Meat Technology Update

Newsletter 02/5 October 2002

Composting of slaughterhouse
waste material and dead stock
Disposal of the waste from
slaughtering and from butcher shops
can be a problem for smaller country
meat processors. It can be
uneconomical for a contract renderer
to collect the materials and there are
potential environmental hazards due
to leaching from burial pits. The
University of Southern Queensland
has developed a system of ‘dry
composting’ for stabilisation of this
material as the first stage in an
overall solid waste management
strategy called Agwise. Agwise was
funded by the Natural Heritage Trust
in partnership with Millmerran Meat
Holdings, and with assistance from a
forensic scientist from the University
Figure 1. Waste material after 8 weeks dry-composting.
of Queensland.
volume and mass of the waste material as quickly as possible without
A country slaughterhouse, processing about a dozen cattle
causing odour or leachate.
and 20 to 30 small stock each week for a butcher shop and
private customers, generates about 4 m3 of solid waste, Basic requirements
including butcher shop bones, weekly. If this is buried it could
contaminate the land for many years. This material can be The basic requirements for dry composting are:
converted to a usable by-product in an environmentally • a roofed shed with three or four bays;
friendly manner using a two-stage composting process.
Composting also provides an option for disposing of dead • a compacted earthen pad or concrete floor for all-weather access
stock as an alternative to rendering. and to prevent leaching into the ground;

This newsletter discusses the steps in the dry composting • a tractor with a bucket, able to lift up to one metre high or more;
process and the subsequent conventional wet composting • pine bark or wood chips;
stage.
• sawdust.

Dry composting The shed should be sized to suit the amount of waste to be processed.
For the weekly throughput at Millmerran, a shed with four bays each 9
The intent of the dry composting stage is to reduce the
m long by 3 m wide proved suitable. Each bay was filled to a depth The dry composting process is also suitable for disposal of dead stock
of one metre over an 8-week period. The bays can be formed by from piggeries and culled spent hens from egg production. Similar
constructing solid walls or, as was the case for the trial, second- systems have been described in the United States for disposal of dead
hand conveyor belting supported by C-purlins was used. animals. The process is a practical means of disposing of dead stock
provided that the compost piles are well covered with sawdust to
If the shed does not have a concrete floor, a compacted earthen
prevent the escape of odours. Sheep and cattle cadavers can be
pad should be constructed in accordance with the Queensland
composted although whole cattle bodies may take longer to break
Department of Primary Industries technical note titled ‘Earthen Pad
down.
Preparation Requirements’ (www.dpi.qld.gov.au/pigs), or see other
relevant state authorities for guidelines on construction. The dry composting stage has now biologically stabilised the potentially
putrescent wastes. If no further treatment is carried out, the bones and
Preparation and management
skin pieces could persist for a very long period. Before the material is
A base layer of bark or wood chips is laid down to a depth of about utilised as an organic fertiliser or for some other purpose, it should
200 mm. The bark improves aeration at the base of the pile and undergo further treatment in a wet composting stage.
provides a target layer for the bucket of the front-end loader used to
clear out each bay. A 200–300 mm layer of dry sawdust is placed Wet composting
on top of the bark and is used to absorb any seepage from the solid
waste. Conventional composting can be done in a variety of ways. These
methods include static windrows, turned windrows, aerated static piles
After each day’s processing, the solid waste is placed on top of the and a range of in-vessel systems. The aerated static pile and in-vessel
sawdust base. Ideally bones, hooves and heads should be placed systems require significant capital investment in equipment and,
first with the moist viscera on top. The air spaces provided by the although they provide potentially greater control over the process, are
bones should improve the aeration around the soft material. not necessary for this application to achieve satisfactory outcomes.
Aeration is needed to favour the activity of ‘non-vermin’ insects that
are responsible for the breakdown of the soft tissues. A static pile, where the material is left to aerate naturally, is sometimes
used for composting; however, without sufficient moisture and attention
A layer of sawdust is then placed on top of each successive layer to aeration, the production of a satisfactory material is unlikely.
of waste. The sawdust should absorb any odour that is generated.
There may be some anaerobic sites within the pile which may Basic requirements
release unpleasant odours during the process; however, the activity Turned windrow composting is the most suitable method. It requires
of the beetles should reduce the likelihood of anaerobic pockets more management than a static pile, but the finished product will be of
developing. The top sawdust layer should be of a sufficient depth a higher quality with more potential applications. The basic
to cover all waste material and ensure that no nuisance flies or requirements for a turned windrow composting operation are:
vermin are attracted to the pile.
• a compacted earthen pad with bunding or spoon drain to divert
It will take approximately eight weeks to fill a bay to a depth of one overland flow away from the pile and contain any leachate from
metre. When the bay is full, it can be closed off by stacking hay the pile;
bales across the entrance. A sheet of hessian can then be laid
• a front-end loader or tractor with a bucket for forming and turning
over the completed pile to minimise dust generation and the activity
the pile;
of crows. The compost pile is then left to decompose for 8 to 10
weeks after the last addition of solid waste, during which time it • a watering system to supply moisture to the windrow as required;
should not be disturbed (Figure 1). No turning is needed as insects
• a screening system (if a higher quality product is required).
do the work; and no water is required as enough moisture is
present in the waste material. Raw materials mix
After 8 to 10 weeks of decomposition, only bones and skin should In order to produce a good quality compost with a balanced nutrient
remain. The only odour should be musty and organic – associated availability, raw materials must be mixed in the correct proportions. If
with blackened lumps of sawdust composted with any seepage. the nitrogen content of the initial mix is too high, it is likely that nitrogen
Any sawdust that has not combined with the waste can be reused will be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia and there is the potential to
in the next bay. The bone, skin and composted sawdust clumps generate offensive odours.
are removed from the bay and transported to a compacted earthen
pad for conventional wet composting. At this stage the bones and A carbon to nitrogen ratio of between 15:1 and 30:1 is normally
skin will be relatively fragile. required for good composting results.
Table 1: The range of characteristics of some materials suitable for composting
Bulk Density % Water by
Material (fresh) C:N Ratio %N %P %K % Lignin
(kg/m3) wt

Dairy manure 11 – 18 2.7 – 4.0 0.5 1.7 – 2.4 8.1 460 – 582 67 – 87

Feedlot manure 6 – 14 1.7 – 4.0 0.5 – 1.0 1.8 – 2.3 8.1 460 – 582 67 – 87

Pig manure 7 – 24 1.9 – 5.6 0.4 – 1.2 0.1 – 4.8 2.2 272 65 – 91

Poultry manure 2 – 24 1.6 – 10 1.1 – 2.3 1.7 – 2.2 3.4 263 – 563 22 – 75

Abattoir waste 14 – 17 8 – 11 3.0 – 3.5 2.0 – 2.5 n.a. 507 80 – 85

Grass clippings 9 – 25 2–6 1.1 2.0 2–7 104 –278 82

Grain dust 23 –33 1.6 – 2.1 n.a. n.a. 2–5 n.a. 8 – 10

Cotton trash 30 1.3 0.45 0.36 15 112 n.a.

Peanut shells n.a. 0.8 0.15 0.5 23 n.a. n.a.

Corn stalks 60 –73 0.8 n.a. 0.8 11 11 12

Wheat straw 100 – 150 0.3 - 0.5 0.15 – 0.26 0.6 – 1.02 7 – 18 20 –131 4 – 12

Sawdust 200 – 511 0.1 0.01 – 0.5 0.04 – 1.4 15 – 28 122 – 156 19 – 65

Materials, such as abattoir waste and fresh manures, which have a They need to be mixed with a lighter material to improve aeration and
high nutrient and moisture level and high bulk density need to be prevent the formation of anaerobic pockets within windrows.
mixed with other wastes that have a high carbon content to provide
Some of these materials may not be suitable for a variety of reasons.
a balanced mix with adequate porosity. These additional materials,
For example, pine bark is probably too expensive for this application
known as bulking agents, must be able to absorb excess moisture
and there is a risk of pesticide residues in household yard trimmings.
and be able to improve the passive air exchange throughout the
However, in most rural areas some waste should be available for
windrow during the wet composting process. Other wastes that
little more than the cost of transporting them to a suitable site.
could be mixed with the dry composted abattoir waste include:
Bulking agents can be used singly or in combination; and if a coarse
• manure from yards; bulking agent such as woodchips is used, it may be screened from
the compost and re-used.
• poultry manure;
• grass clippings; Windrow management
• green yard waste; Mixing and pile formation

• cotton trash; The abattoir waste and bulking agent are mixed in a ratio that
ensures the composting material has an open structure to facilitate
• peanut shells;
aeration of the compost pile, and confers a suitable structure to the
• wheat straw; finished product. Experiments can be conducted by mixing small
• sawdust; volumes of the selected ingredients in a bucket, until the mix appears
suitable. A low bulk density for the final mix will aid aeration and
• woodchips; reduce the amount of turning.
• bark. Mixing can be done with a front-end loader on a concrete or
The characteristics of some rural wastes are given in Table 1. compacted earthen pad. If the waste to be composted have been
Information such as C:N ratio can be used to assist in formulating a stabilised by the dry composting process, mixing and pile formation
mix to the optimum final C:N ratio. Bulk density (weight per unit can be done periodically when the material becomes available;
volume) and moisture provide an indication of the ease of aeration however, if material to be included in the mix is likely to create a
of the material. Materials, such as fresh manure, with a high bulk nuisance if stored, then mixing and pile formation may need to be
density and moisture have the potential to produce foul odours. done on a weekly or daily basis.
When mixed, the waste is formed into a windrow 1.5 to 2.0 m high recommended. After each turning, the windrow should be watered to
and 3 to 4 m wide at the base depending on the capacity of the field capacity. A strong temperature rise after turning and watering
front-end loader. The windrows should be formed on the indicates that the compost is still biologically active. When the
compacted pad and may be progressively extended in length to the temperature does not respond to the same extent, the compost is
space available. Sufficient space should be left between windrows approaching maturity and watering may be discontinued and the
to provide access for turning. material either left to cure in the windrow or the composted windrows
can be consolidated into a curing pile. The active composting period
Turning and watering the windrows
may be 3 months or more depending on the mix. The compost
In order for the composting process to proceed, sufficient moisture should be stored in the curing pile for at least another month during
must be available. If the newly formed windrow is dry, it should be which time the moisture level is allowed to fall to a point where the
watered to field capacity. In practice, field capacity is when the material can be more easily handled and screened if necessary.
mixture holds sufficient water that when squeezed in the hand,
water will flow but under gravity alone, no water will flow. One Compost applications
method of watering is to place a soaker hose with holes face down,
along the apex of the windrow. Watering can be timed at hourly Compost is a useful soil additive and can be spread on paddocks as
intervals and the pile checked to estimate the time for the centre to a slow release organic fertiliser. Compost also improves both the
reach field capacity. Do not over-water as any leachate will carry physical and chemical properties of soils and can aid in suppressing
away nutrients and become a potential source of pollution. soil-borne plant pathogens.

Following watering, the pile should start to heat up, to between There is also the potential to sell the compost to wholesale nursery
50ºC and 60ºC, within seven days depending on the materials suppliers for production of soil blends and in formulation of potting
being composted. If a large amount of uncomposted sawdust or mixes. When used for these purposes, the cured compost would
gin trash is used, it may take longer – even up to 2 weeks. Digging need to be screened to provide an even texture and remove stones
towards the centre of the pile will give an indication of the and other larger contaminants such as bone fragments. Screenings
temperature rise. Alternatively a long-stemmed thermometer can such as bone or bark chip can be recycled into new composting
be used and inserted into the pile in several positions along the windrows. The quality of the compost may also need to conform to
length of the windrow to obtain an accurate estimate of the pile the Australian Standard AS 4454-1999:Compost, soil conditioners
temperature. If the compost becomes too hot (>65ºC) some of the and mulches. See also Draft Standard DR 01337, 2001.
beneficial organisms may be killed off. Overheating can be
preventing by reducing the height of the pile and turning more Further reading
often. Turning during the high temperature phase will improve the AGWISE Project, Book 2 http://www.ncea.org.au/
chances of all the material being exposed to the elevated
temperatures, killing pathogenic organisms.

A minimum of three turns during the first six weeks of composting is

The information contained herein is an outline only and should not be relied on in place of professional advice on any specific matter.
For more information, contact one of the Meat Industry Services staff listed below.
Food Science Australia Meat Industry Services Section
The Meat Industry Services (MIS) Section of Food Science Australia is an initiative supported by Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA) and the
Australian Meat Processor Corporation (AMPC) to facilitate market access for, and support world-class practices in, Australia ’s meat industry.

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