Civil Engineering A/P Foundation Engineering 2022/23

Chapter Four
Pile Foundation
4.1 Introduction
There are times when, because of economic or physical restrictions, or perhaps unusually heavy
loads, site with poor bearing capacity cannot be improved by procedures such as compaction,
chemicals, or preloading etc. In such cases thebuilding loads are transmitted to a deeper, more
suitable soil or rock formation via piles, drilled piers, or caissons. Foundations that encompass piles,
drilled piers, or caissons are generally classified deep foundations.
Piles are long slender columns either driven, bored or cast-in-situ. Driven piles are made of a
variety of materials such as concrete, steel, timber etc., whereas cast-in-situpiles are concrete piles.
They may be subjected to vertical or lateral loads or a combination of vertical and lateral loads. If
the diameter of a bored-cast-in-situ pile isgreater than about 0.75m, it is sometimes called a drilled
pier, drilled caisson or drilledshaft. The distinction made between a small diameter bored cast-in-situ
pile (less than 0.75m) and a larger one is just for the sake of design considerations.
The functional features common to deep foundations include their subject to an axial compressive
load, although some lateral forces are usually inevitable; also, sometimespiles and caissons serve as
anchors for special installations (e.g. guy lines, certain underpinning designs). The difference
between drilled piers and caissons lies primarily in their physical size and method of installation.
In general, a deep foundation is more expensive than an ordinary spread footing design. On the other
hand, it is frequently more economical and, generally, much morereliable than procedures associated
with soil stabilization. Indeed a subsurface evaluation should always be viewed as a most important
prerequisite in the context offoundation selection.
4.2 Pile Foundations
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the structure to the
bearing ground located at some depth below ground Surface. The maincomponents of the foundation
are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slendermembers, which transfer the load to deeper
soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity. The main types
of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven,
drilledor jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps.
Functions of Piles
Piles are commonly used for the following purposes:

(i) To carry the superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical and lateral
loads may be involved.
(ii) To resist uplift, or overturning, faces, such as for basement mats below the watertable or to
support tower legs subjected to overturning from lateral load such as wind.
(iii) To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile volumedisplacement
and driving vibrations. These piles may be later pulled.
(iv) To control settlements when spread footings or a mat is on a marginal soil or isunderlain by
a highly compressible stratum.

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(v) To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and
the natural frequency of the system.
(vi) As an additional safety factor beneath bridge abutments and/or piers, particularly if scour is
a potential problem.
(vii) In offshore construction to transmit loads above the water surface through the water and into
the underlying soil. This case is one in which partially embeddedpiling is subjected to vertical
(and buckling) as well as lateral loads.
4.3 Types of Piles
4.3.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functionalbehavior
 End bearing piles (point bearing piles)
 Friction piles (cohesion piles )
 Combination of end bearing and friction/cohesion piles
a. End bearing piles
These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base of
the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the
soil at the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such.
Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be consideredif part of the
pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water. However, sometimes, the soil surrounding the
pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This,
sometimes have considerable effect on the capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is caused by
the drainage of the ground water and consolidationof the soil. The founding depth of the pile is

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influenced by the results of the site investigation and soil test

Figure 4.1 Typical pile configurations

b. Friction or cohesion piles
The Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in contact with
the shaft of the pile. These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction.
Sometimes, the process of driving such piles reduces the porosity and compressibility of the soil
within and around the groups. In that case they are sometimes called compaction piles.
Since, these piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction, they are commonly
known as floating pile foundations.

Figure 4.2 End Bearing Pile and Friction or cohesion pile

c. Combination of end bearing and friction/cohesion piles

When the bearing stratum is not hard, such as firm clay, the pile is driven far enough into the lower
material to develop adequate frictional resistance. A farther variation ofthe end bearing pile is piles
with enlarged bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing abulb of concrete into the soft stratum
immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is produced with bored
piles by forming a large cone orbell at the bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are
provided with a bell have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles. (Refer Figure 4.4).

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Figure: 4.3 Under-reamed base enlargements to a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile

4.3.2 Classification of pile with respect to type of material
 Timber
 Concrete
 Steel
 Composite piles
a. Timber piles
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions where timber is plentiful.
Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off. Such piles shall be of sound
quality and free of defects. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling beneath
embankments.
The length of the pile may be 15m or more. If greater lengths are required, they may be spliced.
The diameter of the piles at the butt end may vary from 30 to 40 cm. The diameter at the tip end should
not be less than 15 cm. Piles entirely submerged in waterlast long without decay provided marine
borers are not present. When a pile is subjected to alternate wetting and drying, the useful life is
relatively short unless treated with a wood preservative.
After being driven to final depth, all pile heads, treated or untreated, should be sawedsquare to sound
undamaged wood to receive the pile cap. But before concrete for the pile cap is poured, the head of
the treated piles should be protected by a zinc coat, leadpaint or by wrapping the pile heads with fabric
upon which hot pitch is applied. Driving of timber piles usually results in the crushing of the fibers
on the head (or brooming) which can be somewhat controlled by using a driving cap, or ring around
the butt. The usual maximum design load per pile does not exceed 250kN. Timberpiles are usually
less expensive in places where timber is plentiful.

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Advantages of timber piles:

 The piles are easy to handle
 Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.
 Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.
Disadvantages of timber piles:
 The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearingcapacity.
 Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.
 The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.

b. Concrete Piles
Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles: Usually of square, triangle, circle or
octagonal section, they are produced in short length in one meter intervals between 3 and 13 meters.
They are pre-cast so that they can be easily connected together in order to reach to the required
length.
This will not decrease the design load capacity. Reinforcement is necessary within thepile to help
withstand both handling and driving stresses. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and are
becoming more popular than the ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required.
Maximum load on a pre-stressed concrete pile is approximately 2000kN and on precastpiles 1000kN.
The optimum load range is 400 to 600kN.

Figure 4.4 a) concrete pile connecting detail b) Squared pre-cast concrete pile
Cast-in-situ concrete piles: these piles are commonly used where relatively long and large diameter
piles with or without enlarged bases are required to support heavy loads.

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Advantages of Concrete Piles:

 Can be subjected to hard driving

 Corrosion resistant

 Can be easily combined with a concrete superstructure

Disadvantages of Concrete Piles:

 Difficult to achieve proper cutoff

 Difficult to transport

c. Steel Piles
Steel piles are usually rolled H shapes or pipe piles. H-piles are proportioned to withstand large
impact stresses during hard driving. Pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes which may
be driven either open-end or closed-end.
Pipe piles are often filled with concrete after driving, although in some cases this is notnecessary. The
optimum load range on steel piles is 400 to 1200kN.

Figure 4.5 Steel piles cross-sections

Advantages of Steel Piles:
 The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to the desired length.
 Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil duringdriving is low
(steel section H or I section piles) can be relatively easily splicedor bolted.
 Can be driven hard and in very long lengths.
 Can carry heavy loads.
 Can be successfully anchored in sloping rock.

 Small displacement piles particularly useful if ground displacements and disturbance

critical.
Disadvantages of Steel Piles:
 The piles will corrode,
 Will deviate relatively easy during driving.
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 Are relatively expensive.

d. Composite piles
These piles are combination of different materials in the same pile. As indicated earlier,part of a
timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay.
To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed
under the ground water level.

Figure: 4.6 Protecting timber piles from decay

a) By pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.

b) By extending pile cap below water level

4.3.3 Classification of pile based on the method of installation

According to the method of construction, there are three types of piles. They are
 Driven piles,
 Cast-in-situ piles and
 Driven and cast-in-situ piles.

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a) Driven Piles
Piles may be of timber, steel or concrete. When the piles are of concrete, they are to beprecast. They
may be driven either vertically or at an angle to the vertical. Piles are driven using a pile hammer.
When a pile is driven into granular soil, the soil so displaced, equal to the volume of the driven pile,
compacts the soil around the sides since the displaced soil particles
If a pile is driven into saturated silty or cohesive soil, the soil around the pile cannot be densified
because of its poor drainage qualities. The displaced soil particles cannotenter the void space unless
the water in the pores is pushed out. The stresses developed in the soil mass adjacent to the pile due
to the driving of the pile have to beborne by the pore water only. This results in the development of
pore water pressure and a consequent decrease in the bearing capacity of the soil.
The soil adjacent to the piles is remolded and loses to a certain extent its structural strength. The
immediate effect of driving a pile in a soil with poor drainage qualities is, therefore, to decrease its
bearing strength. However, with the passage of time, the remolded soil regains part of its lost
strength due to the reorientation of the disturbedparticles (which is termed thixotrophy) and due to
consolidation of the mass.

Advantages of driven piles are:

 Piles can be precast to the required specifications.
 Piles of any size, length and shape can be made in advance and used at the site.As a result,
the progress of the work will be rapid.
 A pile driven into granular soil compacts the adjacent soil mass and as a resultthe bearing
capacity of the pile is increased.
 The work is neat and clean. The supervision of work at the site can be reducedto a
minimum. The storage space required is very much less.
 Driven piles may conveniently be used in places where it is advisable not todrill holes
for fear of meeting ground water under pressure.
 Driven pile are the most favored for works over water such as piles in wharfstructures or
jetties.
Disadvantages of driven piles:
 Precast or pre-stressed concrete piles must be properly reinforced to withstandhandling
stresses during transportation and driving.
 Advance planning is required for handling and driving.
 Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
 Since the exact length required at the site cannot be determined in advance, the method
involves cutting off extra lengths or adding more lengths. This increases the cost of the
project.
 Driven piles are not suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities. If the driving ofpiles is not
properly phased and arranged, there is every possibility of heavingof the soil or the lifting of
the driven piles during the driving of a new pile.
 Where the foundations of adjacent structures are likely to be affected due to thevibrations
generated by the driving of piles, driven piles should not be used.

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b) Cast-in-situ Piles
Cast-in-situ piles are concrete piles. These piles are distinguished from drilled piers as small
diameter piles. They are constructed by making holes in the ground to the required depth and then
filling the hole with concrete. Straight bored piles or piles with one or more bulbs at intervals may
be cast at the site. The latter types are called under-reamed piles. Reinforcement may be used as per
the requirements.

Advantages
a) Piles of any size and length may be constructed at the site.
b) Damage due to driving and handling that is common in precast piles iseliminated in this
case.
c) These piles are ideally suited in places where vibrations of any type are requiredto be avoided
to preserve the safety of the adjoining structure.
d) They are suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities since cast-in-situ piles donot
significantly disturb the surrounding soil.
Disadvantages
e) Installation of cast-in-situ piles requires careful supervision and quality controlof all the
materials used in the construction.
f) The method is quite cumbersome. It needs sufficient storage space for all thematerials
used in the construction.
g) The advantage of increased bearing capacity due to compaction in granular soilthat could be
obtained by a driven pile is not produced by a cast-in-situ pile.
h) Construction of piles in holes where there is heavy current of ground water flowor artesian
pressure is very difficult.
A straight bored pile is shown in Figure. 4.8(a)
i) Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles
This type has the advantages and disadvantages of both the driven and the cast-in-situ
piles. The procedure of installing a driven and cast-in-situ pile is as follows:
A steel shell is driven into the ground with the aid of a mandrel inserted into the shell.The mandrel is
withdrawn and concrete is placed in the shell. The shell is made of corrugated and reinforced thin
sheet steel (mono-tube piles) or pipes (Armco welded pipes or common seamless pipes).
The piles of this type are called a shell type. The shell-less type is formed by withdrawing the shell
while the concrete is being placed.
In both types of piles the bottom of the shell is closed with a conical tip which can be separated from
the shell. By driving the concrete out of the shell an enlarged bulb maybe formed in both the types of
piles. Franki piles are of this type. The common types of driven and cast-in-situ piles are given in
Figure. 4.7d. In some cases the shell will beleft in place and the tube is concreted. This type of pile
is very much used in piling over water.

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Figure 4.7 Types of cast-in-situ and driven cast-in-situ concrete piles

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4.4 Load Transfer Mechanism of Piles

The load transfer mechanism from a pile to the soil is complicated. To understand it, consider a pile of length
L, as shown in Figure 4.8a. The load on the pile is gradually increased from zero to Q(z = 0) at the ground
surface. Part of this load will be resisted by the side friction developed along the shaft, Q1, and the rest by the
soil below the tip of the pile, Q2. Now, how is the total load Q(z = 0) shared between Q1 and Q2. If
measurements are made to obtain the load carried by the pile shaft, Q(z), at any depth z, the nature of the
variation found will be like that shown in curve 1 of Figure 4.8b. The frictional resistance per unit area at any
depth z may be determined as
∆𝑄(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑝)(∆) (4.1)

Figure 4.8 Load transfer mechanism for piles

where p = perimeter of the cross section of the pile. Figure 4.8c shows the variation of f(z) with depth.
If the load Q at the ground surface is gradually increased, maximum frictional resistance along the pile shaft
will be fully mobilized when the relative displacement between the soil and the pile is about 5 to 10mm,
irrespective of the pile size and length, L. However, the maximum point resistance Q2 = Qp will not be
mobilized until the tip of the pile has moved about 10 to 25% of the pile width (or diameter). (The lower limit
applies to driven piles and the upper limit to bored piles.) At ultimate load (Figure 4.9d and curve 2 in Figure
4.8b), Q( z = 0) = Qu. Thus,

The preceding explanation indicates that Qs (or the unit skin friction, f, along the pile shaft) is developed at a
much smaller pile displacement compared with the point resistance, Qp.

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At ultimate load, the failure surface in the soil at the pile tip (a bearing capacity failure caused by Qp) is like
that shown in Figure 4.8e. Note that pile foundations are deep foundations and that the soil fails mostly in a
punching mode. That is, a triangular zone, I, is developed at the pile tip, which is pushed downward without
producing any other visible slip surface. In dense sands and stiff clayey soil, a radial shear zone, II, may
partially develop.

1.3. Equations for Estimating Single Pile Capacity

The ultimate load-carrying capacity Qu of a pile is given by the equation

𝑄𝑢 = 𝑄𝑝 + 𝑄𝑠 (4.2)

Where
Qp = load {carrying capacity of the pile point
Qs = frictional resistance (skin friction) derived from the soil–pile interface
4.4.1 Point Bearing Capacity, Qp
According to Terzaghi’s equations, the ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations is given by:

Similarly, the general bearing capacity equation for shallow foundations was given (for vertical loading) as;

Hence, in general, the ultimate load-bearing capacity may be expressed as

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐 ′ 𝑁𝑐∗ + 𝑞𝑁𝑞∗ + 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾∗ (4.3)

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Figure 4.9 Ultimate load-carrying capacity of pile

Pile foundations are deep. However, the ultimate resistance per unit area developed at the pile tip, 𝑞𝑝 , may
be expressed by an equation similar in form to Eq. (4.3), although the values of 𝑁𝑐∗ , 𝑁𝑞∗ and 𝑁𝛾∗ will change.
The notation used in this chapter for the width of of a pile is D. Hence substituting D for B in Eq. (4.3) gives
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑞𝑝 = 𝑐 ′ 𝑁𝑐∗ + 𝑞𝑁𝑞∗ + 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾∗ (4.4)

Because the width D of a pile is relatively small, the term 𝛾𝐷𝑁𝛾∗ may be dropped from the right side of the
preceding equation without introducing a serious error; thus, we have

𝑞𝑝 = 𝑐 ′ 𝑁𝑐∗ + 𝑞′𝑁𝑞∗ (4.5)

Note that the term q has been replaced by q’ in Eq. (4.5), to signify effective vertical stress. Thus, the point
bearing of piles is

𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 (𝑐 ′ 𝑁𝑐∗ + 𝑞′𝑁𝑞∗ ) (4.6)

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4.4.2 Frictional Resistance, Qs

The frictional, or skin, resistance of a pile may be written as

𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝑝∆𝐿𝑓 (4.7)

Allowable Load, Qall

After the total ultimate load-carrying capacity of a pile has been determined by summing
the point bearing capacity and the frictional (or skin) resistance, a reasonable factor of
safety should be used to obtain the total allowable load for each pile, or
𝑄
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐹𝑆𝑢 (4.8)

Where
Qall = allowable load-carrying capacity for each pile
FS = factor of safety
The factor of safety generally used ranges from 2 to 3, depending on the uncertainties surrounding the
calculation of ultimate load.
It needs to be reemphasized that, in the field, for full mobilization of the point resistance (Qp), the pile tip must
go through a displacement of 10 to 25% of the pile width (or diameter).
Following approaches are adopted to estimate the bearing capacity of piles. But static method will be
considered in this chapter.
(I) Static Methods
(II) Dynamic Methods
(III) Pile Test Method
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Only static method is discussed in this chapter.

I. Static Methods
These methods are based on field and laboratory tests and the formulae so developed are empirical in nature.
These formulae are derived on the basis of soil parameters such cohesion and angle of friction.

A) Pile Point Resistance, 𝑸𝒑

There are various methods to determine the point resistance of a pile

1) Meyerhof’s Method
a). Sand

The point bearing capacity, 𝑞𝑝 , of a pile in sand generally increases with the depth of embedment in the bearing
stratum and reaches a maximum value at an embedment ratio of 𝐿𝑏 ⁄𝐷 = (𝐿𝑏 ⁄𝐷)𝑐𝑟 Note that in a
homogeneous soil, 𝐿𝑏 is equal to the actual embedment length of the pile, L. However, where a pile has
penetrated into a bearing stratum, 𝐿𝑏 < 𝐿. Beyond the critical embedment ratio, (𝐿𝑏 ⁄𝐷)𝑐𝑟 , the value of 𝑞𝑝
remains constant (𝑞𝑝 = 𝑞𝑙 ). That is, as shown in Figure 4.10a for the case of a homogeneous soil, 𝐿𝑏 < 𝐿.

Figure 4.10

For piles in sand, c = 0, and Eq. (4.6) simplifies to

𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑞′𝑁𝑞⋆ (4.9)

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The variation 𝑁𝑞⋆ of with soil friction angle 𝜙′ is shown in Figure 4.10b. The interpolated values of 𝑁𝑞⋆ for
various friction angles are also given in Table 4.1. However, Qp should not exceed the limiting value; 𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑙
that is,

𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑞′𝑁𝑞⋆ ≤ 𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑙 (4.10)
The limiting point resistance is

𝑞𝑙 = 0.5𝑝𝑎 𝑁𝑞⋆ tan 𝜙′ (4.11)

Where

𝑝𝑎 = Atmospheric pressure (= 100 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 )

𝜙 ′ = Effective soil friction angle of the bearing stratum

Table 4.1: Interpolated Values of Nq* Based on Meyerhof’s Theory

b). Clay (𝝓 = 𝟎)

For piles in saturated clays under undrained conditions, (ϕ = 0) the net ultimate load can be given as

𝑄𝑝 = 𝑁𝑐⋆ 𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑝 = 9𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑝 (4.12)

Where 𝑐𝑢 = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile.

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B) Frictional Resistance, 𝑸𝒔
a. Sand
Frictional resistance, 𝑄𝑠 is

The unit frictional resistance, f, is hard to estimate. In making an estimation of f, several important factors must
be kept in mind:
i. The nature of the pile installation. For driven piles in sand, the vibration caused during pile driving
helps densify the soil around the pile. The zone of sand densification may be as much as 2.5 times the
pile diameter in the sand surrounding the pile.
ii. It has been observed that the nature of variation of f in the field is approximately as shown in Figure
1.4. The unit skin friction increases with depth more or less linearly to a depth of 𝐿′ and remains
constant thereafter. The magnitude of the critical depth 𝐿′ may be 15 to 20 pile diameters. A
conservative estimate would be
𝐿′ ≈ 15𝐷
iii. At similar depths, the unit skin friction in loose sand is higher for a high displacement pile compared
with a low-displacement pile.
iv. At similar depths, bored, or jetted, piles will have a lower unit skin friction compared with driven piles.
Taking into account the preceding factors, we can give the following approximate relationship for f (see Figure
4.11):

For 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝐿′ ,

𝑓 = 𝐾𝜎′𝑜 tan 𝛿′ (4.16)

and for 𝑧 = 𝐿′ 𝑡𝑜 𝐿,

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑧=𝐿′ (4.17)

In these equations,

𝐾 = effective earth pressure coefficient

𝜎′𝑜 = effective vertical stress at the depth under consideration

𝛿 ′ = soil-pile friction angle

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Figure 4.11 Unit frictional resistance for piles in sand

In reality, the magnitude of K varies with depth; it is approximately equal to the Rankine passive earth pressure
coefficient, Kp at the top of the pile and may be less than the at-rest pressure coefficient, Ko, at a greater
depth. Based on presently available results, the following average values of K are recommended for use in
Eq. (4.16):

Based on load test results in the field, Mansur and Hunter (1970) reported the following average values of K:
H- piles: K = 1.65
Steel pipe piles: K = 1.26
Precast concrete piles: K = 1.5

The values of δ from various investigations appear to be in the range from 0.5𝜙 𝑡𝑜 0.8𝜙.

Table 4.4 Coefficient of friction between sand and pile material

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b. Clay
Estimating the frictional (or skin) resistance of piles in clay is almost as difficult a task as
estimating that in sand due to the presence of several variables that cannot easily be quantified. Several
methods for obtaining the unit frictional resistance of piles are described in the literature. We shall discuss
three methods only which are very common in practice’

a) λ Method
This method, proposed by Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972), is based on the assumption that the displacement of
soil caused by pile driving results in a passive lateral pressure at any depth and that the average unit skin
resistance is
̅ 𝑜 + 2𝑐𝑢 )
𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 𝜆(𝜎′ (4.18)
Where
̅ 𝑜 = mean effective vertical stress for the entire embedment length.
𝜎′

𝑐𝑢 = mean undrained shear strength (𝜙 = 0).

The value of λ decreases with the depth of penetration of the pile. (See Table 4.5) below.
Table 4.5 Variation of λ with Pile Embedment Length, L

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Thus, the total frictional resistance may be calculated as

̅ 𝑜 and 𝑐𝑢 in layered soil. Figure 4.12 helps explain the reason.

Care should be taken in obtaining the values of 𝜎′
Figure 4.12a shows a pile penetrating three layers of clay. According to Figure 4.12b, the mean value of 𝑐𝑢 is
(𝑐𝑢(1) 𝐿1 + 𝑐𝑢(2) 𝐿2 + ⋯ )⁄𝐿. Similarly, Figure 4.12c shows the plot of the variation of effective stress with
depth. The mean effective stress is

Where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … = areas of the vertical effective stress diagrams.

Figure 4.12 Application of λ method in layered soil

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b) 𝞪 Method
According to the 𝞪 method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be represented by the equation

𝑓 = 𝛼𝑐𝑢 (4.19)

Where is an empirical adhesion factor that lies in the range of 0–1, decreasing with the undrained shear
strength 𝑐𝑢 .

The approximate variation of the value of 𝞪 is shown in Table 4.6.

The ultimate side resistance can thus be given as

𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝑓𝑝𝛥𝐿 = ∑ 𝛼𝑐𝑢 𝑝𝛥𝐿 (4.20)

Table 4.6 Variation of (Interpolated Values Based on Terzaghi et al., 1996)

c) β Method
When piles are driven into saturated clays, the pore water pressure in the soil around the piles increases. The
excess pore water pressure in normally consolidated clays may be four to six times 𝑐𝑢 . However, within a
month or so, this pressure gradually dissipates. Hence, the unit frictional resistance for the pile can be
determined on the basis of the effective stress parameters of the clay in a remolded state(𝑐 ′ = 0). Thus, at any
depth,

𝑓 = 𝛽𝜎′𝑜 (4.21)

Where

𝜎′𝑜 = vertical effective stress

𝛽 = 𝐾 tan 𝜙′𝑅 (4.22)

𝜙′𝑅 = drained friction angle of remolded clay

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𝐾 = earth pressure coefficient

Conservatively, the magnitude of K is the earth pressure coefficient at rest, or

K = 1 − sin ϕ′R (for normally consolidated clays) (4.23)

And

K = (1 − sin ϕ′R )√𝑂𝐶𝑅 (for overconsolidated clays) (4.24)

Where OCR = overconsolidation ratio.
Combining Eqs. (4.21), (4.22), (4.23), and (4.24), for normally consolidated clays yields

𝑓 = (1 − sin ϕ′R ) tan ϕ′R 𝜎′𝑜 (4.25)

and for overconsolidated clays,

𝑓 = (1 − sin ϕ′R ) tan ϕ′R √𝑂𝐶𝑅𝜎′𝑜 (4.26)

With the value of f determined, the total frictional resistance may be evaluated as

4.5 Negative Skin Friction

Negative skin friction is a downward drag force exerted on a pile by the soil surrounding it. Such a force can
exist under the following conditions, among others:
1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is driven, the fill will gradually
consolidate. The consolidation process will exert a downward drag force on the pile (see Figure 4.13a)
during the period of consolidation.
2. If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, as shown in Figure 4.13b, it will induce the
process of consolidation in the clay layer and thus exert a downward drag on the pile.
3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil at any depth, which
will induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is located in the clay layer, it will be subjected to
a downward drag force.

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Figure 4.13 Negative skin friction

In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause foundation failure. This section outlines
two tentative methods for the calculation of negative skin friction.

i. Clay Fill over Granular Soil

Similar to the β method, the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is

𝑓𝑛 = 𝐾′𝜎′𝑜 tan 𝛿′ (4.27)

Where

𝐾 ′ = earth pressure coefficient = 𝐾𝑂 = 1 − sin 𝜙′

𝜎′𝑜 = vertical effective stress at any depth 𝑧 = 𝛾′𝑓 𝑧

𝛾′𝑓 = effective unit weight of fill

𝛿 ′ = soil–pile friction angle ≈ 0.5 − 0.7𝜙′

Hence, the total downward drag force on a pile is

𝐻 𝑝𝐾′𝛾′𝑓 𝐻𝑓2 tan 𝛿 ′

𝑄𝑛 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑝𝐾′ 𝛾′𝑓 tan 𝜙′)𝑧𝑑𝑧 = (4.28)
2

Where 𝐻𝑓 = height of the fill. If the fill is above the water table, the effective unit weight, 𝛾′𝑓 should be
replaced by the moist unit weight.

ii. Granular Soil Fill over Clay

In this case, the evidence indicates that the negative skin stress on the pile may exist from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝐿1 ,
which is referred to as the neutral depth. The neutral depth may be given as (Bowles, 1982)

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(𝐿−𝐻𝑓 ) 𝐿−𝐻𝑓 𝛾′𝑓 𝐻𝑓 2𝛾′𝑓 𝐻𝑓

𝐿1 = [ + ]− (4.29)
𝐿1 2 𝛾′ 𝛾′

Where 𝛾′𝑓 and 𝛾′ effective unit weights of the fill and the underlying clay layer, respectively.

For end-bearing piles, the neutral depth may be assumed to be located at the pile tip ( 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐿1 = 𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 ).

Once the value of 𝐿1 is determined, the downward drag force is obtained in the following manner: The unit
negative skin friction at any depth from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 𝐿1 is

𝑓𝑛 = 𝐾′𝜎′𝑜 tan 𝛿′ (4.30)

Where

𝐿1 𝐿1
𝑄𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑓𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑝𝐾′( 𝛾′𝑓 𝐻𝑓 + 𝛾′𝑧) tan 𝛿′ 𝑑𝑧
0 0

𝐿21 𝑝𝐾′𝛾′ tan 𝛿′

= (𝑝𝐾 ′ 𝛾′𝑓 𝐻𝑓 tan 𝛿′)𝐿1 + (4.31)
2

If the soil and the fill are above the water table, the effective unit weights should be replaced by moist unit
weights. In some cases, the piles can be coated with bitumen in the downdrag zone to avoid this problem.

4.6 Elastic Settlement of Piles

The total settlement of a pile under a vertical working load 𝑄𝑤 , is given by

𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒(1) + 𝑆𝑒(2) + 𝑆𝑒(3) (4.32)

Where

𝑆𝑒(1) = elastic settlement of pile

𝑆𝑒(2) = settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile tip

𝑆𝑒(3) = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted along the pile shaft

If the pile material is assumed to be elastic, the deformation of the pile shaft can be evaluated, in accordance
with the fundamental principles of mechanics of materials, as
(𝑄𝑤𝑝 +𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠 )𝐿
𝑆𝑒(1) = (4.33)
𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝

Where

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𝑄𝑤𝑝 = load carried at the pile point under working load condition

𝑄𝑤𝑠 = load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under working load condition

𝐴𝑝 = area of cross section of pile

𝐿 = length of pile

𝐸𝑝 = modulus of elasticity of the pile material

The magnitude of 𝝃 varies between 0.5 and 0.67 and will depend on the nature of the distribution of the unit
friction (skin) resistance f along the pile shaft.
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried at the pile point may be expressed in the form:
𝑞𝑤𝑝 𝐷
𝑆𝑒(2) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑝 (4.34)
𝐸𝑠

Where
𝐷 = width or diameter of pile

𝑞𝑤𝑝 = point load per unit area at the pile point = 𝑄𝑤𝑝 ⁄𝐴𝑝

𝐸𝑠 = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point

𝜇𝑠 = Poisson’s ratio of soil

𝐼𝑤𝑝 = influence factor ≈ 0.85

The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried by the pile shaft is given by
𝑄 𝐷
𝑤𝑠
𝑆𝑒(3) = ( 𝑝𝐿 ) 𝐸 (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑠 (4.35)
𝑠

Where
𝑝 = perimeter of the pile

𝐿 = embedded length of pile

𝐼𝑤𝑠 = influence factor

Note that the term 𝑄𝑤𝑠 ⁄𝑝𝐿 in Eq. (1.40) is the average value of f along the pile shaft. The
influence factor, 𝐼𝑤𝑠 , has a simple empirical relation (Vesic, 1977):

𝐿
𝐼𝑤𝑠 = 2 + 0.35√𝐷 (4.36)

4.7. Pile groups

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It is rare that a structure is founded on a single pile. Generally, there will be a minimum of two or three piles
under a foundation element or footing to allow for misalignments and other inadvertent eccentricities. When
we have clusters of piles under the foundation, the action of the entire group must be considered. This is
particularly important when purely friction piles are used. The bearing capacity of a group of pile group is not
necessarily the capacity of the individual pile multiplied by the number of piles in the group; the phenomenon
by virtue of which this discrepancy occurs is known as ‘Group action of piles’.

4.7.1 Number and Spacing of Piles

For stable support, piles for walls are commonly installed in a staggered arrangement to both sides of the center
line of the wall. For a column, at least three piles are used in a triangular pattern, even for small loads. When
more than three piles are required in order to obtain adequate capacity, the arrangement of piles is symmetrical
about the point or area of load application. Fig 4.14 presents some typical pile clusters, for illustrative purposes
only, since the designer must make up the group geometry to satisfy any given problem.
The requirement for group arrangement of driven piles does not apply to bored piles. A single large diameter
drilled shaft pile is commonly used to support columns in residential buildings. This may be used when the
three-pile configuration yields unnecessary extra load carrying capacity in the case of driven piles.
The spacing of piles in a group depends upon a number of factors such as the overlapping of stresses of adjacent
piles, cost of foundation and the desired efficiency of the pile group.

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Figure 4.14 Typical pile-group patterns: (a) for isolated pile caps; (b) for foundation walls.

In the case of driven piles there will be greater overlap of stresses due to the displacement of soil. If piles are
driven in loose sands, compaction takes place and hence, the spacing may besmall. However, if piles are driven
in saturated silt or clay, compaction does not take place but the piles may experience uplift. To avoid this,
greater spacing may be adopted. Smaller spacing may be used for cast-in-situ piles in view of less disturbance.
Point-bearing piles may be more closely spaced than friction piles. The minimum spacing of piles is usually
specified in building codes. EBCS-7 gives minimum spacing for piles in order to minimize the cost of pile cap
Table: Minimum Pile Spacing According to EBCS-7

No. Pile Type c/c spacing, S

1 End bearing piles passing through relatively compressible 2.5d
strata
2 End bearing piles passing through compressible strata are 3.5d
resting on stiff clay
3 Compaction piles 2d
4 Friction Piles 3d
5 Driven Piles 2.5d
6 Bored Piles 3d (but ≥ 1.1𝑚)
7 Underreamed Piles 2𝑑𝑢
d = average pile diameter
du = diameter of under-reamed pile base

Piles should be, in general, driven proceeding outward from the center, except in soft clay or
very soft soil; in the latter case, the pile driving proceeds from the periphery of the foundation to
the center to prevent the lateral flow of the soil during driving.

4.7.2. Pile Caps

Unless a single pile is used, a cap is necessary to spread the vertical and horizontal loads and any overturning
moments to all the piles in the group. The cap is usually of reinforced concrete, poured on the ground unless
the soil is expansive. Caps for offshore structures are often fabricated from steel shapes. The pile cap has a

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reaction that is a series of concentrated loads (the piles); and the design considers the column loads and
moments, any soil overlying the cap (if it is below the ground surface), and the weight of the cap.

4.7.3. Group Efficiency

In most cases, piles are used in groups, as shown in Figure 4.15, to transmit the structural load to the soil. A
pile cap is constructed over group piles. The cap can be in contact with the ground, as in most cases (see Figure
4.15a), or well above the ground, as in the case of offshore platforms (see Figure 4.15b).
Determining the load-bearing capacity of group piles is extremely complicated and has not yet been fully
resolved. When the piles are placed close to each other, a reasonable assumption is that the stresses transmitted
by the piles to the soil will overlap (see Figure 4.15c), reducing the load-bearing capacity of the piles. Ideally,
the piles in a group should be spaced so that the load-bearing capacity of the group is not less than the sum of
the bearing capacity of the individual piles. In practice, the minimum center-to-center pile spacing, d, is 2.5D
and, in ordinary situations, is actually about 3 to 3.5D.

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Figure 4.15 Group piles

The group load- bearing capacity is tried to be correlated with the load-bearing capacity of a single pile because
it is comparatively simple to find out the bearing capacity of single pile. The ratio of the load- bearing capacity
of a pile- group, 𝑄𝑔(𝑢) ,to the total load- bearing capacity of the piles acting as individual piles 𝑛𝑄𝑢 is called
the group efficiency or group efficiency factor, η.
The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as
𝑄𝑔(𝑢) 𝑄𝑔(𝑢)
𝜂= = ∑ 𝑄𝑢
(4.37)
𝑛𝑄𝑢

Many structural engineers use a simplified analysis to obtain the group efficiency for friction piles, particularly
in sand. This type of analysis can be explained with the aid of Figure 4.14a. Depending on their spacing within
the group, the piles may act in one of two ways: (1) as a block, with dimensions 𝐿𝑔 𝑥𝐵𝑔 𝑥𝐿, or (2) as individual
piles. If the piles act as a block, the frictional capacity is 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝑝𝑔 𝐿 ≈ 𝑄𝑔(𝑢) . [Note: 𝑝𝑔 = perimeter of the cross
section of the block= 2(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2)𝑑 + 4𝐷, and 𝑓𝑎𝑣 = average unit frictional resistance.] Similarly, for each
pile acting individually, 𝑄𝑢 ≈ 𝑝𝐿𝑓𝑎𝑣 . (Note:𝑝 = perimeter of the cross section of each pile.)

There are several other equations for calculating the group efficiency of friction piles. Some of these are given
below.

1. Converse-Labarre Equation
(𝑛1 −1)𝑛2 +(𝑛2 −1)𝑛1
𝜂 = 1−[ ]𝜃 (4.38)
90𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃(𝑑𝑒𝑔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛− (𝐷⁄𝑑 )
2. Los Angeles Group Action Equation
𝐷
𝜂 = 1 − 𝜋𝑑𝑛 [𝑛1 (𝑛2 − 1) + 𝑛2 (𝑛1 − 1) + √2(𝑛1 − 1)(𝑛2 − 1)] (4.39)
1 𝑛2

4.7.4 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay

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Figure below shows a group pile in saturated clay. Here the piles and the clay are treated as a monolithic block.
Using the figure, one can estimate the ultimate loadbearing capacity of group piles in the following manner:

Figure 4.16 Ultimate capacity of group piles in clay

1. Determine ∑ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑄𝑝 + 𝑄𝑠 )
Where 𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 [9𝐶𝑢(𝑝) ] in which 𝐶𝑢(𝑝) is undrained cohesion of the clay at the pile tip and 𝑄𝑠 =
∑ 𝛼𝑝𝐶𝑢 𝛥𝐿. So,
∑ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝑛1 𝑛2 [9𝐴𝑝 𝐶𝑢(𝑝) + ∑ 𝛼𝑝𝐶𝑢 𝛥𝐿] (4.40)
2. Determine the ultimate capacity by assuming that the piles in the group act as a block with dimensions
𝐿𝑔 𝑥𝐵𝑔 𝑥𝐿. The skin resistance of the block is
∑ 𝑝𝑔𝐶𝑢𝛥𝐿 = ∑ 2(𝐿𝑔 + 𝐵𝑔 )𝐶𝑢 𝛥𝐿
Calculate the point bearing capacity:
𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝐶𝑢(𝑃) 𝑁𝑐⋆ = (𝐿𝑔 𝐵𝑔 )𝐶𝑢(𝑃) 𝑁𝑐⋆
Obtain the value of the bearing capacity factor Nc* from Figure below. Thus, the ultimate load is
∑ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝐿𝑔 𝐵𝑔 𝐶𝑢(𝑝) 𝑁𝑐⋆ + ∑ 2(𝐿𝑔 + 𝐵𝑔 )𝐶𝑢 𝛥𝐿 (4.41)

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Figure 4.17 Variation of 𝑁𝑐⋆ with 𝐿𝑔 ⁄𝐵𝑔 and 𝐿⁄𝐵𝑔

The essential points are;

1. The ultimate load capacity of a pile group is not necessarily the ultimate
load capacity of a single pile multiplied by the number of piles in the group.
2. A pile group can either fail by the group failing as a single pile unit, called
block failure mode, or as individual piles, called single pile failure mode.
4.7.5 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles
In general, the settlement of a group pile under a similar working load per pile increases with the width of the
group Bg and the center-to-center spacing of the piles (d). Several investigations relating to the settlement of
group piles have been reported in the literature, with widely varying results. The simplest relation for the
settlement of group piles was given by Vesic (1969), namely,

𝐵𝑔
𝑆𝑔(𝑒) = √ 𝐷 𝑆𝑒 (4.42)

Where

𝑆𝑔(𝑒) elastic settlement of group piles

𝐵𝑔 = width of group pile section

𝐷 = width or diameter of each pile in the group

𝑆𝑒 = elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load (you can see “elastic settlement of
piles” as discussed above about this)
For group piles in sand and gravel, for elastic settlement, Meyerhof (1976) suggested the empirical relation

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0.96𝑞√𝐵𝑔 𝐼
𝑆𝑔(𝑒) (𝑚𝑚) = (4.43)
𝑁60

Where

𝑞 = 𝑄𝑔 ⁄(𝐵𝑔 𝐿𝑔 ) (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 ) (4.44)

𝐿𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑔 = length and width of the group pile section, respectively (m)

𝑁60 = average standard penetration number within seat of settlement (≈ 𝐵𝑔 deep below the tip
of the piles)

𝐼 = influence factor = 1 − 𝐿⁄8𝐵𝑔 ≥ 0.5

𝐿 = length of embedment piles (m)

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