ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

ELE 814

Capt (NN) Engr Dr

Isah Musa Danjuma

Department of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering

Nigerian Defence Academy

Kaduna

September, 2022
 1

MICROWAVES

The microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum can be subdivided into

three ranges: ultra-high frequency (300 MHz to 3 GHz), super high frequency (3 to
30 GHz), and extremely high frequency (30 to 300 GHz). When propagating in
free space, they travel in straight lines and are reflected by the conducting surfaces.
They become weak within shorter distances, hence have to be protected or guided
in a suitable medium. One interesting feature of microwaves is that it supports
larger bandwidth and hence higher data rates for transmission. For this
reason, microwaves are used for point-to-point communications. The associated
antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher as well as low power
consumption. Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight
microwave links for propagation. Microwaves provide effective reflection area
in the radar systems. Satellite and terrestrial communications with high
capacities are possible. Low-cost miniature microwave components can be
developed. Effective spectrum usage with wide variety of applications in all
available frequency ranges of operation. Disadvantages of Microwaves: Cost
of equipment or connection cost is high. Electromagnetic interference may occur
and variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur and cause
losses. Applications of Microwaves: Wireless Communications. Navigation.
Military and Radar. Research Applications. Food Industry. Industrial Uses.
Semiconductor Processing Techniques. Spectroscopy. Medical Applications.

Propagation of electromagnetic waves in different media was considered in the

previous lectures. Here, the waves were seen to be unbounded or unguided, but
transmitted wireless through the intervening medium. Sometimes, however, we
need to connect the electromagnetic wave energy through short distances as in
microwave circuits, or longer lengths as in a radio transmitter to antenna units, or
 2
even very long distances as in guiding lightwaves through optical fibers. At
microwave frequencies, the em energy cannot be conveyed successfully using
copper wires, even the coaxial cables present heavy losses, thus the need for better
guiding structures. Metallic pipes or dielectric rods have proved to be the solution.
An example of metallic pipes is the hollow rectangular waveguide while the
optical fiber is a solid dielectric rod. We will be considering metallic waveguide
mainly in studying wave-guiding structures. The fundamental understanding of
metallic waveguide, its structure as well as the conditions under which the
waveguide can be designed to guide the waves over long distances will provide the
general principles for all other structures. Metallic waveguide consists of a
hollow metallic tube of a rectangular or circular shape used to guide an
electromagnetic wave and used principally at frequencies in the microwave range.
In waveguides the electric and magnetic fields are confined to the space within
the guide. Thus no power is lost through radiation, and even the dielectric loss
is negligible, since the guides are normally air-filled. The metallic waveguides
types are shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 The waveguides must satisfy the following conditions:

First, they must be able to guide electromagnetic waves over a long distance
without losing the energy significantly.
 3
Second, signal transmitting through them must not be distorted, and they must be
structured in such a way that they can support a number of electromagnetic (EM)
field modes.

The solution of Maxwell's equations for particular waveguides corresponds to

certain modes. A given waveguide has a definite cutoff frequency for each allowed
mode. A consequence of this is that metallic waveguides (but not dielectric ones)
are associated with a distinct frequency below which the mode of interest can not
propagate or will be attenuated to a negligible value in a relatively short distance.
Also, in a waveguide the group velocity and phase velocity are both different from
the plane wave velocity. If the frequency of the impressed signal is above the
cutoff frequency for a given mode, the electromagnetic energy can be transmitted
through the guide for that particular mode without attenuation. The dominant mode
in a particular guide is the mode having the lowest cutoff frequency.

The dimensions of a guide are chosen in such a way that, for a given input signal,
only the energy of the dominant mode can be transmitted through the guide. The
process of solving the waveguide problems may involve three steps:

1. The desired wave equations are written in the form of either rectangular or
cylindrical coordinate systems suitable to the problem at hand.

2. The boundary conditions are then applied to the wave equations set up in step 1.

3. The resultant equations usually are in the form of partial differential equations in
either time or frequency domain are then be solved by using the proper method just
as was done for the case of free space.
 4

WAVE TYPES

It turns out that the electromagnetic waves we will discuss, can be conveniently
divided into three groups according to the z-components of the electric and
magnetic fields (i.e. for +z direction of propagation).

1. Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves. In this case both Ez and Hz are zero.
An example of this is a plane electromagnetic wave which has both electric and
magnetic field perpendicular to the propagation direction.

2. Transverse electric (TE) waves contain no electric field component in the z-

direction. However, the magnetic field contains a z-component.

3. Transverse magnetic (TM) waves contain no magnetic field component in the z-

direction. However, the electric field contains a z-component.
Waveguides of a closed cross section with only one conductor can not support
TEM waves. In magnetostatics we have learned that magnetic flux lines always
close upon themselves. This is also true in time-varying cases. Therefore a possible
TEM wave in a waveguide would contain B and H fields forming closed loops in
the transverse plane. By using Ampere's law around one such loop, we would find
that there would be a current inside the loop in the longitudinal direction. This
current would be the sum of conduction and displacement current. The absence of
a center conductor would give zero conduction current. Also, the displacement
current (∂D/∂t) would have no longitudinal component since for TEM waves Ez =
0 by definition. Since no total longitudinal current occurs, the solution does not
exist if only one conductor is present.
 5

A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. The
conducting walls of the guide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide the
electromagnetic wave. Normally a component of either electric or magnetic field is in the
direction of propagation of the resultant wave; therefore the wave is no longer a
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave. Figure 2 shows that any uniform plane wave in
a lossless guide may be resolved into TE and TM waves.

Figure 2 Plane wave re lected in a waveguide.

The wavelength A is in the direction of propagation of the incident wave can be

resolved into two components: there is one component An in the direction
normal to the reflecting plane and another AP parallel to the plane. These
components are
A
An = -­
cos 0
A
AP = -n-0
si

where 0 = angle of incidence

A = wavelength of the impressed signal in unbounded medium
In lossless waveguides, the fields may be classified as either transverse
electric (TE) mode or transverse magnetic (TM) mode. The modes are designated
TEmn or TMmn •

The integer m denotes the number of half waves of electric or magnetic intensity in the
x direction, and n is the number of half waves in the y direction if the propagation of
the wave is assumed in the positive z direction.
 6

We will consider the sinusoidal steady-state or the frequency-domain

solution. A rectangular coordinate system is shown in Fig. 3.

i ;1-z
I /
I/
IL ___ _
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/

0 X
Fig. 3 Rectangular coordinates.
The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency
domain are given by

V2 E = ·y2 E
v2u = -y2 u
where ,' = Yjwµ,(a + jwe) =a + jf3.

These are called the vector wave equations

Rectangular coordinates are the usual right-hand system. The rectangular com­
ponents of E or H satisfy the complex scalar wave equation or Helmholtz equation
v2 ljl = o/21/1

The Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates is

iJ21/1 a2 ljl a2 ljl

= 21/1 (1)
ax2 + ay2 + az 2 "

This is a linear and inhomogeneous partial differential equation in three di­

mensions. By the method of separation of variables, the solution is assumed in the
form of 1/1 = X(x)Y(y)Z(z) (2)
where X (x) = a function of the x coordinate only
Y (y) = a function of the y coordinate only
Z(z) = a function of the z coordinate only
 7

Substitution of Eq. (2) in Eq. (1) and division of the resultant by Eq. (2) yield

1 d X --
--
2
1 d Y --1d Z = 2
2 2

2 + 2 + 'Y (3)
X dx Y dy2
Z dz
Since the sum of the three terms on the left-hand side is a constant and each term is
independently variable, it follows that each term must be equal to a constant.
Let the three terms be k;, k;, and k;, respectively; then the separation equation
is given by
-k; - k; - k; = -y2
The general solution of each differential equation in Eq. (3)
d 2X
-k;X
dx2

-k�Y

-k;Z

will be in the form of

X = A sin (kxx) + B cos (kxx)
Y = C sin (kyy ) + D cos (kyy )
Z = E sin (kz z) + F cos (kzz)
The total solution of the Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates is
1/J = [A sin (kxx) + B cos (kxx)][C sin (kyy) + D cos (kyy )]
x [E sin (kzz) + F cos (kzz)] (4)
The propagation of the wave in the guide is assumed in the positive z direction.
Note that the propagation constant -y8 in the guide differs from the intrinsic
propagation constant 'Y of the dielectric. Let
-y; = -y 2 + k; + k; = -y 2 + k�
where kc = v' k; + k; is usually called the cutoff wave number. For a lossless
dielectric, -y 2 = -w 2 µ€. Then
'YE = ±Y w 2µ€ - k�
There are three cases for the propagation constant 'YE in the waveguide.
I. There will be no wave propagation (evanescence ) in the guide if w�µ€
= k� and 'YE = 0. This is the critical condition for cutoff propagation. The
cutoff frequency is expressed as
 8

-
Jc -
1 Vkx2 + ky2
2'7T � ,u.

II. The wave will be propagating in the guide if w2 µ,E > k� and

This means that the operating frequency must be above the cutoff frequency in order
for a wave to propagate in the guide.

III. The wave will be attenuated if w2 µ,E < k� and

"fg = ±ag = ±w � ✓� r- 1

This means that if the operating frequency is below the cutoff frequency, the wave
will decay exponentially with respect to a factor of - a8 z and there will be no wave
propagation because the propagation constant is a real quantity. Therefore the solu­
tion to the Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates is given by
1/1 = [A sin (kxx) + B cos (kxx)][C sin (kyy) + D cos (kyy)]e-i/3,Z

TE Modes (Rectangular Waveguides)

We have assumed that the waves are propagating in the positive z di­rection in the
waveguide. Fig.4 shows the coordinates of a rectangular waveguide.

'1
r---/-/,._____
b

1 "---/ ____
//
_y_____

o�--a--- Fig.4 Coordinates of a

rectangular guide.
The TEmn modes in a rectangular guide are characterized by £2 = 0. In other
words, the z component of the magnetic field, Hz, must exist in order to have energy
transmission in the guide. Consequently, from a given Helmholtz equation,
V 2Hz = y 2Hz
a solution in the form of
 9

y
Hz =
x
[Am sin (: ) + Bm cos (: )] X
x
[en sin (n;y) + Dn cos (n; ) ]e-j�, z

(5)
will be determined in accordance with the given boundary conditions, where
kx = rmr/a and ky = mr/b are replaced. For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell's curl
equations in frequency domain are
V x E = -jwµ,H
V x H = jw€E
In rectangular coordinates, their components are
aEz _ aEy _
= jwµ,Hx
ay az
aEx aEz .
- - - = -1wµ,Hy
az ax
aE aE .
-y - -x = - JW/J,Hz
ax ay
aHz _ aHy
= jw€Ex
ay az
aHx aHz .
=1w€Ey
a;- - ax
aHy _ aHx
= jw€Ez
ax ay
With the substitution a/az = - j/38 and Ez = 0, the foregoing equations are sim­
plified to
/3g EY = - wµ,Hx
{38 Ex = w µ,Hy

aEy aEz
- - - = - J.wµ,Hz
ax ay
aH
:ag Hy = JW€Ex
-z + }/J
ay
aHz 1·
-1:ag H - = w€Ey
/J X ax
aHy _ aHx O
=
ax ay
Solving these six equations for Ex , Ey , Hx, and Hy in terms of Hz will give the TE-
 mode field equations in rectangular waveguides as 10

H
E = - jwµ iJ z
k;: ay
X

jwµ iJHz
Ey =
k;: ax
Ez = 0
- jf3g aHz
H =
X k; ax
- jf3g aHz
Hy =
k;: ay

Hz = Eq. (5)

Since E x= 0, then iJHz /ay = 0 at y = 0, b. Hence Cn = 0. Since Ey = 0, then

clH z}clx =\)a\ X =\),a. \\e\\Ce Am Q.

It is generally concluded that the normal derivative of Hz must vanish at the
conducting surfaces-that is,

aHz
=O
an
at the guide walls. Therefore the magnetic field in the positive z direction is given by

m'TT-x) cos (b
Hz = Hoz cos (- )
.
n'TTy e J/- :J.,Z. 6
a

Hoz is the amplitude constant. TEmn substitution yields the field equations

.
Ey = E0y sm (-m'TTx n'TTy e 113
-;;-) cos (b ) - , .z
x y
Hx = H0x sin (': ) cos (� )e-J/3, Z
Ez = 0
HY= H0y cos ( m;;x) sin (�y)e-J/3, z

Hz= Eq. ( 6)
 11

where m = 0, l , 2, ...
n = 0, 1, 2, ...
m = n = 0 excepted
The cutoff wave number kc, as defined for the TEmn modes, is given by

where a and b are in meters.The cutoff frequency, as defined for the TEmn
modes, is
1 �
Jc = 2� +p 'J-;;z
The propagation constant (or the phase constant here) {3g , is expressed as

The phase velocity in the positive z direction for the TE mn modes is shown as
W Vp

V
g= {3g = yl
_ (Jc/!)2
where Vp = I/� is the phase velocity in an unbounded dielectric.
The characteristic wave impedance of TEmn modes in the guide becomes:

TJ
YI - (Jc/ f) 2
where YJ = � is the intrinsic impedance in an unbounded dielectric. The wave­
length Ag in the guide for the TEmn modes is given by
A
A!/ =
YI - (Jc/f)2
where A = Vp/f is the wavelength in an unbounded dielectric.
Since the cutoff frequency is a function of the modes and guide dimensions, the
physical size of the waveguide will determine the propagation of the modes.
Whenever two or more modes have the same cutoff frequency, they are said to
be degenerate modes. In a rectangular guide the corresponding TEmn and TMmn
modes are always degenerate. In a square guide the TEmn, TEnm, TMmn, and TMnm
modes form a foursome of degeneracy. Rectangular guides ordinarily have dimen­
sions of a = 2b ratio. The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency in a particular
 12
guide is called the dominant mode. The dominant mode in a rectangular guide with
a > bis the TE10 mode. Each mode has a specific mode pattern (or field pattern).
It is normal for all modes to exist simultaneously in a given waveguide. The sit­
uation is not very serious, however. Actually, only the dominant mode propagates,
and the higher modes near the sources or discontinuities decay very fast.

Example 1: TE1o in Rectangular Waveguide

An air-filled rectangular waveguide of inside dimensions 7 x 3.5 cm operates in the
dominant TE mode as shown in Fig. 5.
10

I _11-z
I /

yl
I /
�----
/

t ,____/,,,____....,,
/
/

3.5 cm /
/
1_ i-
_/ ____...,,_____ X
Fig.5 Rectangular waveguide
o 7cm---l for Example I.

a. Find the cutoff frequency.

b. Determine the phase velocity of the wave in the guide at a frequency of 3.5 GHz.
c. Determine the guided wavelength at the same frequency.

Solution

C 3 X JOB
a. -2 2.14 GHz
Jc = 2a = 2 x 7 X 10 =
3 X 108
3.78 x 108 mis
C
b. Vg = VI - (!c/!)2 = Vl - (2.14/3.5)2 =
Ao 3 X 108/(3.5 x J09)
A 10. cm
c. g = Vi - (Jc/!)2 = y' I - (2.14/3.5)2 = 8
 13
TM Modes

The TMmn modes in a rectangular guide are characterized by Hz = 0. In other

words, the z component of an electric field E must exist in order to have energy
transmission in the guide. Consequently, the Helmholtz equation for E in the rectan­
gular coordinates is given by

A solution of the Helmholtz equation is in the form of

Ez = [Am sin (rn;x) + B cos (m;x) ][c sin (n;y) + D cos (n;y) ]e-
m n
1��

(7)
which must be determined according to the given boundary conditions. The proce­
dures for doing so are similar to those used in finding the TE-mode wave.
The boundary conditions on Ez require that the field vanishes at the waveguide
walls, since the tangent component of the electric field Ez is zero on the conducting
surface. This requirement is that for E z = 0 at x = 0, a, then Bm =
Ez = 0 at y = 0, b, then D n = 0. Thus the solution as

x
Ez = Eoz sin (rn; ) sin (n;y)e-jf3gZ 8

where m = I, 2, 3, . . .
n = I, 2, 3, ...
If either m = 0 or n = 0, the field intensities all vanish. So there is no TM01 or
TM10 mode in a rectangular waveguide, which means that TE10 is the dominant
mode in a rectangular waveguide for a > b. For Hz = 0, the field equations, after
expanding V x H = jweE, are given by

ay
iJEz
+ :a Ey
}pg = - J.WJLH X

iJE
}pg:a E + -, = J.WJLHy
iJx
X

iJEy _ iJEx
=O
iJx iJy
{3g Hy = WEEx
-{3g Hx = WEEy
iJHy - iJHx
= jweE,
iJx iJy
These equations can be solved simultaneously for Ex , Ey , Hx , and Hy in terms of E, .
 14

The resultant field equations for TM modes are

aEz
Ex = - }{38
k� ax
aEz
Ey = - }{38
k� ay
Ez = Eq. (8)
jwE aEz
H =
X k; ay
- jwE aEz
Hy =
kl ax
Hz = 0

where /3i - u iµE = -k; is replaced. Differentiating Eq. (8) with respect to x or y
and substituting the results yields field equations

(m1rx) . (n1ry)
Ex = Eox cos -a- sm b e-J/ , 3 z

Ev= E sm
0y -a
.
( 1rx) (mry)
m - cos b e-;13, z
.
Ez = Eq. (8)
y
Rx = H0x sin ( m;x) cos ( n; )e jf3,
- z

) y
Hy= H0y cos (m;x sin (� )e-jf3, z

Hz = 0
Some of the TM-mode characteristic equations are identical to those of the TE
modes, but some are different. For convenience, all are shown here:

1 � ,\
,\g = ----:====2
Jc =
y� V1 -

0r
2� + b2 (Jc/ /)

/38 = w� ✓ 1 - Vg =
VP

V1 - (Jc;!)2
 15

Zg = (3g = r,
W€
✓ (f)2
1-
f

Power in Rectangular Waveguides

The power transmitted through a waveguide and the power loss in the guide walls
can be calculated by means of the complex Poynting theorem.
It is assumed that the guide is terminated in such a way that there is no reflection
from the receiving end or that the guide is infinitely long compared with the wave­
length. From the Poynting theorem, the power transmitted through a
uide is given by

P1r = f p · = f � (E x H*) ·
ds ds

For a lossless dielectric, the time-average power flow through a rectangular guide is
given by

For TEmn modes, the average power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide is

ff
given by

P1r = Y1 - �fc/ J)2 (I Ex 1 2 + I By 1 2) dx dy

2
For TMmn modes, the average power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide is
given by
P1r = y 1 lbla (I Ex 1 2
+ I Ey 1 2 ) dx dy
2r, 1 - (Jc/
J) 0 0
2

where T/ = � is the intrinsic impedance in an unbounded dielectric.

Power Losses in Rectangular Waveguides

There are two types of power losses in a rectangular waveguide:
1. Losses in the dielectric
2. Losss in the guide walls
First we shall consider power losses caused by dielectric attenuation. In a low-
 16

loss dielectric (that is, CT � JU:.), the propagation constant for a plane wave
traveling in an unbounded lossy dielectric is given by

a = � [; = ri;
The attenuation caused by the low-loss dielectric in the rectangular waveguide for
the TEmn or TMmn modes is given by
CTT/
ag = --======= for TE mode
2v'1 - Uc! J)2

ag = �T/ v'1 - (.fc/ f)2 for TM mode

As f P Jc , the attenuation constant in the guide approaches that for the unbounded
dielectric. However, if the operating frequency is way below the cutoff frequency,
f � Jc , the attenuation constant becomes very large and non­propagation
occurs.
Now we shall consider power losses caused by the guide walls. When the elec­
tric and magnetic intensities propagate through a lossy waveguide, their magnitudes
may be written
\E\ = \Eo,\e-agz
) H) =) Ho,)e-°K2
where Eo, and Hoz are the field intensities at z = 0. It is interesting to note that, for a
low-loss guide, the time-average power flow decreases proportionally to e - 2ag . z

Hence

For Pioss � P,r and 2ag Z � 1,

Finally,

where PL is the power loss per unit length. Consequently, the attenuation constant of
the guide walls is equal to the ratio of the power loss per unit length to twice the
power transmitted through the guide.
Since the electric and magnetic field intensities established at the surface of a
low-loss guide wall decay exponentially with respect to the skin depth while the
waves progress into the walls, it is better to define a surface resistance of the guide
walls as

O/square
 17
where p = resistivity of the conducting wall in ohms-meter
<T = conductivity in mhos per meter
5 = skin depth or depth of penetration in meters
The power loss per unit length of guide is obtained by integrating the power
density over the surface of the conductor corresponding to the unit length of the
guide. This is

W/unit length

where H, is the tangential component of magnetic intensity at the guide walls.

By substitution we have
_ Rs L H, I 1
2
ds
a 8
- 2Z8 L H I 1
2
da
where
I H 1 = I Hz 1 + I Hy 1
2 2 2

2 2
IH,1 = IH,..,1 + IH1y l
2

Example 2: TE10 Mode in Rectangular Waveguide

An airfilled waveguide with a cross section 2 x I cm transports energy in the TE 10
mode at the rate of 0.5 hp. The impressed frequency is 30 GHz. What is the peak value
of the electric field occurring in the guide? (Fig. 6.)
Solution The field components of the dominant mode TE 10 can be obtained by sub­
stituting m = I and n = 0 Thus

E x= 0 Hx = £0y
- sin
Z8
. - e -1
a
(7TX) ·13g'

Ez = 0

where Z8 = wµo//38 •

')
i ;1-z
I/
I /

/
�-----
/
/

T --
/
/
___
-✓/..,,_

I cm /
✓

j_ ... ✓
______,__---< ► Fig.6 Rectangular waveguide
--j
✓_

O f---2 cm
X
 18

✓ ✓ ✓
The phase constant {38 can be found from
7r2 (2f)2 1 4 X 9 X 1020 1
{3g =w 2 JJ,oEo - = 7r - =Tr
� 7 a2 9 X 1016 - 4 X 10-4
= 193.57r =608.81 rad/m
The power delivered in the z direction by the guide is

P ff
= Re[� (E x H*)l dx dy u,

=�ff x x
[(£�sin ( : )e-J�g Uy) x (:� E�sin ( : )e �g ux)] · dx dy u,
z +i z

2
b
= !E5y_& ( (sin
wµ,o Jo Jo
r (Trx))2
a
dx dy

1 2 {3g
= -E�-ab
4 WJJ,o

E� = 53.87 kV/m
The peak value of the electric intensity is 53.87 kV/m.

Excitations of Modes in Rectangular Waveguides

In general, the field intensities of the desired mode in a waveguide can be established
by means of a probe or loop-coupling device. The probe may be called a monopole
antenna; the coupling loop, the loop antenna. A probe is located so as to excite the
electric field intensity of the mode, and a coupling loop in such a way as to generate
the magnetic field intensity for the desired mode. A device that excites a given
mode in the guide can also serve reciprocally as a receiver or collector of energy
for that mode. The methods of excitation for various modes in rectangular
waveguides are shown in Fig. 7.
In order to excite a TE 10 mode in one direction of the guide, the two exciting
antennas should be arranged in such a way that the field intensities cancel each other in
one direction and reinforce in the other. Figure 8 shows an arrangement for
launching a TE10 mode in one direction only. The two antennas are placed a quarter­
wavelength apart and their phases are in time quadrature.
 19

Coaxial line

Antenna
probe

TE10 mode TE 20 mode

Short-circuited---- -...£.__
end

Antenna probe

TM11 mode TM21 mode

Fig.7 Methods of exciting various modes in rectangular waveguides.

-1
Outof - i 2 In phase
phase 2- -2

Waveguide

Figure 8 A method of launching a

TE 10 mode in one direction only.

feeders. The field intensities radiated by the two antennas are in phase opposition to
the left of the antennas and cancel each other, whereas in the region to the right of
the antennas the field intensities are in time phase and reinforce each other. The re ­
sulting wave thus propagates to the right in the guide.