PH101 – Engineering Physics

FIBRE OPTICS

School of Sciences (PHYSICS)

National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh
Define the terms – wire, fibre

What is a denser medium?

What is a rarer medium?

Will a ray of light bend upon passing
from one medium to another?
When a ray of light passes from a rarer medium to a denser medium,
it is bent towards the normal.

When a ray of light passes from a denser medium to a rare medium,

it is bent away from the normal.
 Fibre optics

Fibre optics is a technology in which signals are converted from electrical into optical signals, transmitted through a
thin glass fibre and reconverted into electrical signals.

An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric, which guides light waves along its length
by total internal reflection.

The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one of its ends to the other end is based on the principle of total
internal reflection.
 Total Internal Reflection

If θ1 < θc the ray refracts into the rarer medium

If θ1 = θc the ray just grazes the interface of rarer-to-denser medium
If θ1 > θc the ray is reflected back into the denser medium
The phenomenon in which light is totally reflected from a denser-to-rarer medium boundary is known as total
internal reflection.

The rays that experience total internal reflection obey the laws of reflection.
η0 R.I. of air
η1 R.I. of core
η2 R.I. of cladding
Critical angle of propagation
The end at which light enters the fibre is called launching end.
Let us assume that the angle of incidence at the core-cladding interface is the critical angle Ф , where Ф is given
by
𝑛
Фc =sin−1 𝑛2
1

A ray incident with an angle larger than Фc will be confined to the fibre and propagate in the fibre. A ray incident
at the core-cladding boundary, at the critical angle is called critical ray. The critical ray makes an angle with axis of
the fibre. If the rays propagation an angles larger than will not propagate in the fibre. Therefore, the angle is
called the critical propagation angle.
From Δle ABC,
AC/AB = sin Фc also AC/AB = cos ϴc

sin Фc = n2/n1

cos ϴc = n2/n1
𝑛
ϴc = cos −1 𝑛2
1

Only those rays which are refracted into the cable at angles θr < θc will propagate in the optical fibre.
Acceptance angle
Let the refractive index of the core be n1 and the refractive
index of the cladding be n2 (n2 < n1).

Let n0 be the refractive index of the medium from which

light is launched into the fibre.

Light ray enters the fibre at an angle θi to the axis of the fibre.
The ray refracts at an angle θr and strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle ф.

If ф is greater than critical angle фc, the ray undergoes total internal reflection, since n1 > n2. When the angle ф is greater
than фc, the light will stay within the fibre.

Applying Snell’s law to the launching face of the fibre, we get

𝑛12 −𝑛22
sin θi 𝑛1 Solving sin θimax = for air medium n0 = 1,
= 𝑛0
sin θr 𝑛0
In Δle ABC , sin θr = sin (90- Ф) = cos Ф On designating θimax = θo

sin θi = (n1/n0) cos Ф

Sin θo = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
When Ф = Фc, sin θimax = (n1/n0) cos Фc ; But sin Фc = n2/n1
 Sin θo = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
The angle θo is called the acceptance angle of the fibre.

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis
of the fibre and propagate down the fibre.
Thus, only those rays that are incident on the face of the fibre making angles less that θ0 will undergo repeated
total internal reflections and reach the other end of the fibre.

Hence, larger acceptance angles make it easier to launch light into fibre.
Fractional refractive index change
The fractional difference Δ between the refractive indices of the
core and the cladding is known as the fractional refractive index
change. It is given by
𝒏𝟏−𝒏𝟐
Δ=
𝒏𝟏
The value of Δ is always positive because n1 must be greater than
n2 for the total internal reflection condition.

In order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre, Δ<<1 and Δ

is of the order of 0.01.
Numerical Aperture
The main function of an optical fibre is to accept and transmit as much light
from the source as possible. The light gathering ability of a fibre depends on
the numerical aperture.

The acceptance angle and the fractional refractive index change determine
the numerical aperture of fibre.
The numerical aperture NA is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.
Thus, NA = sin θ0 ,where θ0 is the acceptance angle.

Sin θo = 𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 , NA = 𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

NA in terms of Δ can be written as NA = n1 2Δ

 FEW REVISIONS

Hence, only those rays which are refracted into the

cable at angles Ɵr < ƟC will propagate in the optical
fibre.

The angle Ɵ0 is called the acceptance angle of the

fibre. Acceptance angle is the maximum
angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of
η0 R.I. of air; η1 R.I. of core ; η2 R.I. of cladding the fibre and propagate down the fibre.

Numerical aperture (light gathering index):

NA = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ; NA in terms of Δ can be written as NA = n1 2Δ
Numerical aperture is dependent only on the R.I. of core and cladding
and does not depend on the physical dimensions of the fibre.
NA = 0.13 – 0.50
Classification of Optical Fibres

Based on refractive index

Step Index Fibre
Graded Index Fibre (GRIN)

Based on modes of light propagation

Single mode step-index fibre (SMF)
Multimode step-index fibre (MMF)
Graded index (multimode) fibre (GRIN)
 Single Mode Step-index Fibre

Multimode Step-index Fibre (MMF)

Graded Index (GRIN) Fibre

 MODES OF PROPAGATION
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fibre and its propagation is governed by Maxwell’s
equations.

When a plane electromagnetic wave propagates in free space, it travels as a transverse electromagnetic wave. The electric
field and magnetic field components associated with the wave are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. It is known as a TEM wave.

When the light ray is guided through an optical fibre, it propagates in different types of modes. Each of these guided modes
consists of a variety of electromagnetic field configurations, such as transverse electric (TE), transverse magnetic (TM) and
hybrid modes.

Hybrid modes are combination of transverse electric and magnetic modes.

✓ In simple terms these modes can be visualized as the possible number of allowed paths of light in an
optical fibre.

✓ The paths are all zigzag paths excepting the axial direction. Though the rays having propagation
angles between Ɵ = 0° and ƟC will be in a position to undergo total internal reflections, all of them will
not however propagate along the optical fibre.

✓ Only a certain ray directions are allowed.

✓ As a zig-zag ray gets repeatedly reflected at the walls of the fibre, phase shift occurs.

✓ Consequently, the waves travelling along certain zigzag paths will be in phase and undergo
constructive interference, while the waves coursing along certain other paths will be out of phase
and diminish due to destructive interference.

✓ The light ray paths along which the waves are in phase inside the fibre are known as modes.
Types of modes: Sl. Higher order modes Lower order modes
No.
1 In a fibre of fixed thickness, the modes In a fibre of fixed thickness, the
that propagate at angles close to the modes that propagate at angles larger
critical angle Φc (i.e., critical than the critical angle (i.e., lower
propagation angle Ɵc) are higher order than the critical propagation angle)
modes. are lower order modes.
2 In case of higher order modes, the fields In case of lower order modes, the
are distributed more towards the edge of fields are concentrated near the
the wave-guide and tend to send light center of the fibre.
energy into the cladding. This energy is
lost ultimately.

3 The higher order modes have to traverse The lower order modes have to
longer paths and hence take larger time traverse shorter paths and hence take
to cover a given length of the fibre. smaller time to cover a given length
of the fibre.

4 The higher order modes arrive at the The lower order modes arrive at the
output end of the fiber later than the output end of the fiber sooner than
lower order modes. the higher order modes.
 SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBRE
A single mode step-index fibre has a very fine thin core of diameter of 8 to 12 µm.
It is usually made of germanium doped silicon.

The core is surrounded by a thick cladding of lower refractive index.

The cladding is composed of silica lightly doped with phosphorous oxide.
The external diameter of the cladding is of the order of 125 µm.

The fibre is surrounded by an opaque protective sheath.

The variation of the refractive index of a step index fibre as a function

of radial distance can be mathematically represented as
n(r) = n1 [r < a inside core]
= n2 [r > a in cladding]
Propagation of light in SMF
Light travels in SMF along a single path that is along the axis - the zero order mode.

Both Δ and NA are very small for single mode fibres.

The low NA means a low acceptance angle.

Therefore, light coupling into the fibre becomes difficult. Costly laser diodes are needed to
launch light into the SMF.
 MULTI-MODE STEP INDEX FIBRE
A multimode step index fibre is very much similar to the single mode step index fibre except that its core is of larger
diameter.
The core diameter is of the order of 50 to 100 µm, which is very large compared to the wavelength of light.

The external diameter of cladding is about 150 to 250 µm.

Propagation of light in MMF

Multimode step index fibres allow finite number of guided modes.

The direction of polarization, alignment of electric and magnetic fields will be different in rays of different modes.

In other words, many zigzag paths of propagation are permitted in a MMF.

The path length along the axis of the fibre is shorter while the other zigzag paths are longer.
Because of this difference, the lower order modes reach the end of the fibre earlier while the high order modes reach after
some time delay.
 GRADED-INDEX (GRIN) FIBRE
A graded index fibre is a multimode fibre with a core
consisting of concentric layers of different refractive
indices.

Therefore, the refractive index of the core varies with

distance from the fibre axis.

It has a high value at the centre and falls of with

increasing radial distance from the axis.

Such a profile causes a periodic focussing of light

propagating through the fibre.

The size of the graded index fibre is about the same as the
step index fibre.
The variation of the refractive index of the core with
radius measured from the center is given by

α is called as the grading profile index number.

α varies between 1 to ∞. Shape of the index profile is
understood by knowing the parameter.
As a light ray goes from a region of higher refractive index to a region of lower refractive
index, it is bent away from the normal.

The process continues till the condition for total internal reflection is met. Then the ray travels back towards the core axis,
again being continuously refracted.

In the graded index fibre, rays making larger angles with the axis traverse longer path but they travel in a region of lower
refractive index and hence at a higher speed of propagation.

Consequently, all rays traveling through the fibre, irrespective of their modes of travel, will have almost the same optical path
length and reach the output end of the fibre at the same time.
 Single Mode Fibre (SMF) Multimode Fibre (MMF) Graded Index Fibre (GRIN)

Very small core diameter, typically of 50 to 100 µm 50 to 100 µm

about 8 – 10 µm
Numerical apertures is very small Large

Supports only one mode Many number of modes Many number of modes

The attenuation is least The attenuation is high Smaller than that of MMF

Loss due to intermodal dispersion does Loss due to intermodal dispersion is Intermodal dispersion is zero.
not exist. large Material dispersion is present.
Single mode fibres carry higher Bandwidth < 200 MHz-km 200 MHz-km - 3 GHz-km
bandwidth than multimode fibres (> 3
GHz-km)
No degradation of signal, higher Less expensive, LED or Laser source LED or Laser source can be used.
transmission rate, Highly suited for can be used, Launching of light is
communications easier, Coupling of fibres is easier.
Costly, requires a laser source, coupling is Degrades signal, less suitable for
difficult, Intensity gets reduced communication
Applications in under water cables Applications in Data Links Applications in Telephone lines
APPLICATIONS
Illumination and short distance transmission of images
Used as wave-guides in telecommunications
Fabricating a new family of sensors
Endoscopes
Optical communications
Medical applications
Military applications

MERITS OF OPTICAL FIBRES DEMERITS

Cheaper Installation and maintenance of optical fibres requires a new
Smaller in size, lighter in weight, flexible and strong set of skills.
Not hazardous They require specialized and costly equipment like optical time
Immune to EMI and RFI domain reflectometers etc. All this means heavy investment.
No cross talk
Wider bandwidth
Low loss per unit length
Problems
Q: In an optical fibre, the core material has refractive index 1.43 and refractive index of clad material is 1.4. Find the
propagation angle.
Q: In an optical fibre, the core material has refractive index 1.6 and refractive index of clad material is 1.3. What is the
value of critical angle? Also calculate the acceptance angle.
Q: Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fibre from the following data: n1 (core) = 1.55 and
n2 (cladding) = 1.50.
Q: What is the numerical aperture of an optical fibre cable with a clad index of 1.378 and a core index of 1.546.
Q: A fibre cable has an acceptance angle of 30o and a core index of refraction of 1.4. calculate the refractive index of the
cladding.
Q: Calculate the fractional index change for a given optical fibre if the refractive indices of the core and the cladding are
1.563 and 1.498 respectively.
Q: Calculate the refractive indices of the core and the cladding material of a fibre from the following data.
NA = 0.22 and Δ = 0.012
Q: The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is 0.39. If the difference in the refractive indices of the material of its core
and cladding is 0.05, calculate the refractive index of the core.
Q: An optical fibre has an acceptance angle 26.80o. Calculate its numerical aperture.
Q: An optical fibre refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.53 and 1.42 respectively. Calculate its critical angle, critical
angle of propagation, acceptance angle and its numerical aperture.
Q: An optical fibre has a numerical aperture of 0.20 and a cladding refractive index of 1.59. Find the acceptance angle for
the fibre in water which has a refractive index of 1.33.