PIT COMPOSTING

Handbook

ANURAG SAHA
Consultant Environmentalist – SWM
 Chapter – 1
Background
No matter how much you make, there's never enough compost to go around. So, pick your system and get
started. Composting is an effective and environmentally friendly solution for turning yard waste and kitchen
scraps into a beneficial soil amendment. The traditional method of composting calls for the creation of a large
compost pile located outdoors. However, if this method is too unsightly or too cumbersome for you, you can
explore alternatives to the compost pile. One alternative is to make a compost pit. This underground method
of composting, sometimes also called "trench composting", is a compact and tidy way to help your organic
waste decompose and enrich your soil.
Composting is the controlled conversion of degradable organic products and wastes into stable products with
the aid of microorganisms. It is a long-used technology, though it has some shortcomings that have reduced
its extensive usage and efficiency. The shortcomings include pathogen detection, low nutrient status, long
duration of composting, long mineralization duration, and odour production. The long duration of composting
is a challenge; this is due to the presence of materials that take a longer time to compost, especially during
co-composting.

Municipal Solid Waste Management is one of the essential obligatory functions of the Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs) in India. This service is falling too short of the desired level of efficiency and satisfaction resulting in
problems of health, sanitation, and environmental degradation. With the introduction of Waste Management
Rules 2016 comprising of both the Solid Waste Management (SWM) and Plastic Waste Management (PWM),
every ULB has to set-up decentralised Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management facilities to treat their
generated solid wastes from individual households and commercial establishments. Further, these wastes
are separately collected on-site, scientifically treated and safely transported to the identified dumping and
landfill sites. To priorities for a successful Sanitation Value Chain, the Municipal Corporation of Gurugram
(MCG) and Municipal Corporation of Faridabad (MCF) is setting up multiple MSW management facility
centres at different locations. These will be followed by manual and mechanized segregation of the generated
municipal solid wastes at Material Recovery Facility (MRF) centres and the rest treated at multiple compost
pits which can be sold to the potential buyers for revenue generation.
To make a compost pit, a cool and shaded compound need to be selected where the pits can be established,
which ideally should not be less than 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for aerobic composting as the
compost must be turned at regular intervals in this process. Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or
brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic
matter is added to the pit it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows
air to enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter is ready
to be used. In simpler terms, Compost can be defined as a stable end–product derived from the biological
degradation of organic material, which can vary from dead leaves and roots to kitchen waste and vegetable
remains. Finished compost looks like soil–dark brown, crumbly and smells like a forest floor. Any well-
managed compost heap contains water and air in the pore spaces between the solid particles.
 Chapter – 1
Easy To Go: Conventional way of preparing compost using the pit method.
With this method, several pits are dug side by side. They can be of any size, although it will be easier if they
are not too deep. A practical size can be 1.5 m x 3 m by 1.5 m deep. To prepare a compost so that it becomes
continuously available, proceed as follows;
(a). At the bottom of the first pit, build a first layer of coarse material, 30-cm deep. Chopped banana stems,
banana tree leaves, and straw are good to use.
(b). Add a second layer about 10-cm thick of a mix of low C/N material, including animal manure if available,
and moisten, as necessary.
(c). Set up, or lay across, bundles of grass, stalks or sticks, or bamboo pipes, to provide air spaces in the
composting pile.
(d). Add more layers, alternating 20-cm layers of high C/N material with 10-cm layers of low C/N material,
moistening each layer, as necessary. Add some more air spaces across.
(e). When the pit is full and the pile rises above the ground, cover it with plenty of straw.
(f). Sprinkle water over the pile as necessary every three days.
(g). After about three weeks under tropical conditions, turn the pile over by transferring it to an empty pit next
to it. Moisten as necessary and cover the new pile with straw.
(h). Start composting in the first empty pit while checking the process in the second area.
(i). Depending on the climate and the kind of materials used:
- either your compost will be ready a few weeks later.
- or after a few weeks you will have to turn the pile over again, by throwing it into a third pit.

(j). Transfer the pile from the first pit into the second pit.
(k). Start composting in the first pit again.
 Chapter – 1
Way Forward
In recent India, there is a huge increment in the population which drastically increases the amount of municipal
solid wastes generated at a massive mass which need to safely treat and dump. Under the SWM Rules 2016,
the Municipal Corporation of Gurugram and Faridabad has proposed certain pilot plants to treat the daily
generated MSWs that falls within the administrative boundaries of MCG & MCF. As a proven sustainable
solution to treat daily generated MSWs, Compost pits with Material Recovery Facility (MRF) will be set-up at
an identified location under the guidance from the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). This will minimize the waste
loads which were previously dumped untreated at Bandhwari dumpsite which falls in between Gurgaon and
Faridabad highway connection. The final output from the pilot plants in terms of composts can also be utilised
as an added source of revenue generation for the respective ULBs.

@Copyright from MoHUA (SBM-U)

Introduction
Basic principles of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) are Reduction, Reuse, Recycling and
Recovery (4Rs). Composting as an element of ISWM strategy that can be applied to separately collected or
mixed wastes, is a controlled aerobic process carried out by successive microbial populations combining both
mesophilic and thermophilic activities and leading to the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and
stabilized organic matter.

Waste proportioning at the compost pits need to be foreseen based on C/N ratio (about 25:1) and moisture
content (about 55%) as it undergoes aerobic composting. Mixed wastes need to be placed in windrow and
constructed compost pits should have natural aeration tunnel. Sufficient oxygen supply should interfere in the
piles of compostable materials through frequent turning of the piles in 3 days intervals during the first week
and then so on. To speed up and balance the level of moisture content from the accumulated mixed MSWs,
the wastes need to be passed through the shredder belt for quick absorption of excessive moist content and
then transfer to the pits for preparing the composts on regular intervals.

Major determining factors while producing composts from Compost pits is by maintaining the temperature
which is required to monitor at regular intervals during the whole process. Monitoring of the temperature is
essential as the bacterial growth involved in breaking down these waste matters can tolerate certain level of
heat or else, they die, and the decomposition is a sheer level of failure. Following the compost produced will
not be up to the required quality where it can be used in agricultural fields as an alternative cheap organic
fertilizer. It is to be taken into consideration that the optimum temperature level of the compost pits should be
maintained within 60OC (as per U.S.EPA and WHO guidelines) or else the quality of the compost will not
reach the required mark. Temperature tends to reach at a maximum level of 60OC within a period of a week
or so and then depletes by the end of second week.
 Chapter – 1
Table 1: Showing the key factors affecting the aerobic composting
Optimal range during various stages
Sl.
Factors
No. Active composting Curing Product storage
Oxygen
1 13 to 18%
concentrationa
Free Air Space
2 40 to 60%
(FAS)b
Minimum 90%
material should pass
3 Particle Sizec a mixture of particles between 3 and 50 mm.
through 4.0 mm. IS
sieve
enough of the particles in the composting pile maintain their structural
4 Structured
properties throughout the composting process
5 C:N ratioe 25:1 to 30:1 18:1 to 23:1 15:1 to 20:1
6 Moisture contentf 55 to 65% 45 to 55% 15 to 25%
7 Temperatureg 55O to 60OC Less than 50OC Ambient
8 pHi 6.5 to 8 6.5 to 7.5
As per standards set by the MoHUA guidelines, Govt. of India.

Remarks: -

a
Maintaining higher oxygen concentration in a compost pile is difficult and may lead to other problems, like low moisture
content.
b
There must be enough void space in the compost pile for oxygen availability.
c
Smaller particles have a greater surface area relative to their volume, which means more of the material is exposed to
microorganisms. However, too smaller particles adversely affect the FAS within the material.
d
If all the particles have poor structural characteristics (like cardboard, which becomes wet and loses its initial rigidity),
the FAS within the composting pile is reduced.
e
If C:N ratio is less than the available carbon may be fully consumed before all the nitrogen is stabilized, and the balance
nitrogen can be converted to ammonia and lost as a gaseous emission. If the C:N ratio is higher, the composting process
proceeds at a slower pace since the microorganism’s population size is limited by the lack of nitrogen.
f
If moisture levels are too low (i.e., less than 40%), the size and activity level of the microorganism populations is
inhibited, resulting in slower composting and/or curing. When moisture levels are too high (i.e., more than 65%), there
is a risk that too much of the pore space between individual particles fills with water, which can lead to anaerobic
conditions and unpleasant odours. Higher moisture levels can also lead to excess moisture draining out of the
composting pile as leachate.
g
Too high temperature for sustained periods (greater than about 65°C), rapidly declines the population of beneficial
microorganisms. Too low temperatures can allow less efficient microorganisms to become predominant resulting in
slower composting.
i
Microorganisms cannot survive in environments that are too acidic or alkaline. Also, when the pH is greater than 9,
nitrogen is more readily converted to ammonia and becomes biologically unavailable, increasing the C:N ratio and
slowing the process.

Table 2: Suitability of Method or Technology of composting for the quantity of Organic Waste
generated (as per standards set by the MoHUA guidelines, Govt. of India)
Sl. No. of
Category Suitability
No. Households
Category –
1 Up to 10 Individual Households, small Communities, Apartments, etc.
1
Category – Medium sized Communities, Offices, Hotels, Resorts, Schools,
2 11 – 300
2 Canteens, Marriage Halls, Apartments (RWAs).
Category – Large Communities, Buildings, Offices, Hotels, Schools,
3 301 – 1000
3 Apartments (RWAs).
Category – Decentralized Compositing plants operated by ULB/ Institution/
4 Above 1000
4 Outsourced agency.
 Chapter – 1
To reduce the burden of unscientific handling of large volumes of MSW, it is time for the ULBs to shift their
focus from centralised ‘single stream’ collection and ‘Dump/Landfill disposal’ system to a decentralised
‘multiple stream’ collection and scientific decentralised ‘Processing’ system. Based on the stream of waste
and its generation, the appropriate method of treatment or methods and the scale of treatment units
(Community/ Ward/ Division/ Zone/ City level) must be selected.

The onsite and decentralised organic waste treatment methods (i.e., Pit Composting, etc.) herein may be
used as reference guides for selecting a suitable method or practice by the stakeholders for managing their
solid waste at source itself or as close to source as possible. Such practices will deliver several advantages
for all stakeholders as compared to the usual practice of extended chains of collection & transportation with
‘end of pipe’ treatment.

Standardized process for preparing any Compost Pit

Sl. No. Descriptions
Specification and Size
• Pits of adequate size to bury bio-degradable waste continuously in each pit.
1 • Recommendation for a family of 5 or 6 members, the pit size should not be less than 1m in
length and width of 60cm and depth 1m. Bigger size pits for bigger families or number of
households according to requirements.
Infrastructure Requirements
• Two pits of adequate size to be dug.
2 • Tarpaulin or PVC roofing sheets to cover the pits.
• Cow-dung, loose earth.
• Tools like shovel, hoe, etc.
Operation & Maintenance
• Choose an elevated area where water does not get collected. Otherwise make necessary
provisions to prevent entry of water into the pit by constructing a small bund around the pits.
• Spread a layer of cow dung slurry or decomposed waste at the bottom of the pit before filling the
waste for composting.
• Waste of bigger sizes are to be cut into small pieces for easy decomposing.
• A thin layer of earth may be sprinkled over the waste daily to avoid bad smell from the pit.
3 • Repeat the procedure daily while depositing more waste.
• Once the pit is filled, close the pit by spreading a layer of 15cm of earth and use the other pit in
the same way.
• When the waste in the first pit becomes compost, empty the pit, and make it ready for reuse.
The compost can be used either as manure or sold or disposed-off in suitable manner.
• Protect the pit from rainwater. Keep it covered by means of tarpaulin or PVC roofing sheet during
rains.
 Chapter – 2
Compost Quality Standards as per Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016; Fertiliser Control Order
(FCO), 2009; and Fertiliser Control Order (FCO), 2013.

Compost Quality Standards

Sl. Organic Compost Phosphate Rich Organic
Parameters
No. FCO 2009 Manure FCO (PROM) 2013
1 Arsenic (mg/ kg) 10.00 10.00

2 Cadmium (mg/ kg) 5.00 5.00

3 Chromium (mg/ kg) 50.00 50.00

4 Copper (mg/ kg) 300.00 300.00

5 Lead (mg/ kg) 100.00 100.00

6 Mercury (mg/ kg) 0.15 0.15

7 Nickel (mg/ kg) 50.00 50.00

8 Zinc (mg/ kg) 1000.00 1000.00

9 C/N ratio <20 less than 20:1

10 pH 6.5 – 7.5 (1:5 solution) maximum 6.7

11 Moisture, % by weight, maximum 15.0 – 25.0 25.0

12 Bulk density (g/ cm3) <1.0 Less than 1.6

13 Total organic carbon, % by weight, maximum 12.0 7.9

14 Total nitrogen (N), % by weight, minimum 0.8 0.4

Total phosphate (P2O5), % by weight,

15 0.4 10.4
minimum
Total potassium (K2O), % by weight,
16 0.4 -
minimum

17 Colour Dark brown to black -

Absence of foul
18 Odour -
odour
Minimum 90%
Minimum 90% material
material should pass
19 Particle size should pass through 4.0
through 4.0 mm IS
mm IS sieve
sieve
20 Conductivity (as dsm–1), not more than 4.0 8.2
Note: -
✓ Tolerance limits per FCO.
✓ For compost: A sum of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium nutrients shall not be less than 1.5%
in compost.
✓ For PROM: No such directive.
 Chapter – 3
Basics of Composting
In natural environments, the slow decomposition of organic matter by different microorganisms and
invertebrates produces a black-brown earthy material called humus – a valuable component of good soils.
Composting runs along the same lines but is accelerated by optimised and controlled process parameters
like input material, temperature, moisture, and pH. This distinguishes composting from natural decomposition.
The quality of the input materials and certain biological and physical parameters has a major influence on the
quality of the compost and on the occurrence of operational problems with the composting facility. A properly
constructed compost pit can be compared to an interactive biological and ecological system. It contains
various microorganisms dependent on the nutritional and environmental condition of the pit. It is important for
composters to understand the physical, chemical, and biological processes involved in the decomposition of
biodegradable organic material. Any well-managed compost pit contains water and air in the pore spaces
between the solid particles, as shown in Figure 3.1 below (example from Operational Manual on Composting
for Integrated Resource Recovery Center (IRRC), March 2012).
The solid material is the biodegradable
waste, the moisture inside and outside
of the waste is the liquid part and the air
in the gaps between the solid particles
is the gaseous phase. All three
constituents play a key role in the
composting process, as the main
activity of microorganisms can be
observed at the interfaces of these
three phases. Microorganisms can only
make use of dissolved nutrients found
in the liquid phase. However, they
require oxygen for their metabolism,
which they draw from the air in the gaps.
The composting process can be divided into three phases (Aerobic "hot" composting): -
1. Degradation phase
2. Transformation phase
3. Synthesis or maturation phase
As natural microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, and some protozoa are already present
in organic waste, the degradation phase starts directly after piling. These aerobic microorganisms degrade
carbohydrates and amino acids present in food and yard waste into simpler compounds, carbon dioxide and
water. Under favourable conditions, they multiply exponentially and generate a large amount of heat because
of oxidative processes. The temperature within the heap rises to over 60°C. If high temperatures are
maintained for one week, and all the material experiences such temperatures (the cooler outer layer being
relocated to the warm interior because of the turning process) pathogens and weed seeds are destroyed
during this phase. To ensure a favourable environment for aerobic microorganisms, it is important to control
the oxygen supply during this phase. After about one month, the process slows down, and temperatures drop
slightly. Different species of fungi become predominant in the compost pile and develop a white or grey colour
just under the surface of the compost heap. Fungi are important for the decomposition of proteins and
cellulose substances. During this phase, the compost process must be controlled and adjusted frequently to
ensure optimum conditions for the microorganisms.
After about 45-50 days, the temperature drops to 30-40°C and the compost heap enters the transformation
phase. The heap becomes populated with various invertebrates, such as mites, millipedes, beetles, earwigs,
earthworms, slugs, and snails. As the material is a nutrient source to them, they continue the degradation
process and cut down the coarse compost material into a crumbly soil-like substance. Though the material
looks like compost, it is not yet stable and chemical substances (e.g., nitrite) may inhibit plant growth if applied
directly to the flora.
 Chapter – 3

Figure 3.2: Temperature and processes during composting

The compost heap enters the synthesis or maturing phase after approximately ten weeks when the insects
abandon the compost (figure 3.2). Ongoing chemical processes transform nitrite to nitrate and slowly link the
short-chained humic substances into stable and nutrient-rich humus. Depending on the local conditions (e.g.,
temperature and input material), the compost is mature after 3-6 months. Depending on the daily incoming
loads from various MSWs sources at ULB level, the accumulated waste matter is passed through shredders
for instant removal of extra moistures to speed up the composting process and time consumptions, which
further transferred to the compost pits for outcome.

Develop a Protocol for Monitoring the Composting Operation

To maintain an efficient operation and develop a safe, attractive product, you should regularly track the
volume of incoming waste, the temperature and, possibly, the oxygen content of the piles, as well as
evaluation of any odour generation. Perform an initial and regular follow-up analyses of the compost
produced, including tests for contaminants and the compost’s nutrient value. The data will help you evaluate
the success of your operation and decide whether to alter your process. Also, it will provide information that
will be requested from potential end users. While carrying out composting activities, quality control of the
compost needs to be ensured by regular laboratory tests of incoming waste and final product compost.

How is temperature measured?

- Use an alcohol thermometer and attach a string to the top of the thermometer. (Do not use mercury
thermometers, as the mercury can pollute the entire compost pile if the thermometer breaks during
measurement).
- If you use an alcohol thermometer for measurement, first push a hole into the compost to the required depth
within the pile using a broom handle or an appropriate stick.
- Then, carefully lower the thermometer into the hole with the string.
- Leave the thermometer in the compost for about 1 minute, then pull the thermometer out by the string and
immediately record the temperature.
- Record the temperature trends twice a day at three points within the pile: the top, middle and bottom of the
pile or the box.
- Record the ambient air temperature as well.
 Chapter – 3
Monitoring Aspects
Temperature Control: Provided that the C:N ratio, the aeration and the moisture content are all within the
optimal range, the micro-organisms multiply exponentially. This microbiological activity results in a
temperature increase to 65–70°C within 1 to 2 days (see figure 3.3). Temperatures above 70°C need to be
avoided as they are too high for even thermophilic bacteria and so inhibit the microbiological activity.
Temperatures above 80°C is lethal to most soil micro-organisms and the process comes to a halt. Although
composting will occur at temperatures below 65°C, a temperature of around 65°C favours rapid composting
and ensures the destruction of weed seeds, insect larvae, and potential plant or human pathogens. Therefore,
it is preferable for the temperature of the composting pile to stay at around 65°C for at least three days. After
the first week, the temperature gradually decreases, and the decomposition process slows down. The process
moves into the mesophilic phase (45–50°C) and other micro-organisms take over the transformation until the
waste material is transformed into fresh compost.
Figure 3.3: (left) showing temperature curve
showing the two composting phases: thermophilic
phase with frequent turning, and maturation
(mesophilic) phase with occasional turning. The
increased temperature results in increased rate of
biological activity and hence results in faster
stabilisation of the material. However, if the
temperature rise is very high, due to inactivation
of the organisms & enzymes the rate of activity
may decrease. The temperature range of 50oC to
60Co is thus optimum for nitrification and cellulose
degradation. MSW is known to have good
insulation properties and hence the released heat
results in increase in temperature of the
decomposing mass.

Monitoring Control
Microbes take up nutrients only as dissolved ions in a film of water. Thus, the moisture content of the waste
plays an important role. To ensure rapid decomposition, maintain the moisture content in the composting
piles at a level of 40 to 60%. Ideally, water is only added during turning as the material is spread out on the
floor. Take a handful of compost and squeeze it hard. If
only a few drops of water appear, the moisture content
is in the optimal range. If no drops emerge, the moisture
content is below 40%, indicating that the nutrient
provision is hampered. Consequently, the composting
process slows down. Often, the temperature of the
waste pile decreases though the process is not finished,
because the water content is too low. Adding water
raises the temperature of the composting pile and the
decomposition process continues. If the moisture
content is too high, the pile tends to become anaerobic
and produces unpleasant odours.
Figure 3.4: (right) Testing of Moisture Content: Protect your hand with a glove. Take a handful of compost
and squeeze it in your fist. A: If no water is squeezed out, the compost is too dry; B: If many drops can be
squeezed out, the compost is too wet; C: If few drops can be squeezed out, the moisture content is ideal.
➢ Wear protective gloves when testing the moisture (squeeze test) for hygienic reasons and in case there are sharp
materials in the material.
➢ Add water during turning with a sprinkler until optimal moisture content is reached.
➢ The box system needs less water as the material is not turned.
➢ In some cases, compost produces excessive water (leachate) in the beginning of the process. This leachate can be
collected and reused for watering the next pile.
 Chapter – 4
Environmental Controls
On days when the waste cannot be accepted at the compost plant or if shutdown occurs for extended period
due to rains or cold climate or major breakdown or annual maintenance, the waste should be diverted to a
properly designed and operated MSW landfill. This
collected wastes should be systematically placed in
heaps for quick and favourable compost processing
familiarly known as Windrow composting.
Specification and Size (on the right, figure 4.1):

• Windrows are typically trapezoidal in cross

section, but average windrow shape is
between an oval and trapezoidal. A factor of
0.66 is assumed to estimate windrow
volumes (Volume = Height x Width x Length
x 0.66).
• Typically, windrows can vary from 2 to 2.3 m
in height and 2 to 2.3 m wide at the base.
• The space between windrows should be
sufficiently wide for movement of the
windrow turning machine to be employed in
the plant which is normally about 1-3 m.
• Windrow dimensions should allow
conservation of heat generated during
composting process while also maintaining
diffusion of air to the deeper portions of the
windrow.
Requirements: It is to be kept in mind that all uncovered windrow areas should be provided with an
impermeable base. Such a base may be made of concrete or of compacted clay, 50 centimetres thick, having
permeability less than 10 centimetres or second. The base must be provided with 1 to 2 percent slope and
must be encircled by lined drains for collection of leachate or surface water runoff. All lined drains should be
connected to a lined settling pond, where tests for quality of wastewater are to be performed on a weekly
basis. A treatment unit should be established to ensure that the wastewater is discharged to open drains only
after it meets the regulatory standards. Please refer the annexure section for monitoring sheets.
Process: The process rejects are to be removed
from the compost plant daily. The recyclables
should be diverted to appropriate vendors. The non-
recyclables should be sent to a properly designed
and operated MSW landfill. Temporary storage of
rejects should be done in a covered area. If
temporary storage is done in an open area, it must
be done only for 1 or 2 days, at an area having an
impermeable base and lined drains for collection of
leachate or surface water runoff. The height of
stockpiled waste should not exceed 3 metres and
the storage area must have provision for odour
control, litter control, fire control and birds’ control.
Figure 4.2 (left): Showing how can a windrow shed
be used for placing Windrow composting.
Depending on the daily loads, windrows can be
accumulated at the windrow yards placed at
systematic intervals for easy and free access to air
flow within the compost heaps and manual turning
for a quality product output for revenue generation.
 Chapter – 4
As per the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Govt. of India; the guidelines forecasted from the
Composting manual in regard with the windrow composting method which is fast and suitable when MSW
needs to be converted into composts at a larger scale with lesser time intervals. The general flowsheets for
different population ranges are as given below:

Control the quality of compost

First and foremost, the quality of compost is controlled best by controlling the quality of the incoming waste
that is to be composted. Only biodegradable waste should enter the process plant, to avoid visible pieces of
plastic particles or sharp broken glass in the final product. The incoming mixed solid waste coming directly
from the sources should be manually segregated at the MRF centre. The Invisible pollutants, such as heavy
metals, etc. must also be avoided. An effective separation of waste before composting should be facilitated
by process steps like turning and screening at the Shredder and mechanized separators. Hence, if you need
to improve quality, start with a better control of the input material, and improve the process control.
Secondly, as discussed above, process control is a crucial factor for good quality compost. Maintain high
temperatures to inactivate pathogens and weed seeds. Optimum moisture content during composting
ensures the maturity of compost and its benefit to plant growth. Complete and precise monitoring reports can
improve the confidence of inspectors and customers in the quality of the final product.
In addition, quality inspectors are authorized to make unannounced spot tests. Finally, the product needs to
be frequently analysed to provide important information about nutrient content and invisible pollutants like
heavy metals.
 Chapter – 4
Diagrammatic representation of a model Composting plant with MRF centre
 Chapter – 4
Table 3: Summarizes the possible problems during composting and recommendable solutions.
Situation Requirements/ Possible solutions
1. Raw Material Composition
Large amounts of sand and stones • Improve public awareness to reduce the proportion of inert
materials in waste.
• Adapt collection vehicle (e.g., by fitting mesh floor) to
reduce sand content.
• Remove organics from the mixed waste instead of
removing the residues from the organic waste (inverse
selection).
• Pre-screening of waste at the composting site with fine
mesh size.
Large amount of household • Improve public awareness to initiate source segregation.
hazardous waste • Provide separate collection for hazardous materials.
2. Composting parameters
Nitrogen deficiency (high C/N value) • Add manure (cow, chicken, buffalo) or urea.
Carbon deficiency (low C/N ratio) • Add wood chips, dry leaves, or saw dust.
Too high temperature during • Turn pile.
thermophilic phase (>70OC) • Water pile if necessary.
Too low temperature during • Check moisture content, if necessary, add water.
O
thermophilic phase (<30 C) • Check C/N ratio.
High moisture content (>70OC) • Turn pile, spread out pile before reforming and leave to dry.
• Add sawdust or wood chips for absorbing moisture.
Low moisture content (<40OC) • Spread waste and sprinkle sufficient water.
Odour development (anaerobic • Insufficient oxygen!!! Turn the pile more often.
conditions) • If waste is very sticky and compact, mix in coarse material
like wood chips to increase aeration.
• If heap is too wet, turn it and let dry before re-pulling.
• Avoid composting meat and fish leftovers.
3. Climatic influences
Hot and humid climate or high rainfall • Protect waste from getting soaked, use roofed area for
season composting and maturing.
• Or cover piles with tarpaulin or composting fleece.
Hot and arid climate or extended dry • Use roof to protect compost from direct sunlight.
season • Or cover with tarpaulin or composting fleece to avoid
excess evaporation.
• Water more frequently. Collect rainwater and store for dry
season if possible.
Frequent strong winds • Check moisture more frequently as evaporation will
increase.
4. Vectors
Excessive flies, insects • Cover heap with 2-inch layer of coarse compost.
• Make sure to receive fresh organic waste (not older than 2
days).
 Chapter – 5
Step by Step Guidelines for Composting System

Figure 5.1: Showing a flow diagram describing the activities carried out to process organic waste into
compost. The three major steps are shown below.

Stage 1: Collection of waste

Collection of source-separated fresh organic waste is necessary for the proper composting process. Organic
waste is normally collected from communities, markets, and other sources of organic waste of a city or town
to a compost plant by rickshaw van or trucks.
Stage 2: Composting of organic waste
Eight major steps are shown (refer figure 5.1) in this stage of the composting process. During this stage, a
small portion of rejects are disposed in the landfill site and sorted recyclables (plastic, tin cans, paper,
cardboards, iron, glass, etc.) are stored and sold to recycling industries. During this stage, input organic
matter loses a significant amount of moisture from the final produce compost. It is to be noticed that various
factors including temperature, moisture, oxygen, and pH need to be monitored for proper composting.
Stage 3: Marketing
A proper compost marketing strategy is necessary to market compost products to farmers and crop growers.
Compost can be produced based on local quality standards and enriched with necessary nutrients to meet
the demand of different types of soil and crops.
 Chapter – 5
Pit Composting in a Nutshell
Pit Composting method is one of the most suitable decentralized waste management facility to produce
organic compost from biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste. Generally, the capacity of any pit
composting unit needs to be designed depending on the incoming MSWs per day. In this case, for Municipal
Corporation of Gurgaon (MCG) and Municipal Corporation of Faridabad (MCF), the incoming MSW quantity
has been estimated to about 15–20 TPD.
Major steps to monitor the Pit Composting unit measures on the following;
a. Inspection of feed stock: An inspection work needs to carry out to assess the type of materials
received from the incoming waste to ensure that the material does not contain any components which
can hamper the processing system by break down of equipment. Supervisor is to be engaged by the
operator of the facility to carry out the inspection work. The material which is unacceptable and not
compostable can alter the processing facility shall be assessed through inspection and identified
components should be removed from the feed stock and send to the Material Recovery Facility centre
for segregation and recycling.

b. Unloading of waste: The segregated waste collected by primary collection vehicles i.e., auto tipper
and tricycles and trucks shall be brought to the decentralized processing facility. Only segregated wet
waste will be unloaded on the tipping platform; the wet waste will be sorted out manually to remove
any dry waste and inert material. After completion of sorting, waste will be used for processing.

c. Shredding of wet waste: Pit composting technology has been selected for decentralized composting
at ward level in Gurugram and Faridabad. Composting of biodegradable fraction of waste through pit
composting technology takes several months’ time which requires vast area for making pits suitable
for pit composting method. Therefore, to minimize the time required for composting through pit
composting technology; biodegradable fraction of waste is shredded prior to dumping of waste in the
pits. By shredding of biodegradable fraction of waste, the time required for pit composting can be
minimized to a period of 2 weeks approximately.

d. Right mixing of compost: An efficient composting process needs a C:N ratio within the range of
25:1 to 40:1. Wood chips or sawdust (high C) or manure (high N) may be mixed with the organic waste
to optimize the C:N ratio. Wood chips can also increase the pile porosity, thereby improving aeration.
Organic screening residues from previous piles can be added to fresh piles as a carbon source. As
the screening residues already contain micro-organisms, they also accelerate the start-up of the
composting process.

Example: How to find the C:N ratio

 Chapter – 5
Table 4: Carbon–Nitrogen ratio of Green and Brown materials for Composting
Material C:N
GREEN: Material with High Nitrogen Values
Vegetable wastes 12–20:1
Coffee grounds 20:1
Grass clippings 12–25:1
Cow manure 20:1
Horse manure 25:1
Poultry Manure (fresh) 10:1
Poultry Manure (with litter) 13–18:1
Pig Manure 5–7:1

BROWN: Material with High Carbon Values

Foliage (leaves) 30–80:1
Corn stalks 60:1
Straw 40–100:1
Bark 100–130:1
Paper 150–200:1
Wood chips and sawdust 100–500:1

Determining the Right C/N Ratio

As stated previously, we can classify "green" materials as being high in nitrogen and "brown" materials as
high in carbon. The input material should have a carbon/ nitrogen ratio of 25:1 to 40:1, as this mixture allows
for the most rapid and efficient degradation of the organic material. For example, if we want to achieve a 30:1
C/N ratio using vegetable wastes and various high carbon wastes, we can use the following algebraic
equations to find the appropriate mix.

e. Storage of waste in pits: The

shredded biodegradable
fraction of municipal solid
waste is mixed with saw dust
to absorb the moisture being
generated from biodegradable
fraction of municipal solid
waste. By absorption of
excess moisture from waste
by saw dust, no lea location of
pits. Wet waste will be
unloaded in the pits designed
for composting. Periodical
turning and aeration shall be
provided for waste to
accelerate the process of aerobic composting. Once the duration of 2 weeks completed, waste from
the pit will be emptied and stored for few days for maturation of compost. Entire pit composting process
takes 15 days’ time to complete, therefore a minimum of 15 pits should be constructed to make
available one pit for each day for entire cycle of pit composting.

f. Screening of waste: The screening process generates two fractions. The particle size and amount
of the compost is determined by the mesh size of the sieve through which it passes. For instance, a
sieve with a 10 mm mesh size produces:
- Fine compost (1 mm up to 10 mm); and
- Screening residues containing both coarse organic material and inorganic residues (> 10 mm).
If required, several screens with decreasing mesh size can be put in a row, allowing the production of
several compost qualities. However, in most cases, one compost quality - fine (1-10 mm) - is sufficient.
 Chapter – 6
Compost Marketing Strategy – Storing, Packing and Selling
Depending on your customers, you might store compost in bulk or pack it in bags of different volumes. If
compost reheats above ambient temperature after the screening process, it still is not completely mature. In
this case, sprinkle a little water and let the compost rest for another week. Check the temperature again
before you start bagging it. The compost should be relatively dry when it is bagged to avoid transporting large
amounts of water with the compost (moisture content <40 %).

• Store the mature and screened compost in a dry and covered place. Rainwater can leach out these
valuable nutrients.
• The storage of compost should not be for longer than two years, as the nutrient value of the product
and the organic matter content slowly decrease over time.
• Compost is usually sold in bulk (delivered loosely) or in bags of different sizes (e.g., 5 kg, 10 kg, 40
kg). Some bulk purchasers may be content to use a coarser grade of compost if the price is attractive.
• Pack the compost into bags only just before it is to be sold.
• The bags should be waterproof but permeable to air as compost is still a “living” material requiring air.
Woven polypropylene bags prove to be very suitable for compost.
• Label the bags which should indicate the name and origin of the product, the weight, the date of
packing and the average nutrient content of the compost.

If composting activities are based on a business approach with little or no external support, assessment of
potential markets and customers are key elements for launching a compost business. Yet, even if composting
is accepted as a treatment option within a SWM strategy and receives additional subsidies from institutions,
a demand for the product should be identified. Before starting compost production, determine for what
purpose the compost will be used and decide on the target customers. When asked, "Who are your
customers?" or "Who will buy your product?." many entrepreneurs or project coordinators either
have no clear idea or they assume that "everyone" will. Such assumptions can lead to wrong
decisions and pricing policies, incorrect marketing strategies and, finally, to business failure. A
market demand study aims at identifying compost customers, usages, and their demands in terms of both
quality and quantity.
The main parameters of marketing strategy for selling any organic compost produced from MSW can be
confined with the four P’s theory, that will be Product, Price, Place and Promotion. This will also help the
compost plant to generate its own revenue for functioning and growth in financial boundaries.

Relates to features, benefits, quality, packaging, presentation, and service and

abstract messages such as image or principles.
Product Example: Compost is produced from organic solid waste and is hence an
environmentally friendly and high-quality product. Compost is high in organic matter
and, therefore, an important soil amendment for agriculture and horticulture.
Is dependent on your customers’ financial circumstances, on compost demand and
the prices of competing market products. However, it is also determined by your
production costs and expected profit margin.
Price Example: Compost must compete with commercial fertilisers and other natural
manures. The market price will range somewhere in-between these two products;
however, production costs must be covered.
Can be regarded as a link between your product and your potential customers.

Place Example: You have decided to market the compost via a retailer who has already
established a distribution network for other agricultural products. Customers can
purchase the compost locally at low transport costs.
Supports and influences the perceptions and judgements of your potential
customers to ensure the sale of your product.
Promotion Example: Your compost has an official quality label. The customer opts for your
product as he or she trusts the label or is aware of your company’s good reputation.
 Chapter – 6
a. Product features must be adapted to the needs of the targeted groups or stakeholders to ensure
continuous – or even increasing – sales. These can certainly include the following;

• Purpose and benefit of the product (e.g., fertilizer, soil conditioner)

• Quality (e.g., maturity)
• Packaging (e.g., bulk, or packed products)
• Additional services (e.g., free delivery)
Customer needs have been identified in the market demand analysis. Yet, the product may also include an
extended product feature or information for the customer. Packaging, for example, should be of appropriate
size for easy use, indicate nutrient content of the compost or provide application guidance for different plants.
This is an additional benefit to the customer and can promote repeated purchase of your product.
After-sales service provided with the product is a further benefit as it also includes an important product
feature and may offer an advantage over competitors. Many fertilisers or composting companies provide
compost consultancy services, thereby also allowing a detailed analysis of customers’ needs and product
acceptance.
Product quality is another key feature in gaining satisfied and loyal customers. Compost quality criteria can
be divided into visible and easily controlled quality criteria or invisible criteria difficult to assess by the
customer.
Table 5: Compost quality criteria and the possibility to be assessed by customers

Factors possible to be assessed Factors impossible to be assessed by

by customers customers
• Colour ▪ Nutrient content (NPK)
• Smell ▪ Degree of maturity in terms of
• Visible foreign matter chemical constituents
(plastic, glass, wires) ▪ Suitability for plants (pH, salt
• Degree of maturity content)
▪ Inactivation of weed seeds
▪ Freedom from pathogens
▪ Heavy metal content

Since the customer is not able to assess the most important compost quality criteria (e.g., nutrient content)
by its appearance, he must trust the information provided by the producers. Ways to gain customer
confidence include intensive process monitoring and quality control conducted by independent laboratories.
A compost quality label can also generate customer confidence. However, it will have to be introduced and
awarded by an independent regional or national organisation acting as a control institution.
Following pictures shows the different quality compost which can be determined as a guide to acceptance by
the customers. Accordingly, the customers can deal with their purchases as per their requirements and
necessity.

Mature compost Ground compost Granulated compost

 Chapter – 6
b. Compost pricing is one of the challenging components in today’s market as a lot of alternative synthetic
competitors are already holding up the major portion of the local markets with cheaper costs suitable for both
Agricultural and Horticultural fields. But to prepare the enriched quality compost, there must be certain
scientific procedures which can be naturally or manually modified thus different from the conventional
produced compost available in the market at a cheaper rate and quality (refer Table 6). Hence, the compost
price is dependent on the specific production costs. However, the producer or the manufacturer will add a
profit margin to provide further investments or technological improvements in the compost producing units or
plant. The margin is, nevertheless, limited as the prices of competing products and the willingness and ability
to pay by the customers must take in account.
Table 6: Comparison of nutrient contents in different composts

Nutrient Compost Products of Waste Concern

concentration
Conventional compost Enriched compost
(OM, N, P, K in %)
Organic matter (OM) 35 – 40% 30%
Nitrogen (N) 1.0 – 2.0% 7%
Phosphorus (P) 0.4 – 4.0% 7%
Potassium (K) 0.5 – 2.6% 14%
pH 7.8 7.5
Source: Waste Concern (2001)
Preliminary pricing should already have been determined when establishing the business plan of the
composting project. However, these factors must be based on the prevailing conditions and adapted
accordingly.

c. Place or Location can be defined as a link for product transfer between buyer and seller. The “place” in
the sales strategy comprises two main aspects – location and distribution. It refers to your customer’s
geographic location.
It is crucial for any business to be in an optimal geographical position in relation to staff availability, supply of
raw materials, cost of land and, certainly, location of customers. Assuming that compost is produced in urban
areas, certain market segments, such as households or nurseries, may be located nearby. However, since
the bulk market is in peri–urban or even rural areas, distance is one of the main criteria for the sale of compost,
especially as it is a material that is required in large quantities. Distribution strategies will therefore have to
be developed. The markets for compost can roughly be divided into:

• Local markets (e.g., households, nearby nurseries)

• Regional markets (e.g., nurseries, farmers, peri–urban areas)
• National markets (e.g., rural agricultural markets, landscapers, industries)
• International markets (export to countries in need of organic fertilisers)
The bulky nature of compost and its low market price generally do not allow for the serving of local or national
markets. Development of a distribution strategy and selection of distribution channels are dependent on
the available capacity of your organisation (e.g., staff, means of transport).

d. Promotion is the utmost aspect in any kind of product selling may it be compost. A product does not sell
by its mere presence, rather by campaigning through multiple promotional tools. The different types of
promotional campaigns and tools can be in the form of Direct contact or Customer service, Word-of-
mouth advertising, Virtual advertising, Internal distribution, Training, Free samples distribution,
Exhibition, and Packaging. The potential user must be informed of its existence and aware of its benefits.
The purpose of promotion is to inform customers and stimulate product demand. Information will raise
awareness of the market and is particularly useful in turning “ability to pay” into “willingness to pay”.
However, experience reveals that demonstration nurseries or farms can often be very effective in promoting
compost. Farmers can directly see the effect of compost on plants and how it is used.
Date

Truck Number

Name of
Driver

Time of Arrival

Source of
Waste
Name of
Helper
Unloading
Start Time

Unloading
Finish Time

Waste
Covered (Y/N)
Seepage of
Water from the
Vehicle

Total Amount
of Waste

Signature of
Waste Driver

Signature of
Compost Plant
Operator
Template 1: Incoming Waste Monitoring Table in Kilograms
Annexure
 Annexure
Template 2: Monitoring Table for Single Windrow
Pile Waste
No: type
Start Original
Date: Volume

Day Temperature Moisture (A, B, C) pH O2 Notes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
End End
Date: Volume:
A: moisture is right (60%); B: too dry, C: too wet
 Annexure
Template 3: Temperature Monitoring Table for Several Windrows (in OC)
Pile Ambient
No: Temperature
Start
Date:
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
End
Date:
 Annexure
Template 4: Temperature Monitoring Table for Several Windrows (in OC)
 Annexure
Template 5: Final Quality Control Sheet for Compost

Compost Sample Pile No:

Date of Sampling

Laboratory

Date of Analysis
Further Information:

Factors Value Unit Method

Moisture %

Organic Matter %

NO3–N

NH4–N

Total N

Total C

C/N Ratio

P2O5

K2O

Mg

Heavy Metals

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Lead

Mercury

Nickel

Zinc

___________________________________
Date, Signature