and slow down water movement - encouraging the
deposition of more mud. Others have conical breathing
roots which stick vertically up out of the mud from the
underground root system.
Mangrove swamps are invaluable for protecting the
coast from flooding. As mangroves can grow toa height
of 15 metres, they also offer some protection from the
strong winds of hurricanes. This was made very clear
during the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami in
December 2004. There were more than 6000 deaths
in one coastal village in Sri Lanka that had cut down
its mangroves, compared with only two deaths in a
neighbouring village that had kept its mangroves.

Fig. 6.43 Mangroves with stilt roots and, on the right, breathing roots

Mangroves vs. development on Key

Grand Cayman HW Mangroves
Originally, 36% of Grand Cayman was occupied by mangroves. eooeces Coral
Caribbean Sea
The largest area was in the centre of the island. Because 2 Om
ee e
it is located in a hurricane zone, this very low-lying island ee
poesecconaeesesy

has always needed the protection that mangroves provide. Stingray City
It’s also at risk from tsunami caused by tectonic activity
along the Caribbean Plate boundary. North rd
Sound
However, between 1997 and 2009, there was a lot of
development on the island, such as the building of new
George
hotels and condominiums.
ae? reac:

*> Atleast 10% of the island’s mangroves that existed in

ooo? km
1997 had been lost to various developments by 2009. Fig. 6.44 The area covered by mangroves on Grand Cayman
in 1960
~> By 2010, 66% of the mangroves that existed on the
western peninsula had been removed (Fig.6.43).
A
N
O 4
km
TTT.
TTNETN
TT
TATA
: North
Seven ike Sound

Mile
The extent of the Proposed Dragon Bay
Beach
mangroves in 1997 development will
ae The mangroves stretch across the
remaining by 2009 peninsula

Tae
TT"pane Fig. 6.46 The extent of the
remaining mangroves on Grand
ig. 6.45 Mangroves on the coast of Grand Cayman in 1997 Cayman’s western peninsula in 1997 and 2009
Fig. 6.47 Seven Mile Beach in 1997, looking north Fig. 6.48 Seven Mile Beach in 2009, looking north

Compare Figs. 6.47 and 6.48, which show the same part Mangroves have other uses too:
of Seven Mile Beach in 1997 and 2009. Mangroves and
> Their roots help to stabilise the coast against erosion.
other trees can be seen as green areas lining the beach
in the background of the 1997 photograph The 2009 > They are a source of firewood.
photograph shows much of the green area had been
>> Mangrove swamps absorb inorganic nutrients that
replaced by the white of new buildings.
drain into them in water from farmland and urban areas,
In 2010, a further 83 hectares of mangroves were removed This prevents them from being deposited in the sea
to make way for a development at Dragon Bay, which and harming marine life.
stretches from Seven Mile Beach to the North Sound (see
=> Mangrove leaves decay and add organic nutrients to
Fig. 6.46). Some of the properties in the Dragon Bay
the water, which provides food for the small fish that
development will have private beaches. There will be a golf
hatch and shelter in the mangrove area.
course, tennis courts and a marina, among other facilities.
This project has caused controversy. The developer maintained => Mangrove swamps provide a nursery for fish and
that the area of mangroves removed for it had been badly shellfish.
damaged by Hurricane Ivan in 2004. Others argue that the
>> They are important wildlife habitats, as well as temporary
mangroves had largely recovered from the hurricane. The
homes for migrating birds. They are important breeding
developer is now planning to plant mangroves along some
and feeding grounds for birds.
of the coast of the resort.
=> They are also important for recreation — especially for
Tourists started to visit Grand Cayman in the 1960s, and
fishing, bird watching, wildlife photography and boating.
tourism now provides 75% of the GNP (a measure of wealth)
of the country. As a result of the 1977 Development Plan However, people in favour of the development argue that
many areas of mangrove swamp were reclaimed for road more employment will be provided directly in the tourist
building, golf courses, tourist accommodation, marinas industry. There will be an increase in people working in
and housing. hotels, running boat trips to the famous Stingray City and
diving expeditions down the amazing Cayman Wall. Indirect
Local people have mixed opinions about this issue. Some
employment will also result, as shopkeepers and restaurants
describe the western side of the island as a concrete
will gain more revenue and the overall economy will be
jungle. There is also considerable anger about the
better. :
development because mangroves are valued as protection
against high winds and storm surges. The effects of high On such a small island, caution is needed regarding further
winds are a recent memory, because 75% of homes and development. When an area becomes over-developed, it
other buildings on the island were severely damaged by loses its attractiveness and tourists find somewhere else
Hurricane lvan in 2004. It would have been much worse to go.
without the protection of the mangrove buffer zone.

LEARNING TIP Mangroves and marshes are vegetation. The mud flats on
which they grow are landforms. You may use this case study as an example of the
threats to the environment where economic development is taking place.
Coastal sand dunes
Sand dunes are ridges of sand which form at the back
of beaches and on spits. The conditions necessary for
their formation are shown on Fig. 6.49.

Obstacle (e.g. plant) slows

down wind, causing it to
deposit sand Onshore, strong prevailing
wind picks up dry sand

High-tide level ie
Low-tide level

Fig. 6.49 Conditions necessary for the formation of coastal sand dunes

The obstacle needed to begin the process of dune resistant to the drought conditions that prevail. Marram
formation can be any material or plant on the beach. grass plays a important part in the growth of the dunes,
Friction with the obstacle slows the onshore wind so because it grows upwards rapidly after being covered
that it loses energy, can no longer carry the sand in in windblown sand. It also has a network of very long
suspension or saltation, and deposits it around the roots that help to anchor the sand. The leaves and stems
obstacle. This increases the size of the obstacle, so the slow down the wind and protect the sand from erosion.
deposition process continues and the dune grows. While The yellow mobile dune ridge is often the highest.
it is still within reach of spray from the waves, only Marram grass is the dominant plant on the seaward
salt-tolerant plants can grow on it. slope, but other plants grow on the leeward slope.
Over time, the embryo dunes grow and join together In time, the dune becomes a semi-fixed grey dune,
to form a line - known as a fore dune. This is moved in because humus from plant decay helps to form a soil
an inland direction because the wind picks up sand - giving it a grey colour. Plant nutrients continue to be
from the seaward face of the dune and deposits it on added as vegetation decomposes. Finally, the dune
the leeward side. Meanwhile, a new embryo dune can becomes a fixed dune with an almost total cover of
be forming nearer the sea. Eventually, lines of dunes vegetation and many plant species.
are formed parallel to the sea (see Fig. 6.51).
The fixed dunes furthest inland are the oldest. Over
As the dunes are moved away from the sea and grow time the depth of the soil increases, as does its humus
higher, they are colonised by marram grass, a plant content. This leads to greater water retention in the soil.
These improving conditions allow a greater variety of
plant species to grow. The vegetation
becomes denser and taller.
Eventually, the number of plant species
declines as tall trees grow and shade out
some ground vegetation. The longer roots
of the trees are also more successful than
smaller plants in taking up nutrients and
water from the soil.

Fig. 6.50 Young or embryo sand dunes on the

coast of Scotland
 Ee en
4

6 Marine processes and landforms ).= Fettee :

“e addition of plant nutrients may increase coasts where there are many calcareous shells in the
t the soil over time in the younger dunes, the sand, the pH will decrease inland as the calcium is
dunes usually become increasingly acidic, as washed out of the soil over time. This is the case at
utrients are leached out of the soil by rainwater.On Gibraltar Point in the case study.

CASE STUDY
The sand dune system at Gibraltar Point gradient, so the onshore wind blows over a wide expanse
These dunes have formed just south of Skegness on the Of Sand — picking up and carrying dry sand for dune building.
North Sea coast of England. The beach has a very gentle Wind carries sand from beach
a

Trees on Coast Shrubs on Marram Marram Salt-

grey fixed in 1824 semi-fixed grass on grass on tolerant
grey dunes yellow mobile fore dunes plants on
dunes embryo dunes

Slacks

Older rocks

West «——_—— Yellow dunes ————> __ East

~< Increased age of dune ridges

. 6.51 Sand dunes at Gibraltar Point, England

Long, marshy depressions, some with

strips of water, lie between the dune rs
A ? A defence post built in the Second World War to defend the beach at Gibraltar
ridges. These dep ressions are known as Point is now almost 400 metres inland from the beach, has no view of the beach
slacks. They contain water-loving plant and is partly covered by sand. How could this have happened?
species, which differ from slack to slack,
because the ones further inland have
more sediment deposited in them - leading Make a copy of Fig. 6.51. Beneath your diagram write ‘increasing
to drier and less salty conditions for plant age, soil depth, soil water content’ and put an arrow showing the
growth. direction in which they increase. Draw another arrow pointing
inland labelled ‘increasing soil acidity’. Below that write
‘increasing variety of plant species and draw an arrow that stops
at the semi-fixed dune ridges.
Explain why only plants that are very tolerant of drought can
grow on the fore dunes and yellow dunes.
Read the information in Fig. 6.53. On the south-east coast of
Florida, sea oats are planted on the dunes instead of marram
grass. On the notice 6” is equivalent to 15 centimetres and 5’ is
equivalent to 1.5 metres. Explain why sea oats are used.

oe

DO NOT ENTER!
@ SEA OATS @) Uniola paniculata
SEA OATS GROWING ALONG THE OCEANFRONT BUILD DUNES
THAT HELP HOLD THE SAND, THUS PROTECTING THE
SHORELINE FROM EROSION AND STORM SURGE.
A 6 SEA OAT MAY HAVE 5 ROOTS WHICH HELP STABILIZH THE
a eee pptececpaet BROSION. ALSO, ABOVE THE GROUND,
THE
CATCH THE WINDBLOWN SAND, WHICH
THE DUNE SizZB. —
Fig. 6.52 A slack between dune ridges FLORIDA STATUE CHAPTER 370.041 (F.S) PROHIBITS
PICKING, WALKING, OR DRIVING ON SEA OATS IN AN
EFFORT TO PRESERVE THE ENVIRONMENT.
FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT BROWAR
AND WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT D. SOI
954-584-1306

Fig. 6.53 A notice on Florida’s east coast

 Wye
Ge

6 Study Fig. 6.54 and describe the

features of the area between the line
of huts and the sea to the right.

Young dunes are very fragile, because

marram grass cannot tolerate trampling.
When the grass dies, the wind easily
removes the exposed sand. This leaves a
depression or a valley-like shape cutting
right through the dune - called a blow-
out. The dunes in Fig. 6.55 have been
badly eroded, as shown by the patches of
bare sand. Fencing has been used to keep
people and animals out to give the
vegetation time to recover and stabilise
the dunes.
An example of a very large area of sand
dunes is Les Landes in south-west France
where the prevailing winds are strong,
onshore westerlies. Here, on the older
dunes, the soils are deep enough and
contain sufficient water and nutrients for Fig. 6.54 A coastal landscape
coniferous forest to grow. As Les Landes
is an important tourist area, information
boards and leaflets have been used to
educate the public about the fragility of
the dunes. Wooden boardwalks have
been provided for people to walk on, and
access to the most fragile areas has been
prevented by fencing them off.

{
).C). Discussion point
Should further development along coasts be
stopped so that their remaining beauty can
be kept for future generations to enjoy?

CASE STUDY
of sand dune have been removed that the area is now
believed to be totally useless for tourist development —
leading to a big loss of potential earnings. The removal of
The removal of sand from dunes and beaches on the
the soft sand has left the area with a hard rocky surface,
Morocgan coast, for use by the construction industry, has
which is difficult to walk on.
been done on a massive scale. The sand is cheap, easy
to remove and very accessible. So much sand has been Another potential economic impact is the loss of the
taken that it is reputed to be the world’s largest excavation protection given by the beaches and dunes to the coastal
of coastal sand. road and buildings along it. These are now vulnerable to
the effects of storms and a rising sea level. The loss is
The areas of coastal destruction near the major cities of
not just economic but also environmental, because marshes
Casablanca, Rabat and Tangiers have been described as
inland have been threatened and dune ecosystems destroyed.
looking like an ugly moonscape. Such enormous lengths
Me 6 Marine processes and landforms |: @ ay : eg es es pen BEES
das

Coral reefs
Corals are tiny, marine animals called
polyps that form reefs when they live in
colonies in their millions. Their skeletons
are calcareous cup-like structures which
are joined with others in the colony to
forma hard, stony mass. As one generation
dies, the next grows on top of it, so the
reef grows upwards and outwards. There
has to be a solid surface from which the
growth starts. This is usually rock but
could be another feature, such as a
shipwreck in shallow water.
Reef-building corals cannot grow just
anywhere. They have specific needs,
which must be met if they are to grow
healthily. They are generally only found
between the latitudes 30° North and 30°
South, because they cannot live in sea
temperatures which are lower than
18 °C, and they can only tolerate that
temperature for a short period. They grow
best where the mean temperature of the
water at the surface is 22-25 °C. If sea
temperatures rise because of global
warming, existing corals may die but
other waters may become warm enough
Key
for reefs to develop. — Cold Ocean currents

Corals also need oxygen and food, both

of which are brought by breaking waves. Fig. 6.57 Sea with a temperature of 20 °C or higher in summer and autumn (most
They cannot grow much above low tide coral reefs are found in these areas)

level, because they cannot survive long

periods exposed above the water. The top
of the reef is usually level with low tide
level and the highest part of the reef is
the outer edge where oxygen and food
are most abundant.

STI Find the island of

Bermuda in an atlas. It has coral reefs.
What is surprising about its latitude? Use
a map of ocean currents to explain this
anomaly.

Fig. 6.58 Storm-damaged coral in the foreground

with the outer edge of a coral reef in the
background. This is typical of the reef which lies off
the coast of Grand Cayman. Most of it is covered
by a lagoon, with sand on the landward edge.
Coral reefs run parallel with coasts but are not continuous.
CASE STUDY
They have breaks in them, which are usually at river
mouths. There are several reasons for this. Coral coasts and human activity in
Polyps need clean, clear water in which to live, so they the Cayman Islands
cannot live where sediments enter the sea at the mouths Coral reefs provide fish and other foods for the Cayman
of rivers: Islanders. Some of them make a living by taking tourists
sea fishing or diving along the outer edge of the reef,
> Ifthe water is cloudy with sediment in suspension, known as the Cayman Wall, to see the rich ecosystem.
sunlight (essential for the life of the plankton on The reef also shelters the lagoon behind it for swimming
which polyps feed) cannot penetrate far enough. and boating. The reef combines with the fine sandy
beaches to make the islands very attractive to tourists
> Ifsediment settles on polyps, they are unable to feed. — on whom the island’s economy largely depends.

> Sediment also provides the ammunition for corrasion However, the coast does have disadvantages, too. The
during storms - causing reefs to break up. reef off North Sound (see Fig. 6.44) prevents any chance
of port development in the North Sound, so it is preserved
Another reason why breaks in reefs occur at river mouths
for tourist activities. The North Sound is also a barrier
is that the influx of freshwater lowers the salinity of the to road transport along the north coast and causes a
sea - and corals grow best in conditions of high salinity. long diversion from a straight line route, because the
Freshwater is less dense than seawater, so it tends to only ferry across the wide bay is limited to passengers.
affect the surface zone where the living corals are.
Rivers can also bring pollutants into the sea, especially
after heavy rain. Sewage and phosphorous from fertilisers
can cause a population explosion of a species of starfish
which feeds on coral.
There is a break in the coral reef off George Town - the
port and capital of Grand Cayman. Originally the reef
was probably continuous around the whole island,
because Grand Cayman has no river. However, the
movements of ships in and out of the port have undoubtedly
destroyed any coral reef that was there. The island is
now a port of call for many cruise ships, so the reef off
George Town is not likely to regenerate.
Fig. 6.59 Containers on the quay at the port of George Town,
Corals are animals, so they can live without sunlight on the leeward side of the island (sheltered from the prevailing
but they are not found at great depths. This is because NE trade winds)
corals cannot live without single-celled algae - and
algae need abundant sunlight to survive. Light
decreases with depth, so living colonies of corals are
not found below depths of 50 metres and few exist
below 30 metres. For the reasons explained earlier,
shallow, agitated waters to about 10 metres depth are
best.
Corals and algae live in a symbiotic relationship. The
algae use waste products from the polyps, together with
sunlight, to make food and oxygen that the polyps then
live on.| ra

a_ Study Fig. 6.57. Explain why there are no coral

reefs off the western coasts of continents in
sub-tropical latitudes.
Study Fig. 6.58 and describe the visible reef and
the water between it and the mainland. (
).C) Discussion point
Make a list to summarise the conditions required What human activities are suggested by the evidence in
for the growth of coral reefs. Fig. 6.60?
Types of coral reef
Coral reefs are classified into three types, the most
common of which is the fringing reef.

a e 3
ae is Shallow
lagoon
|
cic a a ae oe

SS rere ae 5
Shallow, flat art F
_ floored lagoon = nee

ad
Oe aes
we

Fig 6.61 The three types of coral reef

Theories suggest that the formation of the three different CASE STUDY
types of reefis linked. As the fringing reef grows upwards
and outwards, it could develop into a barrier reef, ifthe Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
sea level was rising or its island base sinking (which This is the world’s largest reef system. It is so large
would have the same effect as a rise in sea level). If this that it can be seen from space. It stretches parallel to
process continued, an atoll would be formed as the coral the coast of Queensland for more than 2600 kilometres,
grew upwards to keep access to light, oxygen and food and is nearly 350 OOO square kilometres in area. It
as the sea level rose. contains almost 3000 reefs and is a very important
tourist attraction.

A large part of it has been protected by the Great Barrier

Reef Marine Park, in which fishing and tourism are limited
a_ Use the map of Grand Cayman (Fig. 6.44) to by the Park Authority. However, its greatest threat is
estimate to the nearest kilometre the average partly natural. Every few years, Queensland experiences
distance from the land to the outer edge of the severe flooding from heavy rains. The pollutants in the
reef. What type of reef is this? run-off from such events usually cause a population
Find the Great Barrier Reef on an atlas map of explosion of Crown of Thorns Starfish, which eat the
Australia. Describe its location, distance from polyps and do a lot of damage.
iWatsy titel alrevale peelneh aistel
Uiesse
CASE STUDY
Coral reef conservation in Fiji of coral and coral fish for aquariums. Tourists walking on
In the last 20 years there has been an enormous effort the coral and diving and snorkelling among the reefs have
to conserve coral reefs in Fiji — a group of tropical islands also caused damage.The population of Fiji is rising rapidly
in the South Pacific Ocean. All the islands are surrounded and most people live around the coasts. The development
by coral reefs, two-thirds of which are thought to be at of settlements has led to harmful sediment, sewage and
risk. other pollutants being washed out into the reefs. The
natural forest has also been replaced with sugar cane
The reefs are vitally important to Fiji for both environmental
fields in places, leading to eutrophication from the nitrates
and economic reasons. They are very rich ecosystems with
and phosphorous in fertilisers which drain into the sea.
great biodiversity. Fiji's 300 species of coral are home to
Sewage also causes eutrophication: the addition of large
almost 2000 species of fish, including sharks and tuna
amounts of nutrients results in rapid plant growth, which
and many shellfish (such as giant clams). Endangered uses up oxygen and harms other organisms.
turtle species also live there. The reef ecosystem has links
with bigger ecosystems through the food chain. A simple Natural causes
example of this is shown in Fig. 6.62. Every three or four years, Fiji is battered by cyclones which
s aertete gl a a 8 ae
generate destructive waves that break the coral. These
plankton> coral > parrot fish > larger fish|(e.g. Snapper) storms also lead to more nitrates and phosphates reaching
“ ; 5 4
> humans ee “ee the reefs, which causes the number of Crown of Thorns
Fig. 6.62 A simple coral reef food chain starfish (which feed on the polyps) to increase.

As everywhere, Fiji's reefs are important barriers to storm Every so often, an increase of sea temperature causes
waves — reducing their impacts on the land. The plants bleaching of the reefs, because it leads to the deaths of
and animals in the reef ecosystem are also being researched the colourful algae that live with the polyps and leaves
as possible future sources of medicines. the bleached white coral behind. In time the polyps,
deprived of food, also die. This happens when there is an
The reefs are of enormous importance to Fiji's economy.
EI Nino event. This reversal of the equatorial ocean currents
Both subsistence and commercial fishing provide good
leads to warm water from Indonesia moving east and
livings. Some islanders have also earned money by selling
warming the sea around Fiji. Lower salinity is another
broken off pieces of coral for use in aquariums. The
cause of bleaching.
colourful reefs and their beautiful marine life also attract
many tourists, especially as Fiji is a stopover point for Efforts by a Fijian resort to conserve the reef
people who want to break up the long flight across the Many hotels and communities in Fiji are trying to conserve
Pacific Ocean. the coral reefs on which their livelihoods depend. Fiji’s
Coral Coast is fringed with the world’s second largest reef.
In Fiji the reefs are also of cultural importance and the The Hide-away Resort in the middle of the Coral Coast is
local people hold ceremonies to thank them. They have
one example. The resort uses a World Ecotourism, award-
long been aware of the importance of the reefs to their winning coral reef conservation programme, known as
lives and have traditionally regulated their use. For example, ‘Integrated Coastal Management’.
they have banned fishing in certain areas when stocks
have been threatened by over-fishing. The resort fronts directly on to the fringing reef and makes
visitors aware of its great importance. The area has been
Why are reef conservation measures needed made into a protected zone. Guests can snorkel at high
in Fiji? tide, but putting feet down on to the coral is not allowed.
There are both human and natural causes of coral destruction. Guided walks are organised along a specially provided
Human causes reef path. At high tide, guests can view the marine life on
Corals are extremely sensitive animals that can die if the reef from the resort’s glass-bottomed boat. In the
touched. Despite measures by local people, they have lagoon there is a coral nursery where coral is planted and
been affected by over-fishing, as well as by boat and anchor protected. Notices in the garden remind visitors of the
damage. Fiji was also one of the world’s largest exporters importance of the reef. The information on one notice is
shown in Fig. 6.63.
 THE P SHAPE ON THE TOP OF THE REEF WALK MARKERS
INDICATES THE SIDES OF THE PATH TO WALK ON
CORAL REEFS HOW DOES EUTROPHICATION
Coral reefs are the largest living structures on earth AFFECT THE REEF?
that are visibl : are among the most : ‘ ; .
i See aceace They oe High nutrient levels (especially nitrogenous and
productive ecosystems on the planet — comprising am
phosphorus compounds, such as fertilisers and
roughly 0.2% of the world’s oceans, but 11% of the : d oe
ara ach hanvest: detergents) lead to high seaweed populations.

The relatively slow-growing corals can’t compete

UNDER PRESSURE y er mene P
with the rapidly growing phytoplankton (seaweed)
Coral reefs around the world are under pressure ‘ : ;
when there are raised nutrient levels in the water
from:
e coastal developments HOW YOU CAN MAKE A
e pollution
e sedimentation DIFFERENCE
e over-fishing Do not walk on the reef other than on the reef walk
e walking on the reef path.
e natural disasters Sponsor and plant a piece of coral on the reef.
e eutrophication Do not take anything from the sea.
Do not buy shells.

Fig. 6.63 Notice to hotel guests

Fig. 6.65 The glass-bottomed boat on the lagoon. The outer edge
of the reef can be seen in the background
oO re. Papo ay

"al Coast
- Pacific Ocean

Fig. 6.64 Fiji and the location of the Hide-away Resort on the
main island of Viti Levu

Fig. 6.66 Conservation measures in the hotel grounds

{
).C). Discussion point
Are coral reefs so valuable that humans should not be
allowed to touch them?
 In this unit you will learn about: 2 LEARNING TIP It is very important to remember
¢> what the terms weather and climate mean
that a wind is named accordingto where it has come from.
¢) some instruments used to record weather
So, a south-west wind has come from the south west. It
¢) how to site and use those instruments to obtain
could go in almost any direction from the point at which it
correct readings
is measured - accordingto the circumstances at the time.
— how to use information from the instruments to
make calculations
¢> the use and siting of the Stevenson screen {
)-C ).Discussion point
s> how to interpret graphs and other diagrams that
How typical of your location's normal weather was the weather
show weather data
you experienced yesterday? In what ways was it usual, and in
the main types of cloud, and how to estimate the what ways rather different, from the weather usually expected
amount of cloud cover there at this time of year?
the weather hazards of tropical storms and
droughts.
Sn TT tn ete 1. _Use the data in Table 7.1.
a_ Form groups of 8 to 12 and then sub-divide
What is meant by the term each one into two groups. One sub-group should
write a weather forecast in words for Balikpapan,
weather? and the other for Iquique.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular
Divide the time up into sections, to emphasise
time. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that encircles
changes in the weather.
the Earth. The lower part is called the troposphere
Mention any obvious relationships that are
and is the zone of weather. This zone’s vertical extent
evident from the table, e.g. between temperature
is least at the poles (8 km) and greatest at the equator and humidity.
(16 km). Airplanes ascend and descend through this
Use descriptive words and refer to night and day.
zone of weather, and many cruise above it in the lower
Read each forecast to the whole group and
stratosphere. The top of the troposphere is called the discuss and note down the main differences
tropopause. between them.
Weather varies from place to place and time to time. Find both places in your atlas. Can the
Table 7.1 shows the weather forecasted for 1 March differences in weather be explained by the
2011 at Balikpapan - near the equator in Kalimantan distances of the two places from the sea?
Explain your answer.
(the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo) - and at
Iquique in northern Chile in the Atacama Desert.
Weather forecasts contain references to weather
Time (hours) 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 elements, like temperature and pressure. There are
Temperature 25 25 26 29 29 28 26 26 also weather events, such as droughts, tropical storms
(°C) and thunderstorms.
Humidity(%) 93 93 98 80 19 Gi. (ola S89)
Why is the weather so different at different places and
Wind direction SW W W SW SW SW WwW W
at different times? This will be explored fully in Chapter
Wind speed 22 ial 14 NOS kG 14 10 18
(km/hour)
8, but it is worth noting now that all of the energy that
generates weather is provided by the sun - and that
Cloud cover 6 7 5 8 5 6 6 8
(eighths) weather elements are linked.
Rainfall(mm) 0.76 5.08 3.56 3.30 0 2.29 2.79 6.86
Sun

Time (hours) 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 2e
aaa Temperature
Temperature 22 22 19 22 24 25 25 22
(°C) Pressure
Humidity (%) 59 64 68 60 5 53 53 68
Wind direction S S S S SW SW SW _ S§ _Wind direction and strength

Wind speed ise f3 6 5 PINs toe | Sie), Sh} AAG)

Humidity
(km/hour)
Cloud cover 6 1 0 1 3 0 4 0
___Cloud type andcover
(eighths)
Rainfall(mm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Precipitation type and amount |
Table 7.1 Weather forecasted for 1 March 2011 at Balikpapan (top) Fig. 7.1 Some of the links between weather elements
and Iquique (bottom)
Weather elements and how they
The rain gauge must be correctly sited to enable a
are measured correct reading to be obtained. Write an account of
Some weather elements are measured by instruments, how the rain gauge must be sited - and why - by
and some by eye. pairing up the different site requirements in the
left-hand column of Table 7.3 with the correct
reasons from the right-hand column. Some reasons
precipitation ie cloud type can be used twice. Afterwards, make sure that you
check (Ouranswers and Pole ayy errors.

humidity
ow
_?
| On grass ang not ¢on a hard —@ to >avoid surface run-
n-off
wind speed
ft surface ... a eae meget a
e Part Pee (two reasons) ... ‘ii e ... to avoid drips entering |
ey
Rim 30 cm above theground the gauge ee
(sunshine) -Surface (two reasons) ... bi ur to avoid shelter and gg
e “No trees orroofs Me a © wh 0 0 litte|rain entering rey
Table 7.2 How weather elements are measured (note that the CIE
* overhanging . a ee Mr .t0 avoid splashes ”
IGCSE syllabus does not require you to know how the bracketed
e ‘Away from buildings, trees or as 4 Siicaieine gauge
elements are measured)
other objects . t FF Sy Ri prevent ee a
a Standingrel upright ... ie for stability & = * "
(
.C). Discussion point * on
Pui to keep thecorrect-
a
As a class, form an opinion about what the temperature, rainfall, »
> gauge diameter =
relative humidity, cloud cover, wind direction and wind speed
are at the moment in your location. Check with a weather Table 7.3 Factors to consider when choosing the site for a
information service to see how right or wrong your perceptions rain gauge
WeIe.

Precipitation The rain gauge must be in an open space (the distance

Amounts of rain, drizzle, snow, hail and sleet are from the nearest object should be twice its height). In
measured using a rain gauge. countries with long hot dry seasons, surfaces are hard
and lack grass, so the rain gauge should be raised on a
tripod.
Scale in mm
*) The instrument must be read at the same time each
day (generally at about 9 am).

Inside tapered to ©) Any snow or frost present must be melted first.

measure small
amounts accurately © The reader should pour the water from the collecting
jar into the tapered measuring cylinder.
>) The measuring cylinder should then be placed on
A measuring cylinder a flat surface.
>) The water level should be read at eye level - to avoid
13cm diameter parallax error. If the eye is not at the same level as
the lowest part of the concave meniscus (curved
Rim 30cm
Funnel
upper surface), the angled reading will be inaccurate.
above the
ground *) Any amount too small to measure should be recorded
Grass
surface
Flat surface as a trace. This is probably the result of drizzle.
Recordings can be totalled to give monthly and annual
rainfalls. The mean (average) monthly and annual
rainfalls can also be calculated (usually over aminimum
of 30 years).

@ LEARNING TIP Unlike analysis of temperature, it

is not conventional to refer to ranges of rainfall.
Fig. 7.2 A rain gauge and how it is sited
 ER TTP TE ES TREE
Oe
Temperature There are two versions of this instrument:
Air temperature is the degree of warmth in the air. It © aminimum thermometer and a separate maximum
is measured in degrees Celsius (Centigrade), abbreviated thermometer (of which there are two types)
as °C. The words used to describe temperature can have
different meanings in different latitudes. For example, => a Six’s thermometer (which combines the two).
a person living in cool temperate latitudes might These instruments are read at the same time of day,
consider a temperature of over 30 °C to be very hot, every day, to give maximum and minimum temperatures
20-29 °C as hot, 10-19 °C as warm, 5-9 °C as mild in for each 24-hour period. It is important to avoid parallax
winter and cool in summer, 5 °C to -5 °C as cold - and error by making sure that the reading is taken with the
anything below that to be very cold! On the other hand, eye at the same level as the correct part of the index,
a person living in the tropics might consider a temperature or the meniscus, as appropriate.
of 19 or 20 °C to be chilly.
Fig. 7.4 shows the maximum and minimum thermometers
A maximum-minimum thermometer is used to combined into one curved glass tube that contains both
measure the warmest and coldest temperatures of the alcohol and mercury. This is the Six’s thermometer.
day. The air temperature at any time can also be read
from it.

A As the temperature falls the mercury

Minimum Maximum
contracts and the thread breaks
Mercury Bulb with
So Ono . 525.3
LO 15n20 0 35 40 45 50°C partial
vacuum

Alcohol
Alcohol
Fig. 7.3 (A) shows one type of maximum thermometer, with
a constriction in the lower part of the glass tube. The mercury
in the tube rises as the temperature increases, but - as soon
as the temperature begins to fall - the mercury breaks at
the constriction. This leaves the convex meniscus at the
Index for
maximum temperature reached. The thermometer is reset
maximum
by shaking it. temperature

Mercury Index Mercury

=O meow Om op Om SO oor404 5.5026 Index for

minimum
temperature

Fig. 7.3 (B) shows the other type of maximum thermometer.

It has an index which is pushed up the tube when the U- shaped
temperature rises (because the mercury expands). When the glass tube
temperature falls and the mercury contracts, the index is
left in the position to which it was pushed. The maximum Fig. 7.4 The Six’s thermometer
temperature is read at the part of the index nearest to the
meniscus of the mercury. A magnet is used to return the
metal index back to the surface of the mercury. Fig. 7.3 (C) shows a minimum thermometer containing
alcohol, which contracts when the temperature falls. As it
does so, its meniscus pulls the index down the tube. It is left
there when the alcohol expands if temperatures rise. The
Alcohol Index minimum temperature is read at the part of the index nearest
to the meniscus of the alcohol (the meniscus of alcohol has
AGE BIO EE LOE a concave curve, unlike that of mercury). The instrument is
reset by raising the bulb until the meniscus is in contact with
the index.

Fig. 7.3. Maximum and minimum thermometers

 In a Six’s thermometer, the glass tube contains mercury Study Figs. 7.3 and 7.4.
with alcohol on either side of it. What is the maximum temperature reached on
e When the temperature rises, the alcohol in the left arm the thermometers in Fig. 7.3 (A and B)?
expands, while some of the alcohol in the right arm What is the minimum temperature recorded on
evaporates into the space in the bulb. the thermometer in Fig. 7.3 (C)?
e The expanding alcohol on the left is then able to push
Where applicable, state what the actual
the mercury up the right arm.
temperature was at the time for these
e This pushes an index, which is left at the maximum
thermometers.
temperature reached.
For the readings from Fig. 7.3 (B and C),
e When the temperature cools, the alcohol in the left arm
calculate:
contracts. Some of the alcoho! vapour in the bulb turns
back to liquid. ithe daily temperature range
e The mercury then moves up the left arm - pushing a ii the mean temperature of the day (note that
metal index as it does so - to indicate the minimum one of the values is a minus value)
temperature reached. State the three temperature readings possible
The instrument is read at eye level from the lower end of on Fig. 7.4.
each index. It is reset using a magnet to draw each index For the readings from Fig. 7.4, calculate:
back to the mercury.
i the daily temperature range
ii the mean temperature of the day.

In order to measure the air temperature, the thermometers

have to be shielded from direct sunlight and other Humidity
sources of heat. They also have to be raised so that their Humidity is the amount of water vapour in a given
bulbs are 1.25 metres from the ground - to avoid heat volume of air. Water vapour is an invisible gas - even
being both radiated from the ground and being chilled air over deserts and in classrooms contains some water
by contact with cold ground. They must also be away vapour. The amount of water vapour that any air can
from buildings that might radiate heat. hold depends on its temperature. Warm air can hold
more water vapour than cold air:

Temperature recordings can be used to calculate various > When the air temperature increases, it evaporates
useful statistics. These are the most common: water from water surfaces, such as seas, lakes, rivers
e Daily range of temperature is maximum temperature and vegetation. This increases the air’s humidity.
minus minimum temperature for one day.
e Mean daily temperature is maximum temperature plus > When the air is cooled, the amount of water vapour
a

minimum temperature of the day divided by two. that it can hold reduces. If the air is cooled sufficiently,
e Mean monthly temperature is the total of the average it will reach the temperature at which it is holding
daily temperatures divided by the number of days in the the maximum amount of water vapour that can be
month. held at that temperature. That temperature is called
e Annual range is mean temperature of the warmest month the dew point and the air is said to be saturated (in
minus mean temperature of the coldest month. a state of saturation). Any further cooling will result
e Mean annual temperature is the total of the monthly in condensation - a process by which the excess
means divided by 12. water vapour changes into water droplets or ice,
depending on the temperature of the air.

@ LEARNING TIP Mean (average) figures are of little

use when there is a large range of values and there are
some very extreme figures at one end of the range. These
statistics are most useful for comparison purposes when
@ LEARNING TIP Refer to water vapour condensing,
they are averaged over a period of at least 30 years. not water condensing.
Knowing how near the air is to being saturated is vital > Ifthe air is not saturated, water will evaporate from
for accurately forecasting whether or not precipitation the muslin. Evaporation causes cooling of the bulb,
will occur. The relative humidity of the air is expressed which causes the mercury to contract and register
as a percentage. The actual amount of water vapour in a lower temperature.
the air is divided by the maximum amount of water +) The temperature of the wet bulb minus the temperature
vapour that the air can hold at that temperature, and of the dry bulb gives the depression of the wet bulb.
then multiplied by 100 to give the percentage. When The larger this is, the lower the relative humidity
the air is saturated, its relative humidity is 100%.
will be.
Relative humidity is measured using wet and dry bulb >> Ifthe air is already saturated, evaporation will not
thermometers, otherwise known together as a be possible, so the thermometers will show the same
hygrometer. temperature. If the air is not saturated, the relative
Dry bulb humidity can be found using a table (see Table 7.4).
thermometer

Wet bulb
thermometer
@ LEARNING TIP If you use the term hygrometer, be
Wet bulb careful to spell it correctly because there is a different
wrapped instrument known as a hydrometer.
in muslin

Fig. 7.5 Wet and dry bulb thermometers

Work out the relative humidity for the time the
> The dry bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer wet and dry. bulb thermometers had the readings
giving the air temperature (the dew point temperature shown on Fig. 7.5.
of that air is known). What was the temperature reading of the wet
bulb thermometer when the dry bulb reading was
The bulb of the other thermometer has a fine muslin
18 °C and the relative humidity was 73%?
cloth wrapped around it. Beneath it is a container
What would the relative humidity be if the wet
of water from which a wick of cloth leads to the
and dry bulb thermometer readings were the
muslin round the bulb - keeping the bulb constantly same?
moist.

Depression of wet bulb (°C)

Dry OP ee ee Ce Aaa seg 102 raat 12 13 14 15 16 ATS 18 19
bulb
(°C)
8 87 74 62 SO) SS 28 iif
10 88 16 65 BAI AA OA 3 14
12 89 18 68 5S) 485 38 930 PA 12 4
14 90 79 69 60 51 Al 33 24 16 10
16 90 81 71 62 54 45 Sf 29 Dal 14 7
18 91 82 3 65 Sih 49 42 35 Pit 20 13 6
20 91 82 74 66 58 wil AL 3678 30 23 17 11
22 92 83 5 68 60 53 46 40 34 27 21 16 alc
24 O27 Sa Tf) Oe 6s Me5Gr) “FO 4e. 287 3 26 2 14 10
26 92 85 WATE 71 64 bi 51 45 39 SME) PAS) Nae)S) 18 13
28 92 85 18 12 65 59 5S 47 42 37 31 26 21 17 13
30 93 86 19 1} 67 61 55 50 44 Soe: 2354 me30 DAR 20) 16 12)
32 93m 286 19 73 68 62 | 52 46 41 37 32 Dif 23 19 1S
34 OS POrah 80h el74 ORBOu >GSP aa8.7 Sean 48 43 38 34 30 26 22 18 10
36 93 87 81 (5 70 64 59 54 50 45 41 36 32 28 24 21 13
38 94 87 81 76 70 65 60 56 bey 46 42 SS i 34s | SOC eo Ge23 16 10
40 g4 88 82 16 lai 66 61 Dif 52 48 44 40 36 32 29 25 19 13
42 OAR eaSS) BO” Ti mie al Ole mmo 2e| G8rs p58 49 45 1-44 Son) eS 4 aes 27 21 15
44 OA COM Peco m enon (Si mOo me Com lmOon /ano4 50 47 43 39 36 32 29 23 iy 12

Table 7.4 Part of a relative humidity table (note: as percentages are rounded to whole numbers, there
may be slight differences between published relative humidity tables). You do not need to learn this table.
Pressure
There is a column of atmosphere above every part of
the Earth’s surface. The atmosphere exerts pressure
on the surface, because it has a weight. This weight
varies from place to place and time to time.
*) Pressure is measured in millibars (mb).
*) The mean (average) pressure at sea level is considered
to be 1013 millibars, so pressures below that are
usually described as low - and above it as high.
However, this is not always the case, because a
higher-pressure area surrounded by lower pressures
would be described as a high-pressure system.
Fig. 7.7 An aneroid barometer
> As altitude increases pressure decreases, because
An aneroid barometer has a corrugated metal box inside.
there isless air above the ground surface, sorecordings this box expands when pressure is low, and is compressed
are converted into the sea-level equivalents when _when pressure is high. It can change in this way because it
plotted on isoline maps. If this was not done, the is partly evacuated of air.
pressure map would look like an inverted relief map. The changes in the top ofthe box are transmitted, by means
>> Isolines on a map showing pressure are known as of a series of levers, to a pointer that moves on the face of
isobars.- the dial. Some dials also have an external pointer, which can
be used to mark the previous position ofthe internal pointer.
Three kinds of instruments are used to measure Then, when the reader gently taps on the glass and the inner
atmospheric pressure - a mercury barometer, an pointer moves to the present pressure reading, itisimmediately
aneroid barometer and a barograph. obvious whether pressure has fallen or risen.
A scale is marked on the dial, and often weather conditions
associated with different pressures are also shown. The scale
on Fig. 7.7 isininches, but many modern aneroid barometers
The pressure of the air in a mercury barometer forces the have a scale in millibars (ranging from 950 on the left to
mercury up the tube. The reading is taken from the scale at 1060 on the right).
the height it reached.

Mercury is pushed up
the glass tube to this Vacuum
level when the air
pressure is the world 3
average
g of 1013mb — F

760mm
Pressure of the
atmosphere pushes
down on the mercury

Fig. 7.8 A barograph

A barograph has an aneroid barometer, and a revolving drum
covered in graph paper, inside a case. Changes in the level
of the top of the metal box in the aneroid barometer are
transmitted by levers to a pen that marks a continuous trace
of the pressure on to the rotating graph paper. The paper
has vertical lines marked in hours and parts of hours, with
Fig. 7.6 A mercury barometer millibars on the horizontal scale.
Unlike temperature and rainfall, humidity and pressure it’s important to look for a sufficient time to be able to
are not totalled for a week, month or year. However, estimate an average velocity, or to note any stronger
their ranges and averages can be used to help explain gusts of wind. This problem is often overcome by
certain weather occurrences. Pressure maps show transmitting a continuous signal of the speed to a moving
pressures reduced to sea level to eliminate the influence chart.
of altitude and allow high- and low-pressure systems
Wind can be very destructive. A scale known as the
to be seen.
Beaufort Scale has been devised to classify different
The only site requirements for barometers and barographs wind speeds according to what effect they have (see
are that they should be kept away from strong air Table 7.5). This table is for reference only - an examiner
movements, direct sunlight and heat sources. The would not expect you to memorise it!
barometer is kept in a Stevenson screen (see page 177)
at a weather station, but it can also be kept indoors. Wind direction
A wind vane has the points of the compass fixed and
Wind speed sited, so that they point in the correct directions. Above
Wind is air moving over the surface of the ground. Its them is an arrow that can be moved by very light winds.
velocity is measured using an anemometer. When the wind blows, it catches the thickened end of
the arrow’s shaft and swings it round so that the arrow
is pointing to the direction from which the wind has
come.
It is important to know
where the wind has
come from, because it
brings with it some of
the characteristics of
temperature and moisture
of the areas over which
it has passed. It can
therefore influence the
Fig. 7.9 An anemometer weather at its new location.
The most _ frequently .
The cups are supported on a tall shaft, so that the slowing occurring wind in an e
effect on the wind of friction with the ground is minimised. area is known as the ©
The speed at which the cups rotate when driven by the prevailing wind.
wind is measured and shown on a meter or dial (in
metres per second). Of course wind speed changes, so

‘h) ae

eh ilMicaalm
s than
eh:

119 and above Hurricane *

Table 7.5 The Beaufort Scale

Anemometers and wind vanes should both be sited on
poles 10 metres above the ground (to avoid gusts and
ground friction). They should also be in an open space,
at least three times the height of the nearest obstacle
away from it (e.g. ifa tree is 10 metres high, the instrument
pole should be sited at least 30 metres away from it).
In urban areas, they often have to be placed on top of
buildings.

@ LEARNING TIP When describing wind direction,

do not state that it is moving in a certain direction. This
statement is ambiguous. Always express the direction
Clearly. For example, ‘it is a westerly wind’ or ‘the wind is
from the west’ cannot be misinterpreted. It is also correct Fig. 7.11 Digital instruments
to state for a west wind that ’the wind blows west’ but not at a weather station
all will be familiar with that expression.

@ LEARNING
The three cups of the anemometer can be seen on the top
left of the photograph. To the right of that is the digital wind
TIP Itis not correct to state that these
vane, with its prominent paddle to catch the wind (its current
instruments are sited high in order to have contact with
position indicates a wind blowing from the left). Below that
the strongest wind speeds. The strongest gusts in urban
is the corrugated metal box of the anemometer. Cables are
areas occur where the wind is funnelled down narrow
Clearly visible, along which the instruments send their results
passages between buildings, but the instrument recording
to computers.
wind speed should be placed on top of the buildings to
avoid the gusts.

Explain why pressure readings taken on a

mountain top will always be lower than at the
foot of the mountain.
What wind direction is shown in Fig. 7.10?
How many cups does the anemometer have?

Digital weather recording instruments

Today, automated digital recording instruments are
increasingly in use. Many transmit data to computer
screens. Others are hand-held, with a screen to show
the recordings.
The digital hand-held hygrometer in Fig. 7.12 indicates
a relative humidity of 72%. The reading is obtained
quickly and easily.
Digital maximum-minimum thermometers are also
used. Although they measure to a 10th of a degree (a
far finer measure than is possible on a non-digital
instrurfient), manufacturers do not claim that they are
completely accurate. The biggest problem is that data
may be lost if they get wet. The thermometer also has
to be kept out of direct sunlight. Fig. 7.12 A digital hygrometer

Tipping bucket rain gauges use a bucket with a known of a single bucket. The total result for a specific period
volume that tips over when it is full. The total volume of time (e.g. 30 minutes) is then sent automatically to a
of water collected is calculated by multiplying the computer. The distribution of rainfall throughout the
number of times that the bucket tips over by the volume day can then be recorded.
 i 7 Weather

a - 3 oh:
i — Pat, Te
~*
1a aaeed a
ALLUL
aqiagrams
VA BCH 2 CLARE Bad
wa Cie L oe |
ace] LH Bats
hue W WAU ESE UaGaed

The const ruction and interpretation of graphs and

diagrams used to show weather data is covered in
Chapter 12. Refer to pages 330-332, if necessary, to
answer the questions below.

Refer to the data in Table 7.6. iii_|f the map had values along the lines but no
shading, what type of map would it be?
a Use your atlas to identify the locations of weather
stations A and B and the ecosystem at each Dispersion diagrams are useful for showing
location. distributions. For example, to show the difference
in the distributions of wind speeds during the day
Draw a line graph for each weather station to
at each location:
show the actual and dew point temperatures.
e Draw a vertical line to a scale that will allow the
Copy and complete Table 7.7, using the data in strongest wind to be plotted.
Table 7.6. Number the scale line on the left.
Was the air saturated at any time at weather On the right of it, plot a dot at the level of all
station B? If so, state when - and say what is the the values for weather station A. If you have
evidence for it? more than one plot of the same value, place
Draw a wind rose (See page 332) for the day for each one to the right of the previous ones (side
weather station A. by side), keeping them at the correct level.
Next, starting a new column, plot the values for
Consult the map of prevailing (most common)
winds in your atlas and comment on the wind weather station B (using a cross).
direction at weather station A on 4 March 2011. Cy Nelo ity Ce

What type of map is used in the atlas to show e Comment on the differences in wind strength
the distribution of pressure, temperature and between the weather stations.
precipitation? i What type of graph should be used to show
What convention is used to give a good visual daily, monthly or annual precipitation totals?
impression by the shading of increasing Refer to types of data in Chapter 13
amounts of precipitation? (page 340) and explain your answer.

Weather Station A (30° 08° N, 31° 24° E) Weather Station B (1° 22° N, 103° 59° E)
Time Temp. Dew Pressure Wind Wind Rainfall Weather Time Temp. Dew Pressure Wind Wind Rainfall Weather
(hours) (°C) point (mb) direction speed (mm) event (hours) (°C) point (mb) direction speed (mm) event
(°C) (km/h) (°C) (km/h)
midnight 15 12 1020 NE 29 0 - midnight 26 24 1010 NE 11 0 -
1.00 15 1s} 1020 NE 29 0 - 1.00 26 24 1010 NE 8 0 -
2.00 15 13 1019 NE 29 0 - 2.00 26 24 1009 Variable 3 0 -
3.00 15 13 1019 NE 27 0 - 3.00 25 24 1008 NE 8 0 -
4.00 15 a3 1019 NE 22.5 0 - 4.00 25 24 1008 Variable 3 0 -
5.00 15 13 1019 NE 22,5 0 - 5.00 25 24 1008 Variable 3 0 -
6.00 14 14 1020 NE 21 0 - 6.00 25 24 1008 Variable 3 0 -
7.00 14 14 1020 NE 24 0 7.00 25 24 1009 N 5 0 -
8.00 15 14 1021 NE 26 0 8.00 26 24 1010 Variable 5 0 -
9.00 18 13 1021 NE 32 0 - 9.00 26 D5 1011 Variable 5 0 -
10.00 20 13 1021 NE Dif 0 - 10.00 29 24 1011 N 11 0 -
11.00 21 ils 1021 NE 24 0 - 11.00 30 24 1010 NE 14.5 0 -
12.00 2g 8 1019 NE Dif 0 - 12.00 32 24 1009 Variable 16 0 -
13.00 24 7 1018 NE 34 0 13.00 31 24 1008 NE 13 3 -
14.00 D5 9 1018 NE 22.5 0 14.00 27 24 1008 Variable 11 5 -
15.00 2 ben lit 1018 N Bil 0 15.00 25 24 1007 Variable 3 9 thunder
16.00 24 10 1018 NE 32 0 - 16.00 25 24 1007 Variable 3 9 thunder
17.00 23 10 1018 N 34 0 - 17.00 25 25 1006 Variable 3 iL -
18.00 22 it 1018 N 32 0 18.00 26 25 1007 Variable 1.5 0 -
19.00 20 9 1019 NE 24 0 - 19.00 25 24 1007 Variable 3 0 -
20.00 18 11 1019 NE 24 0 - 20.00 25 25 1007 N 5 0 -
21.00 18 ila 1019 NE 21 0 - 21.00 26 24 1008 NE 9.5 0 -
22.00 17 11 1020 NE DISS) 0 22.00 26 25 1009 NE 9.5 0 -
23.00 16 11 1019 NE 14.5 0 - 23.00 26 24 1009 NE 9.5 0 -
24.00 15 11 1019 NE 13 0 - 24.00 26 24 1009 NE 10 0 -

176 Table 7.6 Weather recordings taken at two weather stations (A and B) on 4 March 2011
 This box is designed to ensure that the instruments give
ot U iY —Setatiul q the correct readings.
City/town - f
Air temperatures have to be measured in the shade out
of direct sunlight and at the same height above the
Maximum temperature ground at all weather stations, so that data is standardised
\{ Muy ire and can be compared. The screen has to be positioned
Daily range of temperature so that the door opens away from the sun, facing north
daily temperature in the northern hemisphere and south in the southern
hemisphere. Slatted sides called louvres allow the free
flow of air into and out of the screen; this is essential
Qty aha
for measurement of the outside air temperature and to
allow evaporation from the wet bulb thermometer.

Roof made of a double layer of

wood with airspace between
for insulation
‘Precipitation (daily total)
Louvres allow free movement of air

Weather event awe a se ee ae Se 65cm Box made of wood to avoid the

conduction of heat into it

Table 7.7 A comparison of weather on one day at two weather Painted white to reflect the
stations sun’s rays

Lines on isoline maps have different names, according

to the weather element being shown:
Isohyets are lines joining places with the same Raised on legs to avoid heat
radiated from the ground and to
rainfall. have the thermometer bulbs at
Isotherms are lines joining places with the same the standardised height of 125cm
temperature.
Isobars are lines joining places with the same high
121¢m
Stand
pressure.
Ground radiates heat
A synoptic chart (another type of map showing weather)
is described later in the chapter on page 185.
lects and radiates less

The Stevenson screen

The maximum-minimum thermometers and wet and
Fig. 7.14 Features of the Stevenson screen
dry bulb thermometers are housed in a wooden box
called a Stevenson screen. The barometer can also be The screen is painted white to reflect the sun’s rays.
put in it. The roof has double layers of wood so that the airspace
between them insulates the screen below. Wood and
air are bad conductors of heat. The slanting roof sheds
rain.
Stevenson screens should be sited on grass that is kept
short - to standardise the influence of the type of ground
surface and record what is considered to be the real air
temperature. If the screen has to be sited on concrete,
it will have to be placed much higher (because concrete
heats up and radiates the heat, as well as reflecting
some of the sun’s rays upwards).

@ LEARNING TIP Know the difference between

insolation (the incoming radiation from the sun) and insulation
(protection from incoming heat or cold).
Fig. 7.13 The inside of a Stevenson screen
 7 a Explain why the Stevenson screen is raised on a
- stand with legs about 121 cm long.
b Identify the other weather recording equipment
at the weather stations in Figs. 7.15 and 7.16. ess
ate<

( ) (). Discussion point

Where would be the best places to site weather instruments in
your school grounds?

Weather station layout

The site of the Stevenson screen is determined by the
requirements of the thermometers within it and, as all
the other instruments have particular site needs, a
weather station layout must be undertaken with all
of them in mind.

& Look at Fig. 7.17.

a_ What errors have been made in siting the
instruments at this weather station? Fig. 7.15 A Stevenson screen located at a weather station in Death
b Make a copy of the weather station plan and Valley, USA (a hot desert area)
move the instruments to better positions, so
they can make accurate weather recordings.

Paved area

School building
(10 metres high)

Fig. 7.16 A Stevenson screen located at a weather

station in the Austrian mountains

Tree 5 metres high

Wall 2 metres high

Rain gauge

Stevenson screen

Anemometer and wind vane

Fig. 7.17 A weather station with badly sited instruments
Cloud types and extent Western Hemisphere
Clouds consist of tiny water droplets, or ice particles, North Pole
that are too light to fall to Earth. They are formed when
air containing water vapour is forced to rise. As it rises
into lower pressure, the air expands and that expansion
causes cooling. If it is uplifted enough to cool to below
Northern
dew point temperature, water vapour then condenses
Hemisphere
into water droplets or, if it is sufficiently cold, to ice
crystals.

@ LEARNING TIP Rising air does not cool because

Equator =

it is rising into cooler layers of the atmosphere. It cools

because it expands and uses energy in doing so.
Southern
Hemisphere
Air will continue to rise while it is warmer, and therefore
lighter, than the air into which it is rising. The tallest
clouds form in the tropical zone, where the tropopause
is at its highest. South Pole

Only three types of cloud produce precipitation. For

this to happen, there have to be a lot of water or ice
Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere
particles, plus sufficient air movement for the particles
to be moved so that they collide and join together. If Key

they grow large and heavy enough to fall through the Tropical zone
rising air currents that form the cloud they are in, they === Tropopause
Troposphere
might fall to the ground as precipitation. However, some
—— Earth’s surface
droplets evaporate before they reach the ground.
Fig. 7.18 The tropical zone and zone of weather for the Earth’s
The density and vertical extent of a cloud determine Eastern Hemisphere
whether it looks white, grey or black from below. If it
is thin enough for sunlight to pass through it, it looks
white. However, a cloud with a very large vertical extent
will prevent sunlight from penetrating to its base, so it
will appear to be black.

The main types of cloud

Clouds are classified into three main types, according
to their shapes. These, in turn, depend partly on how
far the air has been made to rise - and over what
horizontal area it has been pushed up:
> Where there is little vertical uplift, but the uplift is
over a wide area, clouds form in layers and are known
as stratus.

> More vertical, but localised, uplift results in heaped

cumulus clouds with flat bases and globular upper
surfaces.
>> Where condensation occurs at very high levels, wispy
cirrus clouds are formed (made of ice crystals).
Cirrus is often described as feather-like (see Fig.
7.19). It is likely that the cloud in Fig. 7.19 formed
from the condensation of a water vapour trail from
an aircraft and that high-level air movement then
expanded it into a feather shape. Fig. 7.19 A feather-shaped cirrus cloud
 ARRITATATTT
TANT

Fig. 7.20 Stratus often forms Table Mountain’s famous ‘tablecloth’ in Cape Town
Fig. 7.21 Cumulus cloud in the Canadian Rocky Mountains
Fig. 7.22 The globular upper surface of cumulus cloud seen from the air
Fig. 7.23 This view of cirrus in New Zealand illustrates why the cloud is often
described as thread-like
Fig. 7.24 Wispy cirrus cloud
Fig. 7.25 Very low-level stratus in Alaska
The three main types of cloud can be
further subdivided: 16km
‘Height of tropopause at the equator 16km
Clouds made
> Very high clouds could be in layers of ice crystals
called cirrostratus, or globules called Cirrostratus Cirrus Cirrocumulus
72}
cirrocumulus. )
=i

oO

*> Middle-level cloud is prefixed by ‘alto’.

oe
00
Se
The clouds formed here could be
altostratus or altocumulus.

> Low-level cloud is stratus or cumulus.

If it has the characteristics of both, it 6km 5 6km
is called stratocumulus. é Ss Clouds made
53 of water droplets
oo>
=>
x) Altostratus Altocumulus
f What types of cloud can you see in the sky now? =o 2km 2km
| Ifthere are no clouds, why is this so? If there are, “8 Stratus Cumulus Stratocumulus
| what does it tell you about the state of the | Sea level Sea level
atmosphere and the processes occuming?
Fig. 7.26 Fair weather clouds in the Tropics

Fig. 7.27 Cirrostratus and cirrocumulus above airplane trails,

seen from ground level

Fig. 7.28 Altocumulus off the coast of California

from the air

= == ——

Fig. 7.29 Layers of altostratus cloud in Monument Valley, USA

SSIS
TTT

Fig. 7.30 A layer of stratocumulus cloud just above the sea in Fiji
 Two types of cloud have much greater eg

vertical extents than the fair weather ~ Tropopause <n Ice crystals |
clouds: ‘Anvil head
> Nimbostratus is a layer cloud that
can be up to 5000 metres deep (deep
enough to produce steady rain).
©) However, the biggest cloud by far is | Height of
the towering cumulonimbus, which Mount Everest

can grow from near sea level to the 6km f 4 6km

top of the troposphere. It cannot rise
higher than the tropopause, because
the air in the stratosphere increases
in temperature with increasing height Water droplets
- so cooler air (being denser) cannot okm 2km
rise into the lighter and warmer air
Nimbostratus Cumulonimbus Cumulonimbus
above. As aresult, when this airreaches Sea level Sea level

the tropopause, it spreads out toform _ Fig, 7.31 Rain clouds in the Tropics
a distinctive anvil shape at the top of
the cumulonimbus cloud.

Fig. 7.33
= ———
Cumulonimbus
Fig. 7.32 Nimbostratus over salt flats in New Zealand cloud developing
over the Canadian
Rocky Mountains,
Fig. 7.34 Cumulonimbus cloud with an anvil top with cirrocumulus
at the top of the
photograph

Fig. 7.35 Cumulonimbus cloud with the dark base of one cloud over
a harbour in Mexico
 Cloud Level Description Associated weather
Cirrus High (above 6 km) This cloud is thin, white and made of ice crystals. It forms narrow Fine
wisps or threads (cirrus means hair-like). It can also be feather-like
in shape.
Cirrostratus High (above 6 km) This cloud is a thin, white layer made of ice crystals, with a wide Fine
horizontal extent. It often covers the whole sky.
Cirrocumulus High (above 6 km) This cloud is thin, white, made of ice crystals and slightly heaped. Fine
Altostratus Medium (2-6 km) This cloud is a layer of water droplets, which can be thin and white Fine
or thick and grey
Altocumulus Medium (2-6 km) This is a heaped cloud of water droplets, which can be white or — Fine
thick enough to look light grey.
Stratus Low (0-2 km) This cloud is a thin, uniform, grey sheet of small water droplets, It may be thick enough to
with a fairly flat base. produce drizzle
Cumulus Low (0-2 km) This cloud is white with a darker, flat base and globular upper Sunny by day, fine weather
surface. It is made of water droplets. It may have a small or
considerable vertical extent.
Stratocumulus — Low (0-2 km) This is a layer of cloud with some heaped sections, giving white Fine
and grey parts. It is made of water droplets.
Nimbostratus The base can be This cloud is a thick, dark grey layer of water droplets. Steady rain or drizzle
low, or above 2 km
Cumulonimbus- A low base, but the A dense, dark grey cloud with a great vertical extent. It grows from Very heavy rain, or snow
cloud extends up to a cumulus cloud to have a high, billowy head (or a flat top if it showers, often with hail and
high levels reaches the tropopause). If it then spreads out, it has an anvil top. thunder and lightning
It is composed of ice crystals at the top and water droplets at
lower levels.

Table 7.8 Cloud characteristics and their associated weather

{
©). Discussion point {
)() Discussion point
Would it be dangerous for a parachutist to jump out of an What determines the shape of a cloud?
aircraft in some or all types of cloud? Which types would be the
most dangerous?

(
).C) Discussion point
How cloud extent is measured Do clouds have any advantages?
The extent of cloud cover is estimated by eye and
expressed in the number of oktas (eighths) of the sky On a synoptic chart (page 185) cloud extent is shown
covered with cloud. For example, full cloud cover is by the following symbols:
expressed as eight oktas, no cloud cover as zero oktas
and half the sky covered as four oktas. Key
CLOUD
Symbol Cloud amount
Identify the main cloud types in Figs. 7.36-7.40
(oktas)
on the next page.
There are several different cloud types in Fig. @ )
7.41. Locate, describe and identify three of
O 1 or less
them.
Fig. 7.42 was taken from an aircraft. It shows @ 2
cloud cover over a mountain range. Describe the
characteristics of the types of cloud shown.
G) 3
Estimate the extent of the cloud cover in each of Oo 4
Figs. 7.36, 7.37, 7.38, 7.39 and 7.42.
9 5
°e 6
{
){ ) Discussion point
0 7
How could flying through different types of cloud affect
airplanes? ) 8
 Fig. 7.38

i
:

HATH
ATER
TTT

Figs. 7.36-7.42 Different cloud types

Readings taken at weather stations are plotted on synoptic charts
(Fig. 7.43 is an example). 10 Look at Fig. 7.43.
a_ What is the wind direction at (i) -
>) Pressure over the area is shown by isobars over the area. Cairo, (ii) Knartoum and i)
Kisangani?
*) Circles are used to represent each weather station. The shading
What is the cloud cover at the
inside each circle shows the extent of the cloud cover there.
i(eVOlenieteldatsversiealaieyatser,
*>> An arrow into the station circle shows the wind direction. BYxsYorallesaaleys (orersyalo)anrelavencoyagisy¢
. features of the weather at (i
»> The number of feathers on the arrow represents the wind speed. Kisangani and (ii) a
> Asymbol by the circle shows the type of precipitation, if any.
*) Temperature is written in numbers above the station circle.
; Wind speed Weather
" oe (km/h)
N ie ; O Calm 9 Drizzle
eee ree N 5 Aan .
30°N { ae pe = ates Lee it ‘D 1-5 e Rain
= — — — a a ee ee Sa fa Se eS
/ ie Cairo i? ‘O 6-15 T4 Thunderstorm

\ d ua ‘Oo 16-25
fi veN
N Se Ke
f i
Pe i
© CO26-34
wi a
eee ol é | For each additional
Re
Tia 1012 s half-feather add 10km/h
i : | ! a SS 90-98

38 ae AN

: Phi ua — i 30 Pie
Equator
- rr ‘ 4 . Kisangani
es
Been
' \

ie . eee a ip xy
| aga . , yet
0 800 oe | soe
km v g

Fig. 7.43 A synoptic chart for part of Africa for 2 pm on a day in March. The key to the cloud amount is on page 183.

Weather hazards storms sometimes intensify into deep low-pressure

Weather brings many benefits: warm temperatures and systems, with ferocious whirlpools of air. These are
steady rainfall allow farmers to earn aliving by producing known as hurricanes in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of
food to support people; rainfall can also be stored to Mexico and west coast of Mexico, as cyclones in the
provide the water needed for people's survival, as well Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and northern Australia,
as for many other activities; wind provides power for and as typhoons in the South China Sea and western
renewable and clean energy. However, weatherin excess Pacific Ocean. But, whatever their name, with wind
can also
be incredibly destructive. For example, flooding speeds of 119 kilometres an hour or more, they are
can result from long periods of intense rainfall, or rapid greatly feared by people living in their tracks.
thawing of heavy snowfall (see Chapter 5 for the effects pe average lifespan of a tropical storm is 7-14 days.
ofthis). Each one is given a name. A list of names is produced
: by the National Hurricane Center in the USA - beginning
Tropical storms with A and alternating between men and women’s
A tropical storm is equivalent on the Beaufort Scale james. The list of names for 2009 began with Ana, Bill,
(Table 7.5) to gale and storm categories 8-11 (where Claudette and Danny, and ended with Victor and Wanda.
the wind speed is 63-118 kilometres an hour). Tropical
 Where, when and why do tropical storms develop? storm. The heated moist air expands, becomes lighter
> They form over oceans between May and November and rises.
in the Northern Hemisphere and between November
Tropical storms form in the tropics only between 5°
and May in the Southern Hemisphere.
and 20° North and South. They do not form nearer
Sea surface temperatures have to be a minimum of the equator, because the effect of the Earth’s rotation
27 °C, so they only form in the summer when the is needed to make the rising air spin (and this does
midday sun is high in the sky, or in autumn after a not occur near the equator). They do not form in
long period of intense heating. The hot sea surface higher latitudes, because the sea is not warm enough.
warms the air in contact with it so that large amounts
With the exception of those affecting the west coast
of water vapour are evaporated into the air. This
: Ne: A of Mexico, tropical storms form towards the west
moisture is important for fuelling the growth of the
sides of the oceans.

Key
19 Average number of hurricanes per year [2 Sea temperature over 27°C

Tropicof
Cancer _ _ AY
uk)

Fig. 7.44 Where tropical storms form

How do tropical storms develop?

Up to 480 km across
< ca
r
Warm ocean provides
@ Heated, very moist air rising pgs heat and moisture to
from the ocean creates low V heLf ~
Wo”
ower the storm
pressure at the surface. a
Eye of o
@ More warm, moist air moves the storm
in over the ocean to replace
Up to
15 km
the air that has risen. in height
® The spiralling mass rises rapidly.
@ Thick cumulonimbus clouds are
produced from which very
heavy rain falls.
® The air cools at high levels and
sinks, forming the eye in the Very low Area of strongest winds, Surface winds
centre of the storm. pressure heaviest rain, and thunder rotate around
and lightning the eye
Fig. 7.45 Processes in the formation of tropical storms

While the system remains over hot water, these processes pressure centre even faster. Thick cumulonimbus clouds
continue and intensify. This is because, as the rising air are produced from which very heavy rain falls. At the
cools to below dew point and the moisture condenses tropopause, the air cools and some of this cool air sinks
into water droplets, condensation releases heat. This to form the eye - a calm, sunny area in the centre of
causes the air to rise even faster, the low pressure to the storm.
lower even more and the wind to rush into the low-
The weather in a tropical storm

Hours 14 24 10 let 20
"alert 6 Hours

Air pressure
PS 1000

5
250 995 ©
Temperature
¥ 2
©
o

225 2: 990 Ss
ie
=
wn
Yn
200 © 985
a

= 175 980
=
=
Ss
o
SSO 975
n ' Speed reduces
z Wind reaches
s to below
hurricane
hurricane
125 970 strength strength
. (119km/h)__

100

tS
€
=
50
i
:
‘o
fez
25

Air pressure

Wind direction Ve

“Precipitation — i : “iii ohn sors

suddenly Dry Wickte rainfall, but lessare
: _-
ms eS‘ ie
“with thundersto Sy G
re’. .
2 4 <
Pe 4 a. before the a +

Fig. 7.46:Weather recordings during the passage of a typical tropical storm

Imagine that you live in the path of the tropical

(
).C). Discussion point
storm above. Write an account of the weather during Would you expect people in LEDCs or MEDCs to suffer more as
the day. Divide it into sections: before the storm, the a result of tropical storms?
first part of the storm, the eye, the second part of
the storm, and after the storm has passed.
Problems caused by tropical storms Hurricanes are measured according to the hurricane’s
. * : ’

Tropical storms are the world’s most violent and strength, or intensity.
destructive storms - and a major climate hazard. They
cause a range of problems:
*> strong winds, which destroy homes and businesses,
and disrupt transport and power
*> storm surges, which are rapid rises in sea level -
caused by the low pressure and strong winds 5 >249 km/h >6 metres catastrophic
> torrential rain Table 7.9 How hurricanes are measured

> flooding and landslides, caused by the torrential

rain.

CASE STUDY

Tropical storms in the USA Hurricane Katrina, August 2005

The following examples of tropical storms both affected A few hours after this photograph (Fig. 7.47) was taken,
the USA (an MEDC) in 2005. The USA experiences tropical Hurricane Katrina moved north over the city of New Orleans
storms of different strengths every year in the ‘hurricane and caused one ofthe worst and costliest natural disasters
season’. that the USA has faced. By then it had strengthened to a
Category 5 hurricane, with winds reaching 280 kilometres
Hurricane Wilma, October 2005
an hour. This hurricane had wide-ranging impacts (see
Wilma was a Category 3 hurricane, with winds of over 190
Fig. 7.48).
kilometres an hour (plus stronger gusts). It moved from
the Gulf of Mexico across Florida from west to east at 35
kilometres an hour in just six hours — leaving floods from
the heavy rain and damage from the strong winds. Hurricane-
force winds extended for 145 kilometres in all directions
out from the eye, and a further 1800 kilometres beyond
that was battered by tropical storm-force winds. Deaths
resulted as far away as the Caribbean country of Haiti.

7) The speed at which Wilma moved across Florida saved

the state from worse flooding. The flooding that did
occur mainly affected inland agricultural areas with
small populations.

7) However, most wind damage to buildings occurred on

the heavily populated coasts. Many schools and
businesses were unable to open for three weeks until
the worst damage was repaired.

=> Six million people were left without power.

*> Florida suffered only 35 deaths from Wilma, but the

economic cost of the damage caused was
US$20.6 billion. For example, Florida’s citrus fruit and
sugar crops were destroyed — the cost to the sugar
industry alone was more than US$400 million.

7) However, the cost of the damage would have been

much higher if Wilma had crossed Florida about 12
kilometres further north, because then it would have
crossed more populated areas. The damage costs from Fig. 7.47 Hurricane Katrin
a hurricane depend more on the path it takes, and the August 2005
density of population along that path, than on the
category of the storm.
 Physical reasons: New Orleans is located in the marshlands
Social impacts
of the Mississippi Delta, where the land is constantly
e Across Louisiana and Mississippi, 1836 people were sinking. It is built on soft, easily eroded sediment. Much
killed.
of the city also lies below sea level — the water has to be
@ One million people were left homeless. kept out by artificial ‘levées’. Some areas are more than
@ There was a lack of clean water, food and toilet facilities three metres below sea level. One particularly badly flooded
in New Orleans. area was Terrytown, on the inside of a large meander of
@ Looting and disorder became serious problems. the River Mississippi.
Economic impacts Economic reasons: When protective structures are planned,
e Nearly everyone in New Orleans became unemployed. their design depends on their cost effectiveness. There
@ The total economic impact of Hurricane Katrina for is little reason to spend a lot of money providing protection
Louisiana and Mississippi was estimated to be over against events that are considered unlikely to happen in |
US$150 billion. a long time period. The levées and floodwalls protecting
@ Oil and natural gas production in the Gulf of Mexico New Orleans were designed to prevent damage from '
was reduced, as well as imports of oil and natural gas. hurricanes up to Category 3. They could not cope with a
Other impacts 6-metre-high storm surge, so water poured over them and
e Communications networks failed - many telephones several collapsed completely.
and mobiles didn’t work; Internet access and local TV The effects of Katrina were long lasting. A year after the
stations were disrupted. disaster, the population of New Orleans was still only half
e Around 1.7 million people lost electricity. the size that it had been before — about half a million,
e@ Most major roads into, and out of, New Orleans were compared with just over a million.
damaged.
@ The levées and floodwalls protecting New Orleans were The scale of the disaster wrought by hurricane Katrina is §
breached - 80% of the city ended up under water. not usual for hurricanes striking the USA, because the
e Buildings suffered extensive damage. country takes precautions to avoid loss of life. |

Fig. 7.48 The impacts of Hurricane Katrina

Relatively little damage was

done by the wind, because
many of the buildings were
builttowithstand hurricanes,
but most of the roof covering
of the Superdome sports
stadium was ripped off. This
was where 30 000 people
who could not leave New
Orleans had gone for shelter.
Supplies of food and water
had been gathered in
advance of the hurricane,
but the need to provide extra
toilets had been overlooked.
Rain leaked through the
damaged roof, and the
electricity and plumbing
failed, but the flooding in
Fig. 7.49 Emergency services rescuing people trapped on a roof.
the city made it impossible to rescue the people for several
Many busineses and richer people had insured their properties to
days.*Over the whole affected area, 60 O00 people had cover their losses. Unfortunately, the poorer people had no money
to be rescued. to spare for insurance, so they lost everything.

Why did Katrina do so much damage in a rich country

that has prepared for such events?
Human reasons: many people ignored an instruction to
evacuate New Orleans, either because they were living
below the poverty level (so they could not afford to evacuate),
or because they wanted to protect their homes from looters.
 How the USA prepares for hurricanes the storm does not hit the expected settlement, there
Meteorologists at the National Hurricane Centre in Florida will have been a considerable economic cost and disruption
monitor satellite images to track storms. Their aim is to to people’s lives for nothing.
provide an early warning for people in the USA and surrounding
The National Hurricane Centre also uses various means eT
countries, to enable them to protect their properties and
to educate people in advance about the dangers they face,
evacuate their families to a safer area.
and what to do if they are caught in a hurricane. These
However, predictions of where hurricanes will hit are not include Family Disaster Plans.
always successful. This is because tropical storms can
The Federal Emergency Management Agency was set up
suddenly change course. Exactly where they will make
to make sure that places are prepared for disasters of
landfall is not known until very near the time it actually
whatever kind, and to give help in an emergency and aid
happens. If a State Governor orders an evacuation, and
recovery after it.

CASE STUDY

Tropical storms in the Philippines of rain fell in a short time in some areas, causing
The mountainous group of islands that make up the rivers to flood and setting off landslides.
Philippines (an LEDC) are frequently hit by tropical storms,
7) The entire town of Ormoc was flooded under more than
like the two described below. Around 20 a year are experienced
three metres of water when the river which went through
in the wet season, which lasts from June to November.
its centre overflowed suddenly. The water was carrying
Tropical storm Thelma (local name Uring) vast amounts of mud and debris from the landslides
In November 1991, a weak tropical storm with winds of and the people had no warning. Nearly a quarter of the
only 95 kilometres an hour moved across four islands and population died.
left up to 8000 dead (5101 officially recorded and the rest
> A few hours later, the typhoon had moved west to
missing and not found). This was the deadliest tropical
destroy Bacolod. The intensely heavy rain destroyed
storm that the Philippines has experienced.
bridges and ripped houses from their foundations.
*) It was the amount of rainfall — not the wind strength
Thelma then turned to pass over Roxas, leaving more
— that caused the large loss of life. Over 150 millimetres
devastation due to flash flooding and landslides.

| Key
@ Town
| ALBAY Province

| ; —— Storm track
e Category 4 '. Philippine Sea
® Category 3
® Category 2

&
irac mors
Super Typhoon Durian (local name Reming) *) The loss of power, damage to buildings and disruption
This Category 5 typhoon is thought to have caused up to to mobile phone communications severely hindered
1200 deaths in November 2006 and led to damage costing emergency medical services.
at least US$13.5 billion. However, it could have been much
worse if it had continued in the direction it was following Over 2300 schools were destroyed or damaged.
on 29 November — a path that would have taken it over However, there was little impact on the maize and rice

the heavily populated

areas of the capital city, Manila. crops, because they had already been harvested.
Unfortunately for those living further south, it changed its Nevertheless, damage to agriculture had a considerable
cost.
course to a westwards path.

Durian reached a recorded wind speed of 320 kilometres The main needs were stated to be: tents for emergency
an hour (the strongest in the history of the country). This shelter, medicines, vaccines and power for hospitals,
wind destroyed the anemometer at Virac (on the south food, sleeping mats, blankets, mosquito nets, slippers
coast of the island of Catanduanes) that recorded it. The and underwear, kitchen utensils, transistor radios and

winds were described as of ‘unimaginable strength’. They flashlights with batteries, candles, cans for water
whipped up massive waves that caused a lot of damage storage, hygiene kits and water.
to towns on the east coasts of the islands near the One of the main priorities was to search for the dead
typhoon’s path. It uprooted the forests on Catanduanes, to prevent disease outbreaks.
destroyed 80% of the buildings and left large ships beached
on the shore. Relief efforts
The Philippines government gave millions of dollars for
The typhoon then moved over the sea to Albay, where it
relief and rebuilding, and organised convoys of vehicles
covered the area from as far north as Naga to as far south to take what was required to the affected areas. Other
as Legaspi. It blew away houses, took the roofs off large governments and many national and international aid
buildings, and made concrete and steel structures crumple. agencies also gave valuable assistance. Social workers
The torrential rains saturated volcanic deposits on the
were sent to deal with people affected by the stress caused
slopes of Mayon volcano. This caused mudflows that raced by the typhoon.
down the steep slopes of the volcano onto the settlements
below. People had no time to escape. Some of the severity of the frequent flooding has been
blamed on inadequate drainage systems, but there is
The extent of the damage another more damaging factor— deforestation. The Philippines
Because power and communication lines had been destroyed, used to have a cover of tropical rainforest. All but about
it took some time before the full extent of the damage 3% of this has now been cleared to provide valuable export
could be assessed. Surveys from the air showed total income. It is likely that the impacts of these two typhoons
devastation. Schools, hospitals, government buildings, would have been much less if the barrierto landslides and
banks and other important buildings were destroyed. Most mudflows provided by the forest had still been there.
of the officially estimated 1200 deaths occurred at the
foot of Mayon volcano, where families and villages were In 2011, after more disastrous flooding, landslides and
buried under volcanic debris. Entire villages disappeared. deaths, the Philippines government banned the new cutting
of natural forests. Several governments before have tried
Estimates of the impacts of the typhoon, which were unsuccessfully to ban logging, but some corrupt officials
made about two weeks after the disaster, included: appear not to notice the large amount of illegal logging
3.2 million people affected, 90 OOO living in 488 that takes place. The need to use funds for restoration
evacuation shelters, 214 OOO houses destroyed and and recovery after each of the many tropical storms that
330 000 partially destroyed. afflict the country, results in a cycle of poverty. There are
no resources left to put in place preventative measures
>) There was no power in two provinces and only 20% in
to protect against the next disaster.
a third province.
Unlike in MEDCs, such as the USA, emergency shelters
stocked with food and water are few and far between.
 Copy and complete Table 7.10 to compare the four tropical
storms discussed in the two case studies.
@ LEARNING TIP Hazards only exist
because people live in locations prone to
Is there any clear relationship between the strength of the wind
storms, volcanic eruptions and other
and the loss of life and cost of the damage caused?
damaging forces. Population increase is
To what extent do the loss of life and the cost of the damage
resulting in more people living in hazardous
appear to be linked to human activities?
areas, such as flood plains and on the
slopes of volcanoes.

aWilma —
USA (Florida)
= oe
. @ LEARNING TIP Researching the
numbers of deaths and costs of the damage
from different sources gives a variety of
figures. In disasters, no one can be
absolutely certain that the statistics are
correct, because many people remain
missing and others are thought incorrectly
2 #
to be missing.

* 1991 costs converted to 2005 value for comparison purposes (

).C) Discussion point
What would your feelings be if you were
Table 7.10 A comparison of four tropical storms
forced to evacuate your home because it was
thought that a hurricane might hit the area,
Drought but then it changed course at the last
What is drought? minute? Why would the local authorities feel
that they were correct to make you evacuate?
Drought is a longer than usual period of dry weather. Many people
live in areas where the climate has a dry season, and some live in
deserts where it is dry all year round. But they adjust to those conditions
and learn to cope with the difficulties of the environment. Droughts
occur when rain fails to fall when it is expected - causing problems
RESEARCH You could compare the
for vegetation and for human activities.
four tropical storms in the case studies
with one you research yourself. The website
Where do droughts occur? www.nasa.gov has useful images from
Droughts can occur almost everywhere, but there are certain areas space and www.hurricanezone.net shows
where they are particularly severe and frequent (see Fig. 7.51). The any storm which is active at the time you
effect of drought on the vegetation and land in some of these areas access the site. www.noaa.gov is also a
has been so severe that they have experienced desertification useful source of information.
(becoming increasingly like a desert).

Fig. 7.51 Areas (in yellow)

where frequent drought occurs
The Sahara Desert was thought to be advancing
southwards at a time when drought was extremely @ LEARNING TIP Rainfall figures from these areas
severe on its southern fringe - a semi-arid area known are sometimes quoted as proof of climate change. One
as the Sahel - between 1970 and 1993. Then the desert article, by an agency working with the government of Chad
edge retreated north again as higher-than-average to address climate change, compared the poor rainfall in
rainfall fell in six of the following 12 years. Chad in 2009 with the higher rainfall for 1950, as proof
that it is getting drier. However, rainfall was higher in 1994
Long-term average rainfall is not a very useful indicator and 2003 as well, which (if used as the comparison) would
of the expected rainfall in areas like the Sahel, because have led to a different conclusion.
rainfall is so variable. The Sahel is typical of areas with It is only meaningful to make comparisons with the median
a semi-desert climate, because they are transitional or mean calculated over a long term. This was emphasised
areas between a dry climate and one that has a marked in 2010, when so much rain fell in eastern Chad that flooding
wet season. In such areas, the median is usually a better was a problem! In four months, nearly 70 000 people lost
indicator of the rainfall than the mean. their homes because of flooding, but there was an above-
average harvest to compensate.

CASE STUDY

Drought in Chad (an LEDC) Human activities that make the effect of
Physical reasons for drought in Chad drought more severe
Chad is a country that is basically split into two. The Two important factors that contributed to the drought
northern part is in the Sahara Desert and only has about problems in Chad were that, during the previous wetter-
180 millimetres of rain a year. The southern part is in the than-average years, there was rapid human population
Sahel and is semi-desert. About 80% of the population growth, plus an increase in livestock numbers of about
lives in the south and depends on subsistence farming 35%.
and livestock rearing. Less than 3% of the land is arable.
When the drought started, there was no longer enough
The mean annual rainfall at Ati is only 393 millimetres pasture for the animals. The result of this lack of pasture
(nearly all of which falls in July and August). Because the was overgrazing, which removed the remaining grass and
rain falls in the summer months, the high temperature exposed the soil. With no roots to hold it in place, the soil J
evaporates a lot of it before it can sink into the soil or was easily blown away. The soil erosion was worsened by
reach the water table. In the many years between 1970 the soil’s dryness — dry soil is lighter than wet soil and }
and 1993 with below average rainfall, Lake Chad shrank more easily removed. The overgrazing also led to iess
enormously and the area was thrown into crisis. Crops humus ending up in the soil (humus is decayed vegetation,
failed, pastures died and water supplies dried up — leading which helps soil particles to stick together). The reduction
to insufficient food and water for the people and their in humus caused the soil structure to break down, so it
animals. There was widespread malnutrition in the country. crumbled into individual particles that were lighter and
more easily blown away.
r
i

Chad’s human population growth led to an increasing

amount of woody vegetation being removed for use as
|
ia firewood — again leaving the soil more exposed to
Key
wind erosion. The water table also fell, because
O Weather station of the lack of rain filtering down to replenish it —
és Refugees and because the higher population was drawing
more water from the boreholes for themselves
| --250-— Isohyet (mm)
and their animals. Overcultivation is another result
of population growth. It leads to soil exhaustion, where
the nutrients are removed until all fertility is lost.

Desertification occurred in Chad much more quickly than

would have happened had the carrying capacity of the
land for both livestock and humans not been exceeded.
The grass would still have died in the long drought, but f
might — over time — have been replaced by more drought- 4
resistant vegetation (and the soil erosion might not have
been so severe). But, once the soil has gone, the recovery
of the vegetation becomes almost impossible.

Fig. 7.52 The division of Chad between desert and semi-desert

2008 had below-average rainfall and, in 2009, the cereal Chad’s population has continued to grow. By 2011, it had
harvests failed because of insufficient rainfall again. This reached 10.76 million, which is almost five times larger
failure of the rains and the crops resulted in widespread than it was in 1950. It is still increasing by 2% a year
malnutrition and the loss of over 30% of livestock (there are high death and infant mortality rates, but an
(780 000 cattle died). Over half of Chad’s children suffered even higher birth rate). Between 2003 and 2011, about
from chronic malnutrition (leading to an inability to fight 340 000 refugees entered Chad (mainly from Sudan) This
off disease). The child mortality rate was very high. Over put extra strain on Chad’s already stretched resources.
2 million people were affected by the drought and crop There are also about 700 OOO internal refugees in the
failure. Even though the 2010 harvest was good (because country, because of fighting between government and
adequate rains fell), food aid was still expected to be opposition forces.
needed in 2011.
The United Nations Refugee Agency has been working to

he LsPB | stop desertification by:

_Sustainmie
There ys inwhich
wh desertifica tincanbe stopped planting young trees, including woodland trees (like
3 andHoc A The followingexampleshave all been acacia) and fruit trees (like mango)
tried successfully
in e Sa providing the people with firewood, to prevent the
Fs Sraliichetnen Aue om in is stops existing trees and shrubs from being cut down
. face?ows the
bag| atl
nto grow =
ck. me =) introducing solar-powered cookers to reduce the need
pra 510tes.sri ahirialsht for firewood in the first place.
is
2 is se
-*
to eri He ‘the oes
A sustainable strategy to protect water resources has also
been developed. It is planned to replace electric pumps
oe
Oi hee esetd A tet from
am Sneath
with manual ones, which are cheaper to maintain. Wells
ab Talay
rotshe
eee Sn
have been dug in dry river beds, to preserve the water in
ee a © eee
“© Building ae 2collect
ee a erinthe the aquifer beneath the water table deep in the rocks.

> wel sn Thostojed wateristhen used to irriga

ate Lake Chad
ae pps thedryseason. OO tetmagegee Lake Chad is shallow, so a decrease in rainfall quickly
reduces its size. It shrank from 25 000 km? in size to
The work of aid agencies about 8000 km?, partly because of the drought years and
The efforts of aid agencies in Chad have been hampered partly because more water was being removed for crop
by a certain amount of lawlessness in the country, and irrigation. Between 2009 and 2011 it increased in size
the fact that the problems continue to increase in scale. again.

CASE STUDY

Drought in Kenya (another

Key
LEDC) | Annual rainfall (mm
Kenya’s rainfall pattern (a co0+
Lying between 5° N and 5° S, Kenya might
[4 400-599
seem an unlikely country to be afflicted by
200-399
drought. However, most of the country is
on the East African Plateau, which has a
totally different climate from the equatorial
lowlands to the west. It has two rainy seasons
— the ‘long rains’ usually last from March
Masinga
to May and the ‘short rains’ from October
> Dame
to December. Much of the northern half of
the country receives less than 400
millimetres of rainfall a year, and rainfall
is erratic and unreliable over most of the
country.

Fig. 7.53 Kenya’s rainfall distribution

 =) Export crops (requiring a lot of water)
are most important for Kenya’s national
economy, but livestock are vital to
Kenyans for food security and income
in the drier parts of the country.

=) Although Kenya has many rivers, few

of them are permanent — especially in
their lower courses, because they have
been dammed upstream to provide
water for irrigation, hydroelectric power
production, homes and industries. Kenya TTP
EATEN
TT
ANT
TAMA

is described as suffering from water

stress.

*) Many trees and shrubs have been lost, 1985 1990 AUIS) 2000 2005 2010 ;
because nearly all people living in rural ;
areas use wood for cooking, and over
90% in-urban areas use charcoal (made
from wood).

*> Drought is common in Kenya and soon

causes-major problems. The rainfall
patterns shown in Fig. 7.54 for central
Kenya differ in detail for other parts of
the country, but all of them show that
about half of the years since 1985 have
been drought years.

The effect of drought in 2008-2009

on crops
In January 2009, the Kenyan government
declared a state of emergency, because
10 million Kenyans needed food aid after
a poor harvest. This was caused in eastern
Kenya by the lower-than-normal ‘short rains’
of 2008. However, the harvest in the west
of the country (a very important maize-
growing region) was poor for another reason.
There was no drought in western Kenya
but, in late 2007 and early 2008, violence
after a disputed election badly affected
this region. Farmers were forced to flee
the violence and did not return until late
April — by which time it was too late to plant == as ial me iain
maize. Fig. 7.55 A satellite image of part of East Africa, including Kenya

The food problem worsened when the ‘long rains’ of 2009

failed (as they did in Chad and the Sahel and throughout
north-east Africa). In some areas, the rains in the planting
season had failed in five consecutive years. By April 2009,
30% gf the population of northern Kenya was suffering —_ Vegetation that was notgrowing well is shown as brown
from-acute malnutrition. on the satellite image, but thriving vegetation is green.
Reservoirs also dried up, which resulted in water and It Is clear that drought was not affecting western Kenya i
when the image was taken in January 2011. |
power shortages. Water supplies to cities had to be rationed
and there was insufficient water in its reservoir for any
hydroelectricity to be produced at Masinga Dam.
The effects of the 2008-2009 drought on
pastoralists and their livestock
South and central Kenya is home to the Maasai people,
who (with tribes in the north) practice seasonal nomadism
— moving their herds to seek the best pastures. In a normal
year, their movements are seasonal from dry season
pastures to wet season pastures. They measure their
wealth by the number of animals that they own and, in
time of drought, they seek water by digging down into dry
river beds.

Severity of drought
Not affected or not known

Sed Alert
Fig. 7.56 Camel herders seek water by digging a well in a dry Py Alarm
river bed ee Emergency
By September 2009, pastoralists in northern Kenya were
finding life so difficult that they were abandoning their
traditional way of life (as had many before them in the Fig. 7.57 The extent and degrees of drou ght in Kenya,
2005 drought). Their pastures had been destroyed by September 2010 ;
drought, overgrazing and soil erosion. Many oftheir goats,
cattle — and even camels — had died through lack of water herds. The poor condition of the animals resulted in their
and pasture, and others had had to be killed to feed their value being a 30th of what it would have been in a year
families. Some of them moved into war-torn Somalia or with adequate rains.
Ethiopia, seeking better pasture, but they were attacked
there and had their animals stolen by militias and raiders.

Many others decided to give up their traditional nomadic

way of life and settled in villages where watering points
were available, or alongside roads where government
lorries deliver water in plastic tanks. But village water
holes attract wild animals that attack children and livestock.

Northern Kenya continued to suffer from drought in 2010.

Signs of desperation began to appear, as conflicts over
the scarce resources led to some deaths.

The effect of drought on the Maasai of southern

and central Kenya
Even before the drought the Maasai faced problems,
because a lot of the land over which they used to roam
with their herds had been turned into ranches and National
Parks. Drought hit their nomadic way of life badly. Streams
and other water sources dried up, and the quality of the
pasture declined after several long droughts. During the
2009 drought, they were forced to reduce the size of their
 However, over the years, the Maasai have developed By September 2009, at least 60 elephants and hundreds
strategies to cope with droughts. of other animals had died in Kenya. Some died from
starvation, others ofthirst, and many others because their
Some strategies are short term:
weakened immune systems could not fight disease or
*) Taking their animals to graze very early in the morning, infection. Conservationists tried to save animals by feeding
when the grass is covered with dew. The grass is more them hay or moving them to wetter areas.
palatable then and the cattle only have to be watered
Ever since land was taken away from the people to create
once every other day.
Kenya’s national parks, there has been conflict between
>> Guarding reserved pastures on the higher lands while locals and wildlife. During the drought, the pastoralists
the grass regenerates, so that it can be used during took their herds illegally into the national parks and wildlife
droughts. reserves (like the Maasai Mara National Reserve) in a
desperate search for grazing land and water. They question
> Increasing the length oftheir migrations as the severity why they have to allow wildlife onto their land, but cannot
of the drought worsens. use the parks and reserves for grazing at such difficult
> Digging shallow wells in dry river beds during migrations times. They think that the interests of the tourists who
come to see the wildlife have been put before their own.
to obtain water.

Some strategies to ensure the sustainability of their way Aid given in Kenya by the International Red
of life are long term: Cross and Red Crescent societies
Following appeals to raise funds, these relief agencies
*> Keeping a mixture of animals. Cattle graze on grass were able to give schools food rations for six months, as
but goats and camels browse on foliage that might still well as drilling boreholes and wells, building dams and
be available during droughts. Camels supply milk and laying pipelines to take the waterto settlements in drought-
can have different water requirements to cattle. stricken areas. To help with the recovery of farming, they
also supplied kits containing a drip irrigation system, a
> Increasing the size of their herds during wetter periods,
water tank, seeds and other necessities. They gave publicity
so they will have some animals left at the end of a
through different media about drought awareness and
drought.
best practices to reduce its effects.
So far the Maasai have been successful in combating both
The drought had spread to the whole of the Horn of Africa
the loss of land and drought.
by July 2011. Dadaab refugee camp in Kenya became the
The effects of the 2008-2009 drought on wildlife largest in the world, housing more than 370 OOO Somali
refugees. Ten million people were thought to be at risk
The photograph shows wildlife in a National Park in from starvation in the region.
the fourth successive year of drought. The animals have
gathered at a borehole that has little water left in it. Draw a dispersion diagram to show total
The grass has been overgrazed and killed by the drought, rainfalls at Masinga Dam for the months
and the soil structure has been ruined - leaving the March to June in three years:
sandy conditions seen in the foreground. There are still 1997 = 305 mm, 2006 = 260 mm, 2009 =
leaves on the trees and bushes that browsing animals 110 mm (compared with the mean of 240
E
like giraffes can eat, but the grazers will find little food. E mm)
Ee
E How would these variations in annual
F rainfall affect hydroelectricity production at
E
2E Masinga Dam?
Draw a compound bar graph to show the cost
to Kenya of drought. Use the figures:
58% loss of industrial production, 26% loss of
hydroelectric power production, 10% loss of
crop production, 6% loss of livestock.

SASH
AADAAADINAAW
STAAL

= OT

Fig. 7.59 Wildlife in drought conditions

CASE STUDY

Drought in Australia (an MEDC)

Australia is the driest continent on Earth. A large part of
it is hot desert and the majority of the population live on
or near the coasts.

L& a_ Briefly compare the areas with below average

rainfall in Fig. 7.60 with a population map of
Australia (from your atlas). Which major cities
are in those areas?
i Draw a bar graph to show the information
in Table 7.11. Put years along the X axis
and use a vertical scale from -250 through
0 to + 350. Show the mean as a line
drawn across the graph at 0.
Describe the rainfall pattern in the Murray
Basin between 1995 and 2010.
i In which two years was the drought
especially severe? Fig. 7.60 Areas (in

The effects of drought on arable farming

Between 2001 and 2009, farmers in south-east Australia
faced a drier-than-average period, which included two
severe droughts. During this time, farm debt tripled.

Birds were starving as early as 2002. Huge flocks of emus

moved south to the wheat belt and destroyed areas of the
crop. In October 2002, one of the biggest dust storms
ever known removed about 10 million tonnes of fine soil
particles from Queensland and New South Wales and took
it out to sea.

7) Wheat yields fell sharply — farmers planted less and

the yield per hectare also fell. The total wheat yields Table 7.11 Differences between annual rainfalls (1995-2010) and
in 2002 and 2006 were less than half their normal the mean rainfall in the Murray River Basin of south-east Australia
level.
The effects of drought on livestock farming
=) Income from farming overall fell by about 18% in 2006. Crop yields fall sharply during droughts, but they bounce
back quickly when sufficient rains fall. However, the effects
» The price of buying water for irrigation rose rapidly
of drought last longer for livestock farmers, as can be
during the droughts, causing crop farmers to lose
seen during the recent droughts in Australia:
money overall.
* Australian livestock farmers still had to provide feed
Reservoir levels dropped so low that water which used
for their animals when the pasture died, which added
to flow to the fields by gravity had to be pumped (adding
to their costs. The price of wheat for feed more than
to farmers’ costs).
doubled between 2005 and 2008.
There was a global impact, because the failure of the
To reduce the size of the herds they needed to feed
Australian wheat harvest contributed to an 80% rise
(and their costs) the farmers sold some of their animals.
in the price of wheat on world markets.
But, because the animals were in poor condition, they
were sold for a lower price than normal.

“> When the drought was finally over, the livestock farmers
had fewer animals left to breed from, and those were
in a poorer condition than before the drought. Building
up a new herd or flock takes time.
FEAST TS TAT TPES

Fig. 7.61 Providin g food for sheep on dried pasture in Fig. 7.62 Low water levels in the Murray River in June 2008
New South Wales

The need for desperate measures 7) At the end of December 2001, bushfires raged right on
In April 2007, the Australian Prime Minister announced that the northern edge of Sydney. Over 100 homes were
no one in the Murray-Darling River Basin would be allowed destroyed.
to have irrigation water, or water for livestock, unless
7) February 2009 was an extremely disastrous time. There
considerable amounts of rain fell in the next six weeks
were bushfires again in the Sydney area, but the greatest
(because the existing water had to be saved to supply urban
devastation was to the north of Melbourne (173 people
areas). The Prime Minister commented that the measures
died and over 2000 homes were burnt). The cost of the
would have a very critical effect on horticulture, vineyards
fires near Melbourne was estimated to be two billion
and orchards, as well as the dairy and other industries.
Australian dollars.
Some rain did fall, but water had to be severely rationed to
farmers. The dry period came to an abrupt end in 2010 and 2011,
when much higher than normal rainfall caused disastrous
To cope with the restrictions, arable farmers left a lot of
floods. Australia’s rainfall is very unreliable and very erratic.
their crop area without irrigation and used all of their water
allocation to heavily irrigate smaller areas, so that they The Australian Government has a Drought Watch Service
could be certain of producing high yields from them. In that monitors the rainfall situation, so that it can give early
2008-09, 25% of the cropland in the Mildura District of the warning of droughts to help businesses and rural communities.
Murray River Basin was left without irrigation. It has a fund to give to individuals and communities to help
them recover from the effects of drought.
Other impacts of the drought
It is not just agriculture that counts the cost. During droughts
fewer workers are needed, e.g. it was estimated that in the
Mildura area 1700 people lost their jobs as a result of
drought between 2006 and 2008. The drought took at least
1% off the value of Australia’s economy. In urban areas,
gardens and sports fields were affected because the use
of water was restricted.

Bush fires — an even worse consequence

When vegetation is very dry after a long drought, lightning
can easily set fire to it— which frequently happens in Australia.
The drought years from 2001 to 2009 led to many serious
bushfires:

2009
8, 7 a ee ea n=

15 a Why do dust storms occurin droughts? )CO). Discussion point

b Why do they have very serious consequences? Would you prefer to live in an area with tropical storms, or one
where droughts are frequent? In what ways would the impacts
of these be different for a family?
 $4
[de ke ee
Py ow 5 SO

t)
Ve Re
 .@ LEARNING TIP Rainforest is found mainly in two
types of climate - equatorial and tropical hot and wet
(monsoon). The vegetation in each of these climatic zones
is rainforest and tropical, but there are differences between
them. This is because each type of vegetation is adapted
to the climate where it has developed.
Studying climate and vegetation zones in different textbooks
and atlases reveals that there are considerable differences
in classification - leadingto differences in the areas shown
on maps.
At a higher level of study, the equatorial and tropical
monsoon climates, and their associated vegetations (tropical
rainforest and tropical monsoon forest), would be dealt
with separately. The IGCSE syllabus requires knowledge of
one rainforest climate. The equatorial climate has been
chosen for study in this chapter, because it is the climate
normally associated with the term ‘tropical rainforest’.

Climate Compare the information in Fig. 8.1 with other

We have seen that weather can change continuously Climate graphs in your atlas. What characteristics
and that one day’s weather cannot be used as a guide make this climate different?
to what the weather will be like at any other time. For
this reason, records of weather taken over at least 30 Equatorial hot and wet
rain all year
years are averaged and used to indicate the climate.
Climate is therefore an average of the weather. Historical
records and other evidence indicate that climate changes
over time. For example, it was particularly cold in
northern Europe from about 1750 to 1850, but about
5000 years ago it was warmer than it is today. There is jeguies
temperature
also evidence that the Sahara Desert was much wetter
in the past than it is today. Fifty years ago, after a period
of cooling, it was suggested that another Ice Age could
be expected. Now global warming is the main concern. Annual precipitation 2415mm

The CIE IGCSE syllabus requires the study of two types Fig. 8.1 The climate of Singapore

of climate - the climates in which tropical rainforest

and tropical desert vegetation grow. OC). Discussion point
As you can see, Singapore’s climate is very uniform. Do you
The equatorial climate think that living in an equatorial climate would be boring? Why
or why not? Describe the characteristics of your ideal climate
The global distribution of the to live in.

equatorial climate
The equatorial climate is hot and wet all year - it has All of the areas with an equatorial climate are lowlands.
no seasons. It is found in three large areas - the Amazon In the Americas, a narrow strip formed by the Andes
Basin in South America, the Congo Basin in Central Mountains separates the Amazon Basin from a smaller
Africa (with an extension westwards along a narrow area of equatorial climate in coastal Columbia, Panama
coastal strip in southern West Africa), and the Malaysian and Costa Rica. The Andes have a much colder climate,
Peninsula and islands of South East Asia, which include because temperature falls as altitude increases. For the
Singapore. In Chapter 7, you learned about a day’s same reason, the area of equatorial climate in Africa
weather in Balikpapan (on the east coast of Borneo), does not extend right along the equator to the east coast
which is in the same climatic area as Singapore - the altitude of the East African Plateau reduces the
(Fig. 8.1). All of the main areas with an equatorial temperature. In fact, Mount Kilimanjaro (located at
climate lie within 10° of latitude of the equator. only 3°S) is even snow-capped.
By ae 8 Climate and vegetati

Atlantic

pa

ndey Coastal ae
Oe
ie West Africa “~~ “\ Congo.
Amazon ape: : Peninsular
Basin Malaysia

Pacific
Ocean
Indian
Ocean

Fig. 8.2 The global distribution of the areas with an equatorial climate

& Characteristics of the equatorial

LEARNING TIP There are areas outside the zone climate
from 10°N to 10°S where a similar climate exists on east
coasts - where onshore winds bring heavy rain all year. | 2 Use the data in Table 8.1 to answer these questions.
This includes the east coasts of Central America, Brazil
a_ Calculate for Singapore and use a word to
and Madagascar. However, these areas also experience
describe: (i) the mean annual temperature,
destructive hurricanes, which is not a characteristic of an (ii) the annual temperature range. (Show your
equatorial climate. working.)
In Singapore, the sun rises at 6 am and sets at

@ LEARNING TIP When asked to describe a distribution

6 pm all year round. Look at the data about
sunshine hours. Would you regard this as a
over time, do not give a month-by-month account. Instead, cloudy climate? Explain your answer.
describe the main patterns or trends and the extremes. Estimate the mean annual relative humidity.
What does this tell you about the atmosphere in
Singapore?
Singapore’s average annual precipitation is
2415 mm. Describe this total and the
distribution of the rainfall throughout the year.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Mean temp. (°C) 26.5 27 2S hi 2 To 28 28 28 28 28 As ON) 26.5

Mean max. temp. (°C) 30 BL ot 31 32 32 32 32 32 31 oil 30
Mean min. temp. (°C) 23 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 23 23 23
Mean relative humidity (%) 82 19 19 81 81 19 80 80 80 80 82 82

Mean rainfall (mm) 252 169 190 183 175 slirés) 170 197 179 214 253 258

Mean daily sunshine hours 5.1 6.4 6.1 5,9 5.9 6.2 6.2 6.0 5.6 53 4.6 4.5

Table 8.1 Climate statistics for Singapore (1° 23’ N, 103° 59’ E)
Reasons for Singapore’s high
temperatures
The influence of latitude on temperature
The high temperatures in Singapore result from the
sun at midday being directly overhead at the equator
on 21 March and 23 September, and very nearly overhead
during the rest of the year. This is caused by the orbit
of the Earth around the sun, and the fact that the Earth’s
axis is at an angle of 23%° to the plane of orbit. An orbit
takes one year. It results in the sun being furthest from
overhead in Singapore on 21 June (when at midday it’s
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, 23%°N) and on
22 December (when at midday it’s overhead at the
Tropic of Capricorn, 23%°S). On these two dates, the
sun at the equator is still at a high angle of 66%°.
21 June Equinoxes 21 Mar. 23 Sept.

Rays
Sun’s
Sun’s
rays Sun’s
Rays

Fig. 8.3 The orbit of the Earth round the sun, causing varying angles of the midday sun on different dates in the year

The higher the angle of the sun’s rays, the greater is the nights - and the reverse occurs when the sun is overhead
heating of the Earth’s surface. This is for two reasons: at the Tropic of Capricorn. At latitude 66%°N, the sun
does not set on 21 June and it does not rise above the
> In Fig. 8.4, the two bundles of sun’s rays have equal
horizon on 22 December.
amounts of heating power. But, at the equator, the
high-angle rays fall on a smaller area of the Earth’s Sun's rays
North Pole

surface, so the heat is more concentrated than at ic Circle 665 N

higher latitudes.
Tropic of
> Secondly, the rays at the equator have a shorter
passage through the Earth’s atmosphere. As the sun’s
rays pass through the atmosphere, they can be
reflected and scattered back into space by clouds
and dust, or absorbed by atmospheric gases. Therefore,
a shorter passage through the atmosphere allows
more insolation (incoming solar radiation) to reach
the Earth’s surface. Tropic of Capricorn 23+ §
South Pole e
Latitude also influences the length of daylight and
Fig. 8.4 The influence of latitude on temperature
darkness, which has an impact on temperature. Imagine
a vertical line bisecting the June world in Fig. 8.3 with
the right-hand half of it in sunlight and the other half
in darkness. The Earth rotates on its axis once every {
CO). Discussion point
24 hours. The result is that, although there is always What must the temperature and precipitation be like at the North
12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness at the and South Poles? How long is the period of uninterrupted sunlight
at the Poles? For how long does the sun never rise? Look at an
equator, all other latitudes have varying lengths. When
atlas map of the relief of northern Canada. Why do people living
the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, places in
there find it easier to travel in winter than in summer?
the northern hemisphere have longer days and shorter
The influence of clouds on temperature Water droplets in clouds, water vapour, carbon dioxide
Places near the equator are hot, but - because of the and other gases all contribute to the greenhouse effect.
influence of clouds - they are not the hottest places on The air near the Earth’s surface is kept warmer, because
Earth. During the day, clouds reduce surface temperatures, short-wave solar radiation can pass through the atmosphere
because their white upper surfaces reflect some solar relatively easily, but the Earth’s long-wave radiation is
radiation back into space (and they also absorb some trapped. This means that, for example, cloudy nights
radiation). About 50% of solar radiation actually gets in Singapore, and other places with an equatorial climate,
through to be absorbed by the Earth’s surface and keep it warmer than it would otherwise be. Even so,
converted into long-wave radiation. This is then radiated the diurnal (daily) temperature range of around 7°C is
back into space at night, except where clouds act as a considerably greater than the annual range of temperature
blanket by absorbing it and re-radiating it back to Earth. Olio G.

4 Some radiation passes

back into space

3 Long-wave radiation from

1 Solar radiation the earth is absorbed by
gases in the atmosphere

5 Greenhouse gases
absorb and re-radiate
2 Radiation heats heat
the Earth’s surface |

Fig. 8.5 The greenhouse effect

Reasons for Singapore’s high rainfall Tropopause

The combination of high temperatures and air with

high moisture content results in convectional rainfall
(Fig. 8.6). The towering cumulonimbus clouds can
produce very heavy rain (often with thunderstorms).
These usually occur in the afternoon, when the ground
heat has built up.
Being an island, Singapore has very moist air, because , Powerful
water is evaporated from the surrounding sea. However, “ convection
currents
inland locations with equatorial climates also have high
humidity, because of evaporation from the wet ground,
numerous lakes and rivers, and transpiration from
the dense forest vegetation.

{
).C). Discussion point
If there was no atmosphere, what would the Earth’s day and
night time temperatures be like?

Rising air expands and cools

@ LEARNING
Hot moist air rises

TIP The factors causing the equatorial Moist air -—————>- Air in contact is heated <—————. Mist air
climate at Singapore apply to all other areas with an
equatorial climate, except its small island location.

Fig. 8.6 Convectional rainfall formation

 >> In March and September the ITCZ is approximately
at the equator.
>) But in December (when the sun is overhead at the
Tropic of Capricorn), the ITCZ is further south.

> In June the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer,

so the ITCZ moves into the Northern Hemisphere.
As the ITCZ moves over equatorial areas twice a year,
many weather stations have double maxima of rain -
caused by the increased convectional activity along the
ITCZ. The rainfall pattern at Kisangani in the Congo
Basin illustrates this (Table 8.2). Kisangani is very near
to the equator.

3 Using the data in Table 8.2, construct a rainfall

graph for Kisangani. On the graph add the labels
‘sun overhead at Kisangani’ with a vertical arrow
pointing to 21 March, and repeat it for 23
September. Put arrows to 21 June and 22 December
Fig. 8.7 An afternoon thunderstorm developing at Panama City.
and label them with ‘sun overhead at Tropic of
Dense cumulonimbus cloud has formed.
Cancer’ and ‘Capricorn’. Note above your rainfall
Because air is rising in the equatorial zone, surface bars the total mean annual rainfall.
winds are light - except when sudden downdrafts from jJan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
the cumulonimbus clouds produce strong gusts. In the 50> 88 275,459) 132\,104, 136 169) 186).221) 195) 33
past, when sailing ships reached this zone they would
often be stuck for weeks because of the lack of wind. | Table 8.2 The mean monthly rainfall at Kisangani in millimetres
(the total mean annual rainfall is 1698 mm)
As a result, the equatorial low-pressure areas over the
oceans became known as ‘the doldrums’.
The tropical desert climate
Because warm air expands, there is less weight in a
column of warm air than in colder air, so the pressure The global distribution of tropicgs
at the surface is lower. The equatorial zone is a permanent deserts
low-pressure belt. As winds blow into low pressure to Most tropical deserts are located in latitudes from 15°
replace the rising air, the winds meet and rise in a zone to 30° (astride the tropics) on the western sides of
known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). continents. However, the Mojave, Mexican, Iranian and
This zone encircles the world, but its position changes Thar deserts all have tropical desert climates but lie
according to the different positions of the overhead sun: north of the Tropic of Cancer - extending to 40°N.

Current
qe
Cold ocean current
Warm ocean current
NA ‘Arabia 4
nee “ Desert ¥Py \ Trade winds
yy
_ Namiboy Tropical deserts
Note: The Kalahari Desert
is a semi-desert area to the
east of the coastal Namib Desert

Humboldt Current
~ West Australian
(Peruvian) Current Jee
Current
Great Australian ”
Desert

Fig. 8.8 The global distribution of tropical deserts

Characteristics of the tropical desert very dry
climate no reliable rain

a Compare the information in Fig. 8.9 with other

climate graphs in your atlas. What
characteristics make this climate different?
b Which hemisphere is Tamanrasset in and how
does the climate graph indicate this?

jjejuies
temperature

Using the data in Table 8.3, construct a graph to

show the mean monthly temperatures and rainfall
for Luderitz. Add the total rainfall of 31.4 mm above
your rainfall bars. Annual precipitation 54mm
Fig. 8.9 The climate of Tamanrasset in Algeria

sl 36 vs
EE Ad

IPRS NS aSIRS

Table 8.3 The climate statistics for Luderitz (26° 38’S, 15° 10’E) on the coast of Namibia in the Namib Desert

The influence of latitude on temperature Luderitz is in the Southern Hemisphere and Tamanrasset
When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the is in the Northern Hemisphere, so their temperature
sun, latitudes in that hemisphere receive the sun’s rays graphs show different patterns:
at a higher angle than the same latitudes in the Southern
> Arise to the middle of the year, followed by a decline
Hemisphere. As a result, they are hotter. The opposite
to December, indicates a weather station in the
is true when the Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards
Northern Hemisphere. Summer is in the middle of
the sun.
the year.
Because the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer on
A decline to the middle of the year followed by a
21 June, and at the Tropic of Capricorn on 22 December,
rise to December indicates a weather station in the
it might be expected that those would be the hottest
Southern Hemisphere. Summer is at the beginning
months for each of the hemispheres. But, in fact, that
and end of the year.
is not usually true. This is because there is normally a
temperature lag as the ground heat builds up. The Also, away from the equator, the length of day is longer
hottest and coolest months are usually around a month in the summer - giving more sunshine hours in areas
after the sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the without cloud to add to the heating.
sky at midday.
@ LEARNING TIP Summeris the hottest season and
The temperature differences caused by the tilting of
the hemispheres towards or away from the sun at it occurs at different times of year in the Northern and
Southern Hemisphere. You must refer to the hottest time
different times during the Earth’s orbit mean that the
of the year as summer and the coldest as winter, except
tropical desert climate has seasons. Summer is the
for the equatorial climate, which has no seasons. When
period when the midday sun is at a high angle in the describing the tropical desert climate, it is important to
sky, and winter is the period when it is at a lower angle. refer to summer and winter, even though where you live
The sun is never very low in tropical deserts, so winters winters may be much colder.
are normally hot and summers very hot!
Khartoum is located at 15°N, so the sun is overhead a moderate annual temperature range of 11.3 °C.
twice - in the month before and the month after it is However, temperatures vary considerably in different
overhead at midday at the Tropic of Capricorn. Khartoum’s tropical desert locations. This is because latitude is not
maximum mean monthly temperature of 34.5 °C occurs the only influence on temperature.
in May, and the minimum of 23.2 °C in January - giving

Mean max. temp. (°C) OUP ade OOO. 140,40 ALwe ALS ORAL 4'Bi.o oe (O01 p Soe BD.2 31.8 Slat

Mean min. temp. (°C) DDG At Oe 20D 5 eae | 273 Diese eel a ieee. 2OOR aoe LIB ZZ

Table 8.4 Climate statistics for Knartoum (380m) in the Sahara Desert

The influence of altitude on temperature The influence of distance from the sea on
The air temperature decreases as altitude increases. temperature
This is because the air becomes thinner and contains Because water heats up and cools down more slowly than
less water vapour and other gases to absorb the Earth’s land, coastal areas have warmer winters and cooler
long-wave radiation. There is also less dust to scatter it summers than places further inland. This is known as
back to Earth.The rate of temperature decrease varies, the maritime influence, when air blowing in from the
but averages about 0.6 °C for every 100 metres ofheight sea brings the temperature of the sea to the land.
gained. (This is not the same rate as the rate of cooling
A comparison of the climates of Luderitz and
in unsaturated rising air, which is about
Keetmanshoop, both in Namibia, demonstrates this
1 °C per 100 metres).
effect (Tables 8.3 and 8.5). Find these two locations in
Look again at the temperature graph for Tamanrasset an atlas. Keetmanshoop is on the same latitude as
(Fig. 8.9). Its temperatures are considerably lower than Luderitz, but it is about 290 kilometres away from the
those of Khartoum (Table 8.4). This is a result of the sea. On average, Keetmanshoop’s warmest month is
fact that Khartoum is at an altitude of 380 metres above 8 °C warmer than that of Luderitz, and its coldest month
sea level, whereas Tamanrasset is 1377 metres - a is 1 °C colder. This gives it an annual temperature range
difference of almost 1000 metres, which is equivalent that is larger by 9 °C than that of Luderitz, because of
to 6 °C of temperature. Keetmanshoop’s more continental location.

Mean temp. (°C) 26.5 225 15:35) 18.5 23:5

Mean min. wale-€°6) 10.5

Mean rainfall (mm) 29 SU 20.5 145 115

Table 8.5 Climate statistics for Keetmanshoop in inland Namibia

@ LEARNING TIP It may seem strange that it is much

RESEARCH Find a map in an atlas showing mean
colder at the top of high mountains than it is at sea level, January temperatures in Europe. How does the temperature
because a mountain top is nearer to the sun than the change from the Atlantic Ocean inland along 50°N?
surroupding lowlands. However, that height difference is
tiny when compared with the distance of the Earth from
the sun. It is important to remember that the air is not
heated by the passage of the sun’s rays through it, but by
contact with the Earth’s surface and by absorbing the heat
it radiates. This means that the part of the troposphere
nearest to the Earth is the warmest.
The influence of cold ocean currents on The influence of aspect on temperature
tropical desert temperatures
The aspect of a place is the direction in which it faces
Fig. 8.8 shows that there are cold ocean currents off
if it is on a slope. Aspect has little influence on temperature
the coasts of tropical deserts. These currents are bodies
in the tropics, but outside that zone it does.
of water that move through the oceans from areas nearer
the poles to areas nearer the equator. Winds that blow *) Inthe Northern Hemisphere, north of the Tropic of
over the cold Benguela Current (off the coast of Namibia) Cancer, places located on north-facing slopes are
are chilled by contact with the current. They then carry cooler than those on south-facing slopes. This is
the cooler air onto the land - lowering the temperature because they are facing away from the sun.
of Namibia’s coastal strip. As a result, places like Luderitz
©) Inthe Southern Hemisphere, south of the Tropic of
have lower summer temperatures than would be expected
Capricorn, places located on north-facing slopes are
at that latitude. Another example is Iquique in the
warmer than those on south-facing slopes. This is
Atacama Desert on the coast of Northern Chile.
because they are facing the sun.
The influence of a lack of cloud on the { )( ) Discussion point
temperatures of hot deserts Why is it only possible to make a simple statement about
Desert air has very low relative humidity, so desert skies aspect for places outside the tropical zone?
are often cloudless or have very little cloud. This results
in extreme diurnal (daily) temperatures. Without cloud, Precipitation in tropical deserts
the maximum amount of solar radiation can reach the The average annual precipitation totals in tropical
Earth’s surface, so daytime temperatures are often as deserts are less than 250 mm a year. The air is so dry
high as 38 °C. But, in summer, they can reach over in some places that they have no recorded precipitation
50 °C. However, at night - without clouds to stop the at all. Iquique in the Atacama Desert and Aswan in
Earth’s long-wave radiation escaping into space - Egypt are two such places.
temperatures can fall rapidly to about 15 °C in summer
and 5 °C in winter. So, daily temperature ranges in Much of the rain that does fall in the desert occurs in
deserts are very large all year round. Low temperatures torrential convectional downpours - but these are rare
at night can result in the condensation of water vapour and erratic. After a storm, a place might have no more
- forming dew (droplets of water on the surface). These rainfall for years. One reason why rainfall is so rare in
are believed to be important in assisting weathering. deserts is because convection is seldom strong enough
Fig. 8.10 shows weathered boulders in the Mojave to rise through the descending air in these high-pressure
Desert. regions.

Fig. 8.10 High daytime temperatures resulting from clear skies contribute to exfoliation weathering
The influence of pressure on precipitation in The circulations of air between the equator and 30°N
tropical deserts and 30°S are known as the Hadley Cells (see Fig. 8.11).
The rising air that leads to so much precipitation in
equatorial climates eventually descends to the Earth’s The trade winds are strong and constant and, because
surface in the tropical deserts. This descending air is a they derive from sinking air and blow over land to the
deserts, they do not contain much moisture. The
major cause of desert aridity.
combination of sinking air and dry trade winds leads
» Having risen to the tropopause, the air moves towards to very low precipitation in the tropical deserts. North-
the poles and starts to cool - becoming denser as a east trade winds blow in the Northern Hemisphere and
result. south-east trade winds blow in the Southern Hemisphere.
> Itthen sinks at about 30°N and 30°S - creating high The above wind directions are the result of two controlling
pressure at the surface. factors:
> The sinking air becomes compressed and that => Winds blow out of high-pressure systems into low-
compression causes warming. This results in a pressure systems.
decrease in the air’s relative humidity.
> They are deflected by the Earth’s rotation as they
> After reaching the surface, the dry air moves from do so. They deflect to the right in the Northern
the high-pressure area back to the low pressure in Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
equatorial latitudes - as the trade winds. Some air
also moves towards the poles.
The influence of cold ocean currents on
precipitation
When onshore winds blow onto the west coasts of
deserts, they can be cooled enough by the cold ocean
Tropopause currents there for condensation to occur. This condensation
Air moves towards the pole Air moves towards the pole leads to fog (tiny water droplets hanging in the air near
Cooled Cooled
the surface), which reduces visibility. Coastal places
air sinks air sinks like Luderitz can have many foggy days and a relatively
high humidity when the winds are onshore.
Sinking Rising Sinking
air warms air cools air warms
The condensation process removes moisture from the
air. As the foggy air moves inland, the water droplets
quickly evaporate. Daytime warming as the air passes
NE trade SE trade
High winds Heated air rises winds High
over the land further reduces its relative humidity and
pressure Low pressure pressure the chance of precipitation. That is why Luderitz only
30°N O° 30°S has about 30 mm of rain a year.
Doldrums

Fig. 8.11 Processes in the Hadley Cells

ocean current —

Fig. 8.13 Why cold ocean currents offshore increase coastal aridity

The influence of relief on precipitation

At Keetmanshoop (about 290 km inland from Luderitz)
there is more rainfall - about 166 mm a year. This
higher rainfall results from the difference in altitude
between the two places. Luderitz is at sea level, whereas
Keetmanshoop is over 1000 metres higher (on the
Namibian Plateau). When the air containing moisture
from the sea reaches the higher ground, it rises to pass
over it. The same processes then occur as for convectional
rainfall (Fig. 8.6), but the resulting rain is known as
Fig. 8.12 Pressure belts and the air movements which influence
tropical climates
relief or orographic rainfall (Fig. 8.14).
-8Climand
atveg
TE
ee ee SE NEE Aen RE

Rain slope Rain shadow

Condensation
Descending air is
forms clouds g
Level at which compressed so
dew point — warms and its
temperature y relative humidity
is reached reduces
TOG, PTeRunL
They t TT
7 Rain falls
Air expands from cloud
and cools No rain
Forced to rise
by high coms
Moist air

Pre

Fig. 8.15 Cloud resulting from the uplift of air on one side of a
mountain
Fig. 8.14 Relief rain and rain shadow

The influence of temperature on precipitation Tropical desert climate

Rain does not fall often in deserts but, when it does, it’s Description Reasons
usually torrential and often causes flash floods. This is Around the tropics.
Location
particularly true in the areas nearest to the equator,
Temperature © Very hot in the © Between latitudes
where occasional convectional storms occur in the at inland summer. 15° and 40°
summer heat. In these areas, summer is usually the locations © Hot in the winter. © The midday sun is
season when most rain falls. Areas on the pole-ward e A moderate annual overhead in the summer.
side of deserts have winter rain. temperature range. © The sun is still quite
© Avery high daily high at midday in the
temperature range winter.
@ LEARNING TIP tt is air that rises, not the cloud.
© The cloudless skies
allow solar radiation
Also, torrential rain is sometimes referred to as a ‘cloud to penetrate well
burst’, but this does not mean that clouds burst open! during the day but
Neither do clouds get too heavy to rise over mountains, as radiate out at night.
some candidates write! Temperature © Hot in the summer The maritime influence.
at coastal © Very warm in the winter The sea is colder than
locations © A lower annual range the land in the summer
Equatorial climate than inland. and warmer at night in
@ A lower daily range than the winter.
Description Reasons inland.
Location Around the equator. Precipitation © Very low (below © A low relative humidity,
Temperature — Hot with a low annual © The equatorial latitude. at inland 250 mm). because sinking air in
range (of about 3°C) @ The high angle of the locations @ |t may increase if the high-pressure belt
and a higher diurnal sun at midday. relief rainfall occurs has warmed.
range (of about 7°C). © The extensive cloud over higher land. © The offshore trade
cover. winds are dry.
Precipitation —_High all year round e A high humidity, Precipitation © Very low (lower than Any onshore winds have
(over 1500 mm), with a because of the high at coastal nearby inland their moisture removed
minimum monthly evaporation rate. locations locations). by condensation over
rainfall of 60mm. ® Convection caused © Fog forms over cold the cold currents
by the air heating up. ocean currents. offshore.
@ The air rising at the Wind Strong and constant The trade winds blow
ITCZ. NE or SE trade winds, from the sub-tropical
© Moist air moving into with onshore west high-pressure belts at
the low-pressure zone. winds at times near the 30°N and 30°S to the
Wind Light and variable. The rising air. coasts. equatorial low-pressure
Sunshine Usually less than half Cloudy for the same belt.
the daylight hours. reasons as for Sunshine It is sunny almost all The skies are cloudless.
precipitation. day.

Table 8.6 A summary of the main differences between equatorial and tropical desert climates
 Ecosystems
What is an ecosystem?
A natural ecosystem is an area in which plants and
animals live in balance with their environment and are
inter-linked with it. It does not change unless external
factors influence it. The tropical rainforests and tropical
deserts are two of the world’s major ecosystems or
biomes. Sand dunes and salt marshes are examples of
smaller-scale ecosystems. Some of the elements and
inter-relationships within an ecosystem are shown in
Fig. 8.18.
Plants need nutrients to survive. These are minerals
released from rocks by weathering, which circulate in
an ecosystem (Fig. 8.19).

Sunlight for Warmth Rainfall

Fig. 8.16 A satellite image of cloud cover over the Americas photosynthesis for growth — for growth
Pollution

Food and
This satellite image shows the equatorial cloud belt covering
habitat
part of the Amazon Basin and the Panama area. Cloud over
the cold Peruvian Current reaches the South American coast,
but the Atacama Desert, Mexico and the southwest USA Nutrients
remain under the influence ofthe sub-tropical high-pressure Human Vegetation return on
belts and are cloudless. A strip of cloud over the northern activities destroyed decay
cause nutrients
Andes is caused by the relief.
death Soil eroded,
exhausted
and polluted
When Fig. 8.17 was taken, a local wind was moving
from right to left up the valley, in the middle Weathering
distance. Explain why and how the cloud formed.
Removal by quarrying
and mining

Fig. 8.18 Some links between parts of a natural ecosystem, together

with examples of human interference

Piants and
organisms
die

Litter >.
_Layerof |
Nutrients
vegetation |
taken up
\ on Surface
by plants
\_of soil l Nutrients
released
as plants rot
(decompose)

Some nutrients Some nutrients

added as rock lost due to
is weathered leaching

Fig. 8.17 Cloud in a valley Fig. 8.19 Nutrient recycling

 ed "9
ah i
a
8 Climate and vegetation

Key
——— [3 Tropical desert
(8) Tropical rainforest
Mojave and. a
North Mexico” =" *

re
235te N
tr {
5 Sahara \ > “Aca
Vee J 1” Peninsular—
Desert Ty ' ‘
a »
we 7 A
i Malaysia
.

Amazon * Arabian } i ts and the

: aa
J Desert"). ‘ ad islands of
Basin '
“S SE Asia
eA a
( 5 os,
°) Congo \
{ Basin
4°
(235N fgks: a
Atacama___ j Namib and °
Desert Cj Kalahari
~ Deserts Great Australian’ og
Desert .

Fig. 8.20 The global distribution of tropical rainforest and tropical desert ecosystems (biomes)

Tropical rainforest Rainforest tiers

The characteristics of the vegetation e The emergent layer reaches a height of 30-40 metres.
Emergent trees are widely spaced.
In their natural state, rainforests are so dense that light e The dense main canopy layer is at a height of 20-30
does not penetrate far into them, as shown by the dark metres.
patches on Fig. 8.21. From the air they are a continuous e The under-canopy of sapling trees is about 15 metres
mass oftrees - broken only by rivers. The trees are very high. These occur only where light is available.
tall with straight trunks and branch only at the top. The e There is a very sparse shrub layer in clearings, or where
forest structure is composed of five tiers and is well light is available.
adapted to the climate in which it grows. e There is a ground layer of tree ferns - but only in clearings
and on river banks.
7 a Use Fig. 8.22 to describe the characteristics of the
tropical rainforest vegetation visible in Fig. 8.21.
b Explain why deeper into the forest sapling trees _| Leaves may have drip
| tips to shed heavy rain
are only found where main canopy trees have
(ol{cyoureyalelmcclislar
Describe and explain the difference in shape
between the crowns (branching part at the top of i

the tree) of the emergent trees and those of the Trunks are tall and thin
trees in the main canopy. iW to reach the sunlight

Fig. 8.21 Rainforest in Panama

Height
in
metres

Als: ‘ \\ ci
5 y Aww) ae: S a

Buttress roots support |

WA. treesinmuddy soil
ro =

Fig. 8.22 The structure and characteristics of tropical rainforest

There are a large number of species in an area, but they

all look alike. Each species is widely spaced apart.
The south-east Asian island of Borneo, for example, has
more than 10 000 plant species, including 3000 tree
species. They are mainly hardwoods, such as ironwood,
mahogany, ebony, and rosewood.
The forest is not seasonal - some trees will have flowers,
and others fruit, while some are losing their leaves. The
deciduous trees drop their leaves at any time ofthe year,
so the forest has an evergreen appearance. A tree may
have branches with no leaves while others have full
foliage. It grows continuously until fully grown.
The leaves are broad and often have a depressed central
vein that leads to a drip tip. eee

Fig. 8.23 Drip tip leaves

The relationship between natural

vegetation and climate ... tis hot and wet all year.
.. they need to shed the torrential rain quickly to help
8 a Using your knowledge of its climate, state transpiration and prevent them breaking off.
whether X orY on Fig. 8.24 represents the ... they do not need protection from the cold.
conditions in which tropical rainforest will grow. .. they have to compete for sunlight.
What is the lowest precipitation required for the .. there is insufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.
growth of tropical rainforest? — .. they need to catch the maximum amount of sunlight in
What is the lowest temperature at which tropical the cloudy climate.
rainforest will grow?
Use the information in Fig. 8.25 to complete the Fig. 8.25 Reasons for the characteristics of tropical rainforests
sentences below, which explain how the tropical
rainforest is adapted to the climate. You can use The relationship between tropical
a reason more than once.
rainforest vegetation and the soil
© The forest is not seasonal because ...
Rapid chemical weathering processes in the hot and
© The forest is dense and has a great variety of
species because ... wet climate result in very deep soils, yet the trees of the
© Trees grow very tall because ... and .. rainforest usually have shallow, buttress roots.
The trunks are straight because ...'
The trees have large leaves because ...
Leaves have drip tips because ...
Growth is continuous because ...
There are few plants below the canopy
because ...
The bark is thin because ...

30

:
20

15

10

annual
Mean
(°C)
temperature

O 1000 2000 3000 4000

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

Fig. 8.24 The temperature andrainfall requirements of the tropical

rainforest and tropical desert biomes Fig. 8.26 A rainforest tree with buttress roots 3 28
Tropical soils are red because they contain a lot of iron
near the surface. When the trees grow, they remove
nutrients from the soil - to be returned later when their
leaves fall. The leaves decompose rapidly on the forest
floor in the hot and wet conditions. This adds humus
to the top of the soil. However, the deep soil below has
few nutrients, because of leaching. The nutrients have
been taken down in solution and removed from the soil
by rainwater.
Trees take up nutrients through their roots, so the
shallow buttress roots allow the trees to access the
nutrients near the surface of the soil. These buttress
roots are also essential for the stability of the very tall
trees, which need their support in the wet and muddy
soils. Some trees also grow in swamps. Fig. 8.27 Rainforest growing on tropical red soils. The two sapling
trees on the right of the photograph are beginning to develop
buttress roots. There is little leaf litter to be seen on the forest floor.
Animals in the tropical rainforest
ecosystem
The tropical rainforest has a very rich and diverse {
).C) Discussion point
animal life, because it provides a variety of habitats Imagine that you were born to be part of a tribe living in the
and an abundance of vegetation for food. The forests of middle of the tropical rainforest. What disadvantages would you
Borneo contain: over 200 mammal species, over 400 face in your life?
bird species, 100 amphibian species, nearly 400 fish
species, and literally thousands of insect species. New
Tree fruit ———————» _Squirrel ——————-» Tree-climbing cat
animal species are discovered every year in the rainforests
of Borneo and elsewhere. . pee

Each layer of the forest has different conditions of

sunlight, temperature and moisture. Examples of animals
living on the forest floor are pygmy elephants, deer,

ae
Insect ————> Frog
rhinoceros and shrews. In the middle levels, certain
species of monkey, squirrel, frog, lizard, and tree-climbing Snake
big cats, can be found. But it’s in the canopy and emergent
layers that 80% of the animals live. Many of them are
now endangered species.
Fig. 8.28 Part of a tropical rainforest food web

Energy flows, food chains and food webs in

the tropical rainforest

Fig. 8.29 Energy flows through the food chain On the death of any animal or plant, the nutrients they
contain will re-enter the soil for new plants to take up.
The energy passes in the direction of the arrow. A simple
So the two important processes in ecosystems - nutrient
example of a food chain in Borneo would be:
cycling and energy flows - are linked.
sun’s energy > plants produce leaves and fruit >
There are many food chains in the forest. They are
squirrels eat them — raptors eat the squirrels > interlinked in a complex food web. A small part of that
on their death, bacteria and fungi decompose the raptors
web is shown in Fig. 8.28. The links are made because
squirrels, frogs and insects are eaten by more than one
animal.
 process of transpiration. The water vapour can then be
RESEARCH Tropical seasonal monsoon forests have converted as a result of convection into rainfall to
been excluded from consideration in this chapter, yet many provide the necessary water for a healthy ecosystem.
atlas maps include them as tropical rainforest. Find out
the main differences between the vegetation and climate During photosynthesis in the daytime, plants take in
of the two. carbon dioxide (one of the main greenhouse gases)
from the atmosphere and release oxygen (a vital gas
for human life) into it. The more forests the world has
Keeping tropical rainforests as a (acting as a carbon sink), the greater the chances are
valuable natural environment of being able to reduce enhanced global warming.
Soils The dark colour of the forests also absorbs solar radiation.
If the forest is left alone, it maintains the little soil If the forests were replaced with crops or urban areas,
fertility it has by returning nutrients to the soil in leaf more of the sun’s rays would be reflected offthose lighter
fall. It also reduces soil erosion in a number of ways: surfaces - causing greater heating of the atmosphere.

Its roots hold the soil in place. The value of tropical rainforests for human
activities
Its large leaves lessen raindrop impact on the soil
by catching them. We have already seen that the tropical rainforest
ecosystem contains an enormous diversity of species,
Its roots also take up water from the soil - reducing
many of which may have a value as yet unknown. For
the chance of a mudflow down a slope. Reducing
example, so far over 7000 medicines to combat illnesses
the amount of water in the soil also reduces the
have been derived from tropical rainforest plants (e.g.
leaching of plant nutrients.
quinine from the chinchona tree of Africa and Central
Water quality America is used to cure malaria).
By keeping the soil in place, forests stop it from being
Tropical forests provide timber for construction and
washed into rivers. This keeps them healthy for aquatic
furniture, fuelwood for local people and raw material
life.
for industry. They also boost the local and national
economies by attracting ecotourists (tourists interested
Climate
in nature who do not harm the ecosystem but contribute
The water taken from the soil by tree roots is passed
to the local economy). The rainforests also provide a
into the atmosphere through pores in the leaves by the
home for many native peoples.

CASE STUDY

The loss of tropical rainforest in Borneo

Apart from its highest mountains, Borneo was once covered
in tropical rainforest — until humans embarked on a
programme of rapid forest destruction. A hundred years
ago, this huge island was inaccessible and unexplored.
But, recently, the clearance of vast areas of forest by
burning has sometimes covered countries as far away as
China in a brown smoke and ash cloud.

Nowhere else in the world has experienced forest clearance

as rapid as in Borneo since 1980.

a_ Construct a line graph to show the loss of Fig. 8.30 Cutting trees in
Borneo’s rainforest over time. The years and the Borneo rainforest
percentages of land covered by forest are:
1950 (94%), 1985 (74%), 2000 (57.5%),
2005 (50.5%), 2010 (44.5%).
Describe the trends the graph shows.
@ LEARNING TIP Although the years are
not in regular intervals, it is possible to plot them
If the present rate of destruction continues,
at the correct point along the X axis, so that the
estimate the likely year when all of Borneo’s
variation in rates over time can be seen.
forest will have been cut down.
 Why has so much forest been cleared? Plantations
The forest is a source of wealth, which multinational In the 1980s, the deforestation was speeded up as vast
companies want to exploit to provide raw materials for oil palm plantations were planted. By 2004, these plantations
their industries. Population pressure and poverty are also covered one million hectares of Kalimantan. The oil palm
factors, as well as the vastness of the areas involved, is a very productive tree (one hectare yields about 6000
which are too large for protection agencies to patrol litres of oil), so planting it was very profitable for the
effectively. landowners. Palm oil is used widely in the manufacture of
soap, cosmetics and processed foods.
Logging
Borneo is divided between three countries — Brunei and
Malaysia have land in the north west, but most of the
island is Indonesian. The Indonesian part is called
Kalimantan.

From the 1970s onwards, rainforest in the Indonesian and

Malaysian parts of Borneo began to be cut down. Those
two countries wanted to boost their economies by exporting
timber for uses such as furniture making and pulp and
paper manufacture. In the 1980s, the logging industry
expanded rapidly as new roads provided access to previously
untouched areas of forest. Between 1980 and 2000, more
timber was exported from Borneo than from Africa and
Latin America combined. The forests removed by logging
were usually clear cut and not replanted. The use of heavy
machinery on wet soils compacts them, so rain cannot Fig.8.
8.32 |A ATE Ol
ier Tentetont in Bortcor
sink in and runs off instead, causing soil erosion.

The replacement oftropical rainforest with oil palm plantations ff

is likely to continue, because palm oil has now become
an economical way of making biodiesel. Itis cheaperthan
conventional oil and the demand for biofuels is soaring in
developed countries, where they are subsidised. To meet J
the growing demand, Malaysia and Indonesia plan to
expand the amount of land being used for oil palm cultivation.

Plantations have also been established for rubber, for }

industrial hardwoods, and for fuelwood and charcoal. jf
Native trees are being replaced by those species more
Suitable for pulping. "

Hydroelectric power
In Sarawak (in Malaysian Borneo) a large area of forest
— SS
SSS aEEE
has been cleared to provide a reservoir
for the Bakun HEP
Fig.8.31 Logging in Bore’ scheme. Local people are expressing strong protests
about this, because the Malaysian government plans to
Population pressure
build seven HEP plants in Sarawak’s forests to make |
Between 1970 and 2000, Indonesia’s transmigration
industrial developments possible. :
programme (see page 36) moved thousands of Indonesians
from overcrowded islands like Java to less crowded areas Mining
like Kalimantan. This resulted in the clearance of millions Some forest inland of Balikpapan has now been turned
of hectares of forest. The new settlers’ attempts to live into an oil field. Recently, large-scale coal mining (especially q
by subsistence farming failed, because the heavy rainfall in the east and south of Kalimantan) has become a big
quickly leached the plant nutrients from the soil once the threat to the forests there. The Indonesian government is
protective forest cover was removed. This is known as soil promoting economic development by building a railway to
degradation. Instead, the migrants provided labour for link the mines to the ports. Forest conservation is generally
logging companies and the roads made for them opened less important to an LEDC than increasing the country’s
up the forest to the logging companies. wealth, if they face a choice between the two.
 Road building Loss of biodiversity
Roads built to access mines, HEP sites and logging areas Deforestation could result in the loss of plant species
open up the forest alongside them for further deforestation which might have unknown uses as medicines, industrial
and industrial and other developments, including settlement. raw materials and foods.

Why did the forest clearance result in Death of ways of life and unique cultures
we
atmospheric pollution? Forest clearance in Sarawak for HEP developments, oil
Using burning as a method of forest clearance has become palm plantations and logging may threaten the hunter-
widespread. Every year it endangers wildlife and causes gatherer way of life of the Penan people. They feed on
an enormous cloud of ash and smoke to drift across fruit, nuts, plants and animals from the forest.
LAL
NTNI
RA

neighbouring countries. Attempts have been made to

In Kalimantan, the Dayak people are also under threat.
blame the fires on shifting cultivators, but satellite images
They are shifting cultivators who need to be able to move
prove that clearance for plantations is the main cause.
to different areas of the forest once their current plot has
The 1997-8 fires burned nearly 7 million hectares in
had its soil leached and exhausted of minerals. When
Kalimantan and were the largest.
there is plenty of forest, their way of life is sustainable
Consequences of deforestation — because they only clear small plots and they allow the
Global warming and health forest to regenerate and the soil to recover its nutrients
The burning of forests emits a lot of carbon dioxide into before they return to the same plot. It does not harm the
the atmosphere. This greenhouse gas absorbs radiation environment. However, now deforestation is forcing them
eT
and contributes to enhanced global warming. Forests are to return to each plot before sufficient years of fallow
also seen as the ‘lungs of the world’. When they are have passed. As a result, crop yields and soil quality
removed, less carbon dioxide is taken in and less oxygen quickly deteriorate. This leads to soil erosion and the
is given out. The forests are needed to combat the effects growth of poorer vegetation than the original forest.
of the extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the
There is also tension between the Dayak people and the
burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil.
migrants who were moved to Kalimantan as part of the
Smoke from burning forests is also a health hazard, which transmigration programme, because their cultures are
— at its worst — was thought to be responsible for one in totally different.
five of all the deaths in the entire south-east Asian island
The hunter-gatherers and shifting cultivators use the
region. ea
a
ra

forests in sustainable ways.

Fig. 8.33 Forest clearance by burning

 Loss of habitats Loss of soil fertility
The numbers of orang-utan in Borneo have fallen in the | When soils are degraded as a result of deforestation, any
last 50 years — partly due to the reduced forest cover. forest that is allowed to regenerate (secondary growth) is
Poaching has become easier. Local people can boost their always poorer than the original primary forest.
low incomes greatly by selling young orang-utan as pets,
after first killing their protective adults (who they consider Nutrient ane inh‘ali la
to be pests, because they include palm fruit in their food).
Many other animals and birds are thought to be near
f Dense
extinction in Borneo. vegetation Lots of
growth fallen
leaves

Soil retains Leaves

its fertility Ground protected from heavy rainfall decay
oe ae rapidly
Nutrients added to the soil

Nutrient cycle after deforestation

tien Heavy
Heavy raitiel
teintal
rainfall hits
pits
Bitsthe
Wig
Wie-oro
crowns
unes
Poorer
vegetation
Fewer
ATTN
TT
TT
TT
NTT
TTT and soil aaved
erosion
to decay

iheererile away the soil (Soil

nly
Rain SeLend
2
8.34 Orang-utan in Soil becomes TE POE
TURTON
AN
TTT
‘TT
SMT orneo
Fewer nutrients added to soil
Others are leached downwards

Fig. 8.36 The impact of deforestation on the nutrient cycle

e With no rainforest vegetation to protect the soil,

heavy rainfall washes it away. The farmers then need
to clear more land.
e When rainforest is cleared and the land is intensively
farmed, it loses its fertility within 20 years. q
e Deforestation breaks the nutrient cycle, which the soil
depends on for its fertility.

10 Look at Fig. 8.35. j

Describe the ground layer vegetation and
explain why it is not typical of ground layer ji
vegetation deeper in the forest. '
Explain why the soil does not have a cover
of leaves, even though leaves fall off the
plants every day. j
SS ——— — Another consequence of deforestation is soil 4
Fig. 8.35 Ground vegetation by a path erosion, leading to the choking of rivers and
reservoirs with silt and the consequent loss of
aquatic life and flooding. Explain how this y|
occurs.
Attempts to manage Borneo’s rainforests Promoting responsible management and use
Some areas of Borneo have been designated as national The Forest Stewardship Council is an NGO that promotes
parks, which are supposed to have their wildlife and habitat the responsible management of the world’s forests.
protected. In reality, that is not always the case. For Approved companies can use its logo to show that their
example, when Kutai National Park was formed in Kalimantan, wood products have been produced responsibly. Consumers
over 300 000 hectares of forest should have been made can then make a choice between buying approved products,
safe from development. However, timber and oil exploration with the logo, or products produced in a less responsible
rights were then granted in the area, and the official size way (hopefully reducing demand for them).
of the Park was reduced by a third. Illegal logging has
The Forest and Land Restoration Initiative in Kalimantan
even degraded that, because it is difficult for park rangers
has a stated aim to restore 900 OOO hectares of forest
to monitor such a large area.
each year by afforestation and reforestation. It involves
There is no doubt that the remaining forest should be local government and villagers. Teak is usually planted
preserved, but that will be difficult to achieve because a because it is valuable and fast growing, so it can be logged
growing population needs a growing economy to sustain at a sustainable rate. However, it is not planted as fast
it. One third of Indonesians live on less than one US as felling is occurring. Incentives are given to local farmers
dollar a day. to replant trees but they are often not big enough to
achieve that aim. One disadvantage is that by selecting
Large-scale deforestation is bad news. But there are ways
to plant teak, biodiversity is reduced and the true tropical
of managing rainforests in order to halt or reduce the
rainforest is not restored, because teak is not a tropical
destruction, and in some cases repair the damage.
rainforest species (it is a monsoon forest species).
Selective logging
Ecotourism
This is a technique where individual trees are felled only
Ecotourism helps the local economy. It is often based in
when they are mature. The idea is that the rainforest
resorts within wildlife reserves, such as Tabin Wildlife
canopy is then preserved, which protects the ground below
Resort in the north of Borneo. Walkways, both at ground
and also helps slower-growing hardwoods, like mahogany.
and canopy level, are often provided for the visitors —
However, the roads left behind by selective loggers allow
together with information boards and visitor centres.
other people to follow them in and open up the forest
further. Also, for every tree that’s selectively logged, up Organisations like the World Bank are also promoting the
to 30 other trees can be damaged or destroyed getting development and use of more efficient farming methods
the logged tree out of the forest. Or more sustainable ways for farmers to earn a living,
such as ecotourism.
Reducing debt
Conservation swaps, or debt-for-nature swaps, are a Improving the standard of education generally and educating
way of reducing a country’s debt and benefiting the people about why forest conservation is needed should
nature and conservation at the same time. The most also help. The use of some forest areas as tribal reserves
common type of debt-for-nature swaps work like this. would benefit both the rainforest and the tribes, because
A country (e.g. the USA) that is owed money by they would use the forest in sustainable ways.
another country (e.g. Peru), cancels part of the debt
in exchange for an agreement by the debtor country
to pay for conservation activities there.

a_ Write a speech in which you use two reasons to

try to persuade people in a village to save the
remaining rainforest in their area. Do not use
reasons covered in question 10b.
Copy and complete Table 8.7 overleaf. You can
write ‘As for mining’ where appropriate.

Fig. 8.37 Ecotourists walking just below the canopy of a tropical

rainforest
:
af
a | 8 Climate and vegetation
Cause of Economic impacts Social and political impacts Environmental impacts
deforestation
Mining It boosts the economy with foreign It provides jobs. Massive amounts of rainforest are
earnings which can be used to pay cleared, causing soil erosion,
off debts and support further degradation and flooding. It can also
development. cause drought by reducing transpiration.
Road and railway This helps economic development by It reduces the development gap It increases the access to previously
building improving communications within the between communities. inaccessible rainforest areas, leading to
country. further deforestation.
Shifting agriculture This is subsistence farming, so it has It allows the Dayak people to Only a small patch of rainforest is
no economic impact for the country continue their traditional lifestyle cleared at a time, so there is no impact if
as a whole. and maintain their unique culture. the forest is allowed time to regenerate
and re-fertilise the soil.
Logging
Plantation
agriculture
Ranching
Transmigration
(migration into the
forest)
Hydroelectric power
schemes

Table 8.7 The impacts of using deforested areas for other purposes

CASE STUDY

Panama’s tropical rainforest build, but it saved ships travelling from one US coast to
A different management story - but for how the other over 12 000 kilometres.
long? A formal treaty was signed between the USA and Panama.
A strip of Panamanian rainforest was controlled by the It stated that the Panama Canal would belong to Panama,
USA until 2000 — the only rainforest controlled by an MEDC.
but that the USA would have jurisdiction over the Canal
This is because it lies next to the Panama Canal, which
Zone — a Strip of tropical rainforest 8 kilometres wide on
runs between Colon on the Caribbean Sea and Panama either side of the canal.
City on the Pacific Ocean, via Lake Gatun.
The smoke in Fig. 8.39 indicates shifting cultivation. This
A is because the USA allowed no other development in the
N Caribbean
Sea Canal Zone.

salaieannmaniaedsaiadadnesadananananeainie
anda sada i

Fig. 8.38 The Panama Canal

The Americans took over the building of the Panama Canal

Fig. 8.39 Forest in the Canal Zone
from the French in 1904. The idea was to create a new
transport route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, >> Between 1990 and 2000, the rate of deforestation in
through Central America. The new route would allow ships the whole of Panama was only 0.2% a year.
to avoid taking the stormy passage around Cape Horn (at vd This halved to 0.1% a year between 2000 and 2005.
the tip of South America), saving a lot of valuable time * Most of the deforestation was for cattle ranching,
and fuel. The Panama Canal cost the USA $75 million to logging and the growing of cash crops like bananas
and coffee. SE
 Panama's rainforest has a wide biodiversity. Thisis because _it on a no-profit basis, but the canal’s first Panamanian
the isthmus connecting North and South America (i.e. director said that in future it would make the most profit
Central America) acted as a land bridge, so that species _ possible. With that in mind, a third set of locks is being
from both continents could mix. However, some of that built to increase the number of ships that can use the
biodiversity disappeared when a vast area of forest was _ canal each day.
flooded during the construction of the Panama Canal. The
World trade is expanding every year, and there is no doubt
Chagres River was dammed to create the enormous inland
that a third set of locks would benefit many countries by
Lake Gatun - the largest artificial lake in the world. This
reducing the queuing time for the canal. If you include the
lake is above sea level, so two sets of locks are needed
queuing time, the passage through the Panama Canal
at the outlet to each ocean. The lake water is necessary
currently takes a day and a night — but the actual journey
to provide the 230 million gallons of water which spill into
through the canal itself only takes 10 hours. So reducing
the sea each time the locks open. About 50 ships pass
the queuing time would make a big difference.
through the Panama Canal every day, and there are always
vessels waiting for their turn. Panama has made the most of its new opportunity to
develop. By 2010, a considerable amount of rainforest
What does the future hold for Panama’s
near the canal entrance had been destroyed to make way
rainforests?
for hotels, apartments and golf courses. Developments
On 1 January 2000, control over the Canal Zone was
were also beginning on the shores of Lake Gatun (see
transferred back to Panama by the USA. The USA had run
Figs. 8.42 and 8.43).

SEE LLEAA = SAAD Ce OOP PAI Se

Fig. 8.40 Two parallel sets of locks along the Panama Canal lead Fig. 8.42 Forest clearance on the shore of Gatun Lake
into Lake Gatun

LLL

2 = SE =z = 2 EE CE EEL DEDEDE
IID

Fig. 8.41 The far hillside has been excavated for the third set of Fig. 8.43 Clearance from the lakeshore into the forest ]
>
locks (it has to be terraced to prevent landslides)
 Can the natural environment be saved? However, Panama is also under great pressure to build a
Panama is facing big water pressures, which are made road south to Colombia to connect the two sections of
worse by deforestation: the Pan-American Highway, so that it will stretch from
Alaska to the south of Argentina. A bridge (the Bridge of Ff
*> Anenormous amount of water will be needed to operate
the Americas) already connects the two continents. If this
three sets of locks on the canal. There is a real fear
road is ever built, it is very likely to hasten rainforest 7
that in the drier months Lake Gatun may not be able
destruction in Panama.
to supply enough.

7) The World Bank has estimated that for every 10 000

hectares of tropical rainforest destroyed, Panama’s
rainfall is likely to be reduced by 10%. This is because
the moisture taken from the soil by the rainforest
vegetation is then transpired back into the atmosphere.
If the forest is destroyed, this recycling of water can
no longer occur and drought will be one consequence.
Panama’s economy will suffer as a result.

7) Panama City has more than one million residents, and

itneeds 100 times more litres of water a day than that
needed to empty a Jock.

*> Soil erosion is another consequence of deforestation

and this could result in the silting up of the canal and
its locks.

In 2004, the USA arranged a debt-for-nature swap with

Panama. The USA offered to reduce Panama’s debt to it,
in return for Panama’s conservation of its tropical rainforest. ZZ Eb» Ez

The government of Panama has now established 14 national Fig. 8.44 Cumulonimbus ver the Bridge of the Americas between
parks to protect its biodiversity. It is hoped that the country North and South America
will follow Costa Rica by creating a successful economy
through developing ecotourism.

The tropical desert ecosystem

The vegetation’s characteristics and its
adaptations to climate and soils
Although days are very hot in deserts, this does not have
a direct impact on the vegetation - except by reducing
the rainfall that plants can use by rapidly evaporating
it. As desert rainfall is so low anyway, it is not surprising
that most plant adaptations are designed for survival
with a minimum amount of water.
There are an amazing variety of ways in which desert
plants are adapted to the environment. Some plants,
like the tall Saguaro cactus shown on page 200 and
Fig. 8.45, flower only at night. Others open their pores
to transpire only at night. Many have pores only on the
underside of the leaf where they are in shade. Some
plants have light coloured leaves to reflect the sun. Fig. 8.45 Some characteristics of tropical desert vegetation
 if Bee Be Syal
¢ §8hy
PSep |
f
‘6
me SY dsBie

Fig. 8.46 A prickly pear cactus (Opuntia) Fig. 8.47 Desert grasses and scrub

This succulent stores water after rain in its circular stems Desert vegetation is sparse. The plants in this photograph
to support it through long dry periods. It has no leaves but are widely spaced because they have to compete for water.
has sharp spines to protect it from being eaten by animals. Their roots are shallow and wide-spreading to catch water
Some cacti have a covering of fine hairs on their stems to after rain before it evaporates. They are usually low-growing
minimise transpiration by providing shade. plants, because there is little moisture available for growth.
Their leaves are either very small or are thorns to reduce
transpiration.

Fig. 8.48 Joshua tree and desert scrub in the Mojave Desert Fig. 8.49 Water on a valley floor after rain allows a denser, taller
vegetation to grow
The Joshua tree, a yucca species, only grows in the Mojave
Desert. Ithas roots up to 10 metres deep which also spread. A place where water comes to the surface, usually from a
Its leaves are like radiating spikes. It is so well adapted to spring, is known as an oasis.
desert conditions that it can grow 15 metres tall over many
years.
Desert soils also cause difficulties for plants: How do animals survive in a tropical
ay
vs They are either rocky or sandy, and very porous, so desert?
water passes very quickly into them after rain. Many species have adapted to survive in very dry
conditions. The zebra that migrate in the wet season
ay
vs Sandy soils are mobile (so plants can easily be covered) into the valleys of the Namib Desert are able to detect
and loose (so plants can be uprooted). Nevertheless, pools of water below the surface with their nostrils.
some grasses can spring to life after rain, such as in They then use their hooves to dig holes to get at the
the sands of the Namib Desert (Fig. 8.50). water. Some animals like elephants travel many miles
Desert soils are also thin and contain very few plant from one water source to another in the Namib Desert.
nutrients. This is because very little organic matter In the Mojave Desert, the animals have light-coloured
is available to decompose into them. fur or feathers to reflect the sun. The desert tortoises
Many desert soils are grey, because they contain feed on plants in the spring and the moisture they obtain
salts drawn to the surface in solution after rain and is stored in their bladders to last them until next spring.
then deposited at the surface when the water Many desert animals are small and can find shelter
evaporates. Only salt-tolerant plants, such as saltbush, from the intense daytime sun by staying in burrows or
can grow in saline soils. hiding under rocks or leaves. Some are nocturnal and
4piw] Because of the harsh conditions, the seeds of some hunt in the cool of the night.
desert plants are forced to lie dormant for years and
then flower and fruit very quickly after rain. They
have a very short life cycle. Example desert food chains would be:
sun > primary producer ~ plant eater — predator carnivore
sun desert grass > — Springbok — cheetah
sun — desert grass > springbok — lion

Because both lions and cheetah eat springbok, they would

be linked on a food web.

12 Describe and explain the nature of the soil and

vegetation in the area of the Atacama Desert shown
in Fig. 8.51.

Rees ss be ie
SR aos

Fig. 8.50 Grass growing in sand in the Namib Desert

Fig. 8.51 Vegetation in the Atacama Desert

Fig. 8.52 A cheetah near Keetmanshoop in the Namib Desert

The camel of the Sahara Desert and other dry areas in

North Africa, probably has more characteristics to
enable it to survive than any other desert animal. Camels
have long eyelashes and can close their nostrils for
protection in sandstorms. They can go without water
for months and can drink a lot of water very quickly
when it is present. As food is not readily available, camels
store fat in their humps. As this is digested, hydrogen
is released and mixes with oxygen to form H2O - water.
 f ~~ * its |

fai pp ee Aa)

What opportunities do tropical deserts

provide for human activities?

CASE STUDY

The Sahara Desert

Tropical deserts provide opportunities for economic
development in poorer parts of the world.

Energy
There are believed to be large oil and gas reserves underneath
the Sahara Desert. But they are difficult to find — and
extracting and transporting the oil and gas is even harder.
For Algeria, though, oil and gas are big business — half of
the money the country earns comes from them. However,
drilling for oil and gas at the Hassi Messaoud oilfield is
not easy:

> It’s difficult to get there for a start, because the oilfield
is deep in the desert, so the workers have to travel in
and out by aircraft.

7) Hassi Messaoud employs 40 000 people. They have

to pump their water supplies from underground aquifers
and fly in their food.

=> Then they have to drill hundreds of metres down to

reach the oil and gas supplies.

* Finally, pipelines carry the oil for hundreds of kilometres

across the Sahara to ports on the North African coast.

Preparing for a sustainable future

Most people agree that our use of fossil fuels, like oil and
gas, is not sustainable. So Algeria is beginning to prepare
for a future without them. Work has begun on constructing
the country’s first solar power plant in the Sahara Desert.
The plan is to cover large areas of desert with solar
panels to turn the sun’s energy into electricity. The aim is
to export solar power to Europe through cables below the
Mediterranean Sea.

Farming and irrigation

Egypt is hot and dry. It is 95% desert and gets less than
125 millimetres of rain a year. It also has a soaring
population, which has grown from 50 million to 79 million
in the last 25 years — and is expected to keep on growing
rapidly. Most Egyptians live in the heavily irrigated Nile
Valley. The irrigated land means that farmers can grow
more food, both to feed Egypt’s growing population and
for export. Farmimg supplies 13% of Egypt’s GDP, and it
employs 32% of the labour force. Western
Desert

Key Route :
of canal__4

(also area * al
where most Toshka’ we
What effects could the extraction of water for irrigation from
people live) f
the river have on river processes downstream and on the
Nile Delta?
 The narrow strip of very dense population along the River
Nile (which runs through the Sahara Desert) is made Evaporation

t t ft
possible because the Nile is an exotic river — one that
moves into the desert from an area with a wetter climate.
Its headwaters are in the equatorial region, and it receives
so much water before it enters the desert that, despite
high evaporation, it reaches the Mediterranean Sea as a
large river.

The Nile provides water for irrigated farming, industry and

urban uses. Lake Nasser is an enormous reservoir behind
the Aswan High Dam that also produces hydroelectricity
to power Egypt’s economic development.

Salinity
However, Egypt’s irrigated land is increasingly suffering
from salinity. Irrigation water contains mineral salts. When
the water evaporates from the surface ofthe soil, the salt
crystals are left behind. Most plants then die, and the
land that irrigation was meant to improve is destroyed.

Preparing for the future

Fig. 8.56 How salinity destroys irrigated land
Because Egypt’s farmland is increasingly being lost to
urbanization, wind-blown sand and salinity, the Egyptian enable high-value crops, such as olives, citrus fruits
government has begun a scheme to irrigate more land and vegetables to be grown
away from the Nile Valley. The Toshka Project will cost $70 provide food, electricity and jobs for 16 million Egyptians
billion, and will use pumps and canals to transfer water in new towns in the desert
from Lake Nasser into the Western Desert (See Fig. 8.55).
It will: improve roads, railways, and telecommunications

*> increase Egypt’s irrigated land area by 30% promote tourism.

= MENTATION TT MENT

CASE STUDY

Management and
conservation in the Namib
Desert
Namibia is an LEDC and its government is
well aware that its desert ecosystem is
extremely fragile, and that any development
is likely to have serious consequences.
Damaged desert vegetation takes a very
long time to recover— or might never recover
— but, this has to be balanced against the
need for the country’s economic development.
Namibia has mineral reserves of diamonds,
uranium, copper, lead, zinc, tin, silver and
tungsten, so mining is a major activity there.
It provides more than 50% of Namibia’s
export earnings.

Key
H_ Hardap irrigation scheme
I Orange River irrigation scheme
R_ Rossing uranium mine
D Diamond mining area
YX International airport
® Town
@ Capital
Mining The giant Rossing opencast uranium mine is located 65
There are many working diamond mines near the south- kilometres north east of Walvis Bay. Since it began its
west Coast (in a zone extending 100 kilometres inland). operations in 1976, more than 20 million tonnes of ore have
This area is also littered with abandoned diamond mines. been excavated each year. Despite the fact that only 0.035%
Most of the mines are in isolated areas. Each one needed of the excavated material is actually uranium, this mine
the development of roads, workers’ houses, water and produced nearly 8% of the world’s uranium supply in 2005.
power supplies.
The scale of Rossing’s operation is immense. But Namibia
Mining is not an environmentally friendly activity. Opencast benefits from its taxes, local people gain salaries (97% of
mines are very destructive. This is because vast amounts the employees are Namibian), and many supplies are
of sand overburden have to be moved in order to access bought from Namibian businesses. The company also
the diamonds underneath. Many animal habitats are provides training and education. However, there is a
destroyed in the process. downside too:

Mining only employs 3% of Namibians and more than

half of the Namibian population remains unemployed.

The huge demand for water for the mining industry

severely strains Namibia’s scarce water resources.
Annual rainfall is only 30 millimetres in the uranium-
mining area.

The mines are so visually polluting that there is a fear

that they may deter tourists from visiting the country.

Also, they will only continue to operate while the mineral

price is high enough. When they eventually close, they
will leave many enormous ugly holes and a destroyed
SSS
ATO
TTT
TTT
RRA
T
E desert ecosystem behind them.
NEEM

Fig. 8.58 A diamond mine int he Namib Desert

3 Look at Fig. 8.59.

Uranium is used in nuclear power stations. The large
increase in its price, as a result of increased world demand, a_ Describe the hole left behind by opencast
has led to Namibia’s low-grade uranium ore becoming
mining. Suggest why it might be dangerous.
attractive to mining companies. All of the uranium mines b What difficulties are there in doing anything
are in the desert, and the infrastructure they need — about holes like this after mining has ended?
particularly water pipelines — impacts on animals because The processing of some minerals takes place
they cannot cross them. at the mines. What types of pollution could
result from this processing?
ae 8 Climate and vegetation

Irrigated farming Tourism

Although Namibia has some exotic rivers, it only has Over 60% of the Namibian population work in service
80 km? of irrigated farmland. Apart from the rivers, it has industries — many of them connected with tourism. The
no permanent natural surface water. On its southern border sunny Namib and Kalahari Deserts, with their interesting
with South Africa, water is taken from the Orange River wildlife, provide opportunities for tourism. But all human
for grape production. activities are limited by the lack of water. Like mining,
tourism can only thrive where adequate water is provided.
Only 50% of the urban population, and 25% of the rural
population, have access to improved sanitation — although
most have access to safe water supplies.

Some tourist activities are very damaging to the environment.

Of greatest concern is the use of the spectacular dunes
near Walvis Bay for tours on quad bikes, motor bikes and
off-road vehicles (as well as trekking on foot). The damage
done to the dune vegetation and the animals that depend
on it by trampling may take hundreds of years to mend.
The breeding of beetles, spiders and reptiles on the steep
dune faces is affected, and the tyre marks ruin the
appearance of the beautiful dunes.

‘ Fig. 8.60 Irrigation along the Orange River

Another small irrigation scheme is at Hardap, where a dam

across a river has created a reservoir near Mariental. A
canal takes water to the fields from the reservoir. Maize, DDD

wheat, alfalfa (a crop grown for feeding livestock), grapes Fig. 8.61 An off-road vehicle on sand dunes
and dates are grown. The reservoir is only full after exceptional
rains, but the unpredictability and difficulty of the desert Ecotourism is a very important activity in Namibia. The
climate were evident in February 2011, when a flood caused most visited area is the Etosha National Park, which covers
extensive damage to the irrigation scheme. more than 22 OOO km?. There is a vast salt pan there,
with a number of water holes on its southern side where
What season was it when the 2011 floods animals come from the surrounding desert grassland and
damaged the Hardap irrigation scheme? What thorn scrub to drink. The pan is a dried up lake that now
type of rainfall would have been responsible rarely contains water. The big attraction of Etosha is that
for it? it contains almost every large African animal species,
Why is the use of a canal to take water to the including lions, giraffes, elephants and rhinoceros. Gravel
fields not as efficient as using a pipeline? roads have been laid to the water holes where most animals
Why is it best to use trickle-drip irrigation can be seen. Rest camps with hotels, chalets and camping
(pipelines laid along the ground that release sites have also been provided within the Park.
water where the plant is) than to spray water,
or supply it by ditches across the fields? Where will the point of arrival be in Namibia
for many European tourists?
What types ofjobs might the people who work
in the Namibian tourist industry do?
In what other ways do tourists benefit the
economy?
How might tourism cause pollution?
 WLUIGVG LTSTLL

Although the Mojave Desert has abandoned gold mines TTR

and small, irrigated pasturelands and croplands in places,

its main use is to provide urban areas and recreation. The
fragile desert ecosystem in this MEDC is just as much
under threat as it is in Namibia.

‘N vy River :
@ Settlements |
= _ Hoover Dam
NEVADA | (5) Mojave Desert
M Mountain Pass Mine .
C Cadiz irrigated area |

USA |
CALIFORNIA '
L

;
Las Vegas Uae i
@ | Lake
a Mead

| :
M \

:
Cc E

O @
Los Angeles Palm 4
epics ‘ ARIZONA
Pacific = i
Ocean & 1
= ee '
0 250 co :
S Mara... MEXICO :
i)

Fig. 8.62 The Mojave Desert in the south-western USA

Mining in the Mojave Desert is on a much smaller scale

than in Namibia. However, the mining of rare earths (Such
as cerium) at Mountain Pass Mine might eventually cover
a large area if the mining continues. These minerals are
used in high-tech and other industries.

One irrigated area is at Cadiz, where citrus fruit, grapes

and stone fruit are grown. Other farms are found along
the Colorado River. There are also cattle ranches with
irrigated pastures.

The first big invasion of the desert occurred when Palm

Springs.became a popular retreat for Hollywood film stars.
The population of Los Angeles soon discovered the delights
of spending holidays in Palm Springs in the winter, when
the climate there is more pleasant than it is in Los Angeles.
Palm Springs now has more than 43 000 inhabitants -
mainly tourists and retired people. With its watered golf
courses and palm trees, it is like a green oasis surrounded
by brown desert and mountains.
 However, Palm Springs is dwarfed by the massive urban The Lake Mead reservoir also serves Nevada, California,
development of Las Vegas. This city, surrounded by desert, Arizona and northern Mexico. It is estimated that about
has a population of more than two million within its 80% of the water supplied by the Colorado River is used
metropolitan area. It developed as a holiday playground for agriculture.
for adults.
A lot of water is also being extracted for agriculture from
underground aquifers, using wells. As a result, groundwater
levels in the rocks are dropping quickly.

Phoenix is another large settlement located in the desert,

and other urban areas are spreading rapidly, as Fig. 8.66
iii
LLM
suggests.

The desert is also used for military bases. As in the Namib

Desert, vegetation is being damaged by off-road vehicles,
LLL
NANA and wind and water erosion are occurring.
NTT

Discreet desert eco homes planned

for the Mojave Desert
AMET
AAT A new desert home community has been
planned for La Quinta, California, in the Mojave
Desert — just outside Palm Springs. The rich
desert landscape, covered in spiny Joshua
“ :s trees, will continue to be respected inthis f
new discreet eco-community. 18 homes will |
ainsi
iii
ii
Ti
be constructed to carefully minimise any
environmental disturbance. Each home has
THT
been designed for the hot desert climate of
the Mojave and includes solar power.
ATTN

Lake Mead, behind the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, Do you consider the building of homes in the
supplies 90% of Las Vegas’s water needs. However, after desert to be a sustainable activity (one that will
years of drought and high demand, it was only half full by
not damage the environment)? Explain your
answer.
2009. Some people were forecasting that it would be
completely dry by 2020 if its water continued to be used
at the same rate. Water used in hotel kitchens and bedrooms
in Las Vegas is already being recycled.

(
).{ ).Discussion point
RESEARCH www.mongabay.com is a useful website
How important is the sun?
for obtaining information about environmental issues.
“i

| Agriculture
|

Do you know where all of the food that you

eat comes from and how it’s produced?
Why is it that some people in the world do
not get enough food?
@ How does this affect their lives?
@ Where do these food shortages occur and
what can be done about them?
Five thousand years ago, the world’s population
was estimated to be around 30 million. Today,
the population is almost 7000 million — and is
increasing by over 80 million a year.
@ Will we be able to keep on producing more
and more food to feed all of these extra
people, or will the world’s population have to
stop growing?
What effects would increasing the food
supply have on the environment?
 9 Agriculture
Sooo

Therefore, finding ways to increase the food supply is

In this unit you will learn about:
an important issue today. However, this must be done
¢> the main features of agricultural systems: inputs, in a way that is sustainable. Some attempts to increase
processes and outputs
food production interfere with natural ecosystems and
=> large-scale commercial farming
threaten the environment. Examples of this are given
=> small-scale subsistence farming
later in this chapter.
s> the causes and effects of food shortages
¢> possible solutions to food shortages.
Agriculture as a system
i,Merrarerenennneneneneeeenpneranereremrenecnennter
yir

Agriculture can be described as a system, because it

has inputs, processes and outputs.
What is agriculture?
Agriculture is farming. It is the artificial cultivation of
plants (crops) and the rearing of animals for food and Physical inputs
other products. Our distant ancestors did not practise These inputs are provided by nature:
agriculture. Instead, they lived by scavenging on dead e Climate: temperatures, rainfall, sunshine
animals, gathering wild plants, and hunting. Today e Soil
there are very few people left on Earth whose food is e Land and its relief
not produced by agriculture. As the definition says,
agriculture can involve crops (arable farming), the
rearing of animals (pastoral farming), or both (mixed Human inputs
farming). These inputs are provided by people:
Capital (money)
The goal of continuing to develop agriculture to increase Labour
the food supply is important for the future of the human Machinery and tools
race. In 1798, Thomas Malthus (a British scholar) said Seeds
that, mathematically, the human population will always Social structures
increase faster than the available food supply. As a Government influence
result, unchecked population growth in any particular Market influence
geographical area - or on the planet as a whole - will Fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides
eventually lead to serious problems. If the population Irrigation
grows and the food supply does not keep pace with it,
it will result in increased poverty and even starvation
- which may then stop or slow population growth.

Fig. 9.1 In this area of South Africa’s Western Cape, the natural Fig. 9.2 The Orange River flows through the desert in southern
landscape has been adapted for farming. The hillside in the Namibia. Its surrounding area has been irrigated and used to produce
foreground still has scrub vegetation, but the flat valley floor has now grapes.
been cleared of its natural vegetation, irrigated and cultivated.
 Processes _
These are the methods used by people to produce the outputs:
e Preparation of the land - clearing vegetation, providing
terracing, drainage and irrigation systems
Ploughing
Sowing
Weeding
Application of fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides and
irrigation
Harvesting
e Storage and transporting to market

Outputs
These are the products of the system:
e Crops
e Meat
Fig. 9.3 Large-scale commercial farming in South Africa’s Western
e Milk Cape. Note the large fields and large area involved. The farm
e Industrial products, such as cotton, rubber or leather buildings also cover a large area - storing crops, seeds, fertiliser and
machinery.

Commercial and subsistence Subsistence farming

farming Subsistence farming involves growing crops or rearing
animals for consumption by the farmer and his or her
Commercial farming family. The crops are called subsistence crops. In many
In commercial agriculture, the farmer sells his or her subsistence-farming systems, a surplus may be produced
output to make a profit. This is typical of modern, large- from time to time which can then be sold.
scale farming. The crops produced are known as cash
crops - they are sold for money. Table 9.1 compares the two farming systems in general
terms, although individual examples vary (as the following
case studies show).

Commercial farming Subsistence farming

Capital (money) Large capital input, sometimes from international A complete lack of capital may prevent any increase in
companies output
Land Large area Very small farms
Labour Paid labour (often skilled), much use of research and Family labour, relying on traditional methods
development
Machinery and tools Much use of mechanisation for all processes Hand tools, such as hoes, and ploughs sometimes
pulled by draught animals
Seeds Improved varieties and hybrids Seeds left over from the previous year’s crop
Market influence Production is geared to current market demands and No market influence
prices
Fertilisers Generally used Used much less, although sometimes animal manure
is available
Pesticides and herbicides Generally used Used much less
Irrigation iw dry areas Uses complex systems Either none or very low-technology systems

Table 9.1 Comparing commercial and subsistence farming

{ ). ) Discussion point
Should an LEDC concentrate on subsistence farming, or should
it produce cash crops for export? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each policy?
 9 Agriculture

Intensive and extensive farming

These terms can apply to either commercial or subsistence
agriculture. Commercial farms may be intensive or
extensive, as may subsistence farms - although the latter
tend to be intensive.
An intensive farm An extensive farm
Area of land Small Large
Large machines Few Many
Labour input per High Low
hectare
Fertiliser input per High Low
hectare Pee coe ; ; ;
2 Fig. 9.5 A hillside in Bali, Indonesia, terraced for rice production,
Output per hectare High Low which needs an intensive input of labour

Table 9.2 Comparing intensive and extensive farms

As Table 9.2 shows, on an extensive farm, the inputs

per hectare are low - as are the outputs per hectare -
but this is overcome by using a large area of land.
Extensive farming can be highly profitable.

Fig. 9.6 There is little mechanisation on small-scale, intensive,

subsistence farms (so this farmer in Rajasthan, India, is using oxen to
pull his plough)

rims Fig. 9.4 Women planting onions by hand in Korea, as part of an Fig. 9.7 On extensive commercial farms, the use of large machines
“234 : intensive system (like these combine harvesters) is common
Miogs J e y
A large-scale commercial corporation. The capital input pays for the land itself,
farming system and also for a labour force that is often highly skilled.
A lot of research and development work supports this
Natural inputs farming system - leading to the use of the most up-to-
The most important natural input in this farming system date machinery for all processes, improved crop varieties
is land - lots of it! Some large-scale farms cover hundreds and hybrids, inputs of fertiliser, pesticide, herbicide
of square kilometres. This system might be run on and, where necessary, irrigation. Complex systems
extensive principles (where the large area compensates ensure that production is linked to current market
for a low level of human inputs), but not always. demands, prices and government policies.

Human inputs Natural inputs 2

The most important human input is capital. In some
*) Sugar needs a hot climate. Swaziland’s Low Veld area
cases, the farm may be backed by a multinational (see Fig. 9.9) has an average monthly temperature of
29 °C in summer, and temperatures rarely fall below
CASE STUDY 15 °C. There are also a lot of sunshine hours every
day.
Large-scale commercial sugar farming ~ Swaziland has flat land for large-scale mechanisation.
in Swaziland
Sugar can be produced from either sugar beet (a root crop) ~> Sugar needs at least 1800 millimetres of rainfall a :
or Sugar cane. In the eastern part of Swaziland (an LEDC year, which Swaziland does not receive (see Fig. 9.10), ‘
in southern Africa), sugar is produced from sugar cane. So irrigation is needed from the country’s rivers. ;
The sugar cane plant produces sucrose (sugar) in its
*) The alluvial soils in the river valleys are rich in nutrients 3
leaves, which it then stores in its stem.
and retain moisture. ;
Sugar cane production is the single biggest industry in
Swaziland. It accounts for 59% of agricultural output, 35%
of agricultural wage employment, and about 18% of
Swaziland’s Gross Domestic Product (income). This case
study deals with large, commercial, sugar cane estates,
which account for about 77% of Swaziland’s production.
The rest is in the hands of a large number of smaller
growers.

| High Veld (average

height 1300m) steep valleys
Middle Veld (average
i height 700m) rolling hills
Low Veld (average
SOUTH. height 200m) flat or gentle
AFRICA Lubombo (height 600m)
steep valleys
Fig. 9.9 Swaziland’s relief

SOUTH
~ | key
| Annual rainfall (mm)
| HBB over 1000
| Between 750-1000
Below 750

z>

SOUTH AFRICA

Fig. 9.10 Swaziland’s average annual rainfall patterns

9 Agriculture

SOUTH
— AFRICA Lomati River

Pe ei Rj
ich
/

esi

‘ Key
in
---- Mhlume water
gravity feed canal
Sugar-growing area
Simunye Estates

-|ndigwvzow Mhlume Estates

Ubombo Ranches

Fig. 9.11 Swaziland’s rivers and the location of the sugar-growing areas

1 Look at Fig. 9.11. The trade agreements include:

a Name the river which supplies the Mhlume e the SACU Sugar Cooperation Agreement, which allows
Estates with irrigation water. just over half of Swaziland’s total sugar production
Approximately how long is the canal supplying to enter other countries in Southern Africa (333 000
the Mhlume Estates? tonnes in 2010-11)
the ACP-EU Sugar Protocol, which allows sugar sales
Name the river which supplies the Simunye
to the European Union (about 278 O00 tonnes in
Estates.
2010-11)
Name the main river which supplies the
the United States Sugar Program, which allows sugar
Ubombo Ranches.
sales to the USA (about 16 000 tonnes per year)
the COMESA agreement, which allows sugar from
Hi uman inputs Swaziland to enter other southern and east African
>) Capital — to buy the land, build the irrigation canals (the countries (6000 tonnes in 2010-11)
Mhlume water gravity feed canal was opened in 1958),
build the sugar mills (processing sugar cane close to
the fields is important), and buy machinery (the sugar If you have already learned how to draw pie
industry is highly mechanised). charts (See Chapter 12), draw one to illustrate
the proportions of the different markets for
Labour— both unskilled and skilled (engineers, managers,
Swaziland’s sugar, as outlined in the tinted box.
agriculturalists, chemists, machine workers). The big
First you will need to convert the figures in tonnes
sugar companies offer their employees benefits, such
to percentages.
as: schools on the estates, college scholarships, free
medical services, free or subsidised housing, security
services, an orphan programme, and sporting and
recreational facilities.

Entry to international markets provided by government

trade agreements — a political input.
Processes ~> The ripe sugar cane is first burned in the fields (see
Unlike some large-scale commercial farms, Swaziland’s Fig. 9.12). This makes harvesting it easier, because it
sugar estates are not run on extensive principles. In fact, removes all of the leaves — but does not damage the
the inputs of labour, fertiliser and irrigation are quite sugar inside.
intensive. q
7) The cane is then cut down and taken to the sugar mills '
*) Irrigation water is taken from rivers by canal. It then for crushing. q
reaches the cane by a variety of methods: furrow 39%, ;
sprinkler 54%, drip 4% and centre pivot 3%. *) Sugar cane will regenerate for several years before 3
replanting is necessary. New plants are raised ina [|
*) The growth of the sugar cane crop in Swaziland takes nursery for replanting in the fields. :
about 12 months (a relatively short time for sugar cane). Ee

HEH
IN
MT
NT
UAT
HH
TT
ELA
RET

\) i} | 1 HIT
RPS
TTT
ATR
SAT

Outputs 7) Mhlume and Ubombo also produce refined sugar.

Swaziland has three sugar mills: Mhlume, Simunye and
*) Molasses is a sticky substance which does not form
Ubombo. The first two are part of the Royal Swazi Sugar
sugar grains. It is produced at all three mills. The two
Corporation, which operates a 20 000-hectare sugar cane
main distillers (USA Distillers and RSSC Distillers) use f
estate with an annual production capacity in excess of
most of the molasses for the production of alcohol. The ff
600 OOO tons.
remainder is sold to small local and foreign customers, :
The outputs are raw sugar, refined sugar, brown sugar, for food production and as animal
who use it as an input |
molasses and bagasse: feed.

‘> All three mills produce raw sugar and brown sugar. => The bagasse (or fibre) is used as animal feed.
A APA?RRAUAG7E7U!AlrEeRRB2.

237
 ( ) (). Discussion point One example of severe wind erosion is the ‘Dust Bowl’
in the High Plains and Prairies of the USA and Canada
How could MEDCs change their policies to help agriculture
in LEDCs?
between 1930 and 1936 (in some areas until 1940).
The ploughing of the natural grasslands to grow cereal
crops allowed the soil to dry out and exposed it to the
Sustainable development and wind. The same crop was also planted year after year,
resource conservation which removed nutrients and destroyed the soil structure.
Any attempts to increase agricultural production and Then, during a long drought in the 1930s, the exposed
food supply must be sustainable. In other words, they soil completely dried out and turned to dust. It was then
must be achieved in such a way that future generations blown away for thousands of kilometres towards the
do not suffer as a result. south east, and ended up in the Atlantic Ocean. In the
frequent dust storms, people could not see more than
One crucial resource that must be conserved (protected)
a few metres. About 400 000 km‘? of farmland were
is the soil. Soil erosion can be completely natural.
destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were
However, agricultural practices can cause it to begin
forced to leave their homes.
or to increase. In the case studies on Brazil (pages
240-42), Canada (pages 243-44), and Swaziland (pages The following case study on Canada (pages 243-4)
246-50), soil erosion is a hazard faced by farmers in shows how farmers today are dealing with the threat
three very different climatic zones - using very different of soil erosion by the wind.
farming systems.

Soil erosion Soil erosion by running water

For this to occur:
Soil can be eroded by water running down slopes, or
by the wind. Both types of erosion are the result of: *) slopes must be steep enough for water to run down
them due to gravity
> the soil being exposed and not covered by vegetation
> rainfall must be too heavy for all of it to soak into
® soil which is loose and damaged by poor agricultural
the ground, so that surface run-off occurs down the
practices, so it loses its structure.
slopes - either in sheets of water (on gentler slopes)
Soil consists of two parts: minerals and organic matter. or concentrated into channels (on steeper slopes).
The minerals come from the rocks below by the process
The following case studies on Brazil and Swaziland give
of weathering (see Chapter 4). They are the nutrients
examples of soil erosion by running water.
that plants absorb through their roots and use to survive
and grow. Organic matter, including humus, comes
from decaying plant matter from the vegetation above.
Both of these parts are needed to give the soil structure
- in other words, to make it hold together and not become (
)C). Discussion point
loose. Which types of climate are likely to be affected by soil erosion
and why?
Soils lose their minerals when plants use them, or when
they are washed out by rainwater (in a process called
leaching). Farmers can replace the lost minerals by
adding fertiliser or animal manure to the soil. They can
also replace lost organic matter by adding manure or
plant matter.
@ LEARNING TIP Soil erosion is part of Section 3.5
Soil erosion by the wind of the IGCSE Geography syllabus. Make sure that you know
For this to occur:
about a case study of soil erosion. Questions often ask
> rainfall needs to be low, so the soil dries out and is about the causes ofsoil erosion and what can be done to
loose prevent it. To get full marks you need not just to name an
example but you need to be able to explain it thoroughly,
> strong winds need to blow to actually remove the giving some details of your chosen example.
soil.
Soil conservation
Table 9.3 describes some of the methods used to conserve
soil. Examples of many of them (but not all) can be
found in the case studies.
Method Erosion prevented Description
Wind Water
Terracing J A series of retaining walls is built on a slope, with the soil piled up and
flattened behind each one. This prevents water from running down the slope
and carrying soil away. The water is trapped and soaks into the ground. This
method is shown on Figs. 9.5 and 9.26.
Contour ploughing Ploughing takes place across a slope, rather than up and down it. This
means that water does not run down the furrows and wash soil away. The
water is trapped and soaks into the ground.
Crop rotation A different crop is grown on a plot of land each year for three or four years,
before the first crop is grown again. The different crops take different
nutrients from the soil. Therefore, the soil does not become exhausted, lose
its structure, and become loose and easily eroded.
Fallow periods A piece of land is ‘rested’ every few years. This allows it to regain lost
nutrients. Therefore, the soil does not become exhausted, lose its structure,
and become loose and easily eroded.
Strip cultivation and Different crops are grown in narrow bands in a single field (often at right
inter-cropping angles to the prevailing wind). The crops are harvested at different times, so
the field is never left completely bare. Any soil blown from a bare strip by
the wind is trapped by the crop in the next strip.
Cover cropping This works on the same principle as strip cultivation. Usually a fast-growing
crop is planted after the main crop has been harvested. Sometimes this is
a ‘green manure’ crop, which is then ploughed back into the soil to add
nutrients. In this way, the soil is left bare for the minimum time.
Reducing stock density By having fewer livestock, a piece of land does not become overgrazed.
There is always a cover of vegetation to protect the soil. Although there are
fewer livestock, they may well be of better quality and value. It is often
achieved by having fenced fields or paddocks and using rotational grazing.
Check dams Where gully erosion has occurred (see Fig 9.27), small walls are built
across the gullies. This reduces the speed of run-off down each gully and
prevents it from becoming larger.
Filling gullies Gullies are filled with rocks and other materials as soon as they form - to
prevent them from becoming larger.
Afforestation Planting large areas of trees reduces soil erosion in various ways. The trees
stop strong winds and heavy rainfall from reaching the soil, and the roots
hold the soil together.
Shelter belts (wind breaks) o Rows of trees are grown at right angles to the prevailing wind on the side of
the field that the wind is blowing from. The trees reduce the speed of the
wind, so that it is not strong enough to pick up the soil.
Dry farming This is a series of methods rather than a single one. They are described in
the case study about the Canadian Prairies.
Irrigation Vv Careful irrigation keeps the soil moist and prevents it from being picked up,
especially by the wind.
*

Table 9.3 Some of the methods used to conserve soil

3.
Large-scale commercial beef USA 20.6%
farming in Brazil Brazil 16.5%
Brazil (an NIC in South America) is the EU-27
China
world’s second-largest beef producer — and Argentina
the largest beef exporter. In 2010, Brazil’s India
share of the world’s beef export market Australia
was 25% and this is likely to increase. Mexico
Canada

@ LEARNING
Russia
10% 15% 20% 25%
TIP Describe the Percentage of world production
trend in words, but illustrate your answer
with figures (unless the question asks Fig. 9.13 The top 10 beef-producing countries in 2009
otherwise).
a_ Plot the data in Table 9.4 as a line graph.
Physical inputs b Describe the general pene inlle
eer
The most important physical input is large
areas of land. The density of the beef cattle 2001-2002 2003 2004 20
Beef 40 ATS (042
is often as low as a single animal per
hectare.
exports

Brazil’s beef industry is not restricted to a Table 9.4 Brazilian beef exports, 2001-10 (in million head of cattle)
single climatic zone:

*) Much of the North Region (part of the Amazon Basin) 7) The Northeast Region has a dry tropical climate and
has a tropical rainforest climate and vegetation. In wooded grassland — known as cerrado.
2000, the region contained just 13% of Brazil’s total
7) The South Region has a temperate climate.
beef herd, but this has increased dramatically and
could now be as high as 40%. Cheap (and sometimes > Traditionally, the two most important regions for the
illegally occupied) land has been made available for beef industry were the Southeast and Central-West,
farming in this region. Ranches as large as 8000 with 23.1% and 35.1% of the total herd in 2000.
hectares were on the market in 2011.

FRENCH GUIANA

Atlantic Atlantic
Ocean Ocean

BOLIVIA |

Pacific Key
Ocean Rainfall (mm)
HB 3000-5000
(BB 2000-3000
ARGENTINA
[= 1000-2000
7] 500-1000
[___] 250-500

Fig. 9.15 Brazil: rainfall

Human inputs
Market is a critical factor. Beef consumption
increases as countries become more affluent.
Brazil is the world’s fifth most populous
country and, as an NIC, has a growing
domestic market. Some of the major
international retail chains operate there,
including Carrefour (France), Walmart (USA),
Royal Ahold (The Netherlands) and Sonae
(Portugal). Traditional butchers and small
retailers tend to be replaced by large
supermarket chains in large urban areas.
This has led to modernisation and an increase
in the scale of operations for meat processing
and distribution.

JBS-Friboi is the largest Brazilian multinational

in the food industry. It has established
itself as the world’s largest company in the
beef sector, and is a global meat exporter. = SEs
Its production and exports both increased greatly from Fig. 9.16 Cattle grazing on land in the Southeast Region
2000 onwards, but concerns about foot and mouth disease
(a highly infectious cattle disease) have led to problems 7) The Southeast and Central-West Regions are closer
exporting to the European Union. to the markets in the densely populated areas around
Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, so they concentrate on
The growth in the industry has attracted multinational
the later stages of growth and fattening of the cattle.
companies to invest capital, because large profits can
Production here is well organised and large breeders
be made. have invested in improved pastures. This has resulted
In the south of the country, where beef rearing has gone in a drop in slaughter age from four to three years,
on for many years, there is a supply of skilled labour. In and improved the quality of the meat reaching the
the North and Northeast Regions, where there are high market. The Southeast Region has some production
levels of poverty, labour has been acquired very cheaply. based on fattening cattle in pens (feedlots), a system
more common in the USA. The slaughterhouses and
Research and development have been important inputs meat-processing industry are concentrated in these
to many of the processes listed below. regions.
Processes Outputs
To sell its beef on the global market, Brazil has to place The Brazilian system is very extensive, with very low
an emphasis on meat quality, traceability and standardisation productivity. The global export of beef has been made
of the product. To improve the quality of the meat there possible by refrigeration and canning. Brazilian cattle
are crossbreeding programmes, usually involving crossing products now end up in a wide range of consumer goods.
native and European breeds.
Fresh beef is converted into burgers sold in fast-food
There are differences in the methods of production between restaurants and grocery stores across Brazil, Russia,
the regions: Venezuela, and a number of other countries. Processed
= Inthe North Region, the felling of rainforest is followed meat finds its way into canned and ready meal products

by seeding and grazing. Little fencing or improvement in Europe and America. Leather goes to China, Italy,

of pastures is carried out. Producers specialise in Vietnam, and Hong Kong, where it is used to make shoes
breeding (the first six to eight months of the life of the and clothing sold all over the world. The result is a boom
in global demand for Brazilian beef products.
cattle).

In the cerrado area of the Northeast Region, natural

tropical grasslands are used as pastures.
9 Agriculture

The impact of cattle on the

Amazon Basin
Cattle ranching is the biggest cause of
deforestation in the Amazon Basin (in
the North Region). Beef ranches account
for about 70% of the cleared forest.
Results from a 2006 agricultural census
showed that, over the previous 20 years,
cattle ranches had caused the destruction
of more than 20 million hectares of
Amazonian forest. However, only 6% of
Brazilian beef comes from ranches
created by deforestation, and it must
be remembered that a lot of beef comes
from the country’s other climatic zones.

The global effects of deforestation are

described in Chapter 8, but the immediate
local effects include changing the
traditional way of life of local people and
causing soil erosion (mainly by running
water, because of the heavy rainfall of
the tropical rainforest climate falling on
the bare soil).

Making beef production

sustainable
Brazil intends to increase its beef
production and gain over 44% of the
international export market by 2020.
However, it needs to do so without any
further negative impacts on the
environment. This could be done by
making better use of land that has already
been deforested — increasing production
in those areas and taking better care of
the soil and pastures. However, to achieve Fig. 9.17 Soil erosion caused by deforestation and cattle ranching in the Amazon Basin
this, greater government control over
found to be involved in Amazon deforestation. The
future deforestation will be vital.
shoemakers Adidas, Clarks, Nike, Geox and Timberland
Where it remains cheap — or even free — to occupy land, now have sourcing policies in place to ensure that their
it will always be more economical to cut down trees than products do not use leather produced in areas of Amazon
to invest in increased productivity in areas that have already deforestation.
been cleared. The system must become more intensive,
One of Brazil’s major exporters, Bertin, says that it will
with more animals raised in smaller areas.
register and map all ranches which directly supply cattle
Brazil’s biggest domestic beef buyers — the supermarket to the company. By 2011, Bertin will implement a traceability
chains Walmart, Carrefour and Pao de Acucar — have system to track cattle from ranches to slaughterhouses
announced that they will suspend contracts with suppliers and processing facilities — to ensure that it is not buying
from farms linked to conflicts of land ownership, slave
labour, or illegal forest clearance.

ae —

4 Explain why beef production in eval is described as Discussion point }j

(a) commercial and (b) extensive. | From what you have learned from this chapter and Chapter 8,
' why has clearing areas of the tropical rainforests raised strong
\ feelings in people all around the world?
 Canada is an MEDC in North America. Chapter 2 explained
how the country’s three Prairie Provinces (Alberta,
Saskatchewan and Manitoba) were important for the
production of wheat. The Prairies are the plains of central
North America, which — before farming began — were natural
temperate grasslands. The three Prairie Provinces make
up about 75% of Canada’s farmland and are one of the
largest cereal production regions in the world. Canada’s
neighbour, the USA, is the world’s leading wheat exporter.

Physical inputs
> The climate is critical for the growth of wheat. The very
warm, Sunny summers allow optimum growth in the
short growing season. Rain also comes in the summer
growing season. During the cold winter, frost breaks up
the soil and kills pests that might attack the crop.

>> The land is flat, or gently undulating, which allows the

Fig. 9.18 Wheat
use of large machines like combine harvesters.

> This area used to be a natural grassland. Beneath the > Farming is highly mechanised and uses a large proportion
grass, a black, humus-rich soil (called a chernozem) of capital on the purchase and repair of equipment. A
developed. This provides natural fertility with the minimum large combine harvester, operated by one person, can
input of fertilizer. harvest 30 tonnes of wheat a day.

*> There is a large amount of land available. The Prairies * Although extensive farming systems usually involve few
stretch 1500 kilometres from east to west — and a inputs of chemicals like fertiliser, herbicides (weed
typical farm is about 300 hectares. killer) and pesticides, the use of these has increased
with time.
7) The annual rainfall with its summer maximum is enough,
although there are drier areas in the north and south *> The research and development of new strains of wheat
where there can be problems in drier years. has been important. One aspect of this is disease
resistance, and another is the time needed for the wheat
Human inputs to reach maturity. The new varieties are able to grow in
*> The labour force is small and highly skilled. There may regions in the north and south where the growing season
be as few as two or three people operating the farm. is shorter and there is less rain.

Fiig. 9.19 The wide open Prairies of Manitoba with a grain elevator in the ba ckground
243
 Processes
The crop is spring wheat. In other words, it is sown in the
spring, grows through the summer and is harvested in the
autumn. Most European wheat grows through the winter.

After harvesting, the grain is taken to grain elevators

(storage silos) next to railways. There are 2000 railway
shipment points in the Prairies. From there, the grain is
taken by rail to the ports shown on Fig. 9.21.

Outputs
The main output is unprocessed wheat grain. Some other
cereals, such as barley, are also produced in smaller
quantities.

a DY-Xvovalovey aloliarcdgeliantouted eLe)ancYe luicolindares er-larclel cla

Prairies.

Key
—» Export route

Hudson [__] Provinces

Churchill Bay ca Main crop area (not all wheat)

Pacific
Ocean
VancotNtr

oo 3 1000
USAR weal

Fig. 9.21 The wheat-growing areas and export routes

Problems > Strip fallowing. Growing wheat in strips at right angles

Like all exporting countries, fluctuations in world prices to the prevailing wind with fallow strips in-between. The
and demand are issues facing Canada. However, the main fallow strips trap any soil that is blown by the wind.
problem experienced is soil erosion by the wind, especially
in the drier, western areas. Any drought when the soil is |* Growing drought-resistant varieties.
bare leads to the erosion of loose particles by the strong
winds blowing across the treeless plains.

Although there is some irrigation, the main solutions come _ Fig. 9.22 Average annual rainfall in the Prairies
under the general heading of dry farming methods. These > 5 me
include: .
a
~ Stopping ploughing. Cultivators cut weeds below the
surface and seeds are sown into the stubble of the
previous year’s crop.

~) Fallowing. The land is cultivated only every other year,

to conserve the soil moisture. rae

| Rainfall (mm)
7) Ripping. A machine rips up the frozen ground in winter
| HM 601-800
into large chunks, which block the wind close to the
surface. + [3 401-600
201-400
 Study the data in Table 9.5.
a How has world wheat production changed in the last 10 years?
What are the differences in the changes between countries?
b Suggest reasons for the changes shown.

08

ioe
2.1

‘454

France 7 305 1.

Germany = 21.6 26.0

19 5
21.9 4 10:8 We Say,
Payer

’ fF0n . oot 2 ar * :
Lae ne

Table 9.5 World wheat production (million metric tons)

@ LEARNING TIP Question 6b is a ‘suggest question’, so you are

allowed to include any reasonable answers. Some answers are not definitely
right or wrong and you will gain marks for any sensible suggestions.

Small-scale subsistence farming

Natural inputs
In most examples of subsistence arable farming in the The Chitimene system practised in the Miombo woodland
world today, the area of each unit is small - perhaps as in Zambia, central Africa, was an example. Because of
small as 1-3 hectares. This land is cultivated intensively. population growth, the breakdown of tradition and
In the case of subsistence pastoral farming, areas of economic factors, the Chitimene system can no longer
land can be much larger, especially in the case of pastoral be practised. Finger millet, a grain relatively rich in
nomadism - where people move from place to place protein, has been replaced by maize - leading to a poorer
with their animals. diet and resulting in the need for measures to restore
soil fertility periodically.
There are still some areas where shifting cultivation
is practised. In these areas, a plot of land is cleared and
the ash from burning the vegetation is used as fertiliser.
The land is cultivated for a few years in the traditional
manner, until it is exhausted (the plant nutrients -
minerals in the soil - have been used up) and crop yields
decline. The people then move to another area, often
a_ Why does population growth sometimes mean
building 4 new settlement, and repeat the process - not that people change from shifting cultivation to
returning to the original plot for perhaps 20 years. This permanently settled agriculture?
system is still used in some tropical areas like rainforests, b Suggest social and economic reasons for this
where the soil fertility is low and minerals are leached change.
by heavy rainfall.
Human inputs {
.C). Discussion point
A lack of capital input is an issue that prevents many What effects have population growth had on agricultural
subsistence farmers from increasing their output. The systems? How has this affected the natural environment?
ways of doing this (described later) are often impossible
because of poverty. Family labour is generally used
(relying on traditional methods). Tradition also fixes
the roles of men and women in different ways in different
societies. There are few machines - hand tools (like
hoes) are used, with draught animals (like oxen) being
used to pull ploughs. Seeds left over from the previous
year’s crop are used for the next year, which prevents
the use of improved varieties. The only fertiliser used
might be animal manure, although in many areas this
is used as a cooking fuel instead (which prevents soil
improvement). Where irrigation is used, very low
technology systems are in place - usually draining water
in channels from a nearby stream.

Improving subsistence agriculture

Many people who practise subsistence agriculture are
stuck in a vicious circle of poverty (see Fig. 9.23). A lot
Fig. 9.23 The vicious circle of low outputs and a lack of capital
of attention is therefore given to improving the lives of
subsistence farmers and breaking the circle. This is
discussed in the following case study and in the section
about improving food supplies.

CASE STUDY

Small-scale subsistence farming in

Swaziland
Most of the people in rural Swaziland are subsistence
farmers. Many of them live on Swazi National Land,
which makes up over 60% of the country’s total land
area. It is held in trust by the King for the Swazi people,
and supports about 70% of the population. However,
the Swazi National Land system sometimes leads to
the fragmentation of already small farms — with individual
farmer’s fields separated from each other and from
the household. Some farmers have to walk for up to
3 kilometres just to reach their fields.

Under the traditional land system, farmers cultivate

small plots — averaging less than 3 hectares in size —
and have no right to sell the land. Most of the subsistence
farming is based on the production of maize, without
irrigation. Raising cattle is also important.

For many. communities around the world farming forms

an important part of their culture and Swaziland is no
different. Cattle are an important form of wealth and
the farming tasks performed in the different seasons
are an important part of the cultural beliefs.
P hysical inputs ceeceeeiheensnsinienienaines \
As you have already seen in Fig. 9.9, Swaziland has four | Key
zones. As well as the natural inputs of soil and rainfall, 4 Best soils
the input of land is usually small units of up to 3 hectares. «*, Gully erosion

Zone Average annual Soil Relief

rainfall (mm)
High Veld 1270 Soils are often Areas of
thin, leached or steep
eroded slopes
Middle 940 Some areas of rich Gentle
Veld soils, especially in slopes
the river valleys
Low Veld 660 Some rich alluvial Flat
soils
Lubombo 787 Some good red Areas of
Uplands clay soils but some steep
are thin slopes

Table 9.6 Swaziland’s four zones and their features

S$ Use the data in Table 9.6, plus information from

Fig. 9.25, to explain the advantages and
disadvantages of each zone for farming.

@ LEARNING TIP The question said ‘explain’.

Don’t just repeat the information in the table. Say why
it is an advantage or a disadvantage.
Fig. 9.25 Soils and soil erosion in Swaziland’s four zones

Human inputs Processes

*> Labour is generally from family members. In recent Many Swazi farms are self-sufficient areas of 1-3 hectares.
years, women have played a particularly important role, Their main crop is maize, but the farmers also graze a few
because many men have left the country to work in the cattle. The individual subsistence farmers are encouraged
mines in neighbouring South Africa. to join up and form farmers’ associations, which help to
spread information about new processes (under the direction
7) Many farmers also try to find casual work in the towns
of field officers working for the Department of Agriculture).
— to provide extra income to support their families and
also a small amount of capital for their farms. > A lot of cattle are grazed on the Swazi National Land.
The stock is guarded and controlled on the unfenced
> Traditional knowledge is important and many people
land by herd boys.
are still guided by religion and custom in how they live
their lives. *) Inthe dry winters, pastures are burned to get rid of the
coarse dry grass and allow new nutritious shoots to
*) Mostly hand tools like hoes are used, although the
emerge.
government has operated a tractor hire scheme.
*) Swaziland’s rains come in the summer (starting roughly
*) There is little use of fertiliser, although there may be
in October), so this is when the maize seeds are sown.
sortie animal manure from stubble grazing by cattle in
the winter. *) The lands are ploughed in June, before the rains are
expected.
=) The social/political system of the Swazi National Land
(described earlier) is an important input. ~) Following the harvest in April and May, cattle may graze
the fields.
> There is simple irrigation in the Middle and Low Velds,
which involves diverting water from nearby streams. “> The steeper slopes in the High Veld are terraced.
9 Agriculture
STATS RT TSS PT TT TES TS

= = SS

Fig. 9.26 Terraced slopes in the High Veld, near Piggs Peak. This is a winter picture, as shown by the
dry landscape and the absence of crops in the fields. The individual plots are small.

Outputs
The harvested maize is milled at home to produce flour, Roads connecting farmers to supplies and markets are
which is then cooked and eaten by the family. There is not good in remote areas of the north and south.
also some production of millet and vegetables (Such as
Overstocking of the pastureland is a major issue — often
cabbages, tomatoes and pumpkins) to vary the family’s
caused by the shortage of land. It means that the cattle
diet. The cattle produce meat and milk.
raised are of poor quality, and they also use up valuable
Problems land that could be used for cultivation. In addition, overgrazing
Erratic rainfall is a problem. There was a drought in the leaves the land bare and leads to soil erosion.
growing season of 2008-9, but the return of good rains
Animal diseases have also weakened the herds. The
in 2009 did little to improve the country’s food production.
regions of Manzini, Lubombo and Hhohho had been free
The irrigation water that could enable farmers to increase
of foot and mouth disease in cattle for more than 20 years,
their productivity is not available to many. Water rights
but there was an outbreak in November and December
from the Usutu River have already been allocated.
2000 — just after Swaziland had been designated by the
Farmers lack capital and do not have money to buy improved World Organisation for Animal Health as a ‘FMD Free
seeds and fertiliser. Those who do not have teams of oxen Country Without Vaccination’.
for ploughing find it difficult to rent tractors.
Soil erosion is a problem that leads to the formation of
As in many countries in Africa, the younger people are gullies (or dongas as they are known in southern Africa),
often not interested in agriculture. Some of the vulnerable especially in the High Veld. This leaves the land unusable
people who live in Swaziland’s rural areas have been for agriculture.
discouraged by the prolonged drought and the burden of
HIV/AIDS, which reduces and weakens the workforce.
 The soil erosion is caused by a variety of factors, including: Solutions to the problems
More investment in dams and canals would help to extend
torrential rainfall, which cannot soak into the ground
irrigation in the Middle and Low Velds. Some micro-irrigation
quickly enough and runs off the surface. This is a
schemes for holdings of 1-5 hectares have been planned
particular problem at the end of the dry season, when
(often for co-operatives of women farmers). Where irrigation
the soil is exposed
is not possible — and the average rainfall is less than
pasture burning, which again leaves the soil exposed 800 millimetres a year — alternative crops to maize are
being investigated. They include sorghum, sweet potatoes,
steep slopes leading to rapid surface run-off of the
cassava and groundnuts.
rainfall
Subsidised farming inputs like seed and fertiliser, especially
loose sandy soils for farmers of small areas, would help to overcome the

the overgrazing of cattle as a result of overstocking and lack of capital. One scheme requires farmers to pay for

uncontrolled grazing — leaving the soil exposed. This one-third of the cost of the inputs.

particularly occurs around water holes. Under the open- Measures are also needed to improve livestock production.
access grazing system, cattle are allowed to graze on A fence has been proposed along the border with Mozambique
Swazi National Land at no direct cost to the cattle-owning — to help control foot and mouth disease. All cattle within
household a 15-kilometre- wide buffer zone would then be vaccinated.
Reducing stock density would also help, but many farmers
leaving the soil exposed after the harvesting of crops
resist this. Rotational grazing under fenced conditions
destroying the soil structure by overcropping, which would lead to higher grass production and healthier cattle.
leaves it loose and easily removed
Programmes of education and training have been set up
ploughing up and down slopes, so that rainwater runs for farmers. For example,
residential training courses at
down the furrows. the Veterinary and Farmer Training Centre at Mpisi. This
organisation has established units to teach farmers about
adopting a monoculture of maize, which leads to soil the fattening of cattle, dairy production, and also broiler,
exhaustion and destroys the soil structure. egg and pig production.

———

Fig. 9.27 Gully erosion

249
 Farm mechanisation is a major issue when farmers lack There are a variety of measures to control soil erosion,
capital. A programme to hire out tractors could succeed some of which have already been mentioned. They include:
only if the service was subsidised. A service to provide
inter-cropping (growing other crops which mature at
small capital loans would require farmers to make a
different times between the rows of maize)
contribution and prove their credit worthiness. The formation
of co-operatives is important in getting bank credit. terracing (See Fig. 9.26)

Improved markets for crops would stimulate production. contour ploughing across the slope, rather than up and
The National Maize Board, whose main storage facility is down it
located in the centre of Swaziland, is to be decentralised
crop rotation (changing the crop on a plot every year
— with storage facilities being built in all four provinces.
for three or four years before the first crop is grown
Schemes to generate interest in agriculture and stimulate
again)
younger people to become farmers may help what is a
problem in many parts of the world. reducing stock densities

the careful use of fertiliser and manure

stopping the burning of grass in the High Veld

a_ The causes of soil erosion in Swaziland have

{
).C ) Discussion point
already been explained. For each of the solutions Many countries report that young people are not interested in
listed above, explain how it will help to reduce being farmers but would rather have an office job. Why do think
the problem. that this is so? Is it a good thing?

Using the three case studies, make a table to

compare the causes of soil erosion in the
Canadian Prairies, Amazon Basin and Swaziland.

Food shortages
At the beginning of the chapter, the importance of HIV/AIDS
increasing world food supply to keep pace with the a 2% _ Measles
Injuries 1%
growing population was mentioned. 3%

Poor nutrition is particularly noticeable in statistics

about children’s health. Well-nourished children perform
better in school, grow into healthy adults and give their
own children a better start in life. Well-nourished
women face fewer risks during pregnancy and childbirth,
and their children get a better start in life.
UNICEF, the United Nations Children’s Fund, believes
that undernourished children have lowered resistance
to infection and are more likely to die from common
childhood ailments like diarrhoea and respiratory
infections. Frequent illness saps the nutritional status
of those who survive - locking them into a vicious cycle
of recurring sickness and faltering growth.
Poverty, low levels of education and poor access to health
services, are major contributors to childhood under- Fig. 9.28 The causes of death of children under the age of five in
nutrition. Not surprisingly, the highest levels are found 2008 (globally, more than one third of child deaths are attributable
to under-nutrition)
in LEDCs.
 WH 41-50%

Fig. 9.29 The global distribution of child under-nutrition. This information, compiled by
UNICEF, shows the percentage of children in each country who were moderately or
severely underweight (based on the best statistics available up to 2009)

Although the Green Revolution did help the food supply

Describe the global distribution of child
to keep pace with world population growth, it also led
under-nutrition.
to some concerns - especially about the new crops.

As well as the common childhood illnesses made worse > Some of the new varieties were more susceptible to
by under-nutrition, there are also specific diseases pests and disease, while others required large inputs
caused by a poor diet. There are two particular diseases of fertiliser (which led to debts for some farmers).
linked to protein deficiency. Marasmus is most common > Some of the new varieties were also low in vitamins
in very young children and results in babies being very and minerals, so they did not improve people’s diets.
thin. Kwashiorkor results in children having swollen
> The rate of diseases associated with vitamin and
bellies, round faces and changes in hair colour.
mineral deficiencies did not decrease.

The Green Revolution Causes of food shortages

This system of agricultural improvements was seen as
the way to increase world food supplies between 1960
Soil exhaustion
and 1990. It improved food production in a number of Soil exhaustion leads to low crop yields. It is a result of
overcropping (growing too many crops on a plot) and
countries.
monoculture (growing the same crop every year, using
In India,new hybrid seed varieties were introduced for up the same minerals). Insufficient fertiliser and manure
five cereal crops: maize, wheat, rice, millet and sorghum. are added to replace the lost minerals. Heavy rainfall
These new varieties were very responsive to fertilisers also results in the leaching of minerals.
and had shorter growing seasons. The Indian programme
resulted in increased yields, more crops per year, more
varied diets, and surpluses that could be sold to raise
capital.
Drought bananas to ripen prematurely, which can wipe out up
In areas of the tropics where seasonal rainfall occurs, to 90% of a crop.
the failure of the rains can be disastrous, because the
Animals are also affected by disease. Foot and mouth
whole crop can be lost. Seeds kept back to plant the
disease has already been discussed in the sections about
following year may have to be eaten instead. The failure
Brazil and Swaziland. Nagana or trypanosomiasis (called
of the summer rains in Swaziland in 2008-9 has already
sleeping sickness in humans) is spread by the tsetse fly,
been mentioned.
and limits cattle keeping to the drier areas of the tropics.
It results in a low output of meat and milk, or the death
Floods
of animals.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, some of the densest rural
populations in the world occur on flood plains. Examples The food supply is also affected by diseases that afflict
include the Ganges/Brahmaputra flood plains in farmers and prevent them from working in their fields.
Bangladesh and the Indus flood plain in Pakistan (see One such disease is malaria:
pages 133-134). People have been attracted to these
©) Malaria isa disease spread by the Anopheles mosquito.
areas by the naturally fertile alluvial soils, which require
little or no fertiliser. However, serious flooding can lead > According to the World Health Organisation, there
to the complete loss of a year’s harvest. are more than 225 million cases of malaria each
year (killing around 781 000 people).
Tropical cyclones
> Around 90% of malaria-related deaths occur in sub-
These are particularly associated with the Caribbean
Saharan Africa.
and adjacent areas of America (hurricanes) and south-
east Asia (typhoons). Crops can be destroyed by the =) Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and
strong winds and torrential rain, or the associated floods. is a major hindrance to increased food production.
The affect of HIV/AIDS is also important in many areas
Pests
and has already been described in Swaziland.
Various pests can destroy the crops in the fields (or
harvested crops during storage). Among the most serious
Low Capital investment
pests are the locust swarms that occur in many parts
The vicious circle of low output and poverty is described
of the world, but are most destructive in the subsistence-
in Fig. 9.23.
farming regions of Africa.
Desert locust swarms: Poor transport
This reduces productivity in two ways:
> could threaten the economic livelihoods of 10% of
the world’s population. +>) Farmers in remote areas find it difficult to receive
supplies and information about possible improvements
> can be 1200 square kilometres in size, and contain
to farming practices and processes.
between 40 and 80 million insects in less than one
square kilometre. *> Also, they cannot sell surpluses easily and are,
therefore, less likely to raise any capital and more
> ofthis size eat about 200 million kilograms of plants
likely to remain poor.
a day.
Wars
Less spectacular are the more everyday pests like birds,
Many of the countries with the highest rates of poorly
which eat crops in the fields and require scaring away,
nourished children (see Fig 9.29) have been badly
or rats that eat stored crops.
affected by conflicts. The prolonged conflict in the
Disease eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
is an example. If people are forced to leave their homes
A variety of diseases can destroy crops in the fields or
and become refugees with an uncertain future, it will
during storage. For example, in West Africa cereals and
obviously have an affect on their ability to make long-
legumes are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins
term investments in increased food production.
(fungal growths caused by storage in humid conditions).
Many rural West African children have excessive levels
Increased use of biofuels
of mycotoxins in their blood, which can cause serious
Between 2008 and 2011, land previously used for food
health effects. Bananas (often a subsistence crop in
production was changed to produce crops for biofuel
humid tropical areas) suffer from ‘banana bunchy top
production instead. This led to increases in world food
virus’, which stunts and kills plants. Bacterial wilt causes
prices and decreases in the food supply.
CASE STUDY
Food shortages in Swaziland from distributing food aid — towards programmes that
Some of the problems in Swaziland that have led to food encourage self-sufficient food production instead. Previously,
shortages there have already been discussed. In addition, they supplied food aid directly during emergency situations,
unemployment in neighbouring South Africa has now risen, and via governments during non-emergency times. They
and many migrant workers from Swaziland are returning also supplied seeds for sorghum, beans or maize.
to their homes. This has increased unemployment in the
This international approach led some farmers to think that
country and caused even greater poverty and food shortages.
they would always be supplied, so they became dependent
Chronic under-nutrition is a particularly important problem
on the aid. They sometimes even sold what they had been
for children — leading to slower growth and many under-
given. It is important that farmers contribute and have a
weight children.
sense of ownership, rather than just receiving something
In 2010, Swaziland’s GDP per capita (a measure of for nothing. In Swaziland, some children born since the
wealth) was just $4500. 1990s — when drought crippled Swaziland’s agriculture
— do not know anything other than food aid, because their
Between 1970 and 1990, life expectancy at birth rose parents have given up on farming. They never get to acquire
from 48 to 61 years. But, by 2011, it had dropped back much-needed agricultural skills at home.
to 48.
Between 2006 and 2010, world food prices rose dramatically.
The Swazi population has been badly weakened by
In many countries there were protests in the streets about
HIV/AIDS. In 2009, 26% of 15-49 year olds were the price of food (e.g. Indonesia, the Philippines and Egypt).
infected (the highest prevalence rate in the world), and
there were 96 OOO orphans in a total population of Food crops or inedible cash crops?
just under 1.4 million. Small-scale farmers often have to decide whether to grow
food crops to feed their families directly, or cash crops
The extent of the food problem that they can then sell for money to buy food and other
> Adrought in 1991-2 caused Swaziland’s maize output goods. In Swaziland, many small-scale farmers have
to seriously decline. As a result, the government had decided to produce cotton (in the drier areas) and sugar
to seek emergency international food aid. cane, rather than staple foods like maize.
By 1999, Swaziland’s crop production was again up to Sugar is Swaziland’s biggest industry, employing 93 OOO
90% of what it had been during 1989-91. people (See the case study on pages 235-237). Over the
However, between 2000 and 2010, up to two thirds of last 30 years, many small-scale farmers have been persuaded
Swaziland’s people still relied on donor food aid. to abandon food crops such as maize and join co-operatives
Swaziland’s annual national maize requirement is about growing sugar cane instead. Up to now, these co-operatives
140 000 tonnes. But the 2008-09 harvest only produced have relied on Swaziland’s guaranteed access to markets
about 71 O00 tonnes — half the amount required to in other countries to repay the bank loans they took out
feed the people. to irrigate their land and buy equipment. However, the
problem for these small farmers is that if world sugar
Food aid or not? prices fall, or the trade agreements change and cut off
For the last few years, the UN’s World Food Programme their key markets, they may be in severe difficulties.
(WFP), and other organisations, have been moving away

Why is a high rate of HIV/AIDS a problem for food supply and { ).CO) Discussion point
agriculture in Swaziland and elsewhere? How would you attempt to solve world food
Why is food aid not necessarily the best way of improving supply, shortages?

and what is the alternative?

List the causes of food shortages in Swaziland.
Industry

rr

Did you know that farming, fishing, teaching,

hairdressing, and tourism are all types of
industry?
Why is it that some countries can build
flourishing economies while others remain
poor?
Which countries are developing their
industries very quickly?
Why can some industries only be located in
certain areas?
How does industry produce problems for the
environment?
What are the advantages and disadvantages
of different types of industry?
How can we clean up after industry?
Should we be using up our finite mineral
resources, or should we save some for future
generations?
Are tourists an intrusion into the lives of
local people?
Do they spread bad habits to other cultures?
Do they damage the environment?
 In this unit you will learn about: RESEARCH Conduct a survey in your
=) how industries are classified class about the employment sectors of
=> how the percentage of a country’s population employed in the your classmates’ families. Convert your
different industrial sectors changes with its economic results into percentages of the total and
development then plot them, either as a pie chart or a
=) the way the industrial system works divided bar graph.
=) how different industries have different requirements
=> how leisure and tourism have grown to become very important
over the last 50 years
s> the advantages and disadvantages of the tourist industry
=) why resources need to be conserved and development must be
sustainable
=) the effect of industries on ecosystems.

Industrial sectors

Primary industries Tertiary industries

These industries are involved in the production of raw materials. These are service industries. They include retailing, transport,
They include farming, fishing, forestry, mining, and quarrying. designing, education, and health. Sometimes the knowledge-
based industries are classified separately - as quaternary
industries. They include services like information generation
and sharing, information technology, consultation, education,
research and development, finance, media, culture, and
government. However, for the IGCSE syllabus, these are
considered to be part of the tertiary sector.

Secondary industries
These are manufacturing
industries. Examples include
the manufacture of processed
food, iron and steel, motor
vehicles and textiles. The goods
can be sold directly to
consumers, or to other
manufacturers.

Industrial sectors and economic

development
As a country becomes more economically developed,
the percentage of its population employed in primary
industries decreases, while the percentage employed
in tertiary industries increases. The percentage employed
in secondary industries increases at first, but then
decreases (as the tertiary sector continues to grow). This
Fig. 10.1 The different industrial sectors in an economy is shown on Fig 10.2. The actual percentage figures
vary from country to country. For example, today
employment in secondary industry is 12% in the USA,
13% in the UK and 20% in Germany - all MEDCs.
 a

Some MEDCs in Europe developed manufacturing Water supply

industries in the period from 1750 to 1900 - in what This may be important to certain specialist manufacturing
was known as the Industrial Revolution. This was when industries, such as paper or chemicals. The water may
urbanisation took place in these countries, as described be required in high quantities in a very pure form.
in Chapter 2. Today, many newly industrialising countries
(NICs) have entered the second phase of this changing Site
pattern. This is an important factor for large-scale manufacturing,
such as motor vehicles, oil refining or chemical
70 Tertiary manufacture. The large size of the factory or plant
60 means that very large areas of flat land are needed.
50

40 Labour
30
Secondary
The overall size of the labour force is important to many
industries - where there can be literally thousands of
20
Primary employees. However, particular types of skill and
10
of
%
by
employment
sector flexibility may be more important to some industries.
O
OOS NICs MEDCs—>
Time Capital
The start-up costs of an industry can come from other
Fig. 10.2 How employment in industrial sectors changes with time as
businesses, banks or governments.
a country becomes more economically developed

Energy
Look at the employment statistics in Table 10.1.
For many industries, a link to the electricity grid is
Plot the data as a pie chart (or divided bar sufficient. For a few manufacturing industries (e.g.
graph) for each country.
aluminium smelting), there are greater requirements.
Which of the countries is (i) an LEDC, (ii) an NIC
FeTaYelm O11) ireAm 4D) Oarg
Processes
How might the employment structure of Malaysia
These are all the activities that go on in different types
change in the future?
of industry, whether it’s a farm, quarry, factory or office.
Atos
Agricultural processes have already been discussed in
18 Chapter 9. The motor vehicle industry (described on
pages 259-64) involves a wide range of complex processes
- first to produce the components and then to assemble
the final product.
Table 10.1 The employment statistics for three countries

Outputs
Industrial systems
Products
Inputs These are the most obvious industrial outputs. They
The inputs of an industry are the things that are required are the commodities that are sold on the market to
before it can take place. They have varying importance make a profit and raise capital for re-investment.
for different industries.
Waste
Raw materials Waste materials are produced by many manufacturing
These are the commodities that will be changed into processes. In some cases, they may be sources of air or water
the finished product. Heavy industries, such as iron pollution. Disposal of the waste can be costly or even
and steel, require raw materials that are bulky and dangerous, e.g. in the nuclear industry (see Chapter 11).
relatively expensive to transport. Light industries,
such as electronics, use materials that are small in Copy and complete Table 10.2, using the
information on this page.
volume but of very high value, so transport costs are
less important in these industries.

Table 10.2 Inputs, processes, outputs of industrial systems

Factors affecting industrial Natural harbours and route centres
location Ports are favoured locations for many industries, because
A number of different factors affect industrial location. raw materials can be imported - and finished products
The influence of each one varies, depending on the exported - more easily and cheaply. Major roads and
industry concerned. You will see this illustrated later railways often follow natural routes such as valleys.
in the chapter, when an example of heavy manufacturing
industry is discussed (the motor vehicle industry), as Human and economic factors
well as high-technology industry. Capital
The finance to establish an industry might be more
Physical factors freely available in one country or area than another.
Raw materials This is often connected to the political factors described
The availability of raw materials used to be the single below.
most important factor in the location of heavy industries
(such as iron and steel and chemicals). These industries Labour
were located close to iron ore and coal mines, or (if The quality of the labour force is just as important as
imported raw materials were used) close to the importing its size. As well as skill levels, the labour force needs to
ports. However, transport systems are now much be adaptable to changes in circumstances. It might need
more efficient. It is economically possible to transport to relocate to another area, or adopt new technology or
bulky commodities, like iron ore, across the world in working practices. The reputation of the workforce in
large ships. an area is very important today.

Market and government influence have become much Transport

more important factors for industrial location - lessening Although less important today, transport is still an
the influence of raw materials. For industries with low- important factor in the location of industries with bulky
bulk and high-value goods, the supply of raw materials goods. It may become more important again, as attempts
is not a factor affecting their location. are made to reduce the use of fossil fuels. Access to air
transport is important for the location of high-technology
Site industries and some tertiary activities.
Large factories need flat, well-drained land on solid
bedrock. It is also helpful ifthe land is cheap. Because Markets
factories are unattractive, they tend to be located away The case study of the motor vehicle industry later in
from higher-class residential districts. this chapter illustrates how important access to people
willing to buy the products can be.
Energy
Nearby energy supplies were an important factor in the Political influence
location of industries in the past. Sites next to fast-flowing Governments can directly influence the location of
rivers or coal mines were favoured. However, today’s industries by providing financial incentives to companies
electricity grid systems have largely overcome this need. to locate in particular areas. The tax systems of countries
But, for some industries like aluminium smelting that are also an important factor in the decisions taken by
require very large amounts of power, access to cheap multinational companies.
energy is important. Iceland has plentiful and cheap
hydroelectric and geothermal power, so aluminium ore Quality of life
is brought by ship all the way from Australia to be A highly skilled professional workforce will favour areas
smelted in Iceland. with good housing and leisure facilities.

Water supply
The manitifacture of paper, certain chemicals and metals List the ways in which governments and markets can
requires more water than can be provided by anormal affect the location of industries.
mains supply. These industries might need to be located
where they have their own water supplies from rivers
or boreholes.
Transnational (multinational) production or sales are most favourable. This is part
corporations of globalisation.
Transnational corporations are large companies that 5 These companies control an increasing proportion
operate (as producers or sellers) in many countries or of the global economy.
continents.
> The world’s top ten companies (as measured by their
» They are willing to change the suppliers of their sales) are shown in Table 10.3. They each have
raw materials and components - and the locations annual sales that are greater than the gross domestic
of their activities - to wherever conditions for product (GDP) of many entire countries.

Retailing 2 150 000 The USA |

Oil and gas

Oil and gas 90 800 The USA

Oil and gas 54 441 Saudi Arabia

3251 Japan
Vil and gas

Oil and gas 400 513

Table 10.3 The top 10 transnational corporations in 2010 (as measured by sales)

Transnational corporations have a strong influence on

LEDCs, where they often locate activities like production. WSDL List the transnational corporations which
There has been some criticism ofthis, but the presence operate in your local area. Remember that some of them
of transnational corporations in LEDCs can lead to could operate through petrol stations or supermarkets.
both advantages and disadvantages for those countries:

Advantages for the LEDC Disadvantages for the LEDC

e The presence of a transnational corporation provides e Most of the profits go abroad and are not re-invested in
jobs for local people. the country.
e It provides a guaranteed income for people. e The numbers of local people employed can be small.
e ltimproves people’s skills. e The transnational corporation might suddenly decide to
e lt brings in foreign currency, which helps the country to leave the LEDC, if conditions inside or outside the country
develop. change. This decision is made outside the LEDC.
e The increased employment also increases the demand e Raw materials, such as minerals, are often exported and
for consumer goods in the LEDC and helps other industries not processed in the LEDC.
to develop there. e Levels of pay are lower than elsewhere in the world.
e lt can lead to the development of local raw materials, e The operations of the company may cause environmental
such as mining minerals or growing crops. damage.
e toften leads to the development of infrastructure projects,
such as roads, dams, airports, schools, hospitals.
The informal sector The motor vehicle manufacturing
In LEDCs, in particular, many people rely on the industry
informal] sector for their livelihoods. This sector includes
street sellers, shoe cleaners and smal} workshops such Processes
as hairdressers, shoe repairers or dressmakers. The The motor vehicle manufacturing industry is highly
people are self employed and the activities are usually complex, because of the many processes involved:
on a smal] scale. Again, there are advantages and
Research and development
disadvantages for the people and the country from these Car manufacturers are constantly developing new models to appeal
activities. to the public, become more fuel efficient, and comply with new
environmental regulations.
Advantages for the people or the country
e The informal sector employs and supports a large number
The production of raw materials
of people with no alternative employment.
These include sheet steel for the body, metal castings for the engine,
e Little capital is needed, so it’s fairly easy to start a
electrical wires, plastics for the interior, and various metals to be used
business.
in electrical components. These processes will be carried out by a
e Often, cheap or recycled raw materials are used.
variety of specialist companies.
e Informal jobs develop skills that could lead to better
employment in the future.
@ Any profits will be used locally and will stimulate other The manufacture of components
local activities. The components are the various parts that go together to make the
final vehicle. Examples are the engine, body, transmissions system,
battery, paint, electronic components and interior trim. Some of them
will be produced in factories owned by the main manufacturing
Disadvantages for the people or the country company, but others will be produced by other companies.
@ Often the activity is egal.
e No taxes will be raised for the country.
e The standard of the technology and goods is low. Car manufacture or assembly
This is putting the components together to make the final vehicle.
@ The income 7 generated
BY is uncertain and irregular.
Today the process is highly automated, with many of the processes
performed by robots (see Fig. 10.5). Very large assembly lines require
large factories. Space is also needed to store the finished vehicles.

Marketing and distribution

The motor vehicle industry spends vast amounts of money on its
marketing activities, e.g.TV advertising. The finished vehicles are
transported from huge distribution centres by road transporters (see
Fig. 10.6) and by special ocean-going ships.

Sales, service and parts

Car manufacturers have networks of approved car dealers around the
world who sell their cars (see Fig. 10.7). There is further profit to be
made from servicing the vehicles and selling replacement parts.

Fig. 10.4 The processes in the motor vehicle manufacturing industry

yi Ne.
Fig. 10.5 A car assembly
Fig. 10.3 The informal sector - a person sell = g chestnuts in Hunan line showing robots at
Province, China work
Fig. 10.6 Cars being distributed by road transporter Fig. 10.7 A car showroom

Inputs and their effects on location

Capital Raw materials
In today’s motor vehicle industry, economies of scale As Fig. 10.4 shows, the raw material inputs for this
mean that the mass production of large numbers of industry are complex and come from a variety of sources.
vehicles on very large assembly lines - using complex However, the main raw material by volume is steel. In
machinery - is the most efficient method. Manufacturers the past, car-manufacturing plants were located close
also need to invest heavily in research and development to steel-producing plants - to reduce transport costs.
and in marketing. This means that only the global giants, Examples of this included the main Ford plant in Detroit,
like Toyota, General Motors, Volkswagen and Ford, have USA, and Ford’s Dagenham plant in the UK (which
access to the large amounts of capital needed. had its own steelworks on site).

As Table 10.4 shows, vehicle production worldwide is Today, the influence of raw materials has declined in
now controlled by asmall number of very large companies. comparison with other factors - especially market and
However, the need for large amounts of capital has no political influences. Also in the past, car manufacturers
obvious effect on the location of the industry. tended to receive components from a large number of
local companies. While this is still true, it is less important
Rank Company Number of vehicles produced than previously in determining the location of the
Cars Light Heavy industry.
commercial commercial
Toyota 6 148 000 927 000 154 000 Labour
2 General 4997000 1447000 7000 The importance of skill in operating highly complex
Motors production lines is an important factor for this industry.
3 Volkswagen 5 902 000 154 000 7000 Also, large numbers of workers are needed, as shown
4 Ford 2952000 1681000 52 000 by Table 10.5 for Toyota (page 262), which employs
5 Hyundai 4 222 000 324 000 0 over 300 000 people around the world.
6 PSA 2 769 000 272 000 0 Despite the skill requirement, companies like Toyota
Peugeot
are able to set up factories in new countries because
Citroen
they have intensive staff-training programmes. They
Honda 2 984 000 28 000 0
seek a workforce that has a good general level of education
Nissan 2 381 000 304 000 58 000 and is eager to work and learn, and where there are
s) Fiat 1 958 000 397 000 72 000 few restrictive employment laws. Workers with an
10 Suzuki 2 103 000 283 000 0 engineering background are an advantage but are not
essential, because the required skills can be taught.
Table 10.4 The top ten motor vehicle manufacturing companies in
2009
 Political influences
Many countries have high taxation levels on imported
manufactured goods, but lower levels on components.
Therefore, it is better and cheaper for the manufacturer
to transport the components to a country where there
is a large potential market and then to assemble them
there. This approach also benefits the country, because
it provides employment and stimulates its economy.
Some governments will offer financial incentives to big
companies to set up car manufacturing plants in their
countries.

Globalisation
For the reasons described above, the motor vehicle
industry is dominated by a small number of very large
companies, who produce and sell their products in
Fig. 10.8 The Toyota factory near Derby in the UK (the plant has every continent. They sometimes have complete ownership
been built away from settlements, where a large site was available) ofa factory, but often operate through affiliated companies
who are involved in part of the production process.
When a company operates across several countries, it
is less vulnerable to problems in any one of them, e.g.
a strike by workers.

Explain how political and market factors have led to

the globalisation of the motor vehicle industry.

CASE STUDY
Toyota — a leading motor vehicle
manufacturer
Toyota worldwide
The Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan has around 40%
of the Japanese motor vehicle market, but manufactures
and sells its vehicles in 170 countries. It is the world’s
Fig. 10.9 New cars at a car factory, waiting to be delivered biggest car manufacturer (See Table 10.4) and the world’s
sixth largest company by the value of its sales (see
Table 10.3). It conducts its business with 51 overseas
Land
manufacturing companies in 26 countries (See Fig. 10.10
A large, flat site is needed for production lines and and Table 10.5).
vehicle storage. This might be several square kilometres
in size. The country outside Japan in which most Toyota vehicles
were assembled in 2009 was the USA, with a production
of more than 630 OOO. China was the second largest
Market
overseas producer, with nearly 600 OOO. With more than
Access to people who are able to buy vehicles is the
400 000, Thailand ranked third. By contrast, only 130
single most important factor in the location of the motor 000 vehicles were assembled in the whole of the continent
vehicle industry today. For this reason, there has been of Africa.
a rapid expansion of the industry in the NICs - especially
Of the ten Toyota plants in China, three assemble vehicles
those with very large populations, such as China, India,
while the other seven make engines and components
Brazil and Indonesia. The manufacturers prefer to locate
to supply the assembly plants.
their factories close to their main markets to reduce
transport costs.
 Czech
Republic Poland

\
¢

Taiwan

f Malaysia

“South Africa

— SS

Fig. 10.10 Toyota operates all over the world. (Toyota’s factory locations in Japan itself are shown in Figs. 10.11 and 10.12, plus
Tables 10.6 and 10.7.)

ffalo WV
on IND aid *
“THICGELOL

Pakistan

Gateway, Samrong and

Ban Pho (Chachoengsao)
Thailand

Australia Altona, Victoria

‘Chittago
Toyota in Japan
Toyota’s core production centre is in Toyota City, on the together to make the components, and then assemble
east coast of Japan’s main island of Honshu (near Nagoya). the various models. The company has developed great
Toyota has 12 separate factories in the area, which employ strength in technological skill and research and development,
a total of more than 43 000 people. The factories work and has a highly motivated workforce.

Pacific
Ocean

Transmission. related parts,cold-sorgeand sintered

pats: BIEDe ened ae i

Powertrain- related econ castRae powertrain-

piaieg eae machined parts

Mechanical equipment, mouldings for resin and casting

and forging

Table 10.6 The Toyota City production centre in Japan

Steel for use in the vehicle manufacturing process is the port at Kinu-ura was used, but today the vehicles are
produced nearby at Nagoya, and further away at Kimitsu. transported 29 kilometres to Nagoya Port, from where a
The land in this area is flat— always an issue in mountainous fleet of four specialist vessels is used to ship the vessels

Japan. approximately 350 kilometres to Kanto District.

Toyota also has plants in northern Honshu (Tohuku) and

The completed vehicles are shipped to the densely populated
on the islands of Hokkaido and Kyushu.
Kanto District, which includes Tokyo-Yokohama. Previously
 Assembly, engines, hybrid
285 000
tem parts

Electronic controlled brakes,

Toyota Motor
Hokkaido, Inc. Tohoku suspensions, axles, torque
converters
, Toyota Motor
Tohoku, Inc. Table 10.7 Toyota’s factories in other Japanese regions

Pacific
Toyota Motor
Explain the factors affecting the location of the
Kyushu, Inc,
motor vehicle industry in Japan

Fig. 10.12 The locations of Toyota’s Japanese factories outside

Toyota City

High-technology industry high-tech companies may also have branches in LEDCs

to assemble or manufacture their products. This is
Processes because land in LEDCs costs less than land in MEDCs,
High-technology (or high-tech) industry uses the most and labour there is also easily available and cheaper.
advanced technology to make products that may, or
may not, be high technology themselves. Pharmaceutical There is usually no shortage of financial backing, because
products are low tech, produced using high-tech methods. investors can make a good profit ifthe company creates
a successful new product. Many governments also
A high degree of research and development is involved, provide financial support. The governments of some
because companies are always trying to keep ahead of NICs have encouraged high-tech companies to develop
competitors by developing new products and designing there, e.g. Samsung in South Korea and Acer in Taiwan.
new machines to make them. The manufacturing process
is highly automated and computerised. Raw materials
The silicon or silicon chips and electricity inputs needed
Outputs are not expensive to transport, so the industry is not tied
Products include pharmaceuticals, medical, optical and to a location near the silicon. It is described as ‘footloose’.
other precision instruments, computers, televisions,
mobile phones and aircraft. Biotechnology companies Labour
develop new kinds of food, drink and vaccines. Labour is the most important locational factor for high-
tech industry. Because the industry needs large numbers
Inputs and their effects on location of highly skilled and well-qualified workers, high-tech
Capital companies tend to locate in or near cities and towns
Large amounts of capital are required in this industry, with universities, engineering colleges and technological
because the best brains are needed to do the research research institutes. They are frequently located in the
and development work - and top-level, university- suburbs, because this is where their workers prefer to
live. Some high-tech companies even locate in pleasant
educated employees like this demand high salaries.
rural areas on ‘greenfield’ sites.
The headquarters and research and development units
tend to be concentrated in MEDCs, where they can To attract the necessary highly qualified workforce,
afford the expense of the highly educated top-level industries need to locate where the climate is pleasant
engineers and scientists. Most of these companies are and the scenery attractive, and where there are good-
quality housing and shopping opportunities, as well as
based in the USA, Japan and Western Europe. However,
as well as the creative work being carried out in MEDCs, cultural facilities and entertainment.
 Land
High-tech companies usually locate themselves on Make a table with two columns to summarise the
influences on the location of high-technology industry.
science parks or technology development parks that
Head the left-hand column ‘Important factors’ and the
have been developed by governments and local authorities right-hand column ‘Unimportant factors’. Make sure
to promote the growth of the industry. These parks need your table has a title.
large areas of flat land.

Market RESEARCH Research the climate of California in your

Nearness to market is not an important influence, atlas. Explain why the ‘Sunshine State’ has a desirable
because many of their products are exported worldwide. climate in which to live.
However, in NICs a very large population encourages
governments to finance new local high-tech firms.
(
)C) Discussion point
Transport
How do the inputs of high-tech industries differ from those of
Rapid transport is important, both for the management most manufacturing industries?
and the product, which needs to beat its competitors to
the markets. Most companies locate near international
could be used to develop high-tech industries. For
airports, expressways or railways.
example, in Baltimore the infrastructure for the science
park was provided by the local authority, but the university
Political influences made the decisions about which staff to employ and
Government influence is enormous in funding the
what laboratories and equipment were needed. Research
science parks, providing the necessary infrastructure papers are also available in university libraries, and
for economic growth, and attracting investors by tax
companies are able to keep ahead of their competitors
incentives. Since the Indian government started to
by being close to the latest research.
develop the electronics industry in Bangalore in 1971,
its efforts have been very successful - the electronics
Pre-existing high-tech industries
industry has grown faster than any other.
High-tech companies tend to locate in clusters. Being
It is in a government’s interest to encourage the close to other high-tech companies is important for
development of high-tech industries, particularly those promoting the competition that leads to the development
connected with aerospace and weapons. of new ideas. If an area has a reputation as a location
for successful high-tech industry, new companies are
Links to universities and science and technology likely to be attracted to it.
institutions
Universities provide an input into high-tech industries The global distribution of high-tech
in a variety of ways. Science parks were first set up in industries
the USA so that the knowledge of university scientists Fig. 10.13 shows that the headquarters of high-technology
companies tend to be located in
countries with high standards of
education, plenty of money to invest,
and excellent transport and
telecommunications systems - as well
as populations with strong purchasing
on Valley,
power. Their branch factories (where
fornia the assembling of the finished products
is carried out), by contrast, are often
located in LEDCs.

Fig. 10.13 The locations of the headquarters

of major global companies making computer
software, hardware and electronics in 2007.
See Fig. 10.15 for detail of the locations in the
USA, where there are 54 headquarters. Canada
has 14.
 a_ Describe the distribution pattern shown on Fig.
10.13 and 10.15. Use the information on this
page to describe the distribution in the USA.
Suggest why there were no headquarters of
high-technology companies in Africa and South
America in 2007. Use economic information
from your atlas or another source to support
your ideas.

Fig. 10.14 Assembling electronics at a branch factory in an LEDC

CASE STUDY

High-technology industries
in the USA
Although there is a fairly widespread
distribution of high-tech companies in the
USA, there are several areas where they Route 128
are particularly numerous. Silicon Valley Massachusetts
in California is the largest, followed by the
Washington-Baltimore area and places
along Route 128 in Massachusetts (see
Francisco % , Washington DC
Fig. 10.15). . ) — Baltimore
Silicon
Silicon Valley stretches along the south
Valley
shore of San Francisco Bay, from Redwood Key
City in the west to San Jose in the east @ City
(see Fig. 10.16). One of the main reasons @ Cluster of high-tech indu
why a large cluster of high-tech companies O
ee
1000
developed in this area is because employees km

with new ideas left the original companies

they were working for and set up their own
Fig. 10.15 The locations of the main areas of high-tech industry in the USA
businesses nearby.

The cluster in the Washington DC-Baltimore

area has a lot to do with the US government
departments being based in Washington
DC. For example, biotechnology companies
tend to locate themselves near the National
Institute for Health. This is so that they
can increase their chances of winning
government contracts. They are also able
\ _ View se
to benefit from the work of the government’s (Sunnyvale
research institutes. There are more than
70 high-tech companies in Washington DC.

The cluster of high-tech companies in Freeways (expressways) Cuncrone ees

Massachusetts is close to Boston and its
Town
world-famous universities, in particular
the
Mountainous area
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Urban area
(MIT).
Airport
Government airfield
Green space and parks
Sports centre Fig. 10.16 Silicon Valley, California
Silicon Valley Town inSiliconValley igt -tech company makingsoftware,
Table 10.8 shows that clusters of companies making ae as ae ae har ware and c isumer electron
software, hardware and consumer electronics can be found et aoa ae
a Cupertino
in the towns of Silicon Valley. (Consumer electronics are E
ilnita . ae =
electronic products that the general public buy, such as Milpitas ie ’
PCs, mobile phones and televisions.) em ae ak
Mountain View Antibody Solutions, Google, Intuit,
sane links ital sae the different companies. For Mozilla Foundation, Symantec
example, computer manufacturers like Hewlett-Packard = 9) 9) ye ee ete rou
and Apple Inc. need microprocessors and silicon chips. aah ein tat te pia =
AMD and Intel Corporation make microprocessors. Cypress Redwood City s
Semiconductor and National Semiconductor make silicon “San
b
José *
chips. Symantec, McAfee and Mozilla all develop security ‘ a Poy
software for computers. Google and Yahoo arebothsearch e PagMg %
engines. Other high-tech companies in the area make Pf by ee a
computer games, storage devices and other computer Santa Clara Aeria Games and Entertainment,
necessities. Agilent Technologies, Applied Materials,
Foundry Networks, Intel Corporation,
These companies all have access to highly qualified workers, McAfee, National Semiconductor
because there are many universities and technical institutes
in the area. Stanford University at Palo Alto is one of the
world’s leading research institutions. There are also
university buildings at Cupertino and Santa Clara.
We.

Use all of the information OLKONAL@

(ee SVo Es Taine) Table 10.8 The locations of firms making software, hardware and
list the reasons why Silicon Valley is the home consumer electronics in Silicon Valley
of so many high-tech companies. Start with
the natural environment and then include the
CO)dat<1Fo 0400)bom
Use Figs. 10.16 and 10.17 to describe the
advantages of the location of the Pacific
Shores Business Park at Redwood City for the
workers there.
Look at Figs. 10.18 and 10.19. Describe the
features of the headquarters buildings of
these two high-tech companies and their
surroundings. Suggest why they have the
appearance and surroundings you have
described.

17 The Pacific Shores Business Park at Redwood City Fig. 10.19 The headquarters of Apple Inc. at Cupertino
ae 10 Industry

The Lockheed Martin Research Centre at The 230 employees at Sunnyvale have an on-site fitness
Sunnyvale centre, a cafeteria and a post office, as well as easy access
The buildings for this aerospace company’s research centre to freeways and public transport. There is a choice of
at Sunnyvale are located just to the east of the government’s schools at Sunnyvale and Santa Clara, and University
Moffett Airfield (Fig. 10.16), and are visible in the centre buildings at Santa Clara and Cupertino. Sunnyvale has
of Fig. 10.20 (just beyond the airfield). Lockheed Martin two main attractions — a Museum of Art and Paramount’s
has facilities at nine locations in the USA. This one focuses Great America Amusement Park. The company’s rates of
on research into information systems, global security and pay are competitive and they reward high performance.
space operations. Perks include health care insurance.

Lockheed Martin’s outputs include aircraft, air traffic control

systems, satellite imagery, IT support and precision weapons.
It has partners in more than 50 countries and meets the
needs of governments by producing modern defence
systems, air, sea and rail management systems, and
military and civilian control systems. It also builds satellites.
Its market is both domestic and global.

The company’s website explains its success:

Our advantage? Lockheed Martin’s 80 000 experienced E

scientists, engineers, and IT professionals have a passion for

invention. We are a company that values integrity and teamwork Fig. 10.21 The complex instruments in the cockpit of a Lockheed
and pursues superior performance in every activity. We are Martin F35 Lightning Stealth bomber
an organisation that demands the highest standards from ACTEET
every one of our employees.
Lockheed Martin has branches in the UK and eight other
Fig.10. 22. ‘Anroxract from focrneed Martin’sSsebsites European countries, as well as Canada, New Zealand, Japan,
Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Turkey, Argentina, Brazil and
What advantages does Lockheed Martin’s Chile. Think about reasons why there might be branches in i
Sunnyvale location have for (a) the workforce and hese countries and not in others. You might be able to
(b) an aerospace company? suggest political as well as economic and social reasons.
CASE STUDY
High-technology industries
in China - an NIC z>
Towards the end of the 20th century, the
Chinese government decided that it needed
to encourage the development of high-
technology industries in China. The country
has some clear incentives for achieving ~ BOHAI
this goal. It has an enormous population * REGION
of over 1.3 billion (official government
estimate), so there is a vast potential
a YANGTSE
» »Shanghai peta
domestic market for consumer electronics. REGION
Although there are many rural and remote
areas where the population is poor, China’s
O 1000
urban population is growing quickly. With km PEARL RIVER
‘ Hon Kon
better salaries, urban workers have more g g DELTA REGION

purchasing power.
Major centres of high-tech industry
What has the Chinese government done?
Provinces in which high-tech
*> The government has made enormous improvements industries are concentrated
to the country’s transport infrastructure, by building Main region for high-tech industries
new airports and fast roads — as well as developing a
good telecommunications network. Fig. 10.23 The areas with the highest concentrations of high-
technology industry in China
~ Ithas also encouraged education, especially in science
and technology. In the 1990s, it sent thousands of Jinan - a high-tech industrial development
researchers to the west to gain research experience. zone
Jinan is the capital of Shandong Province. The high-tech
> It has established major technological development industrial zone there has expanded since it was first started
zones in Beijing, Shanghai and Shenzhen. Shenzhen in 1991. When finished, it will cover 83 square kilometres.
is near Hong Kong (a leading financial centre). In Its publicity describes it as ‘an exquisite environment’
Shanghai and Shenzhen, multinational companies from with green mountains to the south of the flat site and
Europe, the USA, Japan and Taiwan played a large part many trees. It is near an expressway and 15 minutes away
in the developments. from the international airport. It is also close to the Beijing-
Shanghai super-highway, and a three-hour drive along an
~ Ithas invested massively in research and development.
expressway from the port of Quingdao (one of world’s
By 2008, China had 54 high-technology parks with 6.5
largest seaports for handling containers). The main railway
million workers!
station is only 20 kilometres away. A modern school,
* It has recruited foreign investors to encourage the nursery and housing have been provided. Jinan has 37
growth of silicon chip manufacturing. They are given universities and colleges, 11 of which are within the zone.
exemption from income tax for the first two years after There are over 500 software factories on the Qilu Software
the business makes a profit, with reduced taxes after Park, which specialises in information technology,
that. biopharmaceuticals and precision machinery. More than
10 multinational companies have set up joint ventures
*) Foreign scientists have also been encouraged to work
there.
in China.

= Bank loans are available for new businesses.

A senior government official stated that there were 100

million new subscribers to telecommunications every year
in China between 2000 and 2007, and that the country
produced more computers, mobile phones, antibiotics and
vaccines than any other country.
= hes td
The Shanghai area concentrates on pharmaceuticals. Siem

China is particularly keen to develop biotechnology. As in

the USA, its computer manufacturers cluster with software
and hardware manufacturers.
 10 a Use your atlas and Fig. 10.23 to describe the
locations of China’s high-technology industries.
Suggest reasons for the distribution you have
described. =
Use Fig. 10.24 to suggest
why Jinan is a
suitable location for a high-tech industrial
development zone.
Use all of the information provided to draw a
spider diagram with ‘High-technology industry
in Jinan’ in the centre and notes stating the
main reasons for its development on the end
of lines radiating out from the centre.

Fig. 10.25 An advertisement for a new science and technology

park in China

The influence of inputs on the Some of the outputs are waste products that are harmful
processes and outputs of to life. For example, the chromium compounds produced
industrial systems in leather manufacture can cause lung cancer and
Some industries use substances or materials - the inputs ulcers. Some of the air pollutants that leak accidentally
- that require a great deal of processing and can lead from chemical industries are carcinogenic (e.g. benzene)
to a lot of pollution. The outputs include waste as well or toxic.
as marketable products. Some examples of the varying Even high-tech industries have the potential to pollute.
effects of inputs for various industries are summarized Accidental spills and leaks of solvents and acids can
in Table 10.9, below. cause toxic substances to pollute both air and water.

Industry Inputs Processes Outputs Possible adverse results

quarrying and opencast dynamite blasting blocks of rock noise pollution, visual
mining pollution, dust
particulates
iron and steel iron ore, coke, limestone heating of ore to separate cast Iron and pig iron, noise, large ugly
' manufacturing to separate the iron from the iron by burning coke, waste: slag, gases (sulfur buildings, slag heaps,
impurities in the ore, rolling into sheets, cutting dioxide, carbon dioxide, dust, air pollution, water
water, recycled scrap iron into lengths nitrous and nitric oxides, pollution (contaminated
for special steel: alloys, hydrogen sulfide) cooling water and
e.g. chromium, cobalt scrubber effluent), risk of
fires and explosions
oil refining petroleum (hydrocarbon), refining by heating the oil various oils, bitumen, gas noise, visual pollution,
fuel to heat, water to cool until it vaporises, then (sulfur dioxide, nitrous odours, air pollution,
collecting the separate and nitric oxides, carbon water pollution (cooling
hydrocarbons as it cools dioxide, particulates) and processing water,
scrubber effluent), risk of
fires and explosions
leather hides, water, chemicals treating, tanning, dyeing leather, chromium odour, pollution of
for tanning and dyeing compounds processing water with
sulfates and chromium

Table 10.9 The relationships between inputs, processes and outputs in certain industries

Sulfur dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are used of pollution. Sulfur dioxide emissions from the UK
in smelting, refining and electricity generation. After acidified soils, rivers and lakes in Norway. Fish were
mixing with water droplets in the atmosphere, it eventually poisoned. Now much of the sulfur is removed from the
falls back to earth as acid rain, often far from the source gases emitted from chimneys.
In MEDCs, pollution is controlled by strict laws to
ensure that dangerous waste does not normally enter
the air, seas or rivers. Many modern industries use
scrubbers on chimneys to remove harmful gases.
In countries such as the UK, government agencies
monitor air and water pollution. They have powers to
fine polluting industries and to shut them down if they
do not conform to the required standards.

Imagine that there are proposals to build an oil

refinery near your home. What advantages and
disadvantages would result from it?

).O) Discussion point

Look at the case study below. Should MEDCs pay to replace
outdated technology in LEDCs? Could people in MEDCs benefit
from this?
Fig. 10.26 Air pollution is also a form of visual pollution

CASE STUDY

Pollution in Karachi, Pakistan

In Pakistan there are almost 600 leather tanneries (mostly Township (a coastal area within Karachi). The tanning
in the Karachi industrial area). Leather is an important factory owners have plans to reduce these pollutants, but
export, but the tanning process (the conversion of skin financial difficulties have caused the measures to be
into leather) is affecting the health of the people in the delayed. Small businesses cannot afford more environmentally
area and harming the environment. Many workers have friendly technology.
respiratory illnesses and skin infections.
Three other major polluting industries, which discharge
Tanning causes three types of pollution: large quantities of effluent, are located near the port (to
make exporting easier). They are a steel mill, power plant
7) The skins are washed with large quantities of water
and oil refineries (together with many smaller industries).
containing chromium compound. The untreated effluent
is then discharged into open channels, which empty it High levels of heavy metals — such as arsenic, lead and
into the sea — endangering the health of people living chrome compounds — are found in sea animals in the area.
in coastal villages. If humans eat sea life containing lead, brain damage,
anaemia and kidney failure can occur.
* Another type of pollution is in the form of solid waste
from trimming and shaving the skins. The marine ecosystem is also being damaged because of
pollution caused by shipping, especially importing oil and
=) Finally, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are released exporting oil products, moving in and out of the port. A lot
into the air during tanning. of oily discharges are pumped out within the port area.
It is believed that the water and air pollution is directly All of these marine pollutants are threatening the mangrove
affecting,the health of more than a million people in Korangi ecosystem of the Indus delta.

Leisure activities and tourism

A leisure activity is something done for enjoyment in a holiday in their own country - many people take leisure
person’s free time. Tourism is, according to the World breaks as domestic tourists. Most tourists go away on
Tourism Organisation, when a person travels for any holiday, but about 15% are business tourists. People also
reason to another country for more than a day but less visit friends and relatives, or travel for religious or health
than a year. That does not mean that people do not reasons.
as 10 Industry DP
Different types of holiday

Fig. 10.27 A beach holiday or a holiday on a cruise ship

Fig. 10.28 A holiday to see wildlife...
Fig. 10.29 ...or to see wonderful scenery
Fig. 10.30 ...or the wonders of the human world
Fig. 10.31 Take a city break
Fig. 10.32 Visit historic buildings
Fig. 10.33 Have a theme park holiday
Fig. 10.34 Learn about other cultures
9 WL Fig. 10.35 Have an adventure holiday in natural surroundings
The holidays shown in Figs. 10.27-10.35 give a flavour {
).C) Discussion point
of the different sorts of holidays that people can take.
What type of holiday would you most like to have and where
Other types of holiday are also possible. Sports tourism would you choose to go? What would you like about your
has grown rapidly, because almost all sports have gone chosen type of holiday?
global by holding international competitions and world
championships. For example, many people travel to
watch football matches in other countries.

Explain why people of different age groups

tal tour
are likely to go on the two types of holiday @:
shown in Fig. 10.27.
1950 25 280 000
Why would both types of holiday shown on
Fig. 10.27 appeal to workers in a city?
What type of people would enjoy the activities
shown in Figs. 10.33 and 10.35?
Why might the woman in Fig. 10.34 have mixed
feelings about tourism?
Describe the growth of world tourism, and of 2010 1 006 000 000 870 000 Bataan
earnings from tourism, using the information in
Table 10.10. Table 10.10 World tourist arrivals and earnings from tourism

What has caused the phenomenal There has also been an increase in “built attractions’,
growth in tourism? such as theme parks and water parks. Singapore - a
Tourism has grown, and people have been able to travel small country with few natural attractions - frequently
more, because they have: has to develop new attractions so that visitors will return.
That was why its Night Safari Zoo came into being.
> achoice of air services to an increasing number of
Singapore is a frequent stopover destination for people
destinations
taking the long-haul route from Europe to Australia
> more affordable flights, because of the development and New Zealand. But it faces competition as a stopover
of larger, more-economical aircraft place from neighbouring Malaysia, as well as Hong
Kong and Dubai.
> reduced airfares due to the growth of budget airlines
> more leisure time, with longer weekends and longer
holidays
> higher wages and more money available to spend
on things like holidays. There has been a large
increase in Chinese tourists in this decade. In 2009,
their expenditure on tourism increased by 21% on
the 2008 figure. Only Germany, the USA and the
UK spent more on tourism than China
> better health, especially in later life, so more older
adults and pensioners now have adventurous holidays
(they're often referred to as the ‘grey market’, spending
‘grey pounds’)
> the Internet, which has helped people to book cheaper
travel deals themselves, rather than use travel agencies.
Another reason for the growth in tourism is that there
are now more retired people who are free to take
holidays. Also there has been an increase in marketing. Fig. 10.36 The elderly are increasingly adventurous
Countries have formed tourist boards to promote their
destination. They advertise in magazines, newspapers
and brochures, as well as on TV and the Internet.
 Which are the most popular countries Rank Country Tourist visitors (million)
for tourists? 1 France 14,2
Table 10.11 lists the top ten tourist destination countries 2 The USA 54.9
in 2009. For some people these countries will be short- 3 Spain BD
haul destinations (reached by a flight of less than three
4 China 50.9
hours). Long-haul destinations take longer than three
5 Italy 43.2
hours to reach them.
6 The UK 28.0
ff Turkey 25,5
13 Which groups of people would probably prefer to go
to short-haul destinations? Give reasons for your 8 Germany 2a 2
answers. 9 Malaysia 23.6
10 Mexico 21.5

Table 10.11 The top 10 countries for tourist arrivals in 2009

RESEARCH Research one of the countries in Table
10.11 to find out what its main attractions are. A travel Where tourism really matters
agent would have holiday brochures with relevant information Tourism matters a lot to many of the world’s poorer
in, or you could use the Internet. Divide the attractions into countries. It can make a big difference to their economies,
(a) physical and (b) human.
by bringing jobs and income to places where it’s badly
needed. Money from tourism can also pay for big
infrastructure projects, like new roads and bridges
{
).C) Discussion point
and improved water supplies and energy systems. All
Each member of the class should describe the attractions of a
of these things can help a country to develop. The
place they have been to on holiday. Find the places on a map
and discuss where the most popular destinations are and why
percentage of a country’s GDP provided by tourism
that is so. shows how important tourists are to its economy (GDP
is a measure of a country’s wealth).

14 Use Fig. 10.38 to describe the attractions of St

Lucia. How can you tell that wealthy tourists go
Fig. 10.37 The economic importance of tourism in different parts of there and will spend money to boost the economy?
the world

Fig. 10.39 Paris, the capital of

— i
France, has the Eiffel Tower as
Fig. 10.38 St Lucia seen from one of its major attractions
the terminal for cruise ships
CASE STUDY
Lanzarote — turning a desert island Desalinisation plants were built to produce fresh
into a tourism-based economy drinking water out of seawater.

An unlikely tourist destination before 1960 Artificial beaches were constructed, using imported
The small Spanish island of Lanzarote lies off the west sand from the Sahara Desert.
coast of North Africa — near the Sahara Desert. It’s a
Hotels and holiday apartments were built.
barren and volcanic desert island, without any natural
surface water. Before tourists began to arrive, it had a All houses were painted white (to provide a contrast
small population and a very poor economy — mainly based with the black volcanic lava), and only green doors
on fishing. Apart from sunshine and a spectacular coast, were allowed. All buildings on the island had to be
the island had little to attract tourists. white. They were also limited to two floors, so that
they would not intrude on the landscape.
How did it all change?
In the 1960s, it was decided to turn the island into a These changes and improvements produced benefits for
tourist resort: the local population, as well as for tourists. Not only was
the infrastructure put in place to support tourism, but the
> Good roads were constructed.
natural landscape was used as much as possible, as the
*> The airport was improved. photographs in this case study show.

TTT

eee

Fig. 10.40 White buildings brighten the barren volcanic landscape Fig. 10.41 A viewing platform and a restaurant with glass picture
(this was the home of the architect who designed the island’s windows on its seaward side was built at Mirador, so that tourists
artificial attractions) could enjoy the view while having refreshments

OAT
MTA
HAT
HAMM
MT
TT
AA
MTP
HT
TY
HTN
TR
TT
= ELIA LAA

Fig. 10.42 A decorative pool was added to a tunnel in the lava at Fig. 10.43 This extinct volcanic crater was converted into a
Cuerva de los Verdes (Green cave) cactus garden
10 Industry a Ra

Tourists are taken in coaches on a volcano tour of the

Timanfaya National Park. They end up at the top of Montanas
del Fuego, where a restaurant serves food cooked on a
metal grill placed over a hole — using heat from the volcano!
Outside, tour guides demonstrate that the volcano (which
last erupted in 1730-31) is still hot:

=> They put dry wood into a small hole and it catches fire
immediately.

*> They also pour water into a tube going down into the
earth and a few seconds later a mini geyser shoots
up.

Fig. 10.44 On top of Montanas del Fuego (Mountain of Fire) one

of Lanzarote’s volcanoes in the Timanfaya National Park

—_
= te

Fig. 10.45 The view from Montanas del Fuego of one of the roads
specially built across the lava field to enable tourists to reach the
top of the volcano

15 Look at Table 10.12.

a_ Calculate the annual rainfall of Lanzarote and een een a ee ——

compare it with rainfall in the deserts you Fig. 10.46 Some local people earn a living by keeping camels
have studied. Explain why it is so dry. and taking tourists for rides on them

Lanzarote is a very popular all-year-round

destination. Use the table to explain why this Month Average Average Average
is. temperature rainfall sunshine
0

Many people do not want the island to be GO) (na) Bours

developed any further. Suggest reasons why. January 17.0 24 7
Make a list of the jobs involved with tourism February = 17.5 14 8
on Lanzarote. The photographs may suggest March 18.5 15 8
some and you may
be able to think oj OUTED April 19.0 6 8
Write them in two lists - one forjobs directly Ma 20.2 9 9
involved with tourism and the other for jobs y
indirectly involved with tourism. June 21.9 0 11
In what other ways would the islanders benefit July 23.8 0 10
directly or indirectly from the growth of August 24.7 0 11
tourism? September 24.4 2 8
Local people benefit from infrastructure Flare] October 92.5 7 7
facilities provided for tourists. Suggest three N b 203
different types of facility that develop because er S me 6
(oD CONUTASV TPamOLUL enWYATIcum Covers] imoY=\0)
0) (-Wer=]a nes] 0 December 18.1 27 7
uSE.
Table 10.12 The climate of Lanzarote >)
Disadvantages of tourism for Lanzarote

Tourists:

> create noise pollution and litter

can upset the locals by dressing inappropriately when

off the beach

cause pavement and road congestion — and add to air

pollution by using vehicles

use a lot of water. The tourist resorts have priority over

the available water supplies in times of shortage. This
means that the locals may not have access to irrigation
water for their vines and vegetables at these times

occasionally cause the island’s sewerage system to ss SETA TPE

TT
"e
=A

become overloaded. Discharges from sewers straight Fig. 10.47 An animal show at the Rancho Texas Park, a big water
into the sea can cause water pollution park where visitors can enjoy water slides and other water features
designed for their leisure
lead to an increase in the price of goods and services
Costa del Sol has been. Unplanned development there
for local people. This raises their cost of living.
has created a long — almost unbroken — strip of concrete
As well as potential conflict between tourists and locals, buildings, many of them high-rise. The natural beauty of TG
there can also be conflict between different groups of the coast has been destroyed and many tourists no longer
tourists — especially if they have different social norms find it attractive. The Spanish authorities are now trying
and cultures. to improve the area by pulling down some buildings.

Although Lanzarote is an all-year-round destination, it does Lanzarote is an example of how careful management is
not have as many visitors in the winter months as in the needed if problems like those of the Costa del Sol are to
other months — so there is some seasonal unemployment. be avoided. Most islanders think that enough ofthe physical
Some facilities, like the water parks, are underused then. landscape has now been covered with buildings and
infrastructure, and that no further damage should be
Fortunately, the developers of Lanzarote were determined
allowed.
that it would not become spoilt by tourism, as Spain’s

CASE STUDY

Jamaica — totally tropical tourism

Jamaica is one of the Caribbean’s top tourist destinations.
One reason for that is its hot, tropical climate. At sea level
it’s hot all year, and there’s plenty of sunshine too (for at ie) 150
7S
least seven hours a day). But, like all places with a tropical
climate, Jamaica does have rain, as Fig. 10.48 shows.
De)S 100
Kingston, on the south coast, is Jamaica’s capital, but
most tourists stay on the north coast — in resorts such as (mm)
Rainfall
Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Negril. Here the beautiful
sandy beaches have been developed into tourist resorts. (centigrade)
Temperature
tcSJ

Many of the hotels are all-inclusive.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Key a,

Average daily temperature (max) —

~~ Average daily temperature (min)
AAAAA
Fa
GLAAD

Fig. 10.48 A climate graph for Montego Bay, Jamaica

STA)
IA
NGAIFig. 10.49
\SANAIN) A beach in Jamaica
 All-inclusive hotels provide tourists with accommodation,
meals, entertainments, drinks and activities for one all-inclusive
price. The hotels are set in their own grounds, usually with private
beaches and swimming pools. Apart from the people who work
there, the only people allowed into the hotels are their customers.
Many never venture out of the hotel.

Fig. 10.50 A hotel on the beach in Jamaica

What is mass tourism?

Mass tourism is when large numbers of tourists visit the
same destination. Holiday companies arrange special
Z>
flights, called charter flights, to transport them. Many
Bae
holidays like this include flights, airport transfers and
accommodation (plus some meals) as a package, so
they’re called package holidays.

Most mass-tourism package holidays are to short-haul

destinations. But long-haul package holidays have become
more popular since the 1980s. Nearly 1.8 million tourists
visited Jamaica in 2008, compared with 0.6 million in
1982 — and only 0.3 million in 1966.

Because of the large numbers of tourists involved, mass Caribbean Sea

tourism can have major effects (both good and bad) on
tourist destinations and the people who live in them.

Fig. 10.51 The ;

How does mass tourism affect Jamaica’s location of Jamaica (a
economy? long way from Europe
Tourism brings in a lot of money for Jamaica — about 20% from which many of the |
of Jamaica’s GDP in 2009. In 2008, tourists spent nearly tourists come) |
2 billion US dollars there. |

yeeconomiceffects = = = -=-«-—S—«CUNeative economic effects

ET
e money spent by tourists makes tourism businesses, like e Many tourism businesses are owned by foreign eae so |
hotels, profitable. most of the profits end up abroad. This is called economic q
@ Those tourism businesses employ many local Jamaican staff. leakage. 4
e@ The Jamaican tourism workers spend their wages in other e@ Some tourism staff are foreigners. They also send their wages ;
Jamaican businesses, which in turn become more profitable home. This is economic leakage too. i
and employ more local staff. e Economic leakage also means less tax revenue for the ;
e The taxes paid to the Jamaican government by businesses, government to develop Jamaica. /
workers and tourists provide money which helps Jamaica to e Jobs in tourism are often seasonal. — |
develop. e Some skilled Jamaicans leave to work abroad for more money.
e Jamaicans learn skills in the tourism industry that can be used e Tourist destinations attract Jamaicans from poor inland areas, ’
in other parts of the economy. where businesses lose out. 4
e Many tourism jobs pay well by Jamaican standards. e Tourist jobs and money are concentrated in the resorts, so
e Tourist resorts and the people who live there become richer. inequalities with other parts of the country increase.

Table 10.13 The effects of tourism on Jamaica

 Fe ; How does mass tourism affect the
Use Fig. 10.48 to describe Jamaica’s
blimate environment?
: Mass tourism has mostly affected the areas around
Explain why Jamaica's climate attracts | Jamaica’s north coast resorts, east of Negril and as far
holidaymakers. as Ocho Rios. They’ve become built-up, congested and
Work as a group of four. Each adopt one of polluted. Most tourists arrive at Montego Bay’s international
the following roles: airport. Their environmental impact on Jamaica begins
Myron - a Jamaican hotel receptionist here, although their journey this far has already made a
Larry - a Jamaican hotel manager difference to each person’s carbon footprint. Fig. 10.52
illustrates the environmental impacts of mass tourism on
Leon - a Jamaican shop owner in an inland
a taxi minibus journey from Montego Bay international
town
airport to Negril.
Tom - a tour guide from Canada
You have been asked to contribute to an Carbon footprint
online discussion forum about whether more A person's carbon footprint is a measure of the amount
tourism would be good for Jamaica’s of carbon that their lifestyle adds to the atmosphere, and
economy. What will you say? Write a two- travel is part of that. A tourist visiting Jamaica will have
minute talk about your views. travelled to the airport in their own country and then flown
to Jamaica - possibly right across the Atlantic or Pacific
Oceans. Both parts of the journey will have emitted carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air.
Fig. 10.52 Tourism’s environmental trail

The taxi minibus from the oe ; i

airport emits exhaust gases Airport
and traliis
and adds to noise levels
Gondeeton age .
Coral reefs have been
damaged by jet skis ae
and boat anchors. hag elsBay a,
Caribbean Sea sc oat
= Nancie ny ei, "
ie. tee.
wi it a: es oHPa ee oy _ oo [e eer eat
Landscaping
Clearing mangroves
e
es = o gi
4 ~ ¥ a
a ‘ _ Montego
S Bay
:
V
town —
a fom Ne
to develop tourism a a. The water treatment lant at Logwood has madeitmore
ee .
¥
has led to beach e ---—— sas holes
_limits pollution wen learil’s hot . tea
= ME ctive
attra ® foras tors
visito rs. -
erosion. wood Oe 2 igs! ae NR ee aca ie era te
er he Great Morass wetland has been’ partly “yen Majic mt sy some SF
The Negril Marine Park a drained to reclaim land for hotels in Negril hii Rg a WN te '
nature reserve has ag i
:
es “ects 2
’ a
ee a

been established to Tourists don't like high-rise buildings —- OE. Fee, ge

help preserve sea life \Negril spoiling the view, so the hotels ane all) a. %. “ By - os
that tourist snorkellers _ tolimit their eo MIs? ae wir
low-rise as, coca: ae re Ae
and divers want to see. Bice blg fae Sg a fe ie a

How can tourism grow and be sustainable?

Jamaica is a relatively poor country — its GDP is only about
US$8000 per person per year, compared with the UK’s
US$36 OOO. Tourism accounts for 45% of the money
Jamaica earns from abroad (almost 2 billion dollars in
2008). Increasing tourism could help to raise the standard
of living of Jamaica’s people.

However, mass tourism also has some negative effects,

as you've already seen. have come to Many Jamaicans
dislike it. They don’t see how it helps them or the country.
There is therefore a puzzle for the government to solve —
how can they develop tourism but avoid its negative effects?

Fig. 10.53 Honeypots are a consequence of mass tourism. People They need to find sustainable solutions — ways for tourists
swarm like bees to beautiful attractions like Dunn’s River Falls in to visit Jamaica without damaging its future and the future
Jamaica. of its people. >)
10 Industry , | ‘+ @ : 2 es ae tae ee ae

What’s been tried? ee , p Fig. 10.54 A

The Jamaican government has been following a Master sustainable
Plan, to try to develop sustainable tourism. Its three main eure oe :
_ rafting on the Rio
ideas have been to: i Grande River
>> limit the development of mass tourism to existing
resorts, like Ocho Rios

spread small-scale tourism to other parts ofthe island

involve local people more.

As part of its Master Plan, the government has encouraged: =) tourists and local people are encouraged to get in
touch with each other through the Jamaican Tourist
community tourism — local people running small-scale
Board’s ‘Meet-the-People’ website initiative. This helps
guesthouses. This helps to bring tourists to less-
both visitors and locals to understand each other,
developed towns, such as Port Antonio, without mass
which is an important benefit of tourism.
tourism’s negative effects.
> educating tourists and locals about how to avoid
responsible tourism, which involves local people and . ;
P PEOe negative environmental effects.
aims to do as little harm as possible. For example:

Local guides take visitors to off-the-beaten-track

; 17 a Use the information in this case study to draw
attractions, such as the Rio Grande River.
up a table showing the positive and negative
Tourists are encouraged to buy local food and crafts effects on the environment of a holiday trip to
from Jamaican traders. Negril.
Design a poster to promote sustainable
Smaller inland hotels employ local staff and use tourism in Jamaica.
locally grown food.

CASE STUDY
Dominica - a Caribbean island that Dominica Jamaica 1
wants more tourists GDP (ppp) 761 93 945 |
Dominica is mainly mountainous and has heavy rainfall, ($ million) |
which (when combined with the steep slopes) can cause unemployment rate 23% 12.9%
flash floods. Unfortunately, it also lies in the path of ; {
hurricanes in the late summer. It suffered a lot of damage gee BOTH Ui Bae : Bue |
poverty line (2002 estimate)
(equivalent to 20% of its GDP) from Hurricane Dean in
2007. Around 40% of the people depend on agriculture, Table 10.14 Some comparisons between Dominica and Jamaica
yet less than 7% of Dominica’s land area is suitable for
arable farming. Only 28% are employed in services. The
government is now seeking to increase tourist revenues 18 Look at Table 10.15.
by promoting the island as an ecotourism destination. a Describe the pattern of tourist arrivals since

1990. (Remember to generalise and to state

highest and lowest, together with any anomalies.)
Is the government achieving its aim to
increase income from tourism?
Consider the effect on visitor numbers that
the following appear to have had (if any): the
economic depression in Asia in 2000; the
SARS outbreak in Asia in 2003; Hurricane
Dean in 2007 (it would mainly affect tourism
in 2008); the worldwide economic recession
that started in 2008 (this led to a worldwide
decline in tourism of 4.2% in 2009): and the
A(H1N1) influenza outbreak in 2009.
Fig. 10.55 A street in the capital, Roseau, where some live in
Remember that people often book a holiday
poverty some time before they take it.
 159 000
993 175900 5.7
192 800
Hy A088}

261 000
‘beautiful and unspoilt,
even close to the capital
312 000 SS

1999 280000 8.2 Dominica has a hurricane-free dry season from January to
May. It has sheer cliffs and rivers with large amounts of water
2000 312000 7.5
and many waterfalls. The scenery is stunning. It also has
Table 10.15 Visitor arrivals and the contribution of tourism to geothermal areas with hot springs, and a feature called
Dominica’s GDP, 1990-2010 Boiling Lake.

Ecotourism in Dominica
Dominica was the first country to be officially made a standard
for ecotourism by Green Globe 21. Ecotourism aims to
North
contribute to sustainable development by conserving the
Atlantic Ocean
natural environment and improving the standard of living of
local people. It is small-scale tourism where people visit the
rainforest in small groups, causing as little disturbance and
harm as possible to the environment and local people. Small
groups are not likely to do much harm when they trample
vegetation and paths.

Caribbean When ecotourism is important for a local economy, the trees

Sea
are not cut down for short-term gain (as has happened in the
Philippines and many other tropical forest areas). Those
developments were not sustainable but in Dominica the
Key
forest is conserved for the future, because it’s an important
® Capital town
attraction and economic asset.
Forest reserve or
national park Dominica has a number of eco lodges. Rosalie Forest Eco
x Airport Lodge is in the middle of the rainforest on the edge of the
Morne Trois Pitons National Park. Its environmental and
social sustainability policy is:
Fig. 10.56 Dominica
to protect the environment

What does Dominica have to attract tourists? to have a sustainable lifestyle by: using no chemicals,
Dominica is known as the ‘Nature island of the Caribbean’, minimising the use of resources, using renewable energy
because of its lush tropical rainforest vegetation and varied (hydro, solar and wind), composting kitchen waste,
plant and animal life. Its forests are still fairly intact, and shopping locally, not buying packaged goods if possible,
teem with bird and animal species — some of which are found recycling, using biodegradable products, and keeping
nowhere else. For example, there are many lizards and 55 waste to a minimum
species of butterfly. It has no poisonous snakes or spiders
~
(but it does have boa constrictors). The rainforest is protected 7) to employ only local people.
in two large areas — a forest reserve and a national park. In addition, the owner of the Rosalie Forest Eco Lodge boosts
As well as land-based nature, Dominica has become known the income of local people by arranging one-night stays for
as the ‘whale watching capital of the Caribbean’. It also offers guests in village family homes. Guests can also stay in the
diving and snorkelling opportunities. Tourists are urged to Eco Lodge on a package deal that includes learning about
‘look but don’t take anything but memories’, to preserve village life. Activities are run by the villagers,
shells and other natural features.
| 10 Industry

(who receive a fair income for what they do), and the By encouraging the development of tourism, the government
guests get to experience village life. This preserves the of Dominica will strengthen the country’s economy and
people’s cultural heritage. enable it to purchase more goods from abroad. It will
increase its foreign exchange. Tourists have to change
their money into the East Caribbean dollar (the local
currency) in order to be able to spend — and they not only
pay a fee to do this, but the exchange rate (how much they
get in exchange for their money) is always favourable to
the country. The country can then benefit from this by
saving the foreign money until the value of the currency
they have purchased goes up, so they are able to import
more for it.

Another benefit of tourism is that old buildings are preserved,

because tourists like to visit them. The old colonial market
in Roseau has been restored.

Fig. 10.58 Taxis and coaches waiting

for tou
Roseau

Ecotourism provides a larger market for local farmers.

Sales of handicrafts also increase, because tourists buy
them as souvenirs. The local economy improves as a
result, and more people can afford to buy consumer goods
like televisions. A better local economy also means that
more education and health services can be provided. And
ecotourism helps to keep the age groups balanced, because
young adults are less likely to move away for work.

One negative impact of ecotourism is that any exposure

to outside influences can change traditional ways of life,
Fig. 10.59 A view0ver Rose
especially among young people.

Cruise ship tourists (9 a Imagine that you live in Roseau. Describe the
Cruise ships carrying thousands of passengers frequently differences for people in the town between
tie up at the quayside in the heart of Roseau. Lines of days when there are no cruise ships in port
coaches and taxis wait for those passengers who have and days when there are. What problems
booked an excursion to the island’s attractions. might result from thousands of tourists visiting
all at once?
Cruise ship passengers do not contribute to the local
What types of job might people who work at
economy as much as other tourists do, because they have
the Rosalie Forest Eco Lodge do?
their meals on board ship — but they do buy souvenirs and
Why might there be seasonal unemployment in
pay entrance fees. The cruise ship company also pays
Dominica's tourist industry?
harbour fees.

Fig. 10.60 This sign on the pathway back to the cruise ship terminal
in a small Mexican town says it all!

Overall, does tourism have more beneficial impacts

than adverse effects? Apart from all the economic
benefits that it brings, and the developments that take
place as a result of it, any activity that improves people’s
understanding of different cultures and preserves
attractive old buildings and the natural environment
must be beneficial.
 Estimates

739

687

639

600 590
543

495

406
400
355 Mes

107°
units
thermal
British
200
World energy consumption
Energy consumption depends on the economy - both
of individual countries and of the whole world. Between
the years 2000 and 2007, world energy consumption 0
te) Xa) OS \ © 10) \2) S a)
increased by about 5% a year, as the global economy DPte) DP) PMte) Lf) LP\ LQ”Y QPY LL) -PA)
grew. The global economy then slowed down in 2008 Year
and the growth in energy consumption also slowed to
Fig. 11.1 Total world energy consumption, 1990-2035 (estimated)
1.2%. Then energy consumption actually decreased by
2.2% in 2009. However, the US Energy Information
Administration has predicted that world energy
consumption will increase by about 50% between 1990
and 2035.
Energy consumption, 2004
kg oil equivalent
per person

Nae over 10 000

2500—10
000
1000—2500
250—1000
under 250

no data

Meridian
Prime

Antarctic Circle = Se Ss = SS ene

ee ee
=

Fig. 11.2 Energy consumption per person in different countries

Estimates
25

20

a5

10
consumption

of
%
total
world
energy

1990 1995 2000 2007 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Year

Fig. 11.3 The percentage of total world energy consumption by the USA, China and India, 1990-2035 (estimated)
Until recently, MEDCs had 250
Estimates
a bigger share of world
energy consumption than
LEDCs. However, by 2007, Oil
200
the LEDCs were consuming
a similar amount. In the Coal
future, it is predicted that
the growth in energy 150
demand will be more rapid Natural
gas
from the countries that are
now LEDCs, because of
their population growth 100
Renewables
and economic development. 101°
units
thermal
British

China and India lead the

world’s economic growth 50 Nuclear
and increase in energy
consumption. Together,
they accounted for about
10% of the world’s total os
2000 2010 2020 2030
energy consumption in Year
1990. This had doubled to Fig. 11.4 World energy consumption by fuel type,
20% by 2007. The economies of both countries are 1990-2035 (estimated)
expected to continue to grow, with their combined
energy demands rising to 30% of total world energy The problems of higher energy
consumption by 2035. By contrast, the USA’s share of
consumption
world energy consumption is expected to fall from 21%
©) There are concerns that we are using non-renewable
in 2007 to about 16% by 2035 (although its total
energy sources too quickly, and that we will soon
consumption will still increase).
run out of supplies.
Many scientists worry that the use of fossil fuels is
The benefits of higher energy resulting in air pollution (see Chapter 2) and an
consumption increased rate of global warming (see Chapter 8).
The growth in energy consumption brings great benefits
that improve people’s lives. Some of them are listed The inter-dependence of countries on each other for
below, but you may be able to think of others. energy supplies, e.g. of oil and gas, can lead to conflicts.

> Electricity makes daily household tasks easier - it There are concerns about the safety of nuclear power
provides heat, light in the evenings, television and (see later in this chapter).
computers. People do not have to collect fuel or use
candles or lamps at night. {
).C). Discussion point
Do you think that there should be limits on energy
Modern transport systems are based mainly on oil
consumption? How could such limits be enforced?
(petroleum) use. They allow people to travel widely
for work or pleasure, and also allow goods to be
moved great distances easily and quickly.
Using Fig. 11.4, describe the global consumption
Industry requires energy to make it work. Without patterns of different types of fuel, both (a) today
it the economy cannot grow, wealth cannot be increased and (b) if they change as predicted in the future.
and people’s lives will not be improved.
All ofthese points are particularly relevant to improving
the lives of people in LEDCs. Without increasing energy
@ LEARNING TIP Sometimes examination questions
consumption, these countries will always lag behind will ask you to quote figures in your answer and sometimes
economically. they will tell you not to. When in doubt, do both - in other
words, describe the features in words and support your
answer with figures.
 i

ST

Non-renewable fossil fuels :

What is renewable and non-

renewable?
A renewable fuel is one that is being formed as fast as
(or even faster than) we are using it - and a non-renewable
fuel is not. Wind power and tidal power are obviously
renewable, while coal, oil and gas are non-renewable.
They are produced by natural geological processes, but
they take millions of years to form - and we are already
using up their existing reserves much faster than that.

What is a fossil fuel?

Coal, oil and gas are produced from organic material
(plants and animals) that was growing millions of years
ago. To grow, this organic matter got its energy from
the sun. When we use these fuels, we are actually using
the sun’s energy from millions of years ago (stored in
the fossil fuels). It is fossilised energy.
Fig. 11.5 An offshore oil rig
Reserves of non-renewable fuels will eventually run
out. At some point in the future, alternative energy
sources will need to take over.

Oil
Crude oil, or petroleum, is a mixture of different
hydrocarbons. It was formed from plankton that
previously floated in the oceans. When the plankton
died, it fell to the seabed and was buried in mud.
Geological processes then converted the plankton into
crude oil, which is now found soaked into porous rocks.
To extract it, a well (a borehole) is drilled into the
Fig. 11.6 A ‘nodding donkey’ oil pump in the United Arab Emirates
ground and the oil either comes out under its own
pressure, or needs pumping out. Oil rigs to do this may
be located on land or at sea.
After extraction, the crude oil needs refining to produce
petrol for vehicles (‘gasoline’ or ‘gas’ in the USA), diesel
fuel, aviation fuel and heating oil. (Although it is not
relevant to energy supplies, the petrochemical industry
gets many of its raw materials from oil refineries. Most
plastics are produced from oil.)
It is predicted that oil consumption will increase more
slowly than the overall increase in world energy
consumption. However, oil is still expected to remain
the largest source of energy. When oil prices rise,
electricity generating companies have the option of
switching to alternative fuels. However, the use of oil
in transport continues to rise, and significant technological
advances - such as the development of electric cars -
will be needed to change this.

Fig. 11.7 An oil refinery in Singapore

Advantages of oil Disadvantages of oil
e tis easy to transport by pipeline or bulk tanker. e Burning oil produces greenhouse gases and can lead to
e tis the only fuel in mass use for motor vehicles. increased global warming (see Chapter 8).
e tis less polluting than coal when burned. e Oil spills from leaking tankers and pipelines can cause
e tis also a raw material in the chemical industry. pollution which kills wildlife.
e World oil production is concentrated in a small number
of countries, which control both the supply and the price.
e Work on board oil rigs, especially those offshore, can be
dangerous.
A Wi Fig. 11.9 Seabirds
: killed by an oil spill

Fig. 11.8 An oil pipeline

Why should world energy production be

increased?
What are the problems in increasing world
energy production? (
)C) Discussion point
What is a fossil fuel? What are the sources of fuel and energy used by people in your
Why are fossil fuels classed as being non- class? This could be for transport, heating, cooking or lighting.
renewable? Where do your electricity supplies come from, and what fuel is
used at the power station?
What advantages does oil have over coal?

CASE STUDY
The 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill Emergency teams used a number of methods to try to
On 22 April 2010, an explosion occurred on the Deepwater contain the oil spill:
Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. The rig sank and 11
Four robotic submersibles tried to install a blow-out
workers were killed. Crude oil (up to 5000 barrels a day)
preventer (a set of huge valves designed to seal the well).
began leaking from the damaged oil well on the seabed
(1524 metres down). The delicate ecosystem of the Gulf A relief well was drilled to tap into the leaking well and
coastline is rich in wildlife, including pelicans, many species take the pressure off the broken wellhead.
of duck, turtles, and whales. This environment was damaged
Skimmers were used to skate over the water brushing
by the oil spill and brought back memories of the Exxon
up the oil. More than 90 OOO barrels of oil-water mix
Valdez spill off Alaska in 1989. The Gulf of Mexico spill
were removed in this way.
was from an oil well that exploded, but the Exxon Valdez
was an oil tanker that ran aground. Around 300 kilometres of floating boom were used as
part of the efforts to stop the oil from reaching the
As well as the value of the oil that was lost, the clean-up
fragile coast. A US charity made booms out of nylon
operation in the Gulf of Mexico cost many millions of
tights, animal fur and human hair.
dollars. The Gulf’s important leisure and tourism industry
was affected, because tourist beaches were covered in Dispersant chemicals, rather like soap, were sprayed
oil — leading to fears of lost income and job losses. The from ships and aircraft in an effort to break down
fishing industry was also badly hit, because the oil the oil, despite worries about their toxicity.
contaminated stocks of fish and shellfish. The oil that rose
Controlled burning was also used to tackle the spill, although
to the ocean’s surface created a slick that covered many
square kilometres.
it was difficult to carry out and produced toxic smoke.
 3 Look at Fig. 11.10.
Estimate the area of the oil slick in the Gulf of
Mexico, in square kilometres, by 15 May.
What distance did the oil travel from the y © ei .
damaged oil rig to the north by 15 May? -—
How quickly, in kilometres per day, did the oil Dea ot 5% Chandeleur
travel to the north? A > i

List the problems caused by the explosion.

Gulf of Mexico

Fig. 11.10 The extent of the oil spill between 22 April and 15 May

Study Tables 11.1 and 11.2. Work out which Rank Country Consumption (1000
countries were (a) the biggest oil exporters, and (b) barrels per day)
the biggest oil importers, in 2009. 1 USA 18 810
rallanean Col inGUll iavey=Yolaceycere|
eittelecmantenellaicic-larers 2 China 8324
between production and consumption for each 3 Japan 4443
country - to see whether they needed to import oil 4 india 3110
in 2009, or whether they had spare oil that they a
could export. (Some countries just appear in one 5 Russia . 2740
table.) In reality, the situation is more complicated 6 Brazil : 2522
than this, because there are different types of oil. A 7 Germany 2440
country producing lots of one type of oil may still ‘
need to import some oil of a different type. Se ae
: 9 South Korea 2185
10 Canada 2151

Rank Country Production (1000 barrels Table 11.2 The top 10 oil consumers in 2009
per day)
1 Russia 9934
Z Saudi Arabia 9760
3 USA 9141
4 Iran A177
5 China 3996
6 Canada 3294
if Mexico 3001
8 United Arab Emirates 2795
9 Brazil PMT
10 Kuwait 2496

Table 11.1 The top 10 oil producers in 2009 Fig. 11.11 Clean-up workers on the beach after the Deepwater
Horizon spill
Coal
Coal is a sedimentary rock that formed from trees other sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones and shales.
growing in tropical swamp forests. The layers of coal The two main methods of extraction are deep
(seams) are 1-4 metres thick and are found between (underground) mining and opencast mining (quarrying).

Opencast Lo >
mine Fe Adit Inclined Vertical shaft
: shaft

Fig. 11.12a Types of coal mine

Fig. 11.12b Opencast mining or quarrying

Fig. 11.12c¢ Shaft mining

Deep mining methods are used to extract coal from Potential problems from opencast mining include:
fairly thick, but deeply buried, coal seams - often up to
visual pollution from the enormous pit that is excavated
1000 metres below the surface. The shafts are either
inclined (drift mines) or vertical. In inclined shaft >) the temporary loss of the land for other uses while
mining, there are conveyors in the shafts to bring the the mining takes place
coal up to the surface. In vertical shaft mines, a system
* noise from machinery and blasting
like the lifts or elevators in a tall building is used.
However, the lifts (cages) are much bigger. > dust, if the pit is allowed to become dry.

The main problems with deep mining include: World coal consumption increased by 35% between
2002 and 2007 - largely because of a big growth in
> visual pollution from the coal storage, railway lines demand from China. However, between 2007 and
and mine buildings on the surface 2009, world coal consumption fell by 3%. This is because
> the possibility of subsidence, when the surface the demand for coal was strongly affected by the recession
collapses into old workings in the world economy at this time. As well as being used
to fuel power stations, coal is also used widely in the
© dangers to miners from accidents with machinery,
steel industry - which was particularly badly hit in the
gas explosions and roof collapses
global recession. Coal is also burned to provide heat
> the greater initial capital input compared with in household fires, and is a raw material for some
opencast mining. chemical processes.
Opencast mining is used for coal seams that are closer China and, toa lesser extent, India and the other Asian
to the surface and possibly thinner. The soil and overlying LEDCs, consume coal instead of more expensive fuels
rock are removed and stored. Once the seam is exposed, like oil. Coal was used to generate 42% of the world’s
the coal can be extracted. Huge earthmoving equipment electricity in 2007. But, as well as the problems listed
is used in the operation. After the coal is extracted, the on the left, electricity generation from coal is a major
waste rock and soil are put back and the land is returned source of air pollution. This is discussed in more detail
to other uses. in the section on thermal power on pages 300-303.

Why is coal sometimes mined by opencast

methods and sometimes by deep mining? What sources of fuel are available in the country where you
What problems are caused by opencast mining live? Does your country import fuel or energy? Are there any
and by deep mining? 4 altematives available?

What are the main uses of coal?

Fig. 11.13 The Maxim Gorky opencast mine in the Czech Republic
Natural gas Schemes have been developed to improve the system
Natural gas (methane) can form from plankton in the of using fuelwood. They usually involve:
same way as oil. However, a lot of existing natural gas
> planting more trees, often on a ‘woodlot’ system
was formed from plants that grew in tropical swamps.
where there is a constant cycle of replanting
Like oil, it accumulates in porous rocks (e.g. sandstone
and limestone) and is extracted in the same way. *) managing the woodland and using systems such as
careful pruning and thinning to encourage more growth
Gas is an important fuel for electricity generation, so
its consumption is expected to continue growing - *) the introduction of new fast-growing species
especially if oil prices remain high. However, it is likely > the introduction of new fuel-efficient stoves, which
to become increasingly expensive to obtain supplies of cause less smoke;
natural gas in the future (as easily extracted reserves
are used up), so the growth of gas consumption will
begin to slow down (see Fig.11.4).

Advantages and disadvantages of natural gas

e Electricity generation using natural gas is less expensive
than using oil.
e Gas-fired generating plants are less expensive to build
than plants that use coal, nuclear, or most renewable
energy sources.
The other advantages and disadvantages are the same as
for oil.

Fuelwood in LEDCs
In many LEDCs, fuelwood accounts for about 70% of
energy supplies. The more rural a country is, the greater
its dependence on wood. Fuelwood has the advantage
that it’s often free for the user and does not require
high-technology equipment. It provides an accessible
source of fuel for heating and cooking. Also, if there is Fig. 11.14 Women carrying fuelwood, Lesotho

enough land, wood can be a renewable, sustainable

energy source - but this is not always the case. For
Renewable energy supplies
These include hydroelectricity, geothermal power, wind
example, in the highlands of Lesotho there is little wood
power, solar power and biofuels. The classification of
left. For rural people who live near towns, surplus wood
nuclear power is discussed later.
is often collected and sold to townspeople, so it also
becomes a cash crop rather than just a matter of Fig. 11.4 shows that renewables are expected to be one
subsistence. In many societies, the collection of wood of the fastest-growing sources of future world energy,
for heating and cooking is a regular task for family with consumption increasing by 2.6% per year. The
members (particularly women and children). reasons for this are:
Using fuelwood can cause problems: *) anticipated increases in oil prices
*) In some areas, natural woodland is being cut more > concern about the environmental effects of fossil
quickly than it can grow back. So longer and longer fuel use
distances have to be walked to collect wood - meaning * concerns about the sustainability of fossil fuels - they
alot df hard work and more time taken up with this will eventually run out
task. Often, children miss out on their education as *) government incentives for increasing the use of
a result. renewable energy in many countries.
*) Deforestation may lead to the exhaustion of soils - Hydroelectricity and wind are expected to provide the
and soil erosion - so that the forest cannot grow largest shares of the projected increase in total renewable
back. It could even lead to desertification. generation. However, this will vary from country to
country. In many MEDCs, the majority of exploitable
*) Burning wood in confined spaces on inefficient stoves
hydroelectric sources have already been developed.
leads to respiratory illnesses.
 eS

Geothermal power
Geothermal energy is energy extracted from hot rocks places! However, in volcanic areas, the increase in
or water beneath the Earth’s surface. As you descend temperature may be as muchas 70 °C for every kilometre
down into the Earth, temperatures rise on average by you descend. These hot areas tend to be near plate
about 25 °C for every kilometre you go down. This is margins, and it is in these areas that the prospects for
noticeable in underground mines, which are often warm geothermal energy are greatest.

Volcanic sources Geothermal

@ In volcanic areas, the groundwater (water stored in the pore well
spaces in the rock) is heated by magma (molten rock) beneath
the Earth’s surface, at temperatures of up to 1000 °C. The
groundwater is usually under pressure, so it doesn’t boil.
© When a borehole is sunk into the rocks, the heated groundwater
rushes up and turns to steam, because of the reduction in
pressure.
e This steam can then be used to drive turbines to produce
electricity - although it’s normally used to heat water to drive
turbines, because the groundwater steam is corrosive.
© The used water is then pumped back into the ground. Countries
where this is done include Japan, the Philippines and Iceland.

Geothermal aquifers
These are layers of rock in non-volcanic areas that contain hot Heat
water at depth. The hot water is pumped out - passed through a exchanger
heat exchanger to extract the heat - and the cold water is then
pumped back into the ground. Schemes like this are operating in
the Paris area of France.

Hot dry rocks

This source is not being exploited yet, but it may be in the future. Heat
© |t involves hot rocks at great depths, like granites, which do not exchanger
have lots of pores full of water.
© Boreholes would be sunk into the ground and the hot rocks
would be fractured using explosives.
© Cold water would then be pumped down one borehole and the
heated water pumped back up another.

Fig. 11.15 Methods of geothermal energy extraction

Advantages of geothermal! power Disadvantages of geothermal power
e Itis extremely cheap and reduces the dependence on e tis restricted to areas with suitable geology.
fossil fuels. e Areas with suitable geology are sometimes affected by
e It does not produce greenhouse gases. earthquakes and volcanoes.
e The water is pumped back into the ground and re-used. e Although it is usually classified as renewable, each well
e Unlike other types of renewable energy, it can operate may only be used for about 25 years.
at any time of the day and year - and is not affected by e The groundwater is saline and often poisonous.
the weather.

Geothermal energy in Iceland The Reykjanes Power Station is a geothermal power

Iceland lies on the divergent plate margin of the Mid-Atlantic station located at the southwestern tip of Iceland.
Ridge, an area with abundant hot rocks (see page 292). The Nesjavellir geothermal power station opened in 1990
It is the world’s leading producer of geothermal energy, and is the second largest geothermal power station in
with 87% of all Icelandic homes getting their heating and Iceland. The facility is located near Thingvellir and the
hot water from this source. The methods used to extract Hengill Volcano. The station produces approximately
the energy are described opposite (in the section on 120 MW of electrical power and around 1800 litres of hot
volcanic sources). water per second. It serves the hot water needs of the
Five major geothermal power stations exist in Iceland, 24% area around the capital, Reykjavik.
of the country’s electricity is produced from geothermal Eleven kilometres away is the Hellisheidi geothermal
energy, 75% from hydroelectricity and 1% from fossil fuels. power station, which is the largest in Iceland. Once fully
Plans are underway to turn Iceland into a 100% fossil operational, it will probably be the largest geothermal
fuel-free nation in the near future. power station in the world.
The Krafla geothermal power station is located near the
Krafla Volcano. Its development was threatened by seismic A
and volcanic hazards in the 1970s but, since it opened in N
Greenland Sea
1978, these hazards have decreased.
Say ; s
Se ot “ JPR grat fea ar
MS YS > mm ig af tee *
. % } 7 Krafla /
tom
S Sey, ta i ° a
phd
Ba =
m

Reykjavik 4
‘. ES
,
Reykianeg™ © Nesjavellir/Hellisheidi ie
Svartsengix. po
ae #
id Bi ee

0 100 Atlantic Ocean

km

Fig. 11.16 The Krafla geothermal power station in Iceland

The Svartsengi geothermal power station is located near

the Keflavik International Airport at the Reykjanes Peninsula.
It extracts hot water at 90 °C, and surplus mineral-rich
water from the plant is used to fill up the Blue Lagoon (a
nearby tourist bathing resort).
Wind power
Advantages of wind power
The use of wind power has increased dramatically (see It does not cause air pollution, global warming or acid
Fig. 11.18). Its development has been particularly rapid rain.
in the USA, China, India, and in European MEDCs (see It has very little effect on the local ecosystem, except
FigaliaL9): very occasionally killing birds that get caught in the
blades.
Modern commercial wind farms work by having large
In Europe, the wind is strongest in the winter, when
numbers of windmills driving huge turbines to produce
demand for electricity peaks.
electricity. At first, wind farms were located in wide-
After the initial capital input, production is cheap because
open spaces on land, where the wind was likely to be the fuel is free.
strongest (e.g. near the coast or on hills). But, nowadays, Wind farms may provide a small source of income for
wind farms are also being built offshore around the farmers.
coasts of the Netherlands, Denmark and the UK.

200000 Disadvantages of wind power

It cannot be used during calm periods or storms.
Many people consider wind farms to be a form of visual
pollution - especially in areas of natural beauty.
MW)
150000 The technology is relatively new and at present very large
numbers of turbines are needed to generate fairly modest
amounts of electricity.

100000

{ ) C). Discussion point

If someone wanted to build a wind farm near where you live,
50000 would you be in favour? What are your reasons?
Wind
(
capacity
generating
power

&, oS SPP oy
Sy PSSh?
PPPS oF
Year

Fig. 11.18 World wind power generating capacity, 1996-2010

Wind
generating
(MW)
capacity
power

Fig. 11.19 The world’s leading producers of wind power in 2010 Fig. 11.20 A wind farm in the south of Spain
Solar power
The sun gives out incredibly large amounts
of energy, but trapping it directly is not
easy. Light needs to be converted into
electricity. The normal method is to use
solar panels (photovoltaic cells). When
more solar energy is generated than is
being used, it can be stored in a battery
or exported to the national utility grid.
In many countries, the greatest use of
solar power has been by private individuals
or companies, rather than as a contribution
to national electricity grids.

Fig. 11.21 Houses in California with rooftop solar

panels

Advantages of solar power Disadvantages of solar power

e ltis safe and pollution-free. The initial capital input is high.
e Afterthe initial capital input, production is cheap because It is not as effective in cloudy countries.
the fuel is free. Itis less effective in high-latitude countries, where more
e ltcan be used effectively for low-power uses, such as power is needed in the winter but the days are shorter
heating swimming pools or central heating. and the sun is lower in the sky - giving less light.
e ts greatest potential is in warm and sunny countries, or Itis less effective for high-output uses, such as powering
in LEDCs where people live in locations that are isolated colour TVs.
from the national electricity grids.

Fig. 11.22 A solar power plant in Utah in the dry south west of the USA
Biofuels
This term includes any fuel which comes from biomass.
It includes liquid fuels (bioethanol and biodiesel), biogas
and solid biofuels including fuelwood(see page 291).
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar
in plants such as maize. Technology is also being developed
to allow material such as trees and grasses for bioethanol
production. Bioethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles
but it is more frequently added to petrol to increase
octane values and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol
is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.
Biodiesels are made from vegetable oils (like rape seed
oil) and also from recycled used cooking oils from
restaurants and kitchens. Like bioethanol, it is often
¥
®.

used as an additive to other fuels. It reduces levels of

air pollution emitted by diesel-powered vehicles.
Biogas is methane produced by the breakdown of
organic materials by bacteria. It can be produced either
from waste materials or by the use of energy crops. The Fig. 11.23 Oil seed rape growing on farmland in the United
solid by-products can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer. Kingdom. This crop is used for biodiesel production.
Biogas is also produced naturally (in a less clean form)
in landfill sites. However, ifit escapes into the atmosphere Disadvantages of biofuels
it is a potential greenhouse gas. e Inthe period from 2008 to 2011, some land previously
used for the production of food was changed to produce
Solid biofuels (often referred to as biomass) can be crops for biofuel production instead. This led to increases
used in power stations and in the heating systems of in world food prices and decreases in the food supply
houses and other buildings. Special fuels and boilers (see page 252).
are needed to make use of this energy source. Russia
has 22% of the world’s forests and is a big biomass
producer. In 2010, Russian pulp and paper maker
Vyborgskaya Cellulose said it would be producing pellets What are biofuels made from?
at its plant in Vyborg that could be used in heat and Why did the production of biofuels increase after
electricity generation. The plant will eventually produce vA0)0O}f4
about 900 000 tonnes of pellets per year, making it the What is the main problem in increasing the world
largest such plant in the world. production of biofuels?

Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world’s transport fuel in

2008. Research and development into biofuels is
What are the advantages of using wood as a fuel
increasing and they are likely to have greater significance in LEDCs?
in the future. Currently the world leaders in biofuel
What problems does the use of wood as a fuel
development and use are Brazil, the USA, France, create?
Sweden and Germany.
List the types of renewable fuel.
Although the use of renewable fuels is growing,
Advantages of biofuels why is it difficult for renewables to replace
e Prices could be more stable than world oil prices. non-renewables quickly?
e Supplies can be more secure and reduce reliance on
What was the wind power generating capacity in
imported fuels.
2010 of the USA, India and France?
e Fewer pollutants are produced than by than fossil fuels
(see below).
e They are ‘carbon-neutral’, because the growing source
crops absorb carbon dioxide from the air which balances {
)( ) Discussion point
the emissions from the burning fuel.
Do you think that the increased use of renewable energy
sources is a good thing? Which types of renewable energy
would work best in the area where you live, and why?
Power stations *) impermeable rocks, so that the reservoir does not
Power stations are the places where electricity is generated. leak
For several decades now, electricity has been the world’s > stable geological conditions, so that the dam and
fastest growing form of energy use - and this growth is sides of the reservoir do not collapse
likely to continue.
=) sparsely populated land, so that large numbers of
> The strongest growth in electricity generation is people do not have to be moved to create the reservoir
likely to be in LEDCs. As their standards of living
begin to rise, there will be an increasing demand A dam is first built across a river. This holds back the
for home appliances (like televisions and computers) river’s water, which is then stored in a reservoir behind
as well as services (like hospitals, office buildings the dam. Near the bottom of the dam wall is a water
and shopping malls) - all of which consume electricity. intake, which controls the amount of water allowed to
leave the reservoir. Gravity causes the water to fall
> Most MEDCs have their electricity distributed by a through the penstock (the pipe inside the dam). At the
national grid system, which allows the power from end of the penstock is a turbine propeller, which is
all of the power-producing plants to be treated as turned by the moving water. The shaft from the turbine
one, and for power to be sent to where it is required. goes to a generator, which produces the power. Power
In the section on renewable energy, power stations lines are connected to the generator to carry the electricity
fuelled by the sun, wind, biomass and geothermal energy to where it is needed. The water then continues past
were all discussed. However, most electricity is still the propeller into the river downstream from the dam.
generated from running water (hydroelectric power), Because the demand for electricity is not constant -
coal, oil, gas and nuclear power (thermal power). going up and down during the day and night - some
hydroelectric power stations use a system called pumped
Hydroelectric power stations storage. During the night, when there is less demand
Ideally the site for a hydroelectric power station should for electricity, some of it is used to pump water that has
have: already flowed through the turbines back up to a storage
> a large river pool above the power station. When demand is high,
the water is then allowed to flow back through the
> a large falling distance (head) of water turbine generators to produce electricity again. In this
> aconstant flow of water thoughout the year way, the reservoir acts much like a battery - storing
power in the form of water when demands are low, and
> anarrow valley to provide a good dam site producing maximum power during peak periods.
Pumped storage reservoirs are usually relatively small.

Power station]

Fig. 11.24 Howa hydroelectric power station works

 | ap

11 Energy and water

Advantages of hydroelectricity Disadvantages of hydroelectricity

Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced Dams are extremely expensive to build, and they must
at a constant rate. operate for many decades to make a profit.
The power stations can respond quickly to changing The flooding of large areas of land means that the
demand, as explained above. environment is destroyed, along with natural habitats
There are no fuel costs. and historical or archaeological features.
The reservoir that forms behind the dam can be used for People living in the villages and towns of the valley to be
water sports and leisure activities. flooded must move. In some countries, people are forcibly
The stored water can also be used for irrigation and other removed so that hydroelectric power schemes can go
purposes. ahead (1.2 million people in the case of the Three Gorges
There is no atmospheric pollution. project in China).
The building of large dams can cause serious geological
damage. For example, the building of the Hoover Dam in
the USA triggered a number of earthquakes.
Although modern planning and design of dams is good,
in the past old dams have been known to collapse. This
has led to deaths and flooding.
When a river flows through two or more countries, a dam
in one of the upstream countries will affect the flow of
the river in the downstream countries. This can lead to
serious disputes between the countries concerned.
Building a large dam alters the level of water in the ground.
The building of the Aswan Dam in Egypt caused damage
to some ancient monuments, through damp and the
effects of salts in the water.
Dams catch sediment and prevent it from flowing down
the river and increasing the fertility of soils on floodplains
downstream. The trapped sediment also reduces the
reservoir Capacity.

Fig. 11.25 Aerial view of the Three Gorges Dam, nearing completion

Fig. 11.26 The Katse Dam in Lesotho, southern Africa, which is the subject of the case study at the end ofthis chapter
 Scheme Country River When different Total capacity Area flooded
phases completed (MW) (km?)

Three Gorges Dam China Yangtse 2008, 2011 22 500 (when 632
complete)

Itaipu aug and

Paraguay
Parana 1984,1991,2003
; :
14000 1350

Guri (Simén Bolivar) Venezuela Ep

Amazon)
Seay! the tose 10 200 4250

Tucurui Brazil JOGETENS

Amazon)
CTIBULARY ONE? ond 8370 3014
Grand Coulee USA Columbia 1942, 1980 6809 Not known

Sayano Shushenskaya Russia Yenisei ar p82 ee 6400 621

Krasnoyarskaya Russia Yenisei 1972 6000 2000

Robert-Bourassa Canada La Grande 1981 5610 Not known

Churchill Falls Canada Churchill 1971 5429 6988

Longtan Dam — China Hongshui 2009 ge Not known

complete)

Table 11.3 The hydroelectric power schemes with the largest outputs

Although the Three Gorges Dam in China has the RESEARCH

world’s largest generating capacity, during the course The Internet contains information about
of a year the Itaipu Dam generates more electricity. many of the major dam schemes. Make your own case study
of a hydroelectric power scheme. Concentrate on (a) the
This is because the Three Gorges Dam experiences six
dam site, (b) the advantages and (c) the disadvantages of
months a year when there is less water available to
the project. Table 11.3 will give you some ideas about which
generate power. The Parana River which feeds the Itaipu scheme to choose.
Dam has a much lower seasonal variation in flow. The
Itaipu power station on the Brazil-Paraguay border
currently produces the most hydroelectric power in the
world from a single dam.
In LEDCs, hydroelectric power is the main source of
renewable energy growth. Many hydroelectric power
schemes also supply water. The case study on the
Lesotho Highlands Water Project is an example (see
pages 308-9).

Are the main hydroelectric power schemes

MTaalieeYofacoye-etey- ladle) t-leceituiteltce
Are the main hydroelectric power schemes
Taalase pu
to)e BedDY@xsoa 0)a)\/] lB)Oxsveg
According to Table 11.3, which was the earliest
of the large schemes, and when was it first
developed?
Which schemes have flooded the largest areas of
eTarebrslareltne\v minal leiabirelareenivcclomileerelsreitg

Fig. 11.27 The Itaipu Hydroelectric Dam on the Brazil - Paraguay

border
Thermal power stations Advantages of thermal power
The thermal power stations discussed in this section Many countries still have large reserves of fuel, e.g. coal
are those powered by fossil fuels - coal, oil and gas. in South Africa and Germany.
Nuclear power stations are also thermal, but they are e Coal is also used to make coke for the steel industry,
often described separately. The fuel in thermal power and oil is the basis of the petrochemical industry.
stations is burned to produce heat, which turns water Oil and gas can be transported efficiently by pipeline.
into steam. The steam is then used to turn turbines to e Oil and gas are cleaner than coal, because they produce
produce the electricity. However, this process is not less air pollution. (However, they do still produce carbon
very efficient in its use of energy, and the steam has to dioxide.)
be turned back into water at a temperature low enough
for it to be disposed of without causing environmental
damage.
Disadvantages of thermal power
e Power stations are major sources of air pollution. The
Factors affecting the location of thermal problems caused by the emission of carbon dioxide,
power stations nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide are described in Chapter
*) Coal is bulky and is normally transported by rail. 2 (page 71). The pollution caused by one country is often
For this reason, coal-fired power stations are often ‘exported’ to another by prevailing winds. For example,
located close to the coal mines. gases released by power stations in the UK are blown to
Norway.
> Oil and gas can be transported relatively easily by
e World coal reserves may only last for another 300 years,
pipeline, so their power stations do not need to be and oil and gas for an even shorter time.
located close to the oil and gas wells. Nevertheless e Deep mining is dangerous and careful health and safety
oil-importing countries often locate oil-fired power measures are required.
stations at oil refineries close to the port where the e Over-reliance on imported fuels can cause problems. It
oil arrives in the country. makes countries vulnerable to sudden increases in price
and political and even military threats from the exporting
> A supply of cooling water is needed, which is why
countries.
so many thermal power stations have large cooling
towers. Many power stations are located along rivers
to get cooling water, but they must be spaced out so > Also, storage of the CO,isenvisaged either deep in
that too much warm water is not returned to the the Earth or in the deep oceans. In the case of deep
river to damage aquatic life. Sea water is not a good ocean storage, there is a risk of making the oceans
coolant, because the salt content attacks pipes. more acidic. Long-term predictions about submarine
> Alarge flat site is needed for the plant, cooling towers, or underground storage are very difficult. CO, might
fuel storage and railway lines. leak from the storage into the atmosphere.

Making thermal power stations cleaner

Nuclear power stations
Coal burning is estimated to be responsible for 40% of
Nuclear and fossil-fuelled power stations have many
the 30 billion metric tons of CO, emitted by human
features in common. Both require heat to produce steam
activity every year. Attempts are now being made to
to drive turbines and generators. However, in a nuclear
develop cleaner coal-fired power stations to cut greenhouse
power station, uranium replaces the coal, oil or gas.
gas emissions. Many developments are being researched,
Uranium is a radioactive metal that can be used as an
but few of them have been connected yet to a full-sized
abundant source of concentrated energy. Uranium atoms
power station. For example:
split (nuclear fission) and release energy in the form of
> Carbon capture involves trapping the CO, before it
a
heat. In a nuclear reactor, the uranium fuel is assembled
escapes into the atmosphere, and then disposing of in such a way that a controlled fission chain reaction
it elsewhere. It could reduce CO, emissions to the can be achieved.
atmosphere by approximately 80-90%.
*> However, capturing and compressing CO, requires
a lot of energy, so it would increase the fuel needs
of a coal-fired power station and raise the cost of
energy.
Uranium ore usually occurs in the ground at relatively Fig. 11.4 shows that electricity generation from nuclear
low concentrations, so most is mined by openpit mining. power is expected to increase. This is due to high fossil
Only a small number of countries mine uranium. fuel prices, concerns about dependence on imported
Kazakhstan, Canada and Australia are the top three coal, oil and gas, and also greenhouse gas emissions
producers - together accounting for 63% of world uranium from thermal power stations. Production is expected
production. Other important uranium-producing to increase in China, India and Russia.
countries are Namibia, Russia, Niger, Uzbekistan and
However, the disadvantages listed below mean that
the USA.
there is still a lot of uncertainty about the future of
nuclear power. In many countries, public concerns may
Factors affecting the location of nuclear
prevent plans for new nuclear power stations. Despite
power stations
this, the governments of several countries have announced
*> Like other power stations, large flat sites are needed changes in their positions since 2009, including Belgium
for the plant and for cooling towers. and Italy, which have both become slightly more in
favour of nuclear power.
>> The volume of raw material is so small that this is
not a factor.
Advantages of nuclear power
*) Pure water is needed for cooling. Sea water will not
e Only very small amounts of uranium are needed to produce
do, unless it is desalinated. However, sea water has
large amounts of energy.
been used in emergencies.
e Uranium ore will not run out in the foreseeable future
> Some nuclear power stations are built on the coast (some people even classify nuclear power as renewable).
to dispose of very low level liquid, radioactive waste. e It does not produce greenhouse gases and acid rain.
@ Thesafety record of nuclear power stations has improved
=) In countries like the UK, concerns about the safety and the industry is highly regulated.
of early nuclear power stations meant that they were
located in places far away from areas of dense
population, e.g. Dounreay in the north of Scotland
and Calder Hall in Cumbria. This is not the case Disadvantages of nuclear power
today. e There have been serious incidents at nuclear sites which
have led to leaks of radioactivity, e.g. at Chernobyl in
Ukraine in 1986, Three Mile Island in the USA in 1979
{
).C). Discussion point and Windscale in the UK in 1957. Radioactivity is a known
Nuclear power is controversial in many countries. Are you in cause of diseases such as cancer and leukaemia.
favour of it or against it? Give your reasons. e The earthquake in Japan in March 2011 caused
an explosion and leakage of radioactive material
at the Fukushima nuclear power station. This raised
questions about the safety of nuclear power stations in
earthquake zones.
e The cost of shutting down old nuclear plants
(decommissioning) is very high.
e The radioactive waste from power stations remains
a health hazard for hundreds of thousands of years.
It requires careful storage and is difficult to dispose
of safely.
e Nuclear power stations produce material that is also the
raw material for nuclear weapons, so there can be serious
security concerns.
e Thecapital costs of building nuclear power stations are
extremely high.

).C) Discussion point

In this chapter there are various photographs of power stations.
How visually polluting do you think they are? Do you think that
some look better than others?
Fig. 11.28 A nuclear power station in Iran
CASE STUDY

Electricity in Germany —- a European 50

MEDC
Germany is the largest consumer of electricity in Europe.
The main fuels for German power stations are coal, nuclear
and gas.

Thermal power stations - coal 40

Germany has reserves of two types of coal — lignite and
bituminous coal:

*) Lignite (brown coal) contains less carbon, gives out

less heat when burnt, produces more ash, and causes
more air pollution. It is extracted in Nordrhein-Westfalen 30
and Sachsen (in western Germany) and Brandenburg
(in eastern Germany).

*) Bituminous coal is more carbon-rich and generally of

better quality. It is mined in Nordrhein-Westfalen (the
Ruhr Coalfield) and Saarland. 20

Fig. 11.30 shows that the lignite power stations are located
of
Percentage
production
electricity
close to the coal-mining areas. The Schwarze Pumpe power
station is one example. Transporting lignite over long
distances is not economic, because of its low purity.

10

Fig. 11.29 Electricity production in Germany in 2010 0)

The bituminous coal power stations are partly

located on the coalfields, to save transport costs
(e.g. the Scholven power station), but they are
also more widely located throughout the country.
The power stations on the coast and on navigable
rivers (e.g. the Rostock Power Station) use imported
coal.

Fig. 11.30 also shows the importance of large

rivers for providing cooling water.

Fig. 11.30 The Heilbronn coal-fired power station on the

River Neckar. Notice the riverto provide cooling water
(and sometimes transport for coal). Also notice the tall
chimneys to disperse oxides of nitrogen and sulfur
dioxide, together with the cooling tower in the
! background
 Key

Bituminous coal Lignite

power stations power stations
Altbach 4 Boxberg

Bergkamen Buschhaus

Bexbach Frimmersdorp

Greifswald HKW Chemintz-Nord

Grosskrotzenburg Janschwalde
Gustav Knepper Lippendorf

Heilbronn Neurath
Herne Niederaussem
ND
WwW
FR
UW
DO
oon Heyden DN
W
FB
OF
ODO
oon Schkopau

LUnen 10 Schwarze Pumpe

Marl-Chemiepark

Mehrum
Rostock
7 | Bituminous
Scholven coal field
Walsum ~_| Lignite field
Wedel
PB
RPP
PPP
vn
Ff
OF
FP
©
WD
O Elverlingsen
18 Westerholt
| SWITZERLAND
Fig. 11.31 The locations of coal mines and thermal power stations in Germany

Pollution from coal-fired power Look at the factors which affect the location of thermal power
stations Stations (page 300). How do they apply to the location of thermal
Germany is committed to a reduction in its power stations in Germany?
greenhouse gas emissions. One example
of how this might be done is shown by the
Schwarze Pumpe power station. The lignite
fuel is burned in the presence of pure
oxygen — releasing water vapour and carbon
dioxide (CO,). By condensing the water in
a pipe, the company that owns the power
plant,captures and isolates nearly 95% of
the CO,. That CO, is then compressed into
a liquid and sold (e.g. to companies making
fizzy drinks).

Fig. 11.32 Niederaussem power station, a

source of pollution
 Nuclear power stations
Fig. 11.32 shows that Germany’s 17 nuclear power stations
are distributed throughout the country. Many are located
near large rivers to supply cooling water (the factors
affecting the location of nuclear power stations have
already been discussed).

Like many countries, Germany is having to find ways to Si

safely store and dispose of its nuclear waste. Much of it | ee |
is currently being stored on the surface at the nuclear x
power stations themselves. However, a former iron ore L
mine at Konrad has been under development for disposal
of nuclear waste since 1975. It will initially take 300 OOO
cubic metres of waste — 95% of the volume of the country’s
waste. An underground disposal site at Morsleben in
eastern Germany (for low- and intermediate-level wastes)
was closed in 1998. It is said to be in poor condition, and
is being stabilised with concrete at a cost reported to be
US$3 billion.

The move to renewable energy sources

Energy policy is a controversial issue. In 1998, the German
government decided to phase out nuclear energy — but a
new government in 2009 cancelled this decision. Public
opinion is often divided:

~ A poll, early in 2007, found that 61% of Germans

opposed the government’s plans to phase out nuclear
power by 2020, while 34% favoured a phase out.

=) Another poll, in mid-2008, showed that 46% of Germans _| Key

want the country to continue using nuclear energy; _|Nuclear Power stations
another 46% said they supported the nuclear phase-_ |2 Brunsbuttel 5 Emsland 11/12 Neckar
out policy, and 8% were undecided. 2 Brokdorf 6 Grohnde 31/14 Gundremmingen
3 Unterweser 7/8 Biblis 15/16 lsar
If Germany were to phase out nuclear power production
and continue to reduce its carbon emissions, it would | 4 Krummel 9/10 Philippsburg 17 Grafrheinfeld
need to import large amounts of electricity. This would put r
Germany in much the same position as Italy today—being Fig. 11.33 Nuclear power stations in Germany ,

dependent on neighbours suchas France, |

the Netherlands, Poland and the Czech
Republic for electricity (much of which J
would be produced by nuclear power j
stations). q

The tsunami damage to Fukushima nuclear |

plant in Japan led to public protests in }-
Germany. On 31 May 2011, the German
government announced that it would
close all nuclear power stations in the
country by 2022. Overall electricity
consumption would be cut by 10% and }
the use of coal and renewables would
be increased.

ee ——— —— =.

Fig. 11.34 The Brokdorf nuclear power station on the River Elbe. Notice the lack of any
tall chimneys to disperse pollutants.
_ Germany targets switch to 100% renewables
_ for its electricity by 2050
| Germany already leads the world on renewable energy production. The country’s
Federal Environment Agency said today that it could get all of its electricity
_ from renewable energy sources by 2050 — and become the world’s first major
industrialised nation to kick the fossil-fuel habit.

_ Germany already obtains 16% of its electricity from wind, solar and other
| renewable sources. This is three times higher than the level it had achieved 15
years ago. Jochen Flasbarth, President of the Federal Environment Agency,
| said: ‘A complete conversion to renewable energy by 2050 is possible froma |
| technical and ecological point of view. It’s a very realistic target, based on
| technology that already exists — it’s not a pie-in-the-sky prediction’.
Thanks to its Renewable Energy Act, Germany is already the world leader in |_|
| photovoltaics. It expects to add more than 5000 megawatts of photovoltaic
| capacity this year — to reach a total of 14 000 megawatts. It is also the second-
i largest wind-power producer after the USA.
| About 300 000 renewable energy jobs have been created in Germany in the |
| last decade. The government has set goals for cutting greenhouse gas emissions :
by 40% between 1990 and 2020, and by 80-85% by 2050. That goal could | {|
| be achieved if Germany switches completely to renewable sources by 2050, |
Flasbarth said.

About 40% of Germany’s greenhouse gases currently come from electricity

production, in particular, from coal-fired power stations.
__ Flasbarth said the Environment Agency’s study found that switching to green |
| electricity by 2050 would have economic advantages, especially for Germany’s |
vital export-oriented manufacturing industry. It would also create tens of
thousands of extra jobs. “The costs of a complete switch to renewables are a lot |
| less than the costs to future generations that climate change will cause,’ he said.
(Adapted from a Reuters report, 7 July 2010) |
a a a ne aa

Should Germany expand its nuclear power generation? Draw up |

a list of the reasons for and a list of the reasons against.
 SS ar

Water supply > industrial use. Many industries use large volumes
Water supply comes from two different types of source, of water in processing (e.g. paper manufacture) and
both of which come from rainfall (or snow melt). cooling (e.g. power stations).

Surface water is water from rivers and lakes. Because The balance between these uses varies greatly from
river flow is sometimes variable, rivers are often dammed area to area.
to create reservoirs (artificial lakes, also known as dams Although water use per person is much greater in
in some parts of the world) which store water for dry MEDCs, water shortages occur in both MEDCs and
periods. LEDCs and have an impact on the local people and the
Groundwater is water held within the spaces of porous, potential for development. This leads to competition
permeable rocks (in the same way that oil and gas are for the use of the available water resources, which
held). Layers of rock that contain water are called requires careful management.
aquifers. The water is extracted either by digging wells As areas become more economically developed, the
or by the more modern method of drilling boreholes. demand for water increases. Some areas have a water
An electric pump then brings the water to the surface. deficit and others have a water surplus, so there is a
This may use wind or solar power. need for water to be transferred, sometimes over large
Water is in demand for: distances. Major dam/reservoir construction projects
raise economic, social and environmental issues. Water
> agriculture. Chapter 9 identifies areas of the world supplies should be sustainable - they should not run
where the rainfall is so low that it’s difficult, or even out and their extraction should not endanger biodiversity
impossible, to grow crops without irrigation in the area by lowering river levels so that plants and
*) domestic use. In MEDCs, people use large volumes animals cannot survive. As you have already seen in
of water each day for washing, flushing toilets, the hydroelectricity section, when rivers flow across
watering gardens and even washing cars. In many international boundaries, the use of water by one country
LEDCs, this luxury is not available can affect other countries downstream.

Key
CS Water surplus

Water deficit

Fig. 11.35 Areas of water surplus and water deficit

The following factors affect whether there will be a
water surplus or deficit:

Temperatures and the amount

of evaporation
The higher the temperatures are, the
The amount of E greater the amount of rainfall that
precipitation : will evaporate before it can be used. The importance
Where an area hag less Losses to evaporation can be as high of agriculture
than about 500 mm of as 90%. Where irrigation is
HANAN
aN

rainfall a year, there is ee practised over large areas,

far more chance of a it is common for
water deficit — agriculture to be the
especially if surface biggest user of water
water is the main (compared with industrial
SOUICe. or domestic use).

The proximity of The level of

rivers
Some areas use rivers development
fed by rainfall thousands In industrialised
of kilometres away. One Water surplus countries, large
example is the Nile foyamelsvalorimg amounts of water are
River Valley in Egypt, i used by factories, or for
which is fed by rainfall cooling water in thermal RAA
ENEMA
ER
AMATO T

in the Ethiopian or nuclear power

Highlands.
TA
AHANT

The presence of The population

water-bearing rocks
Even in deserts, the Big urban areas use
presence of aquifers large amounts of water,
below the surface (fed especially in MEDCs.
by rainfall outside the This is often for
desert) can provide domestic use:
adequate water eT
a
aT
TRE
TTI
TTT

supplies.

The following case study explains how these issues have

affected part of southern Africa.

a What is meant by the terms water surplus and

water deficit? . CC). Discussion point
b How is surplus or deficit affected by climate, the Do you live in an area of water surplus or water deficit? What
degree of industrialisation, and the degree of are the geographical reasons for this? Where does your water

economic development? supply come from and how does it reach you?
 CASE STUDY

The Highlands Water Project in The project’s progress

Lesotho - water supply and Phase IA
=> Completed in 1998.
hydroelectricity
Lesotho is an LEDC in southern Africa with an abundance * The Katse Dam was built on the Malibamatso River
of water. It is completely surrounded by South Africa, which (see Fig. 11.26). It is the tallest dam in Africa at 186
is a much richer country and also short of water. This metres high — the size of a 52-storey building.
circumstance has led to the ambitious Lesotho Highlands
Water Project — one of Africa’s largest engineering schemes. =) The Matsoku weir and tunnel collect water from an
input on the Matsoku River to the east.
The project involves damming some of Lesotho’s major
rivers — most of which flow south into the Senqu (known to > A 48.2 kilometre-long tunnel transfers water from the
South Africans as the Orange River). This damming process Katse reservoirtothe Muela hydroelectric power station
has created large artificial lakes. The water from the lakes in northern Lesotho.
is then diverted north (through tunnels under the mountains)
*> A delivery tunnel draws water from Muela and carries
to South African rivers. These rivers lead to the Vaal Dam,
it underneath the Caledon River at the Lesotho/South
which supplies the densely populated, urban and industrial
Africa border and empties it into rivers that eventually
region around Johannesburg and Pretoria.
flow into the Vaal River towards Johannesburg.
South Africa pays Lesotho royalties of around
Phase IB
US$1.5 million a month for this water supply. The project
7) Completed in 2002.
| was first thought of in the 1950s, but the treaty formalising
| the project was not signed until 1986. *) The Mohale Dam was built on the Senqunyane River.

*) Atunnel transfers water between Mohale and the Katse

reservoir.

* The system is interconnected in such a way that water

may be transferred in either direction for storage in
Mohale, or for transfer to South Africa through the
Katse reservoir.

| Key
—<= Tunnel

C> Reservoir

Fig. 11.36 Lesotho is entirely surrounded by South Africa

The project’s objectives

> To provide funds for Lesotho by transferring water from
the catchment of the Senqu/Orange river in Lesotho
to meet the growing demand for water in South Africa’s
major industrial and population centres.

*) To generate hydroelectric power for Lesotho.

* To promote the general development of the remote and

underdeveloped mountain regions of Lesotho.

*» To provide water for irrigation and drinking water supply.

Fig. 11.37 A map of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project >)
 Later phases at the Katse Dam. Some were employed in construction
* Initially, three further dams were proposed further and hundreds more flocked to the area to work in services
downstream after the Malimbamatso joins the Senqu for the workers, such as food vendors and shopkeepers.
River — at Mashai, Tsoelike, and Ntoahae. A thousand local people also worked at the Mohale Dam.

> In 2007, further studies resulted in changes to the Vegetation

plan and proposed instead a dam on the Senqu, The new dams threatened the important alpine fauna of
upstream from the confluence with the Malibamatso. the Lesotho Highlands. The 17-hectare Katse Botanical
Gardens was established in 1995, to rescue 149 plant
Why was Lesotho chosen for the project? species from the flooding. The Gardens try to promote
“> The mountains of Lesotho have an average annual enjoyment and a knowledge of the alpine flora of Lesotho
rainfall of over 1000 millimetre. This means that about through conservation, cultivation and propagation of the
50% of the water flowing down the Senqu/Orange River native plants. The gardens serve as an educational centre
falls as rain in Lesotho. Lesotho’s water resources far for local communities, students and scientists.
exceed its possible future requirements, even allowing
for possible future irrigation projects and improving Animals
living standards. Flooding has a potential impact on land animals, and also
on animals that live in the rivers whose water flow was
=) The water originating in the mountains has good chemical affected by the dam construction. Any reduction in the
quality and low sediment content. flow of the river will endanger the existing species. An
example is the Maluti Minnow, a small fish that is less
=> The project’s dams have strong foundations on either
than 5 centimetres in length. It enjoys very high-quality
the basalt (Katse, Mohale, Matsoku Dams) or the
water, and is therefore a good indicator of water quality.
underlying hard sandstone.
The population of this fish is being monitored as an indicator
~> Deep, steep-sided valleys provide excellent dam sites. of the effects of the dam construction.

7) Local dolerite and basalt rocks can be crushed to Fig. 11.38 A herdsman Try
produce good concrete for dam construction. above the Katse Dam
Lake in the Lesotho
> The project is located in an area of low earthquake Highlands
risk. One earthquake occurred in 1996, during the
filling up of the Katse Dam at Mapeleng.

The impacts of the project

Conflicts in land use
Flooding such large areas of the country has led to conflicts
with the local people. The rural mountain people farm and
herd animals and are proud of their ability to survive in
the harsh conditions. Phase 1A took away the houses,
land and resources of 20 O00 people, while Phase 1B
affected another 7000. It severely strained the families
and society of nearby villages. Various compensation
arrangements have been put in place for villagers whose
homes, fields or grazing areas have been flooded, although
not unexpectedly there are grumbles that these promises
have not been met, or that resettlement plans are ed es

unsatisfactory.

Positive impacts for people

The project provides money for the Lesotho government
to spend on other development projects. In recent years,
water from the scheme has been discharged into the
Mohokare (Caledon) River to provide water for the capital, Fig.11.39 A‘village TOOrenelMohale pan rake

Maseru, in times of shortage. The Muela power station

provides electricity for Lesotho. Hundreds of kilometres
12 Write an account of the Lesotho Highland Water
of tarred roads were built in order to improve access to
Project using the headings: Location, Advantages
the different construction sites. Together with gravel
for Lesotho, Disadvantages for Lesotho.
‘feeder’ roads around the dams, these tarred roads continue
to provide much improved communication for many villages
in the mountains. Around 4000 people got temporary jobs
 Geographical skills

LOCAL TIME

We all see maps in our everyday lives —

street maps in cities, weather maps on TV,
and even maps on satellite-navigation
equipment. We use maps in our daily lives to
find our way about, particularly if we are in
an unfamiliar area.
Maps also help us to understand the world
we live in. For example, maps in
newspapers, on TV, or on the Internet,
showing the locations of places that are in
the News.
Employees in many professions use maps,
e.g. planners, architects, civil engineers,
ships’ captains and airline pilots. They are
also of vital importance to military
operations.
What do you think would happen if there
were no maps, or people who were able to
interpret them!
This chapter aims to provide you with the
skills tested in IGCSE Paper 2.
Survey maps (topographic maps)
These are examples of large-scale maps. This means
that they show a relatively small area of land in great
detail. They show the surface features of an area, including
relief, drainage, land use, settlement and roads. This is
a compulsory element of the IGCSE Paper 2. Fig. 12.1 Symbols on a map of part of Mauritius (the church in the
north west is located where the cross-shaped symbol is, not where
Using the key and symbols the letters Ch are)
The positions of different features on a map are shown
Look at Fig. 12.2.
by symbols. Different countries use different symbols
on their maps, so it is always best to check the meaning a_ What is the symbol for:
a Main A road?
of a symbol using the map’s key (a list, usually at the
a bridge?
side or bottom of the map, which explains the meaning a ruin?
of each symbol). Where a label is written next to a
What is the difference between a cutting and an
symbol, the feature is located at the position of the embankment?
symbol (e.g. look at Fig. 12.1).
What are the symbols for a police station and a
post office?
@ LEARNING TIP Care is needed when two symbols
Draw a square 10 cm by 10 cm. In your square,
draw a map of an area showing a motorway
are shown on the same line. For example, the motorway crossing over a Main B road at a bridge. Also
symbol also shows the symbol for a bridge, and the Main show a town at another crossroads. The town
B road symbol also shows the symbol for an embankment. has a church, a town hall and a hotel.

Fig. 12.2 An example of part of a

map key (for the map extract shown in
ABBREVIATIONS
Fig. 12.1)
Bn Beacon
Culvert
“ch So a ee Road - Main A Cem Cemetery
Ch Church
Embankment Cne Clinic
a a ee Se ee a ~ MainB Com C Community Centre
Disp Dispensary
Cutting Fy P Ferry (Pedestrian)
CUMALUN GS SS RR es eR Ok cokoy i" = Other
4 Fety Factory
For P Forest Post
Hosp Hospital
Sssiemesaiameseneg ee ee ea mm Track
H Hotel
LH Lighthouse
ee ase oe at a a aa ala eae Footpath Mkt Market
M Mill
Mon Monument
Dee ee a oa ee Cane Track Mos Mosque
PS Police Station
PO Post Office
Town or other populated area
Resr Reservoir
Sch School
Oh) ote oe eee wee Named or Public Building SH_ Sink Hole
S$ Fety Sugar Factory
Tem Temple
Oe ee ee a oe Light Railway Twr Tower
TH Town Hail
UC Under Construction
Fl a ae ea Power Line
VH_ Village Hall
WP Water Pump
 * a ee : |PR Se
Sena

Map scale and distance measurements 1:25 000. This means that 1 centimetre on the map
The scale of a map shows how distance on the ground equals 25 000 centimetres on the ground. This works
has been represented on the map. A large-scale map out at 4 centimetres on the map for 1 kilometre on the
might show a small area (such as a school or a village), ground. The other common map scale is 1:50 000,
whereas a small-scale map might show a whole country. where 2 centimetres on the map equals | kilometre on
the ground. The other way of showing the scale is the
The scale is shown on the map in two ways (see Fig. scale line (also shown in Fig. 12.3).
12.3). One is the representative fraction, in this case
SCALE 1:25,000
METRES 1000 500 0 1000 2000
Fig. 12.3 A section ofa
YARDS 1000 500 0 Va 7 map scale

@ LEARNING TIP Use the scale line to measure

distances accurately without doing any calculations. Simply
put the straight edge of a piece of paper along the line to
be measured and mark the two end points on the edge of
the paper (see Fig. 12.4). Then place the piece of paper
along the scale line and read off the distance in whatever
units you require.

If you need to measure a distance that is not a straight

line (e.g. along a winding road), divide the curve into straight
sections and measure the length of each straight section
by rotating the edge of the paper along the curve using the
point of a pencil.

Fig. 12.4 Measuring distance using the edge of a sheet of paper

Grid references
2 Look at the red road on Fig. 12.5. Using the Survey maps usually have a grid of lines running north
1:25 000 scale line, measure the distance: to south. These are called the eastings and show distance
a_ ina straight line between the ends of the road across the map from west to east.
b along the road y

ital 12 a3 14 15

Eastings

Fig. 12.7 The eastings on a map

Another set of lines run from west to east. These are

3 Now look at the red road on Fig. 12.6. Using the called northings and show distance from south to north.
1:25 000 scale line, measure the distance: 79
a_ ina straight line between the ends of the road
b alongtheroad \uem :

Sn

Northings
>

Fig. 12.6 Another road in

Mauritius
Fig. 12.8 The northings on a map
The eastings and northings form grid squares, which different to magnetic north (the direction in which a
represent 1 kilometre by 1 kilometre. On a 1:25 000 compass needle points). The differences between the
map, the squares measure 4 centimetres by 4 centimetres. three are often shown on the map using a small diagram
On a 1:50 000 map, the grid squares measure (Fig. 12.10). The differences are not constant from place
2 centimetres by 2 centimetres. to place, and magnetic north slowly changes its position.
Survey map questions will always use grid north.
The grid is slightly different to latitude and longitude
(true north or geographical north), and also slightly

Tit

77

1: 25 000 1: 50 000
oe
co
Y4ony
ena
y

76 >
11 12 “ yrson
plu
76
Diagrammatic
only

Fig. 12.9 Grid squares on 1:25 000 and 1:50 000 maps Fig. 12.10 The different types of north

Four-figure grid references

The grid allows locations on a map to be described 35
precisely. A four-figure grid reference fixes a point
within a 1-kilometre grid square. It is the point at the
south-west (bottom left) corner of the square. The easting
is always given before the northing. One way of 34
remembering this is the phrase ‘Always go along the
corridor before going up the stairs’.
Northings

3s

Look at Fig. 12.11. The four-figure grid reference for

A is 9632 and for B is 9734. What are the four- Eastings
figure grid references for C and D?
Fig. 12.11 Examples of four-figure grid references

Look at Fig. 12.12. What are the four-figure grid

references for:
a_ the Red Knight mine?
b the ruins? SOS
c_ the school? SAMAR
F Bs gS
Sey VAY
SS ir Ao
.
Sabie
ce Sat oy iy
eA
Fig. 12.12 Four-figure grid references in
part of Zimbabwe
Six-figure grid references
Six-figure grid references allow locations to be fixed and the third and sixth figures show the precise location
within an area of 100 metres by 100 metres. The first, within that square. Make sure that you know exactly
second, fourth and fifth figures show the grid square how the third and sixth figures are measured.

33
Look at Fig. 12.13. The six-figure grid reference for E )
is 960321 and for F is 963323. What are the 8
six-figure grid references for G and H? 7
6
5
4

Look at Fig. 12.14. What are the six-figure grid j

references for the following buildings: 1
a St Clement Chapel? Za
c a
b_ the Central Electricity Board? ba OU s2i93 74 “Se Cains eo=
c the Mosque (Mos)?
Fig. 12.13 Examples of six-figure grid references

@ LEARNING TIP Candidates often get the third and

sixth figures of grid references wrong, because they do not
use the correct method of measuring the tenths. Note that
the first tenth of the square is O (zero), the second tenth
is 1, the third tenth is 2 and so on. The last tenth is 9. You
can copy the subdivisions shown for 1 kilometre on the
scale line onto the edge of a sheet of paper and use that
to measure tenths on the map.

Fig. 12.14 Six-figure grid references in part of Mauritius

Latitude and longitude

METRES 1000 500 0 Don't confuse the grid lines on a survey map with the
olzlalsl4islelslels lines of latitude and longitude on an atlas map. Lines
of latitude and longitude are curved lines on the globe.
Longitude measures the distance east and west of the
Greenwich Meridian (0°) that runs through London.
Latitude measures the distance north and south of the
equator:
Fig. 12.15 Making a scale on the edge of a piece of paper to
measure the tenths > Equator 00
> Tropic of Cancer 2340N
){). Discussion point
exe . > Tropic of Capricorn 2340S
How does the time of day change as you move from east to
west around the world, and why? > Arctic Circle 6640N

=) Antarctic Circle 6640S

= North Pole 900N

= South Pole 900S

Compass directions North
Directions can be given using the main points of the
compass (Fig. 12.16).

360° bearings
A second way of showing direction is by a 360° bearing
from grid north. To do this, you need to use a protractor
- making sure that the centre point of the protractor is
exactly over the point you wish to measure from, and
West East
that your protractor is aligned north-south along the
grid lines (as shown in Fig. 12.18). This is measured
clockwise from north. In Fig. 12.18, the bearing of the
trigonometrical station from the market is 143°.
For bearings of more than 180°, i.e. to south west, west
and north west, measure the angle from south and add
on 180° (as shown in Fig. 12.19). The bearing of the
second trigonometrical station from the market is
62° + 180° = 242°. South
Fig. 12.16 The eight points of the compass
Oo»

LEARNING TIP When answering questions about

directions, make sure that you know whether the question
is asking for the direction toa place or the direction from
a place.
PX KO)? go°

Fig. 12.17 360° bearings

at |) 4 ff) Wt :
pa Mivoiel! (V2 .
Fig. 12.18 How to use a protractor to measure bearings between Fig. 12.19 How to use a protractor to measure bearings between
0°and 180°. 181° and 360°.
 NTS ESET RST EN a RT

Moe) r=)as elPO

a_ What is the compass direction:
i from the Meteorological Station building to
the Telephone Exchange?
ii from the Meteorological Station building to
AdaTemccyanye)(om@LLc1en)ea
What is the 360° bearing:
i from the Meteorological Station building to
the Telephone Exchange?
ii from the Meteorological Station building to
the temple (Tem)?

Fig. 12.20 Part of Mauritius

Spot heights and contours

The simplest way to show height above sea level on a
survey map is to use a spot height. A dot is printed on
the map with a number beside it, giving that point’s
height above sea level (in metres). Sometimes the spot
height is combined with a trigonometrical point (station).
This is a pillar, about a metre tall, which is used as a
fixed reference point by mapmakers.

Fig. 12.21 A trigonometrical point (station)

 Look at Fig. 12.22. What is the height above sea
level of the trigonometrical station at the top of the
hill? Remember to state the correct units in your
answer.

A contour on a map is a line (often brown in colour),

which joins places of equal height above sea level. The
difference in height between the contours (sometimes
called the contour interval) varies, but it is often 10 or
Fig. 12.22 The location of a trigonometrical station in Mauritius
20 metres. Important contours (such 100 metres, 200
metres, 300 metres, etc.), are often shown by a bold
line. These principles apply to any isoline map - maps
with lines joining places of the same value, e.g. temperature
(isotherms), atmospheric pressure (isobars), rainfall
(isohyets) or earthquake intensity (isoseismal lines). Se bo.
Ay)
q
You often see contours where the numbers appear to .
be upside down. This is because the numbers are shown
for the reader looking up the slope (see Fig. 12.23). ot dix traenan

@ LEARNING
| TIP The height of the top of a hill is
vf
not the height of the last contour. On Fig. 12.24, the top
of the hill is between 210 metres and 220 metres above
sea level - not 210 metres.
Fig. 12.23 Contour intervals (figures on contours read looking up the
slope of the land)

ol) @r-) | -a e eo
What is the contour interval on this map?
What is the height above sea level of the water
tanks (WTs)?
What is the height above sea level of the school
to the east of the map extract?
(Remember to give the units in your answers.)

210

200

190

Fig. 12.24 A contour map of a dome-shaped hill

Fig. 12.25 Contours on a map of part of Mauritius 3

 IP LSS SETHSa I oS

Calculating a gradient The horizontal distance between two points is 2800 metres
The gradient is a precise measure of the steepness of a and the difference in height is 7 metres. Calculate the gradient
slope. It is often expressed as, for example, 1 in 25. This as follows:
means that for every 25 units of horizontal distance
e Insert the figures into the formula used by the syllabus.
travelled, the ground rises (or falls) by 1 unit. A gradient (The metres on each line cancel each other and can be
of 1 in 4 (25%) would be a very steep gradient for a road, ignored.)
while a gradient of 1 in 100 (1%) would be a very gentle 7 metres
gradient. In some countries the gradient is expressed 2800 metres
as a percentage (the bigger the percentage the steeper e Simplify it by dividing both figures by the difference in
the slope). height (in this case 7), so the top figure becomes 1.
1
To calculate the gradient you need to measure the
400
horizontal distance between the two points concerned
(described on page 312). The distance should be measured e This can now be expressed as a gradient of 1 in 400 or
1:400.
in metres, because the units must be the same as those
used for the height of the points above sea level. The
difference in height between the two points is also
needed. This can be worked out from the contours or
spot heights, depending on the points chosen. The
formula used by the Cambridge syllabus to calculate
@ LEARNING TIP Make sure that you use metres for
the gradient is the vertical interval (difference in height) both measurements and not kilometres.

divided by the horizontal equivalent (horizontal distance).

Ifyou find this confusing, the example in the box might (
).C) Discussion point
help you.
How is the gradient shown on road signs in the country where
you live?

Look at Fig. 12.26.

Heights are shown at
three points along the
road on the map (two
spot heights and a trig.
point).
a_ What are the heights
; &y Zh fjf fp above sea level of

niin |
[ Tokea ae : Pe VGC the highest and

PLT
lowest of the three

ian
a KP
4 NA Sa
OMAR points?
AVES
f iy A] Ny IQS) What is the
TN aL AN NAC difference in height

aH
» 1) ARS between these two
Orr a points?
Measure the distance
in metres between
these two points.
Calculate the
gradient between
these two points.

86
Relief features &
The geographical term relief means the height, steepness LEARNING TIP Don’t confuse relief with relief
and shape of the ground surface. rainfall!

Slopes
The closeness of the contours shows the steepness of
the slope. Closely spaced contours mean a steep slope
and widely spaced contours mean a gentle slope. The
absence of contours may indicate flat land.

IS
\S pn Fig. 12.27 A steep slope, a
Steep Gentle Flat gentle slope and flat land

On some maps cliffs are shown by a separate symbol

(Fig. 12.28).
@ LEARNING TIP When describing relief, only use
Bit et a eeeoe ee mL Tear the term cliff when the cliff symbol is used on the map.

Fig. 12.28 The cliff symbol

Uplands and lowlands

The contour heights and spot heights on the map show
the height above sea level, and can be used to show the
higher and lower areas on a map. There is no precise
definition about how high or low an area has to be to
be classified as highland or lowland. In some areas of
the world entire countries are high above sea level.

Draw a sketch map of the area shown in Fig. 12.29,

dividing it into areas of different relief. Use the
labels higher, lower, steep, gentle, flat.
Fig. 12.29 Differences in relief in part of Mauritius

Valleys and flood plains

Small valleys without a flat floor are shown on maps by
a‘V’ shape in the contours. The V always points to high
ground. There may or may not be a river in the centre
(see Figs. 12.30 and 12.31).

Fig. 12.30 A narrow

V-shaped valley in WAESESAN / Ge a ee Be
the Cederberg { as Ss Ae aCe
Mountains, South 8 . se SS SS S SARAH
WO AK é4

Africa Fig. 12.31 A narrow V-shaped valley in Mauritius

 Fig. 12.32 A valley with a flat
floor or flood plain in the Western
Cape of South Africa (the
locations of the rivers are shown
by the winding bands of darker
vegetation)

13 Look at Fig. 12.33. The contour

printed in bold nearest to the river is
900 metres above sea level.
Draw a sketch map to show the
relief of this area and the river. Label
the river, the valley sides and the
NEclICeW ami(Le)mmileleve me)t-lIN)

Plateaux
These are areas of land that are high Fig. 12.33 A river valley in
and flat. Zimbabwe

Fig. 12.34 A plateau in Namibia (in the

background)

14 Draw a sketch map to show the

relief of the area shown in Fig.
12.35. Label the plateau.

Fig. 12.35 A plateau in Zimbabwe,

near the Victoria Falls
Ridges
A ridge is a long, narrow area of high ground, rather
like the spine of an open, upturned book.

CEN(R ns
LN RR RY

i > |)
NS 05 Fig. 12.36A
(= tidge in Zimbabwe

Spurs
A spur is aridge where the spine slopes down from high
ground to low ground. A spur is shown by a ‘V’ shape
in the contours, where the V points to low ground. Look
at Fig 5.12, which shows a valley in South Africa. A
prominent spur runs down to the valley from the right. Fig. 12.37 A ridge near Chamonix in the Alps mountains, France

Scarps
Draw a sketch map to show the relief of the area
shown in Fig. 12.38. Label the valley and two spurs. A scarp is a broad, steep slope. It could be the sides of
a plateau or a ridge, as seen on the previous diagrams
and photographs. The slopes may include cliffs. The
side of the plateau in Fig. 12.34 is a good example of a
scarp.

@ LEARNING TIP When describing relief on part of

a map extract, describe:
e any areas of highland or lowland, including giving the
height of the highest point
e any areas of cliffs, steep slopes, gentle slopes or flat
land
Fig. 12.38 A valley and spurs in Mauritius e any specific relief features, such as valleys, spurs, ridges
and plateaux.

@ LEARNING TIP Make sure you can tell the difference

(
).C ) Discussion point
Describe the relief in the area where you live. Which of the
between the contour patterns of valleys and spurs. geographical terms mentioned in this chapter apply to your
area?
 a RS

Drainage area (in square kilometres). Locations with high drainage

Drainage means the water features shown on the map density have lots of surface water, and locations with
(usually in blue). This includes rivers and streams and low drainage density have very little. This is often due
their features, lakes and ponds. Marsh might be considered to permeable rocks, such as limestone, which cause the
to be a feature of the drainage (i.e. poorly drained land), water to seep underground.
or it could also be considered a feature of the vegetation
(where the plants have adapted to those conditions). Channel shape
Drainage may also include features produced by human Meandering, straight and braided channels are described
activity, such as drainage channels or reservoirs (known in Chapter 5. They can often be identified on survey
as dams in many parts of the world). maps.

Drainage density Stream (drainage) patterns

Drainage density is the total length of the rivers and The patterns which might be identified on survey maps
streams in a location (in kilometres), divided by the are described in Fig. 12.39.

Fig. 12.39 Types of drainage pattern

@ LEARNING TIP when describing

Describe the drainage in the area shown on Fig. 12.40. Rivers are
shown in blue - the green lines are tracks and not drainage features.
drainage on part of a map extract, refer to: The blue symbol in the west is for marsh or land liable to flooding. Are
the density of drainage, e.g. ‘lots of there any differences between different parts of the map?
small streams’
the direction of flow of the main rivers
and streams
specific features of the rivers and
streams, such as meanders, islands,
tributaries, waterfalls
the gradient of the river (although this
is often not easy to tell). Remember
that a steep gradient does not necessarily
mean that the flow will be rapid.
e any lakes, ponds or marshes
e channel and stream patterns.
If a question asks for physical features,
do not refer to bridges (they are human
features). If it asks you to describe the
river, do not describe the relief features
of the valley as well. Many examination
candidates wrongly think that tributaries
run out of rivers and lose marks as a result.
Tributaries join rivers.
Fig. 12.40 Drainage in an area of Mauritius
 (
).C) Discussion point Look at Figs. 12.41 and 12.42. The cross-section in
Describe the drainage in the area where you live. Which of Fig. 12.42 has been drawn across the full width of
the geographical terms mentioned in this chapter apply to the map, along northing 110 (the grid line running
your area? from west to east). The positions of the river and the
scarp (steep slope) have been marked on for you.
Trace a copy of the cross-section and use labelled
Cross-sections arrows to show the position of the:
A cross-section is a type of diagram often used in plateau
examination questions. It is as ifthe landscape has been railway
sliced vertically along a line and pulled apart. Cross-
game fences
sections are drawn to scale. The horizontal scale is
narrow tarred road: a continuous red line
generally the same as the map scale, but the vertical
scale is made bigger (vertical exaggeration). This is so
that features like hills and valleys show up better. The
position of features on the ground surface can be shown
with labelled arrows.

@ LEARNING TIP Remember that the arrows that

you use for labels must point exactly to the ground surface
and not above it or below it.

Behe nce
fs %* = i) ane “f ¥) y Pp~ LATS ots &
k . : = A a - a? s Eat } Re Sa . ee

RSs 4
pee cx sige ce 2 i SL //ep NGO.Nee ot
é Wet 064 : Se ane ta Ar.
70 t1 v2 73 74
Fig. 12.41 A survey map of part of Zimbabwe

1000 eS Cato River

900
Metres
above
level
sea

680110 740110

Fig. 12.42 A cross-section along northing 110 on Fig 12.41

400 s2ceograpnica
sims . a
Physical features of coastlines
The physical features of coastlines are described in
Chapter 6. You might wish to study this before attempting
these questions.

18 Make a copy of the coastline shown on Fig. 12.43.

On your map, label the position of a:
bay
keys celelare|
cliff
stack
Make a copy of the coastline shown on Fig. 12.44.
On your map, label the position of a:
coral reef
coastal marsh
spit
beach
A wave-cut platform is not shown on either of the Cliffs
maps. How could you distinguish this feature
Fig. 12.43 Part of the coastline of the island of Dominica in the
from a cliff on a map?
West Indies
Coastal sand dunes are not shown on either of
the maps. How could you distinguish this feature
from a sandy beach on a map?

settlement
Survey map questions on settlement are based around
either urban settlements (towns and cities) or rural
settlements (villages and isolated dwellings). These
settlements are described in Chapter 2.

Urban morphology
Urban morphology refers to the form of towns and cities,
or the variations in land use within them. Different
urban zones can be identified on survey maps.

21 Look at Fig. 12.45.

a_ Which urban zone is shown on the map?
b Give map evidence for your answer. BRIE BU TAMals

Fig. 12.45 An urban zone in Curepipe, Mauritius Fig. 12.44 Part of the coastline of Mauritius
 Fig. 12.46 shows a residential zone. Give map > Look at Fig. 12.47.
evidence for this. a_ Which urban zone is shown on the map?
b Give map evidence for your answer.

uf
Ny

Oe
+r
on

rh.
~ o>
.8
°¢ We
SY
ie<
fel
7,
at

Fig. 12.46 Another urban zone in Curepipe, Mauritius

: 5 Fig. 12.47 An
Nucleated, dispersed and linear settlement Re Sete
These settlement patterns and the reasons why they Zvishavane,
form are described in Chapter 2. Zimbabwe

Fig. 12.48 shows

settlement patterns in
three areas of
Zimbabwe.
a_ What type of
settlement pattern —
is shown on Map A?
Suggest reasons
why this settlement
pattern has
fof=nV{<1
(0)ofs10
What type of
settlement pattern
is shown on Map B?
What type of
settlement pattern
is shown on Map C?
Suggest reasons
why this settlement
pattern has
(ol=aV{<1
0)O20

Tec SAIDTOsONAN RON nee =

» Look again at Map C in Fig. 12.48.

Suggest reasons why there are huts in
some areas but not in others. Fig. 12.48 Three rural areas in Zimbabwe

Distribution, density and location of centres) and bridge points

settlements = the availability of land that can be cultivated
These are usually affected by factors like:
ee > the need to avoid steep slopes
> the availability of communications
> the need to avoid land that is liable to flooding and
® the accessibility of points like road junctions (route Shih amills boelitaann) saree kuec:
 aed 12Gece Sete

Communications reason, they often follow valleys - at the bottom of the

Communications on maps are generally the different valley sides, avoiding the flood plain. When steep slopes
types of roads, tracks and railways and, occasionally, are encountered, roads may zig zag and have hairpin
ports and airports/airstrips. Care should always be bends to reduce the gradient, like the road shown in
taken to read the map key carefully to identify these Fig. 12.49.
features correctly. Railways need very gentle gradients. They often follow
cuttings or tunnels through hills, or cross lowland areas
Links with physical and human features on embankments. Make sure that you know the difference
Roads usually try to follow gentle slopes. They try to between a cutting and an embankment and the symbols
avoid steep slopes and areas liable to flooding. For this used for them.

Fig. 12.49 Hairpin bends on a road in South Africa

26 Fig. 12.50 shows a road and a railway close to the 27 Fig. 12.51 shows a road on the island of Dominica
Victoria Falls in Africa. Describe how the routes of in the West Indies. Describe how the route of the
the road and the railway are related to the relief. road has been affected by the relief and settlement.

Sete Sas
Et ae dss)
ee
re
SIT
~

_,, \sLamothe£t state

wee
ee
Fig. 12.50 A road and railway in Zimbabwe Fig. 12.51 A road in Dominica, West Indies
Land use
The land use symbols used on maps vary greatly from
country to country. Typically they show natural vegetation,
types of cultivation and settlement.

> Look back at Map C in Fig. 12.48.

a_ Draw a sketch map to show the distribution of
land use types in the area.
b Suggest how the distribution of land use has
been affected. by relief and other factors.

pS a eRe eee Plantation - Sugar

Look at Fig. 12.52.
a_ Draw a sketch map to show the distribution of S08: preter Line of Trees, Riverine Trees

land use types in the area. Fig. 12.52 Land use in an area of Mauritius
b Suggest how the distribution of land use has
been affected by relief and other factors.

Small-scale maps
The 1:50 000 and 1:25 000 survey maps (topographic
maps) are examples of large-scale maps. They show
relatively small areas in great detail. Small-scale maps
show much larger areas - for example, whole countries ground surface, including the names of any
features you can identify
or continents - but in less detail. There are examples
of the use of small-scale maps in Chapters 1, 2,9 and
10. For Cambridge examination questions, candidates
Animals, the plots of land, fences, what is in
should be able to describe patterns from small-scale the plots, e.g. grass, ploughed land, bare land,
maps. crops, any farm buildings and machinery that
you can see
Photographs .
Photographs tend to be used in all IGCSE examination
questions. In Paper 1 they might be used to introduce
a topic, or to give you ideas. In Paper 2 they test your
skills in interpreting the photograph. It is important to
read the question carefully to be sure that you know
what you have to write about. Table 12.1 explains the Housing Size, number of storeys, building materials,
quality, windows, the building plots
sort of things that you should include in your answers.
You will not get marks for including things that are not Table 12.1 Interpreting photographs and what to include
required by the question.

@ LEARNING TIP In Paper 2 answers, only include 30) Fig. 12.53 shows two residential areas. Describe the
things that you can actually see in the photograph. Don't buildings in each photograph.
guess things and don’t include deductions for which there
is no strong evidence in the photograph.
 Look at Fig. 12.54. Describe the buildings seen in Describe the agricultural features shown in
different parts of the photograph. Which urban Figs 12.59,
zones are shown?

Fig. 12.54 Part of Cape Town, South Africa Fig. 12.55 An agricultural area in South Africa

Describe the relief of both photographs in Fig.

12.56, and also the relief of Fig 12.49. If the
question had said describe the physical features,
what else could you include in your answer?

Fig. 12.56 An area in Namibia (C) and an area in France (D)

Field sketches Make a copy of the student's field
Field sketches are a useful technique for illustrating features seen in sketch in Fig. 12.57. Use labelled
the field. The sketch is not intended to be an artistic drawing, but an arrows on your copy to show the
accurate reflection of your observations - like a scientific diagram. position of the following features: a
Producing good field sketches is a skill that requires practice. Accurate plateau, an area of boulders,
labelling is an important feature of good field sketches. It’s important irrigated crop land, a cliff or
that labels point to the precise area of the sketch to which they are escarpment, a road, a flat low area,
referring. In examination questions, field sketches are often used with nearly horizontal rock layers, trees or
bushes, a scree slope.
photographs.

Fig. 12.57 A photograph of the valley of the Orange River (on the border of Namibia and South Africa),
together with a student’s field sketch of the area shown in the photograph.
Data tables
Data tables are often used in examination LEARNING TIP When describing trends or patterns from data tables
questions. You should be able to look at and graphs, do not simply repeat the figures item by item. Instead, look for
the data and identify any patterns or overall patterns - such as increases or decreases. You could use figures to
trends. illustrate your answer, depending on the precise wording of the question.

Describe the pattern of births and deaths shown in Table 12.2.

eaten Sa

Table 12.2 The number of births and deaths (thousands) in the United Kingdom (from 2011 the figures are
projected rather than actual)

Diagrams and graphs

Question 35 is not easy. Trends and patterns do not projected
stand out clearly in data tables. Diagrams and graphs
help to show trends more clearly, and different types
of diagram are used for different types of geographical
data.
millions

Line graphs 0.7

Line graphs are a simple form of graph. They are used

0.6
when there is a continuous change in data. For example,
they show the way in which something changes over 0.5 ma.
time (e.g. population or crop yield). Like all graphs, it 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 2031 2041 2051

is normal to put the independent variable on the x year

(horizontal) axis and the dependent variable on the y Fig. 12.58 A line graph
(vertical) axis. In Fig. 12.58, the years would go on the Percentage of population having Internet access, 2007
x-axis and population on the y-axis. North America

Oceania
Bar graphs
Europe
Bar graphs can usually be used in similar circumstances ee
Central and South America fF
to line graphs. The use ofa bar graph would be preferred |

when there are a number

of separate items that Middle East

cannot really be joined, Africa

|
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
because they do not
Fig. 12.59 A bar graph
appear in a definite order.
In Fig. 12.59, it would not
be sensible to join the
numbers for the different
continents. The two axes
could be reversed in this
case.
In climatic graphs, it is
conventional to use a line
o ESE EES
graph for temperature JFMAMJJASOND Fig. 12.60 Temperature (line graph) and rainfall (bar graph) for
and a bar graph for Annual precipitation 710mm Johannesburg, South Africa
rainfall.
Histograms Where two or more pie charts are used together, the
Histograms are more complex. They look similar to bar size of the circle can be used to show the total population.
graphs, but they are used for a different purpose. They This technique is not often used today, but care must
show what are technically called distributions or be taken when comparing circles of different sizes.
frequencies. On the x-axis is a series of ranges of numerical
values. The values do not overlap, e.g. 0-0.99, 1.00-1.99,
Tertiary
2.00-2.99, etc. On the y-axis is the number or percentage sector
of items of each value. Fig. 12.61 shows the sizes of a
sample of pebbles from a beach. The modal size range
Primary
(the one with the most pebbles) is 8.0-11.9 cm. sector

40

30
Secondary
sector
20
Fig. 12.63 A pie graph showing the employment structure
pebbles
of
% 10 of Morocco

3.9 4.0-7.9 8.0-11.9 12.0-15.9 16.0 » Table 12.3 shows the employment structure of
and and Romania.
under over
Pebble size (cm)
a_ Copy the table and complete the last column.
alee] Be graph to show this Wei les

ae a a
Fig. 12.61 A histogram showing the sizes of pebbles from a beach

Divided bar graphs a? oo

Primary sector 24
Divided bar graphs are used to show how a set of data
can be broken down into fractions or percentages. A Segondaty-secton aC a aa
good example would be the percentages of different Tertiary sector 29 iy Sa
ethnic groups within a population. These graphs have Total Ya” 100" 9 300
the advantage of being very simple to plot and use.
Table 12.3 The employment structure of Romania
Populatioi Continent, 2006 milionsotpecple ani

Flow diagrams
Fig. 12.62 A divided bar graph showing the population of continents Flow diagrams are used to provide an illustration of
things like traffic or pedestrian flows, population
Pie graphs migrations, or world trade (see Fig. 12.64). They are
Although they look very different, pie graphs can be usually based on a map, but the map might be in
used in exactly the same way as divided bar graphs. diagrammatic form. The flow arrows might be
They require care in plotting by hand. Ifthe values are diagrammatic (as in Fig. 12.64). However, the thickness
percentages, they can be converted into degrees by or width of the arrows usually indicates the size of the
multiplying each percentage by 3.6, to give a total of flow, and a scale is sometimes indicated for this.
360° (as shown in Fig. 12.63).
= ae Ress
=e : é orn ee

Sek 2, - ey Ravess
>i Mi ate a

oa
49.4 5 ane
Ps
Key n “Aslan
jefe
ea, Imports of food Into region South if i. a
|AS 2
“4 Exports of food from region | 7 a </
\ \
Q Trade within region ae = ‘
yi
50 $billion >»:
I

Fig. 12.64 A flow diagram showing world food imports and exports
Radial graphs and wind rose graphs
Wind rose diagrams are a type of radial graph. They
provide a pictorial representation of wind direction.
There are different ways of plotting wind roses, but all
involve adding one measurement to the diagram for
each day’s wind direction. Some wind rose diagrams
also show the number of calm days in the centre. Fig.
12.65 shows the wind direction results from Table 12.4.

Table 12.4 Wind pattern results Table 12.5 Wind pattern results
for September for October

Fig. 12.65 A wind rose diagram for the month of September

Draw a wind rose to represent the data in

@ LEARNING TIP Remember that wind directions

IE)0)(- Ptop

are the direction that the wind is coming from.

Plot a scatter graph for the data in Table 12.6. Your

Scatter graphs graph will show the altitude and rainfall for each
Scatter graphs are used for what is known as paired place. Which variable should be on which axis? Add
data. This is when there are two variables. In other a best-fit line. What relationship is there between
words, you know two things about a set of places. The the two variables?
scatter graph shows how the variables are related. Unlike
a line graph, the data are not continuous. There are
three possible situations for scatter graphs, as shown
in Fig 12.66. Often a best-fit line is drawn between the
points. This does not join the points, but shows the
general relationship between the two variables.

Y
Variable Variable
Y Y
Variable

Variable X Variable X Variable X

Positive correlation. Negative correlation. No correlation.

When one variable When one variable
increases so does increases the other
Table 12.6 Rainfall at 10 locations at varying altitudes
the other. decreases.
above sea level
Fig. 12.66 Scatter graphs showing types of correlation

@ LEARNING TIP Remember

the difference between
a line graph and a scatter graph. The points in a line graph
are joined by a continuous line, but a best-fit line is used
in a scatter graph.
Triangular graphs
Triangular graphs are used when you have aset ofdata| number of places at once. A typical use would be to
for three variables which add up to 100%. Pie charts show the employment structures of a group of countries
and divided bar graphs can show this information for (see Fig. 12.67). This graph reads in a clockwise direction,
one place, but a triangular graph can show it for a__ but other examples read anticlockwise.

-———
Key
\/ Employment by economic sector
XK\ Ne 4 Low-income economies
1 —= vet ae AV SN o © Middle-income economies
\Haitia/ \ %
\ x 0 High-income economies
s& ‘ aYemen / % F
< fh pare b © European Union
S : %
Ca N Ranicene/ a average for country categories
§ 50 ee ey
£< y., \ ax selected countries
g ,Moyocco,, :

a a eS oh So
, @Mexico, /
{ \ een fs
' / @Brazil, / nes) Vi Ne
= \ eS ae a ee
\/ Rois zane \V BSpairy_

European Union g, © Germany Vg Nee MAL ZX ff X vA

Ute’ USAS = Ca ae S
Ss
a
Q £2)
Se
S S35
2 S S B 7) 2) o

<———— tertiary sector (%)

Fig. 12.67 A triangular graph showing employment by sector for a group of countries

@ LEARNING TIP Make sure that

39 Six types of graph used in geography are:
you know how to read the axes of a triangular a radial graph (rose diagram)
graph. The angle of the numbers on the @ apie graph (pie chart)
axes is a guide to reading the correct lines. e@ ascatter graph
Remember that the values must add up @ aline graph
to 100%.
t) a bar graph
@ a triangular graph.
Population pyramids For each of examples a-h, name the most appropriate type of graph
Examination questions may include from the above list.
population pyramids. These are described a_ A graph to show the percentages of tourists arriving in a country
in detail in Chapter 1. by air, road, rail and sea.
A graph to show changes in the production of a crop over a
Dispersion diagrams and number of years.
kite diagrams A graph to show the relationship between crop yields and the
amount of fertiliser used in a group of countries.
These diagrams are not listed in the CIE
IGCSE Syllabus but they are useful in A graph to show the variation in wind direction in one month at a
weather station.
field studies.
A graph to show rainfall totals for months of the year.
A graph to show changes in birth rate over a number of years.
A graph to show the relationship between birth and death rates
in a number of countries.
A graph to show the percentages of primary, secondary and
tertiary employment in a group of countries.
 Choose a topic for investigation that will provide
opportunities to measure a variety of data, and that
can be completed in the time available by the number
of students participating. The location for the study
must also be accessible and safe. The topic should be
one that is likely to succeed. For example, it would not
be advisable to plan a study of velocity on a stream
Fig. 13.1 summarises what you might need to consider, which sometimes dries up.
depending on your chosen topic. As it is difficult to
include every possible study within the confines of one Formulate a hypothesis
chapter, the information, exercises and past examination Investigations are most likely to be successful if they
questions have been selected to give the widest possible test a hypothesis or answer a question. The subject of
coverage. Information about more specialised methods the investigation should also be specific. A vague title
and techniques can be researched on the Internet. like ‘A study of the shops in Delhi’ is too broad and the
area chosen too large. An appropriate
Formulate a hypothesis or devise a question for the title of title in the form of a question would be

-
your investigation ‘Do the types of shops in the CBD of town
X change as distance from the centre of
the CBD increases?’
Plan the fieldwork The questions asked in the Alternative
What sampling method should be used?
What health and safety considerations are there?
to Coursework Paper are usually based
Should permission to visit be requested? on hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement
What equipment will be needed? about your topic of study that can be
What is the minimum number of students needed?
proved or disproved by testing. The chosen

(-
Would a pilot study be useful?
topic must be one where data needs to
be collected (preferably using a range of
techniques and allowing a variety of
Collect the data
e Types of data: primary and secondary, subjective and objective.
different forms of presentation). It should,
Designing a recording sheet. e Measuring accurately. of course, be based on the geographical
Counting methods. e Designing a questionnaire. knowledge you have already gained during
Sampling. e Surveying a slope profile.
your studies.
Bipolar surveys. e Recording observations in the

=
field. ‘The size of shops decreases as distance
from the centre of the CBD increases’ is
a hypothesis which tests an expected
Present the data relationship. While such a simple
e Select appropriate diagrams and graphs.
hypothesis might be the subject of an
e Write an account of your investigation.
examination question on the Alternative
to Coursework Paper, it may be too narrow
atopic for a Paper 3 coursework assignment
Analyse and interpret the data
e Use simple statistical analysis (rank, range, mean, mode, median).
(depending on the size of the town to be
e Look for trends. investigated). Investigating ‘types of shops’
e Look for patterns, relationships and anomalies. would allow research into other aspects
e Suggest explanations for your findings.
of shops, as well as size, and also allow
different methods of data collection and
presentation to be used.
Make gonclusions based on your results
e Can:the hypothesis be accepted? The syllabus has a list of suitable coursework
e To what extent was it accurate? assignments which can be formulated

Evaluate your investigation

- into hypotheses or questions.

e To what extent was it successful?

e How could it be improved?
e How could it be extended?
Fig. 13.1 Processes involved in geographical investigations
 ce SOuRen oO geographical investigations |
SIGNING

investigation. The investigator must not, for example,

In groups of four to six students, discuss what needs select which people should be asked to answer questions.
to be considered when deciding what topic to study,
This is because he or she might choose those who look
So that it’s practical to undertake it. Work out your
answers and then discuss your ideas with the whole most friendly, or are of a similar age to them.
Class.
Criticise the following hypotheses: @ LEARNING TIP Do not use ‘accurate’ when
a_ ‘There is more rainfall when there is a full moon.’ commenting on the results of sampling. Total accuracy can
b ‘There is more erosion when the river is in flood.’ only be achieved if the entire population is investigated
and the work of all the students involved is also accurate.
Formulate a sensible simple hypothesis about
rainfall. A good sample will be as representative of the population
as possible, and will avoid bias. It is also acceptable to
Formulate a sensible simple hypothesis about land
describe it as a ‘fair test’ or ‘reliable’, provided that you
values in a town.
explain why it is so.

A Paper 3 assignment will need sufficient breadth or

depth. Weather could be studied instead of rainfall, As a general rule, if the sampling is well designed, the
and investigating how land uses vary according to land larger the sample, the more reliable the results will be.
values in a town would give more breadth to a study It is normally considered that a sample of 30 is sufficient
about land values. when a relationship is being investigated. This is also
an easy number to use for the purpose of mathematical
@ LEARNING TIP When researching a relationship,
analysis (such as calculating averages). It is important
to use the most appropriate sampling method for each
keep all other variables (such as the time of the survey) part of the investigation.
the same, so that they cannot influence the results.
When sampling an area on a map or in the field, you
will need to decide whether to sample points, areas or
a
Wee
ee
iF
ang in 5
pW Yond VU:
along lines:
Car lirncg t echi nicelule aS
> Point sampling would be appropriate for a pedestrian
ay

ynamp.:
count.
A sample is a group selected from a larger ‘population’,
where population means the whole of whatever is being > Area sampling using a square quadrat would be
ar

sampled. suitable for sampling vegetation cover.

As it’s impossible to research all rivers, crops or factories Line sampling could be used to investigate changes
in an area, or to ask all people in a town questions, in pebble size on a beach from the low to high water
coursework usually involves sampling. The aim is to marks by sampling at intervals along the line.
investigate the smallest number that is still large enough
to be truly representative of the whole population. To What are the advantages of sampling?
be a fair test, the sample must be determined without Why would line sampling be unsuitable for use when
bias. This means that every individual in the population sampling types of shops in towns with a rectangular
road pattern?
must have an equal chance ofbeing included in the

Fig. 13.2 Asample from a

'g | Population of cows. If it was
significant to the
_ investigation, the herd could
be divided into sub-groups
" of different breeds and each
i one could be sampled
Random sampling Stratified sampling
To remove bias from an investigation, random number In order to make the sampling as representative of the
tables can be used. population as possible, it is sometimes advisable to
ensure that different groups or types are represented
in the same proportions as they exist in the total
population. For example, if 30% of a town’s residents
are young, 40% of working age and 30% elderly - and
age is significant to the investigation - a stratified sample
would involve three young people, four of working age
and three elderly (or multiples of these numbers). It is
also usually necessary to use the same number of females
Fig. 13.3 Part of a random number table and males, or anumber proportionate to their percentage
of the population.
The numbers can be read in any direction, so long as
Stratified sampling can also be used on maps or in the
you are consistent. For example, ifyou were investigating
field. For example, if 33% of the land is steep and 67%
pebbles along a line on the beach - and reading the
gentle - and soil depth is being investigated - 33% of
random number table horizontally - you would pick up
the samples would be taken on the steep slopes and
the 39" pebble, then the one 26" after the first and so
67% on the gentle slopes. Stratified sampling has the
on. Ignore any numbers which are too large for the
important advantage that all parts of the area are
population.
included. It allows significant differences to be noticed
Numbers in a telephone directory could be used instead between the sub-groups, and it can be random or
of random numbers. The starting point and direction systematic.
of arandom line sample can be determined using a
random number table. Individuals (e.g. shops or people)
Explain how you would use random number tables
could each be given a number. Then random number
tables could be used to select which ones to include in
determine in which direction you should
the survey.
investigate.
determine the different distances at which
Systematic sampling
samples should be taken.
This is sampling using a regular pattern or order, such
find grid references of points to investigate on a
as asking questions to the seventh person who passes
map.
after each interview, or sampling pebbles every five
find grid squares to investigate on a map.
metres along a line. It is important to choose a sensible
interval, e.g. if ground vegetation is being investigated, determine the beginning and end of lines to be
sampled.
too large an interval might cause a species or a bare
patch to be missed.
If a map does not have grid lines on it, draw them on Imagine that you are interviewing shoppers in a
yourself and number them to enable locations to be shopping centre. Why would the use of random
number tables not be an appropriate way of
identified.
selecting which people to interview?

How could you use a map grid for:

a quick systematic. point sampling?
b area sampling?
c line sampling?
 Stratified systematic point sample Stratified ee ae ate

Stratified systematic area sample Stratified tandean area sample

Systematic line sample Bandon line sample Stratified systematic line sample Suatined random line Seaisis

(I Steep land
Fig. 13.4 Using different sampling methods in an area with a steep slope in the — Northings
northern third of the area and gentle slopes elsewhere
|| Eastings

a a
Advantages © |tis without bias when random number tables are used. ©® Itis quicker and easier to do than TT sampling.
® Itis without bias if the regular intervals are chosen
without deliberately making them include a feature (and
where the features being investigated are fairly regularly
distributed).
® |t ensures a good coverage of the population.
® |t prevents clusters from being selected.

Table 13.1 A comparison of sampling methods

{
).C). Discussion point
Imagine that you want to ‘prove’ (by unfair means) a theory that ‘exposure to the
sun is good for people’. What group of people would you deliberately exclude and
what group would you definitely include in your research?
Health and safety considerations Should you wish to enter private land, you must seek
It is important to check at the earliest possible stage permission from the landowner by letter - stating the
that the area you wish to study is safe. Dangers vary date and time that you would like to visit. Take the
according to location. For example, there are many written approval with you when undertaking the fieldwork.
dangers when working in rivers and on river banks:
> banks and rocks can be very slippery after rain { ) OC). Discussion point
Why is it important to behave both responsibly and co-
> the depth of the bed can suddenly change, as can operatively when taking part in work in the field?
velocity after heavy rain.
Therefore, it might be necessary to change a point chosen
for sampling to ensure that it’s safe. Remember that a What footwear would be most sensible for working in
river at a meander is deeper and faster flowing on the a rocky or uneven area?
outside bank, so it would be safer to sample a straight If working on a hot and sunny day, what precautions
stretch ifthat would still serve the purpose of the study. should you take?
It is advisable to wear a life vest. Water-borne and State two weather conditions that would make
water-bred diseases are also common, as well as dangerous fieldwork difficult.

animals in many parts of the world. 13 What precautions should you take if your work
makes it necessary to be near the foot of a cliff?

Equipment and number of students

needed
This is important at the planning stage, but it depends
on the investigation and will be dealt with later in the
chapter.

@ LEARNING TIP lf samples are to be compared,

they must all be taken at the same time, so that time is
not a variable that can affect the results. This will partly
determine how many students are needed to carry out the
Fig. 13.5 Some fieldwork dangers
research. The exception to this would be if time was a
variable under investigation.

Before undertaking fieldwork on a beach, find out when

high tide is due and make sure that you complete the
work at low tide. Avoid areas at the foot of weak cliffs, Pilot study
because of the danger of rock falls or cliff collapse. In a pilot study or survey, the methods to be used in
the full investigation are tested beforehand. For example,
Other safety precautions include the following: a few samples may be taken or a questionnaire may be
> In many areas it’s wise to wear insect repellent and used with a few people in order to make sure that the
not to work alone. methods or questions work, and to ensure that the
investigation will be successful. If faults are found with
© Conduct questionnaires in pairs and choose safe
the methods or equipment at this stage, changes can
locations and times. be made before the full study is undertaken.
*) Take contact phone numbers for home and school,
and a mobile phone if possible, with you.
® Keep well away from any military areas.
Collecting the data
@ LEARNING TIP When quoting data, it is important
Types of data to state the units, such as metres, minutes and so on, as
Primary data is collected in the field by the person or well as the values.
group doing the investigation - counting, measuring,
observing, sketching or photographing.
Secondary data is data already obtained and published 14 Copy and complete Table 13.2 to classify the type
by a person or persons unconnected with the investigation. of information listed by putting two ticks in each
Investigations can, when circumstances make working
in the field impossible, be entirely based on secondary
sources (e.g. research on the Internet or in books), but Census
some work in the field should always be done if possible. information

For a weather study, secondary data could be obtained Re a hae ie

from the local weather station. Primary weather data, a | ttae RS18.
a ee oe
collected using the school’s instruments for a month, PE
description
could be compared with statistics from a secondary
of litter
source, for example, with the mean figures for the same
month taken over a number of years (usually 30). These
could then be analysed to try to explain any differences
Your field
or similarities. The sources of secondary data must
sketch
always be referenced and acknowledged in the written
account of the investigation. Table 13.2 Types of data

@ LEARNING TIP Answering the question asked is

the key to examination success. Underline the key words.
Is the question asking for an example of secondary data
or a source of secondary data?

Subjective (qualitative) data is obtained using the

judgment or opinion of a person, whereas objective
(quantitative) data is measured or counted. Being in
numerical form, quantitative data is invaluable for
analysis.
Continuous data is when all the values between two
19 Copy Table 13.3. Put one tick in each row to classify
measured values are passed through before the second
WileCe ee
value is reached. An example of this is temperature
data - achange from 7 °C to 10 °C involves a continuous
increase through 8 °C and 9 °C. Discrete data is the Total annual
opposite. Two values exist separately without any iron ore
progression or regression of values between them. For production of a
example, if the rainfall in one month is 7 centimetres
and three months later it is 10 ccentimetres, it is not
expected that the two months inbetween will have totals
of 8 centimetres and 9 centimetres.
Although knowledge of the terms continuous and Heights iin an
discrete is not a syllabus requirement, it is important area
to be aware of this classification when choosing diagrams Table 13.3 Continuous or discrete?
to represent data, because they should give the correct
visual impression. So, temperature change is shown as
a smooth curve on a line graph, whereas rainfall is
shown in bar graph form.
Designing a recording sheet Equipment An orange A flowmeter (with a
Obviously, the design of the sheet on which to record used propeller)
information in the field will vary according to the type Method It floats just below the It is inserted into the
of investigation, but some general guidelines can be surface, so it measures water to the depth
given here. the velocity at that level stated in the instruc-
(slightly slowed by tions (usually 0.6 of
At the top it should have a title, followed by headings friction with the air). the depth) to obtain
for date (and the day if it has extra significance), time, the average velocity of
location and name of the recorder, with spaces by each the stream at that
to be filled in at the time of the investigation. A space distance from the bank
for other factors likely to affect the study, such as weather, (with the propeller
facing upstream).
should also be included where relevant.
How the result A stopwatch times how It is usually read from a
The recording sheet needs to be carefully planned, so is obtained long it takes for the digital display. The
that there is sufficient space for all the recordings. The orange to travel reader should calculate
recording sheet should be used with a clipboard for between two previously the average of several
support and kept as dry as possible. Take a large plastic measured points. This is readings.
repeated at least three
bag into the field to protect it during showers.
times and averaged.
The velocity is the
@ LEARNING TIP If a question asks you to design
distance (e.g. 10
metres) divided by the
a recording sheet, leave blank all the spaces or boxes for average travelling time.
recording the data that you would collect in the field. Do Advantages It is cheap. This is a quick method,
not enter example recordings. which is accurate in
appropriate locations
(providing an accurate
digital reading).
Measuring accurately
Disadvantages e There could be @ It is relatively
Obviously, measurements should be accurate but human
possible student expensive.
error is always possible. There are several ways in which
error in starting and @ |t is not accurate
errors can be reduced: stopping the where the velocity is
> Know how to read each instrument correctly. stopwatch at the low and the depth is
exact moments when shallow.
> If working alone, take an average of three or more the orange passes
readings or measurements. the start and end
points.
> If working in a group, three students should take @ |t takes more time.
the same reading, which can then be averaged. @ The orange might be
blown by the wind or
The accuracy of measurement can be partly determined swept by a current
by the method and equipment used. The best equipment into vegetation at the
may be too expensive for students or centres to purchase, side of the channel.
but knowledge that it exists may be useful when reviewing @ It measures the
the success of the study in the conclusion. Table 13.4 surface velocity,
which is reduced
compares two ways of measuring river velocity.
slightly by friction
with the air.
@ LEARNING TIP One possible explanation for an Table 13.4 Two methods of measuring stream velocity. Fig 13.24
shows a type of digital flowmeter.
anomalous result is student error in measuring or reading
an instrument. One suggestion for ways in which a study
could have been improved is the use of better equipment.

( .{ ) Discussion point
Discuss the possible reasons why student measurements might
be unreliable or incomplete.:
 CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Choosing where to measure stream Measuring the cross-profile (section)

velocity of the bed of a stream channel and
Choose a straight stretch, unless measurements round finding the area of the cross-section
meanders are useful for the purposes of the Survey. The smaller the intervals between measurements, the
The water flow should be moving parallel to the banks more accurate the profile will be.
and the channel should be as free of boulders and
When plotting the cross-profile on graph paper, keep
vegetation as possible.
the vertical and horizontal scales the same to allow for
The width of the channel can be measured and easy calculation of the cross-sectional area. A less
measurements of velocity made at regular intervals accurate method of obtaining this is by multiplying the
across it. average depth by the width.

1. Pole on 2. Tape stretched

each bank tightly between poles
CASE STUDY

Measuring the height of a tall object

Measuring, for example, the height of a tree or building
involves:

*> choosing a place level with the base of the object

from which to sight the top of it with a clinometer
comfortably
4. With ruler measure depth 3. Vertical ruler |i
measuring and recording the horizontal distance ofwater atregular intervals ____ touches river bed)
from your selected position to the object
Fig. 13.6 Method of measuring the cross-profile of a
sighting the top of the object with the clinometer stream bed

and reading off the angle of elevation (depending

on the type of clinometer you are using, a second
person may have to take the reading)
TRAFFIC RECORDING SHEET
finding the tangent of this angle

multiplying the distance from the object by the Day: Tuesday Date: November Beh Time: 8-810
tangent of the angle
Street: Wesk Street Site: afteer \onckiLon with
adding your height to the result obtained (because
Hope Avenve
the angle measurement was from your eye level, not
the ground)
Inbound/exutbeured side Weather: wek and windy

Counting methods | lorries buses| cars motorcycles

Investigating variations in pedestrian or traffic flows AY III A EH |HH
involves counting. The best way to record this is by JC AHF III AHFIII
making a mark on a tally chart or by clicking an
automatic counter as each individual person or vehicle
passes by. A tally chart is quick to count as groups of
Totals
five are made by making the fifth mark cross the first
four.
Fig. 13.7 An example of a completed tally chart with sub-groups
If doing a traffic survey at a very busy time, it is best to of traffic

have one student recording the measured data while

each type of transport passing by is called out by the
observer. Alternatively, different students could count @ LEARNING TIP When undertaking traffic and
and record different sub-groups and the total could be pedestrian flow surveys, choose the times of the counts
calculated later. accordingto whether you wantto include or exclude certain
types of traffic, e.g. commuters or the school run.
CASE STUDY

Investigating traffic flows - planning

and data collection
Imagine that you are going to investigate the hypothesis
‘Traffic flows in and out of the town centre vary on different
main roads’.

Key
@ Sites for traffic count

West Street _ During the investigation

— is

*) At each site, at least one student must be on either

side of the road — one counting the traffic moving into
the town centre, and the other the traffic moving out
of it.

Fig. 13.8 Sites for a traffic count on main roads in a town *) Each student needs a stopwatch, which will be started
and set to stop at the pre-agreed times. Ten minutes
for each count would be appropriate.
Preliminary work in the classroom
*> The sampling sites for this investigation must be chosen *>) The counts should be done a minimum of three times
subjectively, to ensure that all roads are covered at — spaced throughout the day, to include a range of
appropriate sites. The allocation of each site to a flows. The first count could be during the middle of the
specific group of students must be done beforehand. ‘rush’ to work, the second during the lunch break, and
the third during the afternoon before the ‘rush’ home.
> It is also important that all counts are done at the
Exact times will vary according to the location in the
same times, to ensure a fair comparison. So, before
world.
beginning the investigation, participating students need
to decide what time the counts will start, how long they *> More scope for analysis would be gained if more counts
will last, what times of the day they will be done, and were added at mid-morning (to compare with the morning
on which days. Each count should be long enough to ‘rush’) and, if possible, during the evening ‘rush’ home
give a representative sample for reliable data to be (to compare with the morning ‘rush’), followed by early
collected, but not so long that students lose concentration evening (to survey the journeys for entertainment in
or become tired. the CBD). However, the length of the school day, and
the need for students to take organised transport
=) Achecklist should be drawn up of the equipment
home, might dictate when counts can be undertaken.
needed.
Follow-up in the classroom
If sub-groups are important to the investigation, students
If more than one group surveyed the same stretch of road,
also need to discuss how to classify traffic into categories
average the results. Enter each group’s counts on a results
or sub-groups. For example, it is always possible — with
sheet (see Fig. 13.9) and give each student a copy.
subjective classification — that one student might classify
a vehicle as a van, while another might consider it to be Ensure that any special circumstances that could have
a lorry. Therefore, it is important that all participants know affected the results are noted (e.g. a football match, pop
what criteria to apply to distinguish between the categories. concert or shops’ half-day closing day). Each student will
Sub-groups allow the possibility of further analysis to be then be able to present, analyse and make reasoned
done... conclusions using the collected data.
 2 LEARNING TIP If an examination question asks
RESULTS SHEET you to describe how you would undertake a coursework
investigation, refer to the investigators as students, not
Day: Tucsday Date: 8 November people. Imagine yourself doing it to help think of details to
‘Street: West Street include in your answer.
‘Site: After junction with Hope Avenue
Weather: Wet and windy
Special circumstances: None | Designing a questionnaire
| When you need to find out people’s opinions about
_ Inbound vehicles something, or their behaviour, it is important to plan a
Mode 8.0- carefully designed sheet of questions for the interview.
8.10 If you do this well, the interview can be conducted

[es foe
1 quickly and will take up as little of the interviewee’s
time as possible. Then more people are likely to agree
to be interviewed.
It is always useful to write at the top of the sheet a
reminder of what to say as you approach a person. Start
Bicycles
with ‘Excuse me’, followed by a brief statement naming
q your school or college. Then write the aims of your
| Total inbound = 249 geographical enquiry or the aims of the questionnaire,
Outbound vehicles together with a polite request to ask a few short questions
to help your research. Emphasise that you will not ask
Mode 8.0-
8.10
; for the person’s identity and that the answers will be
anonymous.
Lorries
Vans ; Use the same essential headings as for the recording
Buses | sheet described earlier, but also include boxes (either
Cars | before or after the questions) where you can tick your
Motorcycles q 8 30 opinion about the age and gender of the person
Bicycles interviewed. These are sensitive issues that should not
be asked directly, but they are essential for a stratified
Total outbound = 253 sample and might be useful during the analysis of your
results.
Fig. 13.9 A sample results sheet for West Street after the The questions in any questionnaire should be essential
junction with Hope Avenue for the enquiry - short, simply worded, unambiguous,
and numbered.
What are the advantages of using a tally chart? *) Include some closed questions - those which lead
7 Why would it be inappropriate to choose the to a definite answer that will fit into one of the
sampling sites along the roads by: categories or ranges that you have put next to the
using random number tables to find the question. These questions allow you to quickly tick
distances? an appropriate box.
systematic sampling every 100 metres?
> Begin the questionnaire with closed questions, but
State one advantage of choosing sites near road
junctions for traffic counts. it might help your enquiry if you also ask some open
b How should students at such locations consider
questions at the end, so that the respondent can
pedestrians and their own safety? answer freely. Examples are: ‘What are your opinions
Imagine that students sampled pedestrian flows in
about ...?’ and “What are the reasons for your answer?’
the CBD at 100-metre intervals along the main roads
leading from the centre of the CBD. Each student
found his or her sampling site by pacing on the
pavement the required number of paces to it. State
the advantages and disadvantages of this method of
(a) selecting the sites and (b) pacing the distances.
Responses to open questions might be too long or End the questionnaire with “Thank you for your help
difficult to record. They are not as easy to analyse as and time’.
closed questions - where the total number of categories
Before the research, conduct a pilot survey to test for
chosen can be counted and the percentages calculated.
flaws in the questions and reword them if necessary.
However, open questions can provide valuable information
ee Five respondents would be sufficient for this.
to use in your analysis. It is always useful to ask why a
person holds a certain opinion about an issue.
When asked as a closed question, it is possible to devise
degrees of agreement with the question. An example
would be to use ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘disagree’ and
‘strongly disagree’.

CASE STUDY

A questionnaire to investigate the

extent and effect of aircraft noise
around an airport
This questionnaire has no room for formal tick boxes, so
the answers given could be ticked, circled or underlined.

Date . Location

Time Name of student

Excuse me. | am a student at K School and | am investigating the effects of aircraft noise around the
airport Lor my IGCSE Geography coursework. May | ask you a few Quick questions about this? | shall not ask
your name and your replies will not be linked to You Mm any Way.
1 Do you live in this village or town? Yes No
If you answered ‘no’, what is the nearest town or village to where you live?

Approximately how often does aircraft noise annoy you when you are inside?
every day 4-6 daysaweek 1-3 days aweek less than once a week never
How often does aircraft noise disturb your sleep?
every night 4-6 daysaweek 1-3 nights aweek less than once aweek never
How often does aircraft noise annoy you when you are outside your house?
every day 4-6 daysaweek 1-3 days aweek less than once a week
If you have a pet, to what extent do you think it’s affected by the aircraft noise?
it often shows fear it occasionally shows fear it never shows fear

Have you ever thought about moving house because of the aircraft noise? Yes No
Do you think that you will move house for this reason in the next year? Yes No
Do you believe that aircraft noise has affected your health or that of another person living in the house?
Yes No
Please give details of anyone living in the house who suffers from deafness.
Person 1. slightly deaf moderately deaf very deaf age 0-30 31-60 above 60

Person 2 slightly deaf moderately deaf. very deaf age 0-30 31-60 above 60

Person 3 slightly deaf moderately deaf very deaf ageO-30 31-60 above 60

Thank you for your help and time.

Respondent’s gender: M F

Respondent’s age (estimated): below 20 21-45 46-65 above 65

Fig. 13.10 A questionnaire for investigating the extent and effect of aircraft noise around an airport
r 13 Coursework: geographical investigations J.
sciatica ieee seas aeeceeees a sa

homes in each village - starting with those nearest to

20 Criticise the following questions for a questionnaire:
the airport and working away from it in at least four
What is your income? directions (including that of the prevailing wind and
Where do you live? the opposite direction to it).
How long have you lived here?
6 months 1-2 years All my life Land use
Do you object to the proposed factory because it Aland use survey ofa small CBD might be possible without
will pollute the air or because it is an ugly sight? the need to sample, but a land use survey of a large town
will involve sampling. This is usually done using systematic
21 Students suggested three different plans to carry sampling along one or more transects (starting at the town
out a questionnaire survey about the quality of life centre and ending at the edge of town). Transects can be
in a large squatter settlement: along roads radiating from the centre. Following straight
Plan A Follow a transect line along roads lines drawn on a map would take more time, as it would
through the centre from one side of the involve getting from one point to another.
settlement to the other and ask people from
every fifth home to complete the Depending on the hypothesis, the recording sheet may
questionnaire. need spaces for land uses on more than one floor of a
building. It is important to decide about land use categories
Plan B Stand at the centre of the settlement beforehand (Fig. 13.11).
for two hours and ask as many people as
possible to complete the questionnaire. 1 Shops
a Convenience d Supermarkets and hypermarkets
Plan C Using a base map and random b Comparison e Other
number table, select 30 homes at random. c Department stores
Ask an adult from each home to answer the 2 Services
questionnaire. a Financial f Religious
b Educational g Administration
Why might the data collected by Plan B be c Medical h Leisure and entertainment
Walacitele)
(eve d Transport i Other
Why is Plan C better than Plan A? e Food and drink

Explain why Plan C could be used to compare 3 Industries

different squatter settlements in the town. a Crafts c Heavy industry
b Light industry d Mining/quarrying
What could be possible problems in undertaking
this survey? 4 Open spaces
a Parks d Waste land
b Sports fields e Other
c Demolition site
Sampling
5 Residences
Questionnaires a Houses c Temporary/squatter
Itis often important to do a stratified sample for questionnaire b Flats/apartments
enquiries. For example, the number in each age group 6 Unoccupied
asked should be representative of the total population. a Residences c Shops
Details about the latter can be obtained from census data. b Factories d Other
For the purposes of many surveys, it would be acceptable Fig. 13.11 Examples of urban land use categories
to interview an equal number of males and females.
The time and day chosen for the survey can prevent certain RESEARCH There are more detailed classifications for
groups of people from being included (giving the investigation each category so, if you want to survey just one of them,
bias), e.g. if it is conducted during working hours on a research the options in advanced textbooks or on the
weekday, workers will be excluded. The possibility of bias Internet.
should be explained in your investigation’s conclusion.
Careful consideration should be given about where to @ LEARNING TIP Subjective observations, such as
stand to meet a representative number of people without estimates by eye of the percentage of bare ground in an
causing an obstruction. Just outside and to the side of the undivided quadrat, are never as reliable as the objective
main door to a shopping centre would be a suitable place method described overleaf. To minimise error, any estimates
for a shopper survey. To investigate airport noise (Fig. should be made by several students and averaged.
13.10) it would be appropriate to sample a number of
Example hypotheses about land use include:
CASE STUDY
*) Comparison shops will be located near to shops
selling similar goods. Investigating vegetation change
across sand dunes using systematic
> The size of the frontages/floor area of buildings/
sampling
number of storeys/height of buildings will increase As dunes become older, their soil becomes more suitable
towards the centre of the CBD. (These factors are for vegetation. The dunes’ age increases with the
either time consuming to measure or difficult to distance inland. A transect from young to old dunes will
judge. Height is usually estimated subjectively.) show an increase in: the density of the vegetation cover,
the number of plant species (unless there is a very old
*> Different land use zones will be found at different
or grazed dune), and the height of the tallest species.
distances from the centre of the CBD.
Any of these changes can be investigated along a
*) Suburban shopping malls have similar types of shops transect line.
and services. Place a ranging pole at the high water mark. Lay out
a transect from it at right angles to the shore by
CASE STUDY extending a tape measure as far as it will go. Mark
the end with another ranging pole (this helps to keep
Planning and conducting a land use the transect at right angles to the shore).

survey of a CBD At regular intervals, e.g. every 10 metres, place the

1 Obtain (or draw) a large-scale plan of the area on quadrat at the side of the tape and count the number
which separate buildings are shown. of different vegetation species and/or the percentage
Decide whether it is possible to record all buildings, vegetation cover. You could also use a long ruler to
or whether systematic sampling should be used. measure the highest species within the quadrat at
each point.
Decide the land use categories.
Record the results on the recording sheet.
Decide whether to record just the ground floor, or all
floors. If both, you will need to use a method to show Move the start of the measuring tape to the second
which is which, such as X and Y. ranging pole and repeat the process until all of the
sand dune ridges have been crossed.
Mark the uses on the base map. If you are using the
categories in Fig. 13.11, record 1a for X and 5b for Your results can be compared with parallel transects
Y (to indicate that the ground floor is a convenience taken at the same time by other groups of students at
shop with an apartment above it). regular intervals along the beach.

Devise shadings for each category and plot the land ¥

uses on another copy of the map. Remember to add 0
a
a key for the shading used. A separate map could
be produced for each storey.

Vegetation
Studies of changes in small vegetation species, or of
variations in ground coverage, involve area sampling
along a transect - using a quadrat, 0.5 metre square or
1 metre square (placed on the ground at each sample
point). The point is usually selected systematically. If
the quadrat has been subdivided into 100 squares, the OHH
Fee
><
number of squares without plants can be counted to
give the percentage of bare ground. [fit has 25 subdivisions,
multiply by four. Random samples of vegetation can be
X—Y _ Transect line
taken using quadrats thrown over the shoulder at sites
Oo Quadrat sample point
selected randomly. }
ee Dune ridge

Fig. 13.12 A transect across a series of sand dunes

 Recording sheet for sand dune vegetation survey
Location Name of student

Distance from Dune identity* Seaward or % cover Number of plant Height of highest
high water mark inland facing species species
| (metres) slope

* The dune identity includes embryo dune, yellow mobile dune, first fixed dune, oldest (grey) dune.

Fig. 13.13 Part of a recording sheet for sampling vegetation across sand dunes

Example hypotheses about vegetation include:

> The height/density/diversity of vegetation increases
@ LEARNING TIP Use ‘along’, ‘across’, ‘up’ and ‘down’
from the high water mark inland across a dune correctly when you are describing beach surveys. Along is
parallel to the shore, while across is at right angles to it.
system.
Up the beach is away from the high water mark, while down
*) Vegetation cover increases away from footpaths. is towards it.

CASE STUDY

Investigating pebble load size pick up a number of pebbles (no more than 30) from
that point. Place the pebbles in a bag labelled with the
changes along a river bed by
identity of the sample point from which they were taken.
systematic point sampling
The same technique of sampling along a transect line at It is more accurate to measure the long axis of apebble
regular intervals is used. with callipers than to simply place itona ruler and judge
by eye. Tighten the callipers around the long axis of the
At regular intervals (which will depend on the length of
pebble, remove the pebble and measure the gap of the
the river), stretch a tape measure from bank to bank.
callipers against the ruler. A device called a pebbleometer
Record on the recording sheet whether you are starting
(Fig 13.14) can also be used to measure the pebble.
from the left or right bank (the left bank is the bank
which is to the left of a person facing downstream). The average particle size at each sample point can be
found by adding up the lengths of all the pebbles and
At each selected set interval along the tape measure,
dividing the total by the number of pebbles in the sample.
place a long ruler vertically down to the river bed and

Investigating changes in pebble size up a beach from

Why might a column for noting evidence of human
the high water mark to the top can also be done in this
impact be useful on a sheet recording vegetation
way. The angularity or roundness of pebbles can also change?
be assessed subjectively by comparing them with drawings
Why is a limit of 30 suggested for the number of
in Powers’ Roundness Index, as detailed on the CD pebbles to be measured at each sample site?
with this book.
Why is it important to do all investigations at the
same time when comparing:
Fixed piece Piece of wood around
of wood ruler which can slide shoppers at two types of shopping centre?
to touch the pebble the downstream changes in river velocities on
two rivers?
Pebble
weather studies at different points in an area?
visitors to a national park?
|
| T= Bi =9 = 10
ieee ES a cm

Quadrat with 100 Ruler on top of

small squares wooden black Fig. 13.14 A quadrat and a pebbleometer
 Surveying a slope profile

CASE STUDY
Surveying a slope profile - data
SLOPE PROFILE SURVEY
collection and data presentation
*) Take the necessary equipment: two ranging poles, a Location
clinometer, a prepared recording sheet, pencil and clipboard.

One student holds a ranging pole at the start of the slope,

while a second student holds a second ranging pole at
Segment BRB ABE 8 | 9 |10}11)12)13}14)15)16}17
the first noticeable break of slope. (Alternatively, do this
number
every 10 metres, which is easier but less accurate.) It’s
important that the ranging poles are kept vertical and Distance

that they rest on the surface but do not sink into the (m)
ground. Angle

The first student then holds the clinometer at a known (°)

comfortable height against the first ranging pole and Rising or
sights the same height on the second ranging pole. The falling
ttre
second student reads and records the angle in the
prepared table. Fewer students would be needed if the Fig. 13.16 A partly completed recording sheet for a slope
clinometer has a trigger. The same student who sights profile survey
the height on the second pole squeezes the trigger when
the instrument has adjusted to the angle of slope. The This method can be used for any slope, including the long
angle can then be read off. profile of a stream.

The distance between the two poles is measured with a The slope can be drawn on graph paper by measuring each
tape measure stretched between them and recorded in angle from the starting point and drawing a line at that fF
the table. angle for the distance recorded.

This process is repeated until all the segments of the

slope have been measured.

Selected height
oe Lin
for sighting
~~ 4/ne ;
same as top of | ~< 2signg
clinometer —
dy |
a Distane
AA
©
es Pe 8SUre 4 Fig. 13.17 Drawing on graph paper the slope recorded in
PH
io
~
<. 2
Fig. 13.16
/
( ‘ iia

-niarged viewof clinometer readin :

Fig. 13.15 Surveying one segment of a slope profile using a

simple clinometer and regular distances

@ LEARNING TIP Examiners require detail so, if a LEARNING TIP Many fieldwork techniques can be
question asks you to explain how to do a survey like this, learned in the school grounds. For example, for a slope
it’s important to state which equipment you would use, survey of a beach, the school boundary could represent
what you would measure with it, and where the measurements the low water mark and the survey conducted up a slope
would be taken. from it. The more experience you have of practising the
techniques, the more detail you will recall for exam answers
about them.
VAS MAW itletsmeatemralialiaallaa Malian] olclaovarsievio(-Yayesmarsvcvel=ve me)
survey a slope?
26 Why would a teacher organise the survey so that
each student in the group did each task?
Bipolar surveys average situation and the negative figures show the
A bipolar survey is useful for assessing environmental extent of undesirable aspects and the positive figures
quality. A range of scores is used. A simple one is from the extent of good aspects. The scale might, for instance,
0 to 3, where 3 represents the highest quality and 0 the range from +3 (the highest quality) to -3 (the poorest).
worst (see Fig. 13.18). But scales often use negative and It is difficult to make judgments based on more than
positive figures either side of 0. The 0 represents an seven scores, and four or five are usually adequate.

CASE STUDY

Investigating the environmental quality of a town’s different

residential areas — planning and Passer a So pees
The stages involved in this are:

Planning the survey Quality of Tarred, without eT orer in

*) Choose an appropriate number of survey sites. A large roads and the surface
number will be time-consuming and a small number pavements
will not make the investigation worth doing. — Tarred, with some |
Decide where the survey sites should be located. They Tarred, with many bathioiceeor breaks in
might be along a transect from the town centre to the the surface
outskirts of the town. Or they might be chosen according
to known differences in age and perceived differences Earth road with many potholes
in quality of the town’s residential areas.
Fig. 13.19 A five-point scoring scale
Select which characteristics of the environment to
*) Prepare a recording sheet for use in the field. Make
measure as indicators of environmental quality. Examples
sure that there is a space to write the site number.
include the amount of outside space individual properties
Then produce something arranged like Fig. 13.18 using
have, how much litter and noise there is, the quality
your chosen type of scoring range and descriptions of
of pavements and roads, and the quality of house
each extreme at the sides for every characteristic to
exteriors.
be judged. At the bottom add a space for the total
Decide on the range of scores to use (e.g. see Fig. score for the site. ,
13.18)
*) Decide the time of the survey and how many students
oo
pres
ai a will go to each site.
Very low quality of Bacon quality ofhouse
Conducting the survey
house exteriors pes
At the site each student in the group should use the
environmental quality reference sheet to determine and
record a score for each characteristic. The subjectivity
involved in this can then be minimised by using an average
A lot of litter. No litter score from ratings given by each member of the group.
Fig. 13.18 A iepoint scoring scale
After the scores for each characteristic have been noted
7) Prepare an environmental quality reference sheet to on the recording sheet, they should be totalled to give an
use as a guide to what each score for each characteristic overall environmental quality score that can be compared
represents. An example for the quality of roads and with those for other areas. It is then possible to rank the
pavements on a five-point scale is shown in Fig. 13.19. survey sites according to their scores. The place with the
The criteria will depend very much on the town being highest score is perceived to have the highest quality
studied. environment.
Fo a PE De ENE EE TE ETE TEER ET =P REE ET TTT ET MT eT

@ LEARNING TIP When analysing individual criteria,

Assessments of noise for a bipolar survey are subjective
and can vary widely. If greater accuracy is important,
be careful how you interpret a score of 0 for litter or noise. relatively inexpensive sound meters (decibel meters)
It does not mean there is no litter or noise. can now be purchased and many new mobile phones
have them.
 CASE STUDY J)
LEARNING TIP When describing photographs or
Investigating longshore drift field sketches, use background, middle ground and foreground
1 Paint some pebbles in a variety of bright, easy to see (together with left, centre and right) to locate features.
colours. Descriptions of photographs are often poorly answered, as
Choose a time when longshore drift is occurring (onshore candidates do not look sufficiently carefully at them and
wind and oblique wave crests). miss features. It is also pointless, for example, to describe
One student puts one pebble in the water and stays features that are not visible, even if you think they should
at that point. be present in such an area.
Another student watches the pebble for ten swashes
and marks where it moved to.
Measure the distance from the start and end point
with a tape. 27 Write down ten descriptive words for slopes.
Repeat. This could be combined with measuring wave
frequency, or wind speed to see how they affect
longshore drift. Varied pebble sizes could be used to 23 Draw an annotated field sketch of the area in Fig.
see their effect. 13.20 to show the main features of the landscape.

ns In the Telia

For some purposes it is useful to record the scene or and labelled. A quicker way would be to take a photograph
landscape. A proper field sketch could be drawn to show _ that can be annotated later from a very rough, labelled
the main features. The horizon and foreground are drawn _ sketch. The field sketch is more subjective but is more
in first, and then the important features are added in _ likely to highlight the most significant features.

“Field sketch Photograph

Advantages @ |t highlights the main features. @ |t is quick to take.
@ |t can be taken in adverse weather.
@ It shows all the detail.
Disadvantages It takes longer to draw. © The field of view might be too small to show all the
@ It is difficult to draw in very cold, very wet or extremely desired features.
windy conditions. ® An undesirable foreground (e.g. a line of trees) might
© |t does not show the detail of features obscure a desired feature.

Table 13.5 Comparing field sketches and photographs

Fig. 13.20 A photograph to use for an annotated field sketch

Presenting the data Analysing and interpreting the
Introduce your investigation by stating its aim and the data
hypothesis or hypotheses. A brief description of the Once the data has been represented in graph or diagram
study area, and a map of it, helps to set the scene. form, it is easier to describe, analyse and interpret it.
Also, simple mathematical analysis can often be useful
Present numerical data collected in the field in data
for these purposes.
tables. Draw the diagrams and graphs which will give
the best visual impression of the data you have collected.
(You will have used Chapter 12 and the information Simple statistical analysis
about types of data in this chapter to help you select ©) Data can be placed in rank order, with the largest
usually ranked one, the second largest ranked two,
these when planning the study.) Each illustration should
be given a number, and reference should be made to it and so on, to give the relative importance of each feature
in your written account. in comparison with the other features of that type.
© The spread of the data is indicated by its range.

@ LEARNING TIP Choose sensible, easy-to-work

©) The middle ofa data set can be calculated by finding
its mean, median, or mode. The mean is a good
scales to avoid mistakes. Plan the scale before drawing it
indicator to use when a data set has a normal
to check that the range of data will fit on the paper. Be
distribution (without extreme values on one side
accurate when plotting graphs.
that would distort the mean). Otherwise the median
should be used, because it is not affected by extreme
values. The mode has limited use, but the modal
Why should bar graphs be used to show traffic or class can be a valuable indicator in a histogram.
pedestrian flows at different time periods
throughout the day? Data sets can be compared using their ranges, means,
medians or modes. Reasons for the similarities and/or
A bar can be drawn on a map for each site where
the data was collected. Why would this be differences can then be suggested.
useful?
Draw two roads, A and B, meeting at a junction. @ LEARNING TIP When making comparisons, either
The junction leads to the centre of the CBD. link a statement about each subject with ‘whereas’ or make
Along the relevant sides of each road, draw flow a relative comment about them, using words ending in ‘er’
diagrams to show the information in Table 13.6.
or ‘est’, such as ‘larger’, ‘smallest’, or using ‘more’ or ‘less’.
Show your scale and add a key.
For example ‘the examiner is older than you’ is not as
What type of map could be used to show informative as ‘the examiner is 45, whereas you are 16’.
degrees of noise disturbance away from an
airport?
Weekly total sunshine hours at a place over a nine-week period
hours (arranged in rank order)
64
60
53 mode = 24
44 range = 21 to 64 = 43
35 — median mean = 358 divided by 9 = 39.8
33
24
RESEARCH Two types of diagram which are not named 24
in the Cambridge IGCSE syllabus are kite diagrams (often aA
used to show vegetation cover) and dispersion graphs/ total 358
diagrams (which are used to show ranges ofvalues). Dispersion
Fig. 13.21 A simple statistical analysis of a set of data
graphs have been described in Chapter 7 (question 6h).
Find out how kite diagrams are constructed.
{
)C) Discussion point
Each member of a class writes down a number from 0 to 20. Put
them together and imagine that they represent the scores made
by a cricketer in 20 innings. Calculate the mean, median and
mode of the set of figures. Discuss which of these statistical
measures of the middle number of the set most represents the
cricketer's true form. Work out why you believe one is more
suitable than the others.
Look for trends is. Anomalies are usually clearly visible on a scatter
It is usually easy to see trends, such as increases or graph and suggest that some other factor was responsible
decreases, on graphs. Wherever possible, use adjectives for the anomalous value.
such as large and small to describe the trends, or quantify
the changes (for example using ‘halved’ or ‘tripled’).

@ LEARNING TIP When describing trends, use detail,

such as slight decline, Jarge increase, etc. Support your
description by quoting the amount of increase/decrease
and the period of time over which it occurred. Always refer
to both axes of a graph. Never simply list figures, e.g. the yield
Crop
values for each year in turn. Figures must be interpreted
and used, not simply copied or listed.

Look for patterns, relationships and Annual rainfall ——————>

anomalies Fig. 13.22 A scatter graph showing the relationship between rainfall
Sometimes the examiner will ask for a description of and crop growth. It is positive at first but becomes negative when the
patterns in the data. It may be possible to recognise soil becomes too wet.

patterns from data expressed in both tabular and

graphical form, and to use the patterns to deduce Patterns on maps reveal distributions which can then
relationships. Examples of patterns in data are that no be described and explained. On Fig. 13.23, the distribution
rain falls when the cloud cover is 4 oktas or less and of tourist facilities can be described in detail as ‘grouped
most rain falls when the cloud cover is 8 oktas. The in two areas of the town, the north and south west’.
positive relationship between the two variables (that Areas without such facilities can also be described and
the greater the amount of cloud cover the higher the explained.
rainfall amount) can then be deduced.
Patterns can also be recognised on maps. You will
already be familiar with linear, nucleated and dispersed
settlement patterns, but many other patterns also exist.
For example, on a map of the central area of a city, it
will usually be possible to note that specialist shops are
mainly located in side streets, and that offices are sited
further from the peak land value intersection than
shops are. You will notice from these examples that a
description of pattern involves using words such as
‘mainly’, ‘least’ and ‘more’ and their opposites.

@ LEARNING TIP When describing patterns, do not

describe individuals but describe common themes shown
by the data, e.g. most shoppers at an out-of-town shopping
centre shopped less frequently, travelled more by car and
Key
bought more high-order goods than those shopping in a
suburban shopping centre. | —— _ Town boundary
Facility used by tourists |

Scatter graphs are valuable for recognising whether or Fig. 13.23 Locations of tourist facilities in a town
not a relationship exists between two variables and
whether it is positive or negative (inverse). It is very
important to remember that the existence ofa relationship
does not mean that one variable causes the other. There
may be a different factor influencing both. The closer
the points are to the best-fit line, which may be curved
or straight or go up and down, the stronger the relationship
 RE RE A
bE
Suggest explanations for your findings
You will need to use your knowledge and understanding
of geographical concepts to explain the distributions, Digital reading

trends, patterns, relationships or anomalies you have

found, or to suggest why none were found if that was
the case.
Throughout, aim to use your material in the most logical
order and use paragraphs to separate different aspects
of your report. The finished report should be well
reasoned.
Make conclusions based on
your data
Can your hypothesis be accepted?
You need to state in your conclusion whether or not the
evidence allows you to accept or reject the hypothesis.
In doing so, you should quote data to support your
decision.

To what extent was it accurate?

Some investigations may reveal several anomalies which | Propelior
suggest that the hypothesis is partly (but not wholly)
true. Again, support this conclusion by referring to one
of the anomalies or a number of them.

@ LEARNING TIP Do not simply state ‘it was a fair

test’. Always explain, justify or support this statement. Fig. 13.24 A digital propeller flowmeter

Evaluate the investigation — to what Was any part of your investigation affected by bias?
extent was it successful? Were your investigating techniques the most appropriate?
If your hypothesis was sensible, the investigation was Was the sample size less than 30? Doing more
well planned, and unexpected difficulties did not occur, measurements should improve the reliability of the
it should have been generally successful. A comment results, especially if an average is used.
should be made about the level of success. Were the results affected by an unexpected factor, such
as aroad diversion during a traffic survey? More thorough
How could it be improved? research before doing the investigation should discover
Inevitably, there is usually a possibility oflearning from such problems.
experience and improving the investigation after
identifying weaknesses in it. An anomalous result may Reliability can usually be improved by doing more
suggest student error. For example, wet and dry bulb surveys, either using more closely spaced survey points
thermometers can be read inaccurately if the eye is not or doing the survey more frequently. Taking an average
exactly at the level of the reading. of the results of several groups doing the same counting
or measuring task will minimise errors. Ifyou do more
The use of digital measuring equipment would eliminate surveys, ensure that the circumstances are the same
reading errors. An example is the digital flowmeter. as before. For example, an investigation done in different
There are several different designs of this instrument weather would only be useful to show how weather
and one example is shown in Fig. 13.24. affected the results.
 Use the information in Table 13.7 to answer the
LEARNING TIP Suggestions for improvements questions. The investigation is based on secondary
must be practical, e.g. for a litter survey it is not practical data.
to check the waste bins in hotel bedrooms. Neither is it Describe the trend shown by the data.
sensible to lie in wait, watchingto see if tourists drop litter.
Describe the relationship shown by the data.
Do not suggest more ‘observations’ if more measurements
or counts would be possible. Read the question carefully. Is the hypothesis ‘Mean daily temperatures are
Are you asked to assess the methods used in the fieldwork, influenced by distance from the sea’ correct?
or other aspects of it - or both? Use the data to support your answer.
How could you improve and extend the
investigation?
How couid the investigation be
extended?
Again, suggestions must be practical, which is not the
case with a suggestion to repeat the study in a named Mean daily
place far away. Neither is it usually possible to compare temperature (°C)

the study with the situation next year. Comparison with + Table 13.7 Data from a desert climate
a past study would be valid. You could, for instance,
compare your results with those for the same fieldwork
if it was undertaken at your school in a previous year. C
)(). Discussion point
Suggestions for extending the study depend on the One matter being researched now is whether or not enhanced
topic. However, it is usually possible to suggest other global warming is causing climate change. Consider the
importance of the following in the research:
hypotheses about the subject which could be used to
@ The sites of the weather stations used in the study are
widen the research. known, correctly sited and free from outside influence.
@ The intervals of time being used in the study are regular.

@ LEARNING TIP Don’t be vague. The suggestion to

®@ The people conducting or interpreting the research are not
employed in any capacity by an energy company.
‘do more studies’ will not gain credit unless the type and/ ® The temperature records from the past are reliable.
@ The factors put into the model in order to project the future
or location of the extra study is stated.
temperature are known.

@ LEARNING TIP Try to practise all the data collection

techniques at least once, so that you have the experience
to answer the Alternative to Coursework Paper well. When
answering questions, imagine being in that situation so
that you can think of the difficulties, problems and good
points.
 acid rain 99, 114, 270, 294, 301 bearings 315-16
adaptations 222-4 Beaufort scale 174, 185
afforestation 219, 239 beef farming, Brazil 240-2
Afghanistan 10, 15, 19, 20 bias 334, 336, 337, 354
Africa, population 10, 19, 20 biodiversity 149, 165, 217, 219, 221, 222, 306
ageing populations 7, 11, 15, 21, 22, 25, 26-7 biofuels 216, 252, 291, 296
agriculture see farming biological weathering 115-16
aid 107, 133, 134, 191, 194, 195, 197, 253 biomes 211
aid agencies 11, 37, 194, 197 biotechnology 264, 269
air pollution 71, 279, 294, 296, 298 bipolar surveys 335, 350-1
forest clearance 215, 217 birth rates 9-11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 24, 27,28, 194
fossil fuels 71, 77, 114, 285, 290, 300, 302, demographic transition 14-15
303 Borneo 213, 214, 215-19
industry 270-1 Botswana
Mumbai 77 HIV/AIDS 28-9
New York 83 migration 33-5
tratiers li 7149, 03).2.707 population 29-30
air pressure 173-4, 177, 185 Brazil 15, 19, 121, 2405261 2627296
Algeria 225 beef farming 240-2
altitude, and temperature 207 deforestation 241, 242
aluminium smelting 257 hydroelectric power 299
Amazon Basin 201, 242 population growth 19, 20
Andes 90, 94, 96, 102, 201, 211 brownfield sites 78, 86
anemometers 174, 175, 191 bushfires 199
animals 211, 214, 218, 224, 228, 309
anomalies 335, 353, 354 camels 196, 197, 224, 276
aquifers 194, 230, 292, 306, 307 Canada 58, 78, 262, 301
arable farming 198, 199, 232, 243-5 hydroelectric power 299
arches 147, 148-9 population 31
aspect 45, 47, 208 Prairies 43, 56-7, 243-5
Atacama Desert (Chile) 224, 227 wheat farming 243-5
atmosphere 168, 179, 211 Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) 145, 152
Australia 13, 78, 257, 262, 301 Cape Town (South Africa) 57, 59, 67, 85-8, 145, 152
drought 198-9 capitals 58
Great Barrier Reef 135, 164 car industry 256, 259-64
Queensland floods (2011) 135-7 carbon capture 300
carbon dioxide (CO2) 71, 77, 99, 279, 296, 300, 303
Bangalore (India) 262, 265 forests and 215, 217
Bangladesh 13, 33, 46, 121, 262 and weathering 114, 116
floods 13, 46, 252 carbon footprints 279
over-population 13, 14 carbon sinks 215
bar graphs 330, 340 carbonation 114, 116, 117
barographs 173, 174 cash crops 220, 233, 253, 291
barometers 173, 174, 177 caves 147, 148
bars 153, 154, 156 Cayman Islands 156-7, 162, 163
Bay of Islands (New Zealand) 147-9 CBDs (central business districts) 59-60, 63, 64, 65-7 ’

bays 146 85, 86, 346-7

beaches 138, 140-1, 143-4, 151-2, 161, 275, 279 Chad, drought 193-4
356
chemical weathering 114-15, 116, 118, 119, 213 coursework 334-55
child mortality 194, 251 crime 67, 68, 82, 87
China 9, 261, 262, 290 cross-sections 323
energy 284, 285, 294, 299, 301 cruise ships 282
high-technology industries 269-70 culture 43, 165, 217, 220, 242, 246, 281
pollution 71 cyclones see tropical storms
population 19, 20, 21-2
rural-to-urban migration 56 data
Three Gorges Dam 298, 299 analysis 335, 352-4
tourists 273, 274 collection 335, 340-51
urbanisation 269 presentation 335, 352
Christchurch (New Zealand), earthquake (2011) 93 types 340
cliffs 144-6, 150 data tables 330, 352
climate 201, 211 death rates 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 28, 194
and vegetation 213, 222-3 demographic transition model 14-15
and weathering 118-20 debt 2195222) 251253
climate change 193, 201, 305 debt-for-nature swaps 219, 222
see also global warming deforestation
climate graphs 330 and flooding 13, 132, 191, 220
climates and soil erosion 36, 193, 216, 217, 218, 220, 222,
equatorial 201-5, 206, 210 242, 291
monsoon 201 tropical rainforests 36, 191, 215-20, 221, 241, 242
tropical desert 205-11 and water pressures 222
cloud cover (extent) 183, 210, 211 deltas 121, 129-30, 131, 156
clouds 179, 186, 187, 210 demographic transition model 14-15, 19
and temperature 204, 208 Denmark 294
types 179-83, 184 dependency ratio 22, 26, 27
CO2 see carbon dioxide deposition
coal 285, 286, 289-90, 300, 305 coasts 138, 144, 151-61
Germany 302-3, 304, 305 rivers 122, 123, 127, 128-30
coastal features, on maps 324 desertification 30, 192-3, 193, 194, 291
coasts 138, 139-44 deserts 192, 198
deposition 138, 144, 151-61 human activities 225-30
erosion 138, 142, 144-50, 152 tropical desert climate 205-11
floods 13 tropical desert ecosystem 211, 212, 222-4
landforms 144-61 weathering 119, 208
protection 150 development 20
commercial farming 233, 234, 235-7, 240-2 see also economic development
communications, on maps 326 dew point 171, 172, 179, 210
commuting 34, 44, 55, 68, 78, 84 Dharavi (Mumbai, India) 73-5, 76, 77
compass directions 315-16 diagrams 330-3, 335, 352
conclusions 354-5 diet 11, 18, 250-1
condensation 171, 186, 204, 209, 210 see also food; nutrition
conflicts 32, 37, 45, 217, 252, 285, 309 digital weather recording instruments 175
Kenya 195, 196 discharge 123, 131, 132, 135
racial 67, 82 diseases 46, 72, 131, 252, 301
tourism 277 crops and livestock 241, 248, 249, 251, 252
conservation swaps 219, 222 after natural disasters 99, 107, 191
continental drift 90, 92 and population 9, 11, 15, 20
contours 49, 317, 319-21 see also HIV/AIDS
contraception 7;'9,)10;.11, 13,1523 dispersion diagrams 333
convectional rainfall 204, 205, 208, 210, 215 distance from the sea 207, 210
coral reefs 162-6, 279 — distance measurements 312
counter-urbanisation 55 divided bar graphs 331
counting methods 335, 342-4 Dominica, tourism 280-2
 drainage 44, 46, 47 and salinity 224, 226
drainage density 322 exfoliation 113, 118, 208
drainage features, on maps 322 exotic rivers 226, 228
drought 32, 33, 192-9, 220, 248, 252, 253 extensive farming 234, 240-2
soil erosion 193, 198, 244
dry farming methods 239, 244 farming 10, 15, 85, 131, 156, 232-4, 255
‘Dust Bowl’ (USA and Canada) 238 commercial 233, 234, 235-7, 240-2
and drought 193-9
Earth extensive 234, 240-2
orbit 203 intensive 234, 237
rotation 186, 203, 209 and settlement 43, 44, 47, 48
structure 90 shifting cultivation 217, 220, 245
earthquakes 89, 90, 103, 105-9, 293, 298, 309 subsistence 13, 33, 44, 193, 216, 233, 234, 245-50
Christchurch (2011) 93 sustainable 194
distribution 91, 93, 96 water use 306, 307
Japan (2011) 89, 108-9, 301, 304 see also irrigation
economic development 15, 220, 255-6, 283, 285, 307 fertility rates 10, 20, 22
tropical deserts 225-30 field sketches 329, 351
water and 126, 307, 308-9 fieldwork 334-55
economic leakage 278 Fiji, coral reefs 165-6
ecosystems 149, 211, 232, 294 firewood 13, 193, 194, 195, 215, 291, 296
see also coral reefs; mangrove swamps; salt marshes; fishing 164, 165, 255, 287
sand dunes; tropical desert ecosystem; tropical flash floods 190, 210, 280
rainforests flood hydrographs 132, 135
ecotourism 165-6, 215, 219, 222, 228, 280-2 flood plains 13, 46, 121, 129, 131, 135, 137, 252, 298
education 28, 32, 219, 249, 250, 269, 291 flood protection 76, 137, 189
and population 11, 13, 17, 20, 23, 24, 25 flooding 46, 47, 185, 191, 252, 298
in squatter settlements 73, 75, 77 Bangladesh 13, 46, 252
of women 9, 15, 23, 24 deforestation and 13, 132, 191, 220
Egypt 37, 45, 119, 225-6, 253 flash floods 190, 210, 280
Aswan High Dam 226, 298 Mumbai 76
Nile Valley 45, 225-6, 307 Queensland 164
El Nifio events 165 rivers 13, 76, 129, 131-7, 252
electricity generation 270, 283, 286, 290, 291, 297-305 salt marshes 156
energy 283 tropical storms 13, 188, 188-9, 191
for industry 256, 257 flow diagrams 331
Sahara Desert 225 fold mountains 90-1, 93, 96
see also non-renewable energy; renewable energy food.7, 14; 155205232,296
energy consumption 83, 284-5 prices 253, 296
energy flows, rainforests 214 shortages 32, 99, 250-3
environment 258, 279, 298 food aid 194, 195, 253
urbanisation and 71-84 food chains 214, 224
environmental quality 350 food webs 214, 224
equatorial climate 201-5, 206, 210 foot and mouth disease 241, 248, 249
equipment 335, 339, 341 footloose industries 264
erosion 111 Forest Stewardship Council 219
coasts 138, 142, 144-50, 152 fossil fuels 225, 285, 286, 291, 293
rivers 122-3, 125-6, 127-8, 130 pollution from 71, 77, 114, 217, 270, 283, 285, 287 ’

EU (European Union) 241 290, 296, 300

Europe prices 291, 296, 301
demographic transition 14, 15 see also coal; gas; oil; thermal power stations
wind power 294 France 15, 262, 274, 292, 296
eutrophication 165, 166 freeze-thaw action 112, 118
evaluation 335, 354-5 fuelwood 13, 193, 194, 195, 215, 291, 296
358 evaporation 171, 172, 186, 204, 209, 210, 222, 307 Fukushima nuclear plant (Japan) 301, 304
 high-technology industry 264-70
Gaborone (Botswana) 29, 30, 34 Highlands Water Project (Lesotho) 299, 308-9
gas 225, 285, 286, 291, 300, 302 Himalayas 95, 96
GDP (gross domestic product) 19 histograms 331
Dominica 280, 281 HIV/AIDS 11, 87, 248, 252, 253
from tourism 274, 281 Botswana 28-9
Jamaica 280 honeypots 279
GDP (gross domestic product) per capita 19, 20, 27 housing 13, 67, 81
Australia 13 see also squatter settlements
Bangladesh 13 humidity 171, 172, 175, 204, 208, 209, 210
Botswana 33 humus 193, 214, 238, 243
Jamaica 279 hunter-gatherers 30, 217, 232
Kerala (India) 24 hurricanes 13, 135, 185-92, 202, 252, 280
Swaziland 253 and coasts 154, 156, 157, 158, 165
UK279 hydroelectric power (HEP) 126, 195, 216, 220, 226,
geographical investigations 334-55 291, 297-9
geothermal power 101, 257, 291, 292-3 Iceland 257, 293
Germany 10, 15, 273, 274, 300 Lesotho 298, 308-9
energy 296, 302-5 hydrographs 132, 135
secondary industries 255 hygrometers 172, 175
global warming 201, 215, 217, 285, 287, 294, 305 hypotheses 335-6, 352, 354
sea level rise 156
globalisation 88, 258, 261 Iceland 95, 97, 101, 120, 257
governments, and industry 256, 257, 261, 265, 266, geothermal energy 292, 293
269 volcanoes 103-4
gradient ofrivers 123, 124, 125, 127, 322 India 15, 24, 33, 71, 261, 262
gradients, calculating 318 coal consumption 290
Grand Cayman 156-7, 162, 163 energy 284, 285, 294, 301
granite 117, 119, 292 Green Revolution 251
graphs 330-3, 335, 352 high-technology industries 265
Great Barrier Reef (Australia) 135, 164 population growth 19, 20
Green Revolution 251 see also Kerala; Mumbai
greenfield sites 62, 264 Indonesia 45, 253, 261, 262
greenhouse gas emissions 77, 83, 279, 287, 296, 300 transmigration 36, 216, 217
German reductions 303, 305 Indus flood plain (Pakistan) 133-4
greenhouse gases 215, 217, 293, 296, 301 industrial location 257, 260-1, 264-5
grid references 312-14 Industrial Revolution 9, 54
gross domestic product see GDP industrial sectors 255-6
groundwater 194, 230, 292, 306, 307 industry 256
Gulf of Mexico, oil spill (2010) 287-8 energy consumption 285
high-technology 264-70
Hadley Cells 209 motor vehicles 256, 259-64
Haiti, earthquake (2010) 107 pollution 270-1
Hawaii 97, 102, 139 water for 306, 307
headlands 146, 147, 149 infant mortality 11, 13, 15, 17, 20, 24, 28, 194
health 217, 270, 271, 273, 291 informal sector 74, 259
health care 13, 15, 18, 32, 75, 250 insolation 203
ageing populations 22, 25, 27 intensive farming 234, 237
Kerala 24, 25 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 205, 210
and population growth 9, 11, 15, 17, 20 Internet 273, 335
shortages of 20, 28, 29 Iran, population policies 23
health and safety 335, 339 irrigation 225-6, 228, 229, 232, 277, 298, 306, 307
Heimaey (Iceland) 103-4 and drought 194, 195, 198, 199
HEP see hydroelectric power Lesotho 308, 309
high-pressure belts 209, 210, 211 and soil conservation 239
 TTT TTI SMP ST TT

subsistence farming 247, 248, 249 Highlands Water Project 299, 308-9
sugar farming 235, 236, 237 Tsoelike Valley 47-8
isobars 173, 177, 185 less economically developed countries see LEDCs
isoline maps 176, 317 levées 129, 137, 189
Italy 9, 10, 15, 51-2, 274 Libya, migration 37
ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone) 205, 210 life expectancy 9, 18, 20, 24, 28, 253
limestone 114, 117, 148, 322
Jamaica, tourism 277-80 line graphs 330, 340
Japan 10, 20, 67, 94, 96, 292 literacy 23, 24, 27
demographic transition 14, 15 livestock rearing 193, 194, 198, 199, 232, 246, 249
earthquake (2011) 89, 108-9, 301, 304 load (rivers) 122, 123, 124
nuclear power 301 Lockheed Martin 268
population density 67 logging 191, 216, 219, 220
population structure 18, 26-7 London 38, 55, 67, 68-70, 119
see also Toyota longitude 314
longshore drift 143-4, 151, 153, 154, 350
Kalahari Desert (Botswana/Namibia) 29, 30, 228 low-pressure belts 205, 209, 210
Karachi (Pakistan) 55, 271 Luderitz (Namibia) 206, 207, 208, 209
Kazakhstan 301
Keetmanshoop (Namibia) 207, 209, 226 Maasai people 196-7
Kenya, drought 194-7 Madeira 45
Kerala (India) 24-5 magma 94, 95, 97, 98, 102, 292
Khartoum (Sudan) 56, 207 malaria 46, 131, 252
kite diagrams 333 Mali 10, 20
kopjes 116, 117, 119 malnutrition 193, 194, 195, 250, 251
Malthus, Thomas 232
La Nia events 135 Manchester United 40
lahars (mud flows) 99, 100 mangrove swamps 157-8, 279
land use 132, 327, 346-7 maps 310, 311-27, 353
landslides 45, 68, 188, 190, 191 isoline maps 177
Lanzarote (Spanish island) 275-7 maritime influence 207, 210
Las Vegas (Nevada) 230 markets 236, 241, 242, 250, 257, 261, 265
latitude 203, 206-7, 210, 314 mass tourism 278-9, 280
lava 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103-4 mean 352
leaching 160, 211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 245, 251 measurements 335, 341-2, 354
LEDCs (less economically developed countries) MEDCs (more economically developed countries)
demographic transition 14, 15 commuting 34, 44, 55
dependency ratios 27 demographic transition 14, 15
drought 193-7 dependency ratios 27
energy 284-5, 290, 291, 295, 297; 299 drought 198-9
floods 133-4 energy 284-5, 291, 296
high-technology industries 265-6 floods 135-7
industrial sectors 256 high-technology industries 265
informal sector 259 industrial sectors 255, 256
population growth 10, 11, 19, 20, 285 pollution 71, 271
population structure 16-17 population growth rates 9
tourism 274, 277-82 population structure 17
transnational corporations and 258 rural settlements 44, 45, 49-52
tropical storms in 190-1, 192 tropical deserts 229-30
under-nutrition 250-1 tropical storms in 188-90, 192
urban land use 60, 61, 62, 63, 64 urban land use 59, 60, 62, 63-4
urban problems 67, 68, 71 urban problems 65-7, 68-70, 71
urbanisation 53, 54-5 urban structures 63-4
water supply 306, 308-9 urbanisation 53, 54, 55
16}0) Lesotho 11; 179; 291 water use 306, 307
median 352 ocean trenches 94, 96
mega-cities 56 oil 225, 285, 286-8, 291, 300
Mexico 19, 262, 274, 282 prices 291, 296
emigration 33 refining 270
population 16-17, 18, 19, 20 spills 156, 287, 287-8
Mid-Atlantic Ridge 95, 96, 102, 103-4, 293 oil palm plantations 216
migration 12, 13, 32-7, 48 opencast mining 227, 270, 289, 290
rural-to-urban 9, 15, 34, 50, 54 orographic (relief) rainfall 209-10, 210
millionaire cities 38, 53 over-population 12, 13-14, 22, 36
mining 44, 101, 211, 216, 220, 229, 255 overcropping 249, 251
Botswana 29, 30, 33 overcultivation 193
coal 289, 290 overgrazing 193, 194, 196, 248, 249
Namibia 226-7 oxidation 115, 117
South Africa 33, 85, 247 oxygen 215, 217
mode 352
Mojave Desert (USA) 223, 229-30 Pakistan, floods (2010) 133-4, 252
monoculture 249, 251 Palm Springs (California) 229-30
monsoon climate 201 Panama, rainforests 220-2
more economically developed countries see MEDCs Panama Canal 220, 221
motor vehicle manufacturing industry 255, 256, 259- Paraguay 299
64 pastoral farming 193, 194, 232
mudflows 68, 99, 100, 191, 215 pastoralism, nomadic 196-7, 245
multinational corporations 235, 241, 258, 260-4, 269 patterns 335, 353
Mumbai (India) 54, 55, 73-7 pebble load sampling 348
petrochemical industry 286
Namib Desert (Namibia/Angola) 119, 224, 226-8 pharmaceuticals 264, 269
Namibia 226-8, 232, 301 Philippines 190-1, 192, 253, 262, 281, 292
national parks 197, 219, 222, 228, 281 photographs 327-8, 351
natural gas 225, 285, 286, 291, 300, 302 photosynthesis 211, 213, 215
natural increase 8, 9, 15, 19 physical weathering 112-13, 118
The Netherlands 44, 57, 294 pie graphs 331
New Orleans (USA), Hurricane Katrina 188-9 pilot studies 335, 339
New York (USA) 53, 54, 55, 56, 67, 79-84 plantations 216, 220
NICs (newly industrialising countries) 71, 256, 261, plate margins (boundaries) 93-6, 97, 102, 105, 107,
262, 265 108
see also Brazil; China; India; Mexico geothermal energy 292, 293
Niger 9, 10, 20, 301 plate tectonics 92-6
Nigeria 15, 19, 20 pollution 211
Nile Valley (Egypt) 45, 225-6, 307 air see air pollution
noise pollution 71, 270, 277, 279, 290 and coral reefs 163, 164, 165
nomadic pastoralism 196-7, 245 from energy generation 283, 285, 287, 290, 296,
non-renewable energy 286, 300 300, 302, 303
see also fossil fuels; thermal power stations from fossil fuels 71, 77, 114, 270, 283, 285, 287,
Norway 270, 300 290;29673007302, 303
nuclear power 109, 285, 300-1, 302, 304, 307 from industry 270-1
nuclear waste 256, 301, 304 and health 270, 271
nutrient'cycle 211, 218 London 119
nutrients 111, 160, 193, 214, 238, 245, 251 Mumbai 75, 76-7
eutrophication 165, 166 New York 83
leaching 160, 211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 245, noise 71, 270, 277, 279, 290
251 salt marshes 156
nutrition 11, 15, 193, 194, 195, 250-1, 252 urban 71-2, 76, 77, 83
visual 71, 83, 227, 270, 290, 294
ocean currents 208, 209 water 7 2;/6,83) 156) 270) 2715.277,.279
ocean ridges 95, 96, 102, 103-4, 293 population 7-8
 ageingr/Mils 1S) 21622, 25726-7 rainfall 13, 1325185, 202229 2a 15307
demographic transition 14-15 convectional 204, 205, 208, 210, 215
women and 9, 15, 17, 23, 26 Dominica 280
population control 7, 10, 17, 21-2, 23, 24-5 drought 193-9
population density 12, 13, 29, 40, 90, 188, 307 equatorial 202, 204-5, 210
Botswana 29-30 Kenya 194-5
Canada 31 Lesotho 309
Japan 67 measuring 169, 175
population distribution 29-30, 31, 36 relief rainfall 209-10, 210
population growth 7, 8, 19-20, 54, 232, 285 tropical deserts 208-10, 222
Chad 193, 194 tropical storms 187, 188, 190
Egypt 225 see also precipitation
Iran 23 rainforests see tropical rainforests
population growth rates 8-12, 13, 20, 28-9 ranching 220, 240-2
population policies 21-2, 23, 24-5, 26, 27 range (data) 352
population pressure, Borneo 216 range (services) 42
population pyramids 16-19, 25, 33, 333 recycling 73, 74, 77, 78, 259, 281, 296
population structure 16-19, 25, 26, 33 refugees 35, 36, 37, 252
ports 57, 58, 85, 163, 257, 263 relationships between variables 334, 335, 353
poverty 29, 68, 189, 191, 216, 241, 280 relative humidity 172, 175, 208, 209, 210
and nutrition 11, 250 relief, on maps 319-21, 326
and population growth 11, 20, 232 relief (orographic) rainfall 209-10, 210
subsistence farming 246, 252 religion 10, 13
urban 67, 81, 82 renewable energy 281, 283, 285, 286, 291-6
power stations 283, 297-305, 306 geothermal power 101, 257, 291, 292-3
biofuels 296 Germany 304, 305
geothermal 292, 293 solar power 225, 230, 291, 295, 305, 306
hydroelectric 297-9, 309 wind power 185, 286, 291, 294, 305, 306
nuclear 300-1, 304, 307 reservoirs 195, 216, 226, 297, 298, 306, 308, 309
thermal 114, 290, 300, 302-3, 303, 305, 307 residential areas 60-2, 63, 64
Prairies (Canada) 43, 56-7, 243 resources, and population 12-14
wheat farming 243-5 retailing 59, 60, 65, 66, 255
precipitation 179, 185, 187, 209-10, 307 Rio Poqueira Valley (Spain) 49-50
equatorial climate 202, 204-5, 210 river channels 122, 124, 137, 322
measuring 169, 175 river valleys 124-30
tropical deserts 208-10, 222 rivers 121, 306
see also rainfall exotic 226, 228
pressure 173, 185, 187, 209 fieldwork 341-2
measuring 173-4, 177 flooding 13, 76, 129, 131-7
pressure belts 205, 209 landforms 124-30
pressure maps 174 long profiles 130 .
primary industries 255, 256 processes 122-3, 124-5, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130
public transport 59, 62, 63, 68-70, 77, 82, 84 water cycle 131-2
push and pull factors 32 for water supply 306, 307
pyroclastic material 97, 98, 99, 100, 102 roads 78, 216, 219, 220, 222, 248, 257, 309, 326
rock types 116-17, 132
quality of life 18, 24, 75, 81, 257, 264 rural problems 47, 48, 50, 52
quarrying Diltiee 55 0 rural settlements 43-52, 78
quaternary industries 255 rural-to-urban migration 9, 15, 34, 50, 54, 56
Queensland (Australia), floods (2011) 135-7 rural-urban fringe 78
questionnaires 335, 344-6 Russia-9; 11,262; 29672997301

radial graphs 332 Sahara Desert (Africa) 193, 201, 205, 207, 224, 225-
railways 56, 216, 220, 257, 300, 326 6275
362 rain gauges 169, 175 Sahel (Africa) 193, 194
salinity 224, 226 solar radiation 203, 204, 210, 215
salt marshes 153, 155-6, 211 South Africa 232, 233, 253, 262, 300, 308
sampling 334, 335, 336-8, 346, 347-8, 354 Cape Town 57, 85-8
San Andreas Fault (California) 96 mines 33, 48, 247
sand dunes 159-61, 211, 228 Spain, Rio Poqueira Valley 49-50
Sanitation: 9; 152 68.07 23:75,676,.7 7, 228, 277 sphere of influence 40-1
saturation 171, 172 spits 153, 154, 155, 156
Saudi Arabia 11, 134 spot heights 316-17, 318
scale 312, 323, 352 squatter settlements 62, 68, 72, 73-5, 76, 77, 85, 87
scatter graphs 332, 353 stacks 147-9
science parks 265 standard ofliving 9, 11, 12, 27, 32, 309
sea level rise 156 Botswana 33, 35
seasons 203, 205, 206 Japan 26
Second World War (1939-45) 9, 18 statistical analysis 335, 352-3
secondary industries 54, 255, 256 Stevenson screens 174, 177-8
service industries 13, 24, 227, 255 storm hydrographs 132, 135
services 40-2, 50, 52, 59, 60 storm surges 13, 188
settlement, on maps 325-6 stratosphere 168, 179, 182
settlement patterns 43, 47-52, 325 stratovolcanoes 94, 98, 99, 100, 102
settlements subsistence farming 13, 33, 44, 193, 216, 233, 234,
hierarchy of 39-42 245-50
rural 43-52 suburbs 78, 81, 87, 88, 264
urban see urban settlements sugar farming, Swaziland 235-7, 253
shanty settlements 62, 72, 85, 87 sulfur dioxide 71, 270, 300
see also squatter settlements sustainability 217, 219, 286, 291, 306
shield volcanoes 97, 102 sustainable development 20, 21, 25, 219, 238, 281
shifting cultivation 217, 220, 245 sustainable energy 225
Silicon Valley (California, USA) 266, 267-8 sustainable farming 194, 242
Singapore 10, 201, 202-4, 273 sustainable tourism 219, 279-80, 281
sites 44 Swaziland 11, 248, 252
industry 256, 257, 261, 263, 265 subsistence farming 246-50
power stations 297, 300, 301 sugar farming 235-7, 253
settlements 44-52, 79, 85 Sweden 9, 27, 296
situation 44, 56, 80, 85 synoptic charts 183, 185
sketches 329, 351
slope profiles 335, 349 tables 330, 352
smog 71 technology parks 265, 269
soit 110; 1115211 tectonic plates 91, 92-6
soil conservation 238, 239, 250 temperature 170, 185, 187, 201, 203-4, 206-8, 307
soil degradation 36, 216, 218, 220 equatorial climate 201, 202, 203-4, 210
soil erosion 48, 196, 198, 211, 215, 238-9 measuring 170-1, 175, 177
controlling 194, 239, 244, 250 tropical desert climate 206-8, 210, 222
deforestation 36, 193, 216, 217, 218, 220, 222,242, tertiary industries 54, 255, 256
291 Thailand 261, 262
overgrazing 193, 248, 249 thermal power stations 114, 290, 300, 302-3, 305, 307
Prairies 238, 244 thermometers 170-1, 172, 175, 177
Swaziland 248-9 Three Gorges Dam (China) 298, 299
soil exhaustion 193, 249, 251 threshold population 41
soil fertility 45, 101, 131, 215, 218, 243, 245 tidal power 286
soils 45, 118, 119, 131, 132 Tokyo-Yokohama (Japan) 38, 53, 54, 55, 56, 109, 263
Prairie chernozems 243 tourism 44, 50, 271-4, 282
tropical deserts 119, 224 Botswana 30
tropical rainforest 213-14, 215 coasts 138, 148-9, 161
volcanic 45, 101 coral reefs 163, 164, 165, 165-6
solar power 225, 230, 291, 295, 305, 306 disadvantages 277, 278, 282
 Dominica 280-2 under-nutrition 11, 250-1, 252
economic importance 274, 278, 279, 282 under-population 12, 13, 35
ecotourism 165-6, 215, 219, 222, 228, 280-2 uranium 300-1
and environment 165-6, 228, 279 urban land use 59-64
Grand Cayman 158, 163 urban settlements 56-8, 132, 307
Gulf of Mexico 287 New York 53, 54, 55, 56, 67, 79-84
Jamaica 277-80 pollution 71-2, 73, 76, 77
Kenya 197 problems 65-70
mass tourism 278-9, 280 urban sprawl 78, 81, 88
Namibia 228 urban structure 59-64, 324-5
sustainable 279-80 Cape Town 85-6
Val Gardena 51-2 New York 80-1
volcanoes and 101 urban-to-rural migration 34
Toyota 260, 261, 261-4 urbanisation 15, 30, 34, 53-5, 226, 269
trade 221, 236, 253 and environment 71-8, 83-4
trade winds 209, 210 USA (United States of America) 11, 24, 134, 262, 265,
traffic 301
congestion 13, 67, 68-70, 71, 77, 83, 84, 277, 279 biofuels 296
pollution 71, 77, 78, 83, 279, 296 demographic transition 14, 15
traffic flows, fieldwork 343-4 energy consumption 284, 285
transmigration 36, 216, 217, 220 high-technology industries 265, 266-8
transnational corporations 235, 241, 258, 260-4, 269 hydroelectric power 299
transpiration 204, 215, 220, 222, 223 immigration 33
transport 40, 44, 45, 62, 252, 269, 285 and Panamanian rainforests 220-1, 222
and industrial location 256, 257, 265 secondary industries 255
London 67, 68-70 tourism 273, 274
public 59, 62, 63, 68-70, 77, 82, 84 tropical storms 188-90, 192
transportation of load 122, 123, 142-4 urban sprawl 78, 81
trends 335, 353 wheat production 243, 245
triangular graphs 333 wind power 294, 305
tropical cyclones see tropical storms Uzbekistan 301
tropical desert climate 205-11
tropical desert ecosystem 211, 212, 222-4 Val Gardena (Italy) 51-2
human activities 225-30 vegetation 201, 211, 213
tropical rainforests 191, 200, 201, 211, 212-22, 281 fieldwork 347-8
deforestation 36, 191, 215-20, 221, 241, 242 tropical deserts 222-4
shifting cultivation 217, 220, 245 tropical rainforests 36, 191, 200, 201, 212-14
tropical storms 13, 135, 185-92, 202, 252, 280 Venezuela 262, 299
and coasts 154, 156, 157, 158, 165 visual pollution 71, 83, 227, 270, 290, 294
tropopause 168, 179, 182, 183, 186, 209 volcanoes 89, 90, 97-104, 275-6, 293
troposphere 168, 179 distribution 91, 93, 94, 95, 96
Tsoelike Valley (Lesotho) 47-8
tsunami 89, 99, 105, 108-9, 144, 157, 304 waste 84, 281
Indian Ocean (2004) 157 industrial 256, 270-1
Japan (2011) 89, 154 nuclear 256, 301, 304
typhoons see tropical storms water cycle 222
water pollution 72, 76, 83, 156, 270, 271, 277, 279
Uganda 10, 20 water shortages 23, 306, 309
UK (United Kingdom) 9, 15, 67, 262, 279 water stress 194, 195, 227
nuclear power 301 water supplies 185, 194, 283, 306-9
pollution 270, 271, 300 clean water 9, 11, 15, 228
secondary industries 255 for industry 227, 256, 257, 306, 308
tourism 273, 274 New York 84
urban sprawl 78 power stations 300, 301, 302
364 wind power 294 settlements 43, 44, 46, 47, 68, 75, 77

|
 tourism 228, 277 wheat farming, Canada 243-5
waterfalls 121, 126, 130 wildlife 197, 198, 211, 217, 218, 287, 309
wave-cut platforms 144-5 wind power 185, 286, 291, 294, 305, 306
waves 138, 139-41, 144-5, 147, 148, 149, 151, 191 wind roses 332
weather 168, 185, 201, 211 wind vanes 174-5
droughts 192-9 winds
graphs and diagrams 176-7, 332 direction 168, 174-5, 185, 187
tropical storms 185-92 equatorial zones 205
weather elements 168 measuring 174-5
measuring 169-78 speed 174, 185, 187, 191
weather forecasts 168 trade winds 209, 210
weather maps 183, 185 tropical storms 187, 188, 191
weather stations 177-8, 185 women 10, 24, 34, 246, 247, 249
weathering 110, 111-17, 146, 211 education 9, 15, 23, 24
climate and 118-20, 208, 213 and population 9, 15, 17, 23, 26
soil formation 110, 111, 238 World Bank 134, 219, 222
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Authors
David Kelly
Muriel Fretwell

Comprehensive and globally-relevant, this new text directly supports the Cambridge
International Examinations syllabus for IGCSE Geography. The Student Book is
packed with international case studies, skills and research activities, fieldwork |
suggestions and geographic enquiry exercises.
Oxford and Cambridge are world leaders in international education. Our combined
expertise and knowledge shape Oxford’s resource a for Cambridge IGCSE.
You can rely on:
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e Thorough revision support focused on building exam confidence and sePpay 3 A |
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|David Kelly and Muriel Fretwell are both experienced examiners with over 50 years
of combined teaching experience.

Learning tips help you to ae theory toanexam

§ context oe ji

Discussion points and research suggestions get

students thinking critically :

rought

What is drought?

Geography
for Campric

‘Revision Guide
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