ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hormone Action

- A complex network of glands and organs that work - Target Cells or Target Organs
together.
Although hormones circulate throughout the body via
- The endocrine system works alongside with the nervous blood, each hormone affects only specific tissue cells or
system. organs, referred to as its target cells or target organs.
- The endocrine uses chemical messengers called
‘hormones’
Classification of Hormones
- Endocrinology.
a. Amino Acid-Based Molecules
The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and
organs that work together. It organizes and directs the 1. Proteins – Chains of Amino Acids (Example:
functioning of the body's cells alongside the nervous Growth Hormone)
system. 2. Peptides – Short chains of amino acids
(Example: Antidiuretic Hormone)

Function of Endocrine System 3. Amines – Simple hormones (Example:

Epinephrine)
- Level of hormones in your blood is monitored.
b. Steroid Hormones
- Hormones send messages by binding the targeted cell
and relay the message. - Made from cholesterol

- This process, known as homeostasis, functions similarly 1. Sex Hormones (Gonads: Ovaries and Testes)
to your home's thermostat. 2. Hormones produced by adrenal cortex.
c. Nonsteroidal Amino Acid
The level of hormones in your blood is constantly Derivatives
monitored by your endocrine system.
- All other hormones
Hormones send messages by binding to the cells they
target and relaying the message. This process, known as d. Prostaglandins
homeostasis, functions similarly to your home's
- Hormones that acts locally.
thermostat.

While the body creates a wide variety of hormones,

Hormones influence nearly every bodily function,
almost all of them may be chemically categorized as
including:
either amino acid-based compounds.
a. Cellular Metabolism
Proteins are chains of amino acids, and an example is
b. Sexual Development and Reproduction growth hormone that supports early development and aids
in the maintenance of tissues and organs throughout life.
c. Homeostasis of Sugar and other Nutrients
Peptides are short chains of amino acids, and an example
d. Regulation of the Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Sleep is ADH or Antidiuretic Hormone that aids in blood vessel
Cycles and Digestion constriction and aids the kidneys in managing the body's
salt and water levels.

Hormones influence nearly every bodily function, Lastly is Amines are simple hormones, and an example is
including: cellular metabolism, sexual development and Epinephrine that it influences metabolism, focus, anxiety,
reproduction, homeostasis of sugar and other nutrients, and excitement.
and regulation of the heart rate, blood pressure, sleep The gonads (ovaries and testicles) and the adrenal cortex
cycles and digestion. both are steroid hormones, which are created from
cholesterol.
Endocrine Glands Hormones:
1. Pituitary Gland 1. Antidiuretic Hormone
a. Anterior Pituitary Gland 2. Oxytocin
b. Posterior Pituitary Gland
2. Pineal Gland Pineal Gland
3. Thyroid Gland - The pineal body is located in the center of the brain that
secretes the hormone melatonin.
4. Parathyroid Glands (4)
Hormone:
5. Thymus Gland
1. Melatonin
6. Pancreas
The pineal body is located in the center of the brain,
7. Adrenal Glands beneath the corpus callosum. It secretes the hormone
a. Adrenal Cortex melatonin, which signals to the body when it's time to
sleep.
b. Adrenal Medulla
8. Ovaries (2)
Thyroid Gland
9. Testes (2)
- The thyroid gland plays an important role in the body's
metabolism.
Pituitary Gland Hormones:
- This tiny gland that produces hormones and regulates 1. Thyroxine
numerous other glands that is located at the bottom of
your brain. 2. Triiodothyronine
3. Calcitonin

a. Anterior Pituitary Gland (Adenohypophysis) The thyroid gland is located underneath the larynx on the
front of the neck.
- The hypothalamus releases hormones that control
secretions. The thyroid gland plays an important role in the body's
metabolism.
Hormones:
1. Growth Hormone
Parathyroid Gland
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
- The parathyroid glands plays a crucial function in
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone calcium balance management in the body.
4. Melanin Stimulating Hormone Hormone:
5. Prolactin 1. Parathyroid Hormone
6. Gonadotropins The parathyroid glands are similarly located towards the
front of the neck, just below the larynx (voice box). The
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone
parathyroid glands play a crucial
- Luteinizing Hormone

Thymus Gland
b. Posterior Pituitary Gland(Neurohypophysis)
- The thymus gland produces white blood cells.
- Hormones produced by the hypothalamus are stored.
Hormone: Hormones
1. Thymosin 1. Mineralocorticoids – Aldosterone
The thymus gland, located in the upper chest, generates 2. Glucocorticoids – Cortisol
white blood cells that fight infections and eliminate
unwanted cells. 3. Sex Hormones – Estrogen and Androgen

Pancreas The adrenal medulla is located at the inner part that

produces catecholamines in stress situations and secretes
- The pancreas plays a role in digestion, as well as norepinephrine and epinephrine which collectively are
hormone production. called Catecholamines, and Sympathomimetics.
Hormones produced by the pancreas include insulin and The adrenal cortex is on the outer part that produces
glucagon, which regulate levels of blood sugar. steroid hormones that secretes
- Islets of Langerhans are hormone producing cells of Mineralocorticoids namely Aldosterone, Glucocorticoids
pancreas (Alpha and Beta) namely Cortisol, and Sex Hormones namely Estrogen and
Androgen.
Hormone:
1. Glucagon
Ovaries
2. Insulin
- The ovaries of a woman are found on both sides of the
3. Somatostatin uterus that generate estrogen and progesterone in addition
The pancreas is located across the back of the abdomen, to the egg cells required for reproduction.
behind the stomach. Hormones:
The pancreas plays a role in digestion, as well as hormone 1. Estrogen
production.
2. Progesterone
Islets of Langerhans are hormone producing cells of
pancreas, alpha cells secrete glucagon, and beta cells 3. Inhibin
secretes insulin.
Adrenal Glands
The ovaries of a woman are found on both sides of the
- The adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. uterus
The ovaries generate estrogen and progesterone in
addition to the egg cells required for reproduction.
a. Adrenal Medulla
Inhibin's primary role in women is to regulate pituitary
- It is located at the inner part that produces FSH output.
catecholamines in stress
situations.
Testes
Hormones:
- The testicles of a man are housed in a pouch that hangs
1. Norepinephrine - suspended outside the male body, and responsible for the
> Catecholamines, production of testosterone and sperm.

Sympathomimetics Hormones:

2. Epinephrine - 1. Testosterone

b. Adrenal Cortex 2. Inhibin

- It is on the outer part that produces steroid hormones. The testicles of a man are housed in a pouch that hangs
suspended outside the male body.
5 Types of Endocrine Disorders
1. Diabetes
- The most frequent kind of endocrine illness is diabetes.
2. Addison’s Disease
- It is an endocrine disorder. It develops when your
adrenal glands don’t release sufficient amount of cortisol.
3. Gigantism
- Also known as acromegaly, is a type of growth hormone
disorder.
4. Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism
- These endocrine problems are caused by the thyroid
gland not working properly.
5. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
- PCOS is a hormonal condition that affects women aged
18 to 44.
- It disrupts the development and release of eggs from the
ovaries. The ovaries can also produce a large number of
follicles.
PCOS is a leading cause of female infertility
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Heart is located in the mediastinum in the thoracic
cavity between the 2 pleural cavities that surround the
•Carries Blood
lungs
•Exchange Nutrients, Waste Products, and Gas
•Transport Substances PERICARDIUM
•Helps Regulate Blood Pressure A membrane or sac that surrounds the heart. It holds the
•Directs Blood Flow to the Tissues heart in place and helps it work properly.
Consist of two layers: Fibrous and Serous Pericardium

FUNCTIONS:
•Carries Blood VALVES OF THE HEART

•Exchange Nutrients, Waste Products, and Gas The valves prevent the backward flow of blood and
maintain the one-way flow of blood through the heart
•Transport Substances chamber
•Helps Regulate Blood Pressure
•Directs Blood Flow to the Tissues 2 types of valves:
Atrioventricular (AV)
COMPONENTS: Semilunar valves
•Heart
•Blood Vessels ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES:
•Blood Located between in each atrium and ventricle
Allow blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles but
THE HEART prevent it from flowing back into the atria

a fist-sized organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

Papillary Muscle - cone-shaped,

FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART muscular pillars; attached to the free margins of the cusps
of the AV valves
• Generating blood pressure
Chordae Tendineae - thin, strong, connective tissue
• Routing blood strings that attached the papillary muscles to the cusps of
the AV valves
• Ensuring one-way blood flow
• Regulating blood supply
SEMILUNAR VALVES:
Located between each ventricle and its associated great
HEART:
artery
APEX- BLUNT, ROUNDED POINT OF THE HEART
Consist of 3 pocketlike semilunar cusps
BASE- LARGER, FLAT PART AT THE OPPOSITE
PART OF THE HEART.
Cardiac Skeleton (Fibrous Skeleton) : CORONARY VEINS

• Consist mainly of fibrous rings that surround the • Great cardiac vein, small cardiac vein, middle
AV valves and the semilunar cardiac vein
• Solid Support • Drain blood from the cardiac muscle
• Electrical insulation between the atria and • Pathways are nearly parallel to the coronary
ventricles arteries
• Electrical insulations between the atria and • Most coronary veins drain blood into the
ventricles coronary sinus
• Some small cardiac veins drain directly into the
right atrium
Blood Vessels of the Heart:
WALLS OF THE HEART
CORONARY ARTERIES- Supply blood to the wall of
Composed of three tissues:
the heart
Epicardium
Originate from the base of the aorta, just above the aortic
semilunar valves Myocardium
Endocardium
LEFT CORONARY ARTERY:
originates on the left side of the aorta Supply much of the Trabeculae carinae – ridges and columns of cardiac
anterior wall of the heart and most of the left ventricle muscles that modify the surfaces of the interior walls
3 major branches: Epicardium – also called the visceral pericardium; thin,
serous membrane forming the smooth outer surface of the
Anterior Interventricular Artery- lies in the anterior
heart; simple squamous epithelium overlying a loose
interventricular sulcus
connective tissue and adipose tissue
Circumflex Artery- extends around the coronary artery
Myocardium -thick middle layer; composed of cardiac
sulcus on the left to the posterior surface of the heart
muscle cells; responsible for contraction
Left Marginal Artery – extends inferiorly along the lateral
Endocardium – simple squamous epithelium over a layer
wall of the left ventricle from the circumflex artery
of connective tissue; allows blood to move easily through
the heart; forms heart valves

RIGHT CORONARY ARTERY:

Originates on the right side of the aorta Cardiac Muscle

extends around the coronary sulcus on the right to the • cells are elongated, branching that contain one, or
posterior surface of the heart occasionally two, centrally located nuclei

Supply most of the wall of the right ventricle • Striated

3 branches: • Relies on Ca2+ and ATP for contraction

Posterior Interventricular Artery – lies in the posterior • Intercalated disks – bind the cardiac muscle cells end to-
interventricular sulcus end laterally

Right Marginal Artery – extends inferiorly along the

lateral wall of the right ventricle
CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART Ectopic Beat

• coordinates the contraction of the atria and • Occurs when the action potential originate in an area of
ventricles the heart other than the SA node
• All cells in the conduction system can produce
spontaneous action potentials
• Sinoatrial node, (2) atrioventricular node, (3) Cardiac Cycle
atrioventricular bundle, (4) right and left bundle
branches, and (5) Purkinje • Repetitive pumping process that begins with the onset of
cardiac muscle contraction and ends with the beginning of
the next contraction
Sinoatrial (SA) node • Pressure changes produced within the heart chambers as
a result of cardiac muscle contraction move blood from
• Pacemaker areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
• Located in the superior wall of the right atrium
• Initiates the contraction of the heart
Atrial systole
• Action potentials originating in the SA node spread over contraction of the two atria contraction of the atria;
the right and left atria
forcing blood flow into the ventricles to complete their
• Produces action potentials at a faster rate filling; semilunar valves remain closed

• Larger number of Ca2+ channels

Atrial diastole

AV Bundle (of His) relaxation of the two atria

• Projects action potential through the fibrous connective

tissue plate that separates the atria from the ventricles
Ventricular systole
• Divides into 2 branches of conducting tissue: left and
contraction of the two ventricles
right bundle branches
contraction of the ventricles; pushes blood toward the
• At the tips of the of the left and right bundle branches,
arteries, causing the AV valves to close as the pressure
the conducting tissue forms many small bundles of begins to increase
Purkinje fibers

Ventricular diastole
Atrioventricular (AV) node
relaxation of the two ventricles
• Located in the lower portion of the right atrium
• When action potentials reach the AV node, they spread
slowly through it and then into a bundle of specialized Heart Sounds
cardiac muscle called the atrioventricular (AV) bundle
• S1 – first heart sounds, “lubb;” lower pitch; occurs at the
beginning of the ventricular systole, and results from the
closure of the AV valves
Purkinje fibers
• S2 – second heart sounds, “dupp;” occurs at the
• Pass to the apex of the heart and then extend to the
beginning of ventricular diastole and results from closure
cardiac muscle of the ventricle walls.
of the semilunar valves
Heart valves EXTRINSIC REGULATION OF THE HEART
Incompetent valve – heart valve that does not close
completely; results to leaks and backflow
Baroreceptor reflex
• Stenosed valve – the opening of the valve is narrowed
• mechanism of the nervous system
• Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds that result from faulty
valves • Baroreceptors – stretch receptors that monitor blood
pressure in the aorta and in the wall of the internal carotid
arteries, which carry blood to the brain; send frequency of
action potentials to the medulla oblongata
Stroke Volume (SV)
• Keeps heart rate and stroke volume within normal ranges
• Volume of blood pumped per ventricle each time the
heart contracts
Chemoreceptor reflex
Heart Rate (HR) • Exercise, emotional excitement or stress stimulate
release of epinephrine and small amounts of
• The number of times the heart contracts each minute norepinephrine
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine bind to receptor
Cardiac Output (CO) proteins on cardiac muscle and increased heart rage and
stroke volume
• Volume of blood pumped by either ventricle of the heart
each minute CO = SV x The Blood Vessels
Arteries

Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart • Carry blood away from the heart (usually oxygenated
blood)
• Mechanism contained within the heart itself
• Elastic, muscular, arterioles
• The force of contraction produced by cardiac muscle is
related to the degree to which cardiac muscle fibers are
stretched
Major Arteries:
• Preload – degree to which the ventricular walls are
AORTA
stretched
Largest artery in the body Begins as it exits from the left
• Venous return – amount of blood that returns to the heart ventricle heart where all arteries of the systemic
• Afterload – pressure against which the ventricles must circulation branch directly or indirectly
pump blood
AORTA has 3 parts:
Starling’s law of the Heart
Ascending aorta
• Relationship between preload and stroke volume
Aortic Arch
• If the venous return increases, the heart fills to a greater Descending Aorta
volume and stretches the cardiac muscle fiber, producing
and increased preload
• The greater force of contraction causes an increased
volume of blood to be ejected from the heart, resulting in
an increased stroke volume
• Major influence on cardiac output
Ascending Aorta and its branches Arteries of the Upper Limbs
• Part of the aorta that passes superiorly from the left • Axillary artery – continuation of the subclavian artery in
ventricle the axilla
• Branches: right and left coronary arteries • Brachial artery – continuation of the axillary artery in
the arm; branches into: ulnar and radial arteries which
• The branches supply the heart supply the forearm and the hand

Aortic Arch its branches Descending Aorta

Part of the aorta that arches posteriorly brachiocephalic
• Longest part of the aorta
artery – first branch; divides into the (1) right common
artery which supplies the right side of the head and neck, • Extends through the thorax and abdomen to the upper
the (2) right subclavian artery which supplies the upper margin of the pelvis
right limb
• Parts: thoracic aorta, abdominal aorta
left common carotid artery – second branch; divides into
the (1) left internal carotid artery which supplies the brain,
and the (2) left external carotid artery which supplies the Thoracic Aorta Branches
muscles and skin of the neck and head
• 10 pairs of intercostal arteries – supply muscles of the
left subclavian artery – third branch; branches into the thorax
vertebral artery that supplies part of the brain
• Bronchial arteries – supply the 2 lungs
• Esophageal arteries – supplies the esophagus
Arteries of the Head and Neck
• Phrenic arteries – supply the diaphragm muscles
• Brachiocephalic artery – first vessel branch from the
aortic arch;
forms the right common artery at the level of the clavicle, Abdominal Aorta Branches
and the right subclavian artery Celiac trunk - first branch
• left common carotid artery – supplies the left side of the - Has 3 branches: (1) left gastric artery – supplies the
head and neck stomach (2) splenic artery – supplies the spleen
• Left subclavian artery – supplies the left upper limb (3) common hepatic artery – supplies the liver
Right and left common carotid arteries – branch into
internal and external carotid arteries at each side of the
angle of the mandible Superior mesenteric artery – supplies the small intestine
and the colon
Right and Left renal arteries – supplies the kidneys
Arteries of the Head and Neck
Right and Left Gonadal arteries – supplies the gonads
• Carotid sinus – base of the internal carotid artery that is
slightly dilated; contains baroreceptors Lumbar arteries – several pairs that go to the muscles of
the abdomen and walls of the trunk of the body
• External carotid arteries – have several branches that
supply the structures of the neck, face, nose, and mouth Inferior mesenteric artery – supplies the rest of the colon

• Internal carotid arteries – forms the Circle of Willis at Right and Left Common Iliac Arteries – final branch of
the base of the brain which supplies most parts of the brain the abdominal aorta which goes to the

• Vertebral arteries – branch from the subclavian arteries thigh; becomes the femoral artery which branches to the
that supply some parts of the brain deep femoral artery that supplies the
thigh; becomes the popliteal artery at the knee which BLOOD
divides into the anterior and posterior tibial
Type of connective tissue that consists of a liquid matrix
arteries which supply the leg and foot; the anterior tibial containing cells and cells fragments
artery terminates as the dorsalis pedis
• Components: Plasma and Formed Elements
artery which supplies the dorsal part of the foot
• Total average volume: 4 to 5L in females; 5 to 6L in
males
Veins • About 8% of the total body weight
• Closer to the body surface and are easily seen through
the skin
PLASMA
• Deeper veins follow the courses of the major arteries and
• Liquid portion of the blood
their names are identical to the arteries
• Pale yellow fluid
• Superior vena cava – drains blood from the head and
arms • 91% water, 7% proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen),
• Inferior vena cava – drains blood from the lower parts of and 2% other solutes (ions, nutrients, waste, gas,
regulatory substances)
the bodies
• Serum – plasma without clotting factors

Blood Pressure
Formed Elements (Red Blood Cells)
• Measure of the force blood exerts against the blood
vessel walls • Aka Erythrocytes
• Systolic pressure – pressure when the ventricles contract •most abundant
to push blood into the arteries
• biconcave disk
• Diastolic pressure – when the ventricles relax and the
blood pressure in the arteries falls to a minimum value • contains hemoglobin
•transport O2 and CO2

Stages of Hypertension:
Normal – less than 120mmHg systolic and 80mggHg Formed elements (white blood cells)
diastolic • Aka Leukocytes
Prehypertension – 120mmHg to 139mmHg systolic and • spherical cells
80mmHg to
• lacks hemoglobin
Stage I – 140mmHg to 159mmHg systolic and 90mmHg
to 99mmHg • has presence of nucleus

Stage II – at least 160mmHg systolic and 100 mmHg • Functions: protect against microorganism and other
diastolic 89mmHg diastolic diastolic pathogens; remove dead cells and debris from tissues

Regulation of Arterial Pressure:

• Baroreceptor reflexes • Types of WBCs: neutrophils, lymphocytes, basophils,
eosinophils, monocytes
• Chemoreceptor reflexes
• Hormonal Mechanisms
Formed Elements (Platelets)
• Cell fragments from megakaryocytes
• Plays an important role in preventing blood loss Formed
Elements of Blood

Characteristics of Formed Elements of the Blood:

NEUTROPHILS
Active phagocytes; number increases rapidly during
short-term or acute infections

EOSINOPHILS
Kill parasitic worms by deluging them with digestive
enzymes; play a complex role in allergy attacks

BASOPHILS
Release histamine (vasodilator chemical) at sites of
inflammation; contain heparin, an anticoagulant

LYMPHOCYTES
Part of immune system; B lymphocytes produce
antibodies; T lymphocytes are involved in graft rejection
and in fighting tumors and viruses via direct cell attack

MONOCYTES
Active phagocytes that become macrophages in the
tissues; long-term "cleanup team"; increase in number
during chronic infections;
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM (2) various lymphoid tissues and organs scattered
throughout the body.
LYMPH
The role of the lymphatic system complements that of the
cardiovascular system. Its organs include lymphatic The tissue fluid that enters lymph capillaries
vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs such as
Similar to plasma, but with more WBC present and less
the spleen and tonsils.
protein

When fluid is leaked into tissues from the blood,

Lymph is clear, colorless liquid with a composition
lymphatic vessels return it to the bloodstream so that there
similar to blood plasma
is enough blood to continuously circulate through the
body. The lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs help
to cleanse the blood and house white blood cells involved
in immunity. It contains oxygen, proteins, glucose, and white blood
cells, it is also called lymphatic fluids

FUNCTIONS:
ORIGIN OF LYMPH
Fluid balance. The lymphatic vessels transport back to the
blood fluids that have escaped from the blood vascular The cardiovascular system pumps blood through its
system. system but it cannot return all the fluid from the body cells
The lymph system picks up 60% of the fluid dropped off
at the cellular level
Fat absorption. The lymphatic system absorbs fats and
other substances from the digestive tract.
Lymphatic Vessels

House of the body’s defenses. The lymphoid tissues and The function of the lymphatic vessels is to form an
organs house phagocytic cells and lymphocytes. elaborate drainage system that picks up excess tissue
fluid, now called lymph.
Structure of larger lymph vessels is like that of veins with
ANATOMY OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM valves (prevent backflow of lymph)
Lymph and lymph vessels
Lymphatic tissues Distribution of lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes and nodules Lymphatic vessels travel alongside blood vessels •
Lymphatic vessels are absent from bones, teeth, bone
Lymph organ:
marrow, and the central nervous system
- Spleen
- Thymus
MUSCLE PUMP EFFECT
Diffuse lymphoid tissue:
Lymph is kept moving in lymph vessels by:
- Tonsil
- constriction of lymph vessels
Lymphocytes in red bone marrow
- skeletal muscle pump
- respiratory pump
The lymphatic system consists of two semi-independent
parts:
(1) a meandering network of lymphatic vessels and
LYMPH NODES •Location. The spleen is located on the left side of the
abdominal cavity, just beneath the diaphragm, and curls
The lymph nodes in particular help protect the body by around the anterior aspect of the stomach.
removing foreign material such as bacteria and tumor
cells from the lymphatic stream and by producing •Function. Instead of filtering lymph, the spleen filters
lymphocytes that function in the immune response. and cleanses the blood of bacteria, viruses, and other
debris; it provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and
immune surveillance, but its most important function is to
Cells in lymph nodes in particular help protect the body destroy worn-out red blood cells and return some of their
by removing foreign material such as bacteria and tumor breakdown products to the liver.
cells from the lymphatic stream and by producing
lymphocytes that function in the immune response.
THYMUS GLAND
The thymus gland is usually considered as part of the
Lymph nodes trap and sometimes become swollen with endocrine system, but is actually part of the lymphatic
bacteria that has invaded the body AND the white blood system due to its appearance and function. It
cells that fight those bacteria. manufactures one specific type of the infection-fighting
lymphocytes. They are aptly called T-cells.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND CANCER

Cancer that starts in the lymph nodes is called a •Location: a lymphoid mass found low in the throat
lymphoma. When cancer cells break off a tumor and overlying the heart.
spread into the lymph nodes, it is known as metastatic
•Functions: Produces thymosin and others, that function
cancer.
in the programming of certain lymphocytes so they can
carry out their protective roles in the body.
LYMPHOID ORGANS

TONSILS
The tonsils are small masses of lymphoid tissue that ring
the pharynx (the throat), where they are found in the
mucosa.
•Function. Their job is to trap and remove any bacteria or
other foreign pathogens entering the throat.
Tonsils are sometimes removed if they become so large
they cause an obstruction or if they are chronically
inflamed.

SPLEEN
The spleen is a soft, blood-rich organ that filters blood.
There are three groups of tonsils: Pharyngeal tonsils, 4. Other lymphoid organs include the tonsils, which
Palatine tonsils, and Lingual tonsils remove bacteria trying to enter the digestive or respiratory
tracts; the thymus, a programming region for T
Pharyngeal tonsils
lymphocytes; Peyer’s patches, which prevent bacteria in
pharyngeal tonsils are located near the opening of the the intestine from penetrating deeper into the body; and
nasal cavity into the pharynx. When these tonsils become the spleen, a red blood cell graveyard and blood reservoir
enlarged they may interfere with breathing and are called
adenoids
Platine tonsils
The palatine tonsils are the ones that are located near the
opening of the oral cavity into the pharynx.
Lingual tonsils
Lingual tonsils play an important role in the immune
system and protect your throat from bacteria and viruses.

Peyer’s patches, which resemble tonsils, are found in the

wall of the distal small intestine. Lymphoid follicles are
also located in the wall of the appendix, a tubelike
offshoot of the proximal large intestine.
Every second of the day, an army of hostile bacteria,
viruses, and fungi swarms on our skin and invades our
inner passageways- yet we stay amazingly healthy most
of the time, thanks to our body defense, the lymphatic
system.

1. The lymphatic system consists of the lymphatic vessels,

lymph nodes, and certain other lymphoid organs in the
body.

2. Extremely porous, blind-ended lymphatic capillaries

pick up excess fluid leaked from the blood capillaries. The
fluid (lymph) flows into the larger lymphatics and finally
into the blood vascular system through the right lymphatic
duct and the left thoracic duct.

3. Lymph nodes are clustered along lymphatic vessels,

and the lymphatic stream flows through them. Lymph
nodes serve as multiplication sites for lymphocytes;
phagocytic cells within them remove bacteria, viruses,
and the like from the lymph stream before it is returned to
the blood.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM MOUTH AND NOSE:
Openings that pull air from outside your body into your
respiratory system.
WHAT DOES RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DO?

• The respiratory system has many functions.

SINUSES:
Besides helping you inhale
• The respiratory system has many functions. Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help
regulate the temperature and humidity of the air you
Besides helping you inhale inhale.
• Allows you to talk and to smell
• The respiratory system has many functions.
PHARYNX (THROAT):
Besides helping you inhale
Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the
• Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body. trachea (windpipe).
• The respiratory system has many functions.
Besides helping you inhale
TRACHEA:
• Warms air to match your body temperature and
Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
moisturizes it to the humidity level your body
needs.
• The respiratory system has many functions. BRONCHIAL TUBES:

Besides helping you inhale Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into
each lung.
• Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide,
from the body when you exhale.
• The respiratory system has many functions. LEFT & RIGHT LUNGS:
Besides helping you inhale Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it
into your blood. From your lungs, your bloodstream
• Protects your airways from harmful substances
delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.
and irritants.

Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and
WHAT ARE THE PARTS OF RESPIRATORY out of your lungs. some of the bones and muscles in the
SYSTEM?
The respiratory system has many different parts that work Respiratory system Include your:
together to help you breathe. Each group of parts has
many separate components. DIAPHRAGM:
Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.

Your airways deliver air to your lungs. your airways are a

complicated system that includes your:
RIBS:
Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.
When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide LARYNX (VOICE BOX):
and other waste out of the body. other components that
Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds
work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
when air moves in and out.

ALVEOLI:
COMMON DISEASE OF THE RESPIRATORY
Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen SYSTEM
and carbon dioxide takes place.

ASTHMA
BRONCHIOLES:
Your airways narrow and make too much mucus.
Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the
alveoli.
BRONCHIECTASIS
Inflammation and infection make your bronchial walls
CAPILLARIES:
thicker.
Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
PNEUMONIA
An infection causes inflammation in your alveoli. They
LUNG LOBES:
might fill up with fluid or pus.
Sections of the lungs three lobes in the right lung and two
in the left lung.
TUBERCULOSIS

PLEURA: A bacterium causes this dangerous infection. It usually

affects your lungs but might also involve your kidney,
Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your spine, or brain.
lungs from the chest wall.

LUNG CANCER
Some of the other components of your respiratory system
Cells in your lung change and grow into a tumor. This
include:
often happens because of smoking or other chemicals
you’ve breathed in.
CILIA:
Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust CYCTIC FIBROUS
and other irritants out of your airways.
This disease is caused by a problem in your genes and gets
worse over time. It causes lung infection that don't go
away.
EPIGLOTTIS:
Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when
you swallow to keep food and liquids out of your airway. PLEURAL EFFUSION
Too much fluid builds up between the tissues that line
your lungs and chest. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Your
lung tissue becomes scarred and can’t work the way it
should.
SARCOIDOSIS HOW DO WE BREATHE?
Tiny clumps of inflammatory cells called granulomas • Breathing starts when you inhale air into your
form, often in your lungs and lymph nodes. nose or mouth.

• It travels down the back of your throat and into

HOW CAN I KEEP MY RESPIRATORY SYSTEM your windpipe, which is divided into air passages
HEALTHY? called bronchial tubes.

• Being able to clear mucus out of the lungs and

airways is important for Respiratory health. To • For your lungs to perform their best, these
keep your respiratory system healthy, you should: airways need to be open. They should be free
from inflammation or swelling and extra mucus.

• Avoid pollutants that can damage your airways, • As the bronchial tubes pass through your lungs,
including secondhand smoke, chemicals and they divide into smaller air passages called
radon (a radioactive gas that can cause cancer). bronchioles. The bronchioles end in tiny balloon-
Wear a mask if you are exposed to fumes, dust or like air sacs called alveoli.
other types of pollutants for any reason.

• Your body has about 600 million alveoli.

• Don't smoke.
• The alveoli are surrounded by a mesh of tiny
• Eat a healthy diet with lots of fruits and blood vessels called capillaries. Here, oxygen
vegetables and drink water to stay hydrated. from inhaled air passes into your blood.

• Exercise regularly to keep your lungs healthy. • After absorbing oxygen, blood goes to your heart.
Prevent infections by washing your hands often Your heart then pumps it through your body to the
and getting a flu vaccine each year. cells of your tissues and organs.

• As the cells use the oxygen, they make carbon

WHEN SHOULD I CALL A HEALTHCARE dioxide that goes into your blood. Your blood
PROVIDER ABOUT AN ISSUE WITH MY then carries the carbon dioxide back to your
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM? lungs, where it’s removed from your body when
you exhale.

Contact your provider if you have breathing trouble or

pain. Your provider will listen to your chest, lungs, and
heartbeat and look for signs of a respiratory issue such as
infection. To see if your respiratory system is working as
it should, your healthcare provider may use imaging tests
such as a CT scan or MRI. These tests allow your provider
to see swelling or blockages in your lungs and other parts
of your respiratory system. Your provider may also
recommend pulmonary function tests, which will include
spirometry. A spirometer is a device that can tell how
much air you inhale and exhale. See your doctor for
regular checkups to help prevent serious respiratory
conditions and lung disease. Early diagnosis of these
issues can help prevent them from becoming severe.
INHALATION AND EXHALATION

• Inhalation and exhalation are how your body

brings in oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide.
The process gets help from a large dome-shaped
muscle under your lungs called the diaphragm.

• When you breathe in, your diaphragm pulls

downward, creating a vacuum that causes a rush
of air into your lungs.

• The opposite happens with exhalation: Your

diaphragm relaxes upward, pushing on your
lungs, allowing them to deflate.

How Does the Respiratory System Clean the Air?

• Your respiratory system has built-in methods to

keep harmful things in the air from entering your
lungs.

• Hairs in your nose help filter out large particles.

Tiny hairs, called cilia, along your air passages
move in a sweeping motion to keep the passages
clean. But if you breathe in harmful things like
cigarette smoke, the cilia can stop working. This
can lead to health problems like bronchitis.

• Cells in your trachea and bronchial tubes make

mucus that keeps air passages moist and helps
keep things like dust, bacteria and viruses, and
allergy-causing things out of your lungs.

• Mucus can bring up things that reach deeper into

your lungs. You then cough out or swallow them
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Alimentary Canal and Accessory Glands of the Digestive
System

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
I. General Characteristics of Alimentary Canal
Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking down
food substances into smaller particles to more efficiently - Alimentary Canal is a muscular tube about 8-10 meters
undergo chemical digestion. long that passes through the body ’s ventral cavity. It is
open at 2 ends, with the mouth at the anterior end and anus
at the posterior end. The alimentary canal performs the
CHEMICAL DIGESTION function of digesting food. It breaks it down to smaller
pieces and aids in the absorption of the digested food.
This is the process where complex molecules like
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are broken down into
smaller pieces that your body can use. It requires special BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE ALIMENTARY
proteins called enzymes.
CANAL WALL
The walls of the alimentary canal organs from the
6-STEP PROCESS: esophagus to the large intestine are made up of the same
four basic layers:
INGESTION
1. The mucosa is the innermost layer, a moist membrane
the process of taking food, drink, or another substance that lines the cavity, or lumen, of the organ.
into the body.
2.The submucosa is found just beneath the mucosa. A
soft connective tissue layer containing blood vessels,
MECHANINCALBREAKDOWN nerve endings, lymph nodules and lymphatic vessels.

physically breaking down food substances into smaller 3.The muscularis externa is a muscle layer typically
particles to more efficiently undergo chemical digestion. made up of an inner circular layer and an outer
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells.
4. The serosa is the outermost layer of the wall. It consists
ABSORPTION of the visceral peritoneum and is continuous with the
parietal peritoneum, which lines the internal surface of the
Taking in nutrients by cells
abdominal wall.

PROPULSION
MOUTH
initial mechanism is swallowing, the movement of food
The mouth is the part where the food enters the
along the digestive tract.
alimentary canal. It is the uppermost opening of the
alimentary canal and is closed by the upper lip and lower
lip. This is where ingestion of food begins.
CHEMICALDIGESTION
the accessory digestive organs secrete enzymes into the
alimentary canal, where they break it down into its most The lips are highly mobile structures that surround the
basic chemical building blocks mouth opening and highly sensitive and help to judge the
temperature and texture of food.
The teeth will chew and mash food into smaller pieces
DEFECATION (mechanical digestion)
Removing any leftover wastes The tongue is a thick, muscular organ covered by mucous
membrane and housing taste buds within papillae: it is
attached to the floor of the mouth by the frenulum. The PEPSIN- Formed by pepsinogen in the presence of HCI-
papillae also provide friction for moving food around in A protein- splitting enzyme that digests nearly all types of
the mouth. dietary proteins into polypeptides
The soft palate and uvula function to close off the nasal HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCI)- Parietal cells of gastric
cavity during swallowing. glands- Provides and acid environment needed for the
production and action of Pepsin
Associated with the palate in the back of the mouth are
palatine tonsils, which help to protect the body against MUCUS- Mucous cells- Provides a viscous, alkaline
infection. protective layer on the stomach’s inner surface
Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) are on the posterior wall INTRINSIC FACTOR- Parietal cells of the gastric
of the pharynx, above the border of the soft palate. glands- Aids in vitamin B(12) absorption in the intestine.

PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS Phases of Gastric Juice

From the mouth, food passes posteriorly into the The physiologic stimulation of acid secretion has
oropharynx, both of which are common passageways for classically been divided into three interrelated phases:
food, fluids and air. The pharynx is subdivided into the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal
nasopharynx, part of the respiratory passageway; the
oropharynx, posterior of the oral cavity; and the
laryngopharynx, with is continuous with the esophagus SMALL INTESTINE PARTS
below.
Duodenum
It’s a short, descending chute (about 10 inches long) that
ESOPHAGUS curves around the pancreas in a “C” shape before
The esophagus or gullet runs from the pharynx through connecting to the rest of the coiled intestines.
the diaphragm to the stomach. Function
About 25cm (10 inches) long, it is essentially a To help break food down, the small intestine receives
passageway that conducts food to the stomach. digestive juices from other organs in your digestive
system, including your liver, gallbladder and pancreas.

STOMACH
Jejunum
The stomach is a J-shaped organ that digests food. It
produces enzymes (substances that create chemical Its middle section, called the jejunum, makes up a little
reactions) and acids (digestive juices). This mix of less than half of this remaining length. The jejunum is
enzymes and digestive juices breaks down food so it can characterized by many blood vessels, which give it a deep
pass to your small intestine. red color.
Function
GASTRIC JUICE After chemical digestion in the duodenum, food moves
into the jejunum, where the muscle work of digestion
gastric juice, or stomach acid is a digestive fluid formed
picks up. Nerves in the intestinal walls trigger its muscles
within the stomach lining.
to churn food back and forth (segmentation), mixing it
with digestive juices.
components source function:
components-source-function
PEPSINOGEN- Chief cells of gastric glands- Inactive
form of Pepsi
Ileum SMALL INTESTINE
The ileum is the last and longest section of the small Regulation of Small Intestine Secretion
intestine. Here the walls of the small intestine begin to
Endocrine cells secrete cholecystokinin and secretin. The
thin and narrow, and blood supply is reduced. Food
most important factor for regulating secretions in the
spends the most time in the ileum, where the most water
small intestine is the presence of chyme. This is largely a
and nutrients are absorbed.
local reflex action in response to chemical and mechanical
Function irritation from the chyme and in response to distention of
the intestinal wall.
In the ileum, segmentation slows down and peristalsis
takes over, moving food waste gradually toward the large
intestine. The ileocecal valve separates the ileum from the
Intestinal Absorption of Nutrients
large intestine. Nerves and hormones signal the valve to
open to let food pass through and close to keep bacteria Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the
out. Special immune cells line the ileum to protect against jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:
bacteria.
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum. Vitamin B12 and bile
salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum. Water and lipids
are absorbed by passive diffusion throughout the small
SMALL INTESTINE
intestine.
Microvilli - tiny projections of the plasma membrane of
the mucosa cells that give the cell a fuzzy appearance,
sometimes referred to as brush border that complete the Movement of Small Intestine
digestion of proteins and carbohydrates in the small
intestine. After you eat a meal, your small intestine contracts in a
random, unsynchronized manner. Food moves back and
forth and mixes with digestive juices. Then stronger,
wave-like contractions push the food farther down your
Villi - fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give it a
digestive system. These movements are known as
velvety appearance.
peristalsis.
A. Peristaltic contractions- proceed along the length of the
Lacteal - the lymphatic vessels of the small intestine intestine for variable distances; cause the chime to move
which absorb digested fats. along the small intestine
B. Segmental contractions- propagate for shot distances;
mix intestinal contents.
Circular folds - Plicae circulares are deep folds of both
mucosa and submucosa layers. Nearly all food absorption
occurs in the small intestine. its wall has three structures
that increase the absorptive surface tremendously, LARGE INTESTINE PARTS
microvilli, villi and circular folds. 1. Cecum - proximal end of the large intense
2. Appendix- 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
Secretion of Small Intestine 4. Colon - largest part of large intestine.
1.Peptidases- break peptide bonds in proteins to form a. Ascending colon - is also sometimes called the right
amino acids colon
2. Disaccharides- break down disaccharides(maltose) into b. Transverse colon - is a section of the large intestine that
monosaccharides (glucose) runs across the abdomen
c. Descending colon - It is the left part of the colon that
passes downward. It is responsible for storing the remains
of digested food before they pass through the rest of the 2. PROPULSION
colon and rectum for elimination.
- If foods are to be processed by more than one digestive
d. Sigmoid colon - The S-shaped section of the colon that system organ (and indeed they are), they must be
connects to the rectum. propelled from one organ to the next.
5. Rectum - store the feces temporarily and opens out - Swallowing is an example of food movements that
through the anus. depends largely on the propulsive process called
Peristalsis.
6. Anal Canal - has an external voluntary sphincter
composed of skeletal muscle and an internal involuntary 3. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
sphincter formed by smooth muscle.
- Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue, churning of
food in the stomach, and segmentation in the small
intestine.
Movement of Large Intestine
4. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
The large intestine is divided into a colon and rectum, and
shows three types of movements: rhythmic ascending - The sequence of steps in which large food molecules are
broken down to yheir building blocks by enzymes
(antiperistaltic) waves of contraction originating at the
(protein molecules that act as catalyst)
anal end of the large bowel, rhythmic longitudinal
contractions in the rectum and colon, and irregular 5. ABSORPTION
contractions.
- Transport digested end products from the lumen of the
GI tract to the blood or lymph is absorption.
SUMMARY 6. DEFECATION
Functions of the Digestive System - Elimination of indigestible residues from the GI tract via
the anus in the form of feces
The functions of Digestive System are to:
Take in food
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
2. Break down the food
Accessory organs are organs which are not part of the
3. Absorb digest molecules
digestive system; however, they aid in the digestion
4. Provide nutrients process by performing many secondary functions.

5. Eliminate wastes The main accessory organs of the digestive system are the
tongue, liver, pancreas and gall bladder.
SUMMARY The major functions of the digestive tract
are usually summarized in two words- digestion and
absorption. However, many of its specific activities (such
TEETH
as smooth muscle activity) and certain regulatory events
are not really covered by either term. To describe There are 4 types of teeth:
digestive
Incisors - biting and cutting
system process a little more accurately, we really have to
Canine - grasping and tearing
consider a few more functional terms. The essential
activities of the GI tract include the following six process Premolar - grinding and crushing
summarized
Molar - grinding and crushing
1. INGESTION
- Food must be placed into the mouth before it can be
acted on.
- Active voluntary process
TEETH Function of Liver
By the age of 21, two sets of teeth are formed. The first More than 500 vital functions have been identified with
set, is the deciduous teeth (baby/milk teeth) and the the liver. Some of the more well known functions
second set is the permanent teeth. include the following:
As the second set of the teeth, the deeper, permanent teeth, • Production of cholesterol and special proteins to
enlarge and develop, the roots of the milk teeth are help carry fats through the body
reabsorbed between the ages of 6 and 12 years they loosen • Production of certain proteins for blood plasma
and fall out. • Regulation of blood levels of amino acids, which
form the building blocks of proteins
• Clearing the blood of drugs and other poisonous
TEETH substances
Digestive glands secrete saliva. Located in the oral cavity. The liver is one of the most important organ in the body.
In humans there are three pairs of salivary glands. It has many metabolic roles; however its digestive
function is to produce bile.
• Parotid glands are large and located just below
and in front of ears.
• Sublingual glands are found below the tongue on
GALLBLADDER
the floor of the mouth.
• Submandibular glands or submaxillary glands lie A small, thin-walled green sac that snuggles in a shallow
below the angles of the lower jaw bone fossa in the inferior surface of the liver.
When food digestion is not occurring, bile backs up the
cystic duct and enters the gallbladder to be stored.
SALIVARY GLANDS
Its main function is to store bile. Bile helps your digestive
Functions of saliva are:
system break down fats.

PANCREAS
the pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across
the back of the belly, behind the stomach. The right side
of the organ called the head is the widest part of the organ
and lies in the curve of the duodenum, the first division of
the small intestine.

PANCREAS JUICE
Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas, which
contains a number of digestive enzymes, including
LIVER
trypsinogen, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase,
The liver regulates most chemical levels in the blood and pancreatic lipase, nucleases and amylase.
excretes a product called bile. This helps carry away waste
products from the liver.
All the blood leaving the stomach and intestines passes
through the liver. The liver processes this blood and
breaks down, balances, and creates the nutrients and also
metabolizes drugs into forms that are easier to use for the
rest of the body or that are nontoxic.
COMMON AILMENTS/DISORDERS/ DISEASES of Lactose intolerance:
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
People with lactose intolerance are unable to fully digest
Inguinal Hernia: the sugar (lactose) in milk.
occurs when tissue, such as part of the intestine, protrudes As a result, they have diarrhea, gas and bloating after
through a weak spot in the abdominal muscles. eating or drinking dairy products.

Pseudo-obstruction: Microscopic Colitis:

the intestine is unable to contract and push food, stool, and is an inflammation of the large intestine (colon) that
air through the digestive tract. The disorder most often causes persistent watery diarrhea. is a sore on the lining
affects the small intestine, but can also occur in the large of your stomach, small intestine or esophagus
intestine. The condition may start suddenly or be a chronic
or long-term problem.
Peptic Ulcers (Stomach Ulcers):
A sore on the lining of your stomach, small intestine or
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS):
esophagus.
Irritable bowel syndrome, or IBS, is a group of symptoms
that affect your digestive system. It’s a common but
uncomfortable gastrointestinal disorder. People with IBS Pancreatitis:
get excessive gas, abdominal pain and cramps.
inflammation of the pancreas.
JAUNDICE DISODERS OF THE STOMACH
A high level of bile pigments in the blood cause the skin,
eyes, and mucous membrane appear yellow and this
GASTRITIS:
condition is called jaundice.
When the stomach lining becomes inflamed or swollen.
Many possible causes exist for gastritis which can last
VOMITING from short time periods to many years
It is the ejection of stomach contents through mouth due
to blockage of gut or reverse peristalsis. This vomiting
reflex action is controlled by the vomit center in the GASTROENTITIS
medulla oblongata. A feeling of nausea precedes Inflammation of both the stomach and the small bowel.
vomiting. Children, the elderly, and people with compromised
immune systems can get seriously ill

DIARRHEA
GASTROPARESIS
If the absorption of water is not taking place properly, the
fasces become watery and frequently discharged. The A rare disorder where the stomach is unable to empty its
contents with no apparent signals of blockage. In most
Abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased
cases, the cause is unknown.
liquidity of the faucal discharge is called diarrhea. It
reduces the absorption of food

NON-ULCER DYSPEPSIA
CONSTIPATION Occurs when patients suffer from indigestion and other
By the excessive absorption of water from the large symptoms suggestive of ulcer, yet no abnormality is
found upon investigation.
intestine, the faecal matter becomes extremely dry and
hard. The muscle of the colon of the large intestine
becomes extremely dry and hard. The muscles of the
colon of the large PEPTIC ULCER

Intestine become incapable of their normal peristaltic Break in the surface lining of the stomach or duodenum
movements and remain contracted. As a result, the faeces deep enough to produce a crater. Also can be found in the
is retained within the rectum and defecation occurs at esophagus or small bowel.
prolonged intervals. This condition is called constipation.
Constipation and diarrhea are the conditions of irregular
defecation. Constipation can be avoided by eating food STOMACH (GASTRIC) CANCER:
with sufficient cellulose fibers.
Stomach cancer (gastric carcinoma) at one point the
second most common cancer, may have symptoms that
include
INDIGESTION
Weight loss, bleeding and difficulty swallowing.
It is the condition leading to a feeling of fullness due to
improper digestion. The causes of indigestion are
Inadequate enzyme, secretion, anxiety, food poisoning,
over eating, spicy food etc.
SUMMARY • Older people sometimes do not chew foods
thoroughly because thinning enamel makes teeth
• Digestion is the process of mechanically and
mores sensitive to hot and cold foods, gums
chemically breaking down foods so that they can
recede, and teeth maybe loose.
be
• Slowing peristalsis in the digestive tract may
• absorbed. The digestive system is consist of an
cause heartburn and constipation
alimentary canal and several accessory organs
that carry out of the process of ingestion,
propulsion, digestion , absorption, and
• Aging effects nutrient absorption in small
defecation.
intestine

• Accessories organs to digestion also age, but

• Regions of Alimentary Canal performs specific
necessarily also age, but not necessarily in ways
functions
that affect your health
a) The wall consist of four layers namely: mucosa,
submucosa, muscular layer, and serosa
b) Motor functions include mixing and propelling
movements
c) Peristalsis is responsible for propelling
movements
d) The tube is innervated by branches of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of
human system.

• Mouth is adapted to receive food and begin

preparing it for digestion. It is also serve as an
organ of speech and sensory perception.

• Salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens

food, helps bind particles, begins chemical
digestion of carbohydrates, makes taste possible,
helps cleanse the mouth, and regulates pH in the
mouth.

• The Pancreas is closely associated with

duodenum

• The liver is located in the upper right quadrant of

the abdominal cavity

• The small intestine extends from the pyloric

sphincter to the large intestines. It receives
secretions from the pancreas and liver, completes
digestion, and transports the residues to the large
intestine.

• The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes

and forms and stores feces
URINARY SYSTEM HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:
The fat surrounding the kidneys is important in holding
them in their normal body position. If the amount of fatty
ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM:
tissue dwindles (as with rapid weight loss), the kidneys
may drop to a lower position, a condition called ptosis
(to′sis; “a fall”). Ptosis creates problems if the ureters,
ANTERIOR VIEW OF URINARY ORGANS OF A which drain urine from the kidneys, become kinked.
FEMALE. When this hap pens, urine that can no longer pass
The kidneys alone perform the functions just described through the ureters backs up and exerts pressure on the
and manufacture urine in the process. kidney tisue. This condition, called hydronephrosis
(hi′′dron ĕ -fro′sis), can severely damage the kidney.
The other organs of the urinary system—the paired
ureters and the single urinary bladder and urethra —
provide temporary storage for urine or serve as INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY
transportation channels to carry it from the kidneys to the
outside of the body. When a kidney is cut lengthwise, three distinct regions
become apparent. The outer region, which is light in color,
is the renal cortex (cortex = bark). Deep to the cortex is a
POSTERIOR IN SITU VIEW OF A MALE SHOWING darker reddish brown area, the renal medulla. The medulla
THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE KIDNEYS TO THE has triangular regions with a striped appearance, the renal
12TH RIB PAIR. pyramids, or medullary (med′u-lar′′e), pyramids. The
broad base of each pyramid faces toward the cortex; its
Although many people believe the kidneys are located in tip, the apex, points toward the inner region of the kidney.
the lower back, this is not the case. These small, dark red The pyramids are separated by extensions of cortex like
organs with a kidney-bean shape lie against the dorsal tissue, called renal columns.
body wall in a retroperitoneal position (behind the parietal
peritoneum) in the superior lumbar region. The kidneys
extend from the T12 to the L3 vertebra; thus they receive INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY
some protection from the lower part of the rib cage.
Because it is crowded by the liver, the right kidney is Lateral to the hilum is a flat, funnel-shaped tube, the renal
slightly lower than the left. pelvis. The pelvis is continuous with the ureter leaving the
hilum. Extensions of the pelvis, calyces (kal′ ̆ ı sˉez;
singular calyx), form cup-shaped “drains ” that enclose
KIDNEY STRUCTURE the tips of the pyramids. The calyces collect urine, which
continuously drains from the tips of the pyramids into the
An adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 inches) long, 6 cm (2.5 renal pelvis. Urine then flows from the pelvis into the
inches) wide, and 3 cm (1 inch) thick, or about the size of ureter, which transports it to the bladder for temporary
a large bar of soap. It is convex laterally and has a medial storage until it leaves the body.
indentation called the renal hilum. Several structures,
including the ureters,
the renal blood vessels, and nerves, enter or exit the BLOOD SUPPLY
kidney at the hilum. Sitting atop each kidney is an adrenal The artery supplying each kidney is the renal artery. As
gland, which is part of the endocrine system and is a the renal artery approaches the hilum, it divides into
separate organ. segmental arteries, each of which gives off several
The kidney has three protective layers. Deep to branches called interlobar arteries, which ravel through
superficial, they are as follows: the renal columns to reach the cortex. At the cortex-
medulla junction, interlobar arteries give off the arcuate
• A transparent fibrous capsule encloses each kidney and (ar′ku-at) arteries, which arch over the medullary
gives it a glistening appearance. pyramids. Small cortical radiate arteries then branch off
the arcuate arteries to supply the renal cortex. Venous
• A fatty mass, the perirenal fat capsule, surrounds each
blood draining from the kidney flows through veins that
kidney and cushions it against blows.
trace the pathway of the arterial supply but in a reverse The outer part of the corpuscle is a cup shaped hollow
direction cortical radiate vein to arcuate veins to interlobar structure that completely surrounds the glomerulus like a
veins to the renal vein, which emerges from the kidney well-worn baseball glove encloses a ball is called the
hilum and empties into the inferior vena cava. (There are glomerular capsule or Bowman’s capsule.
no segmental veins.)
The inner layer of the capsule is made up of highly
modified octopus-like cells called podocytes. These
Podocytes have long branching extensions called foot
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY. processes that intertwine with one another and cling to the
(a) Photograph of a coronally sectioned kidney. glomerulus.

(b) Diagram of coronal kidney section illustrating major Each renal corpuscle consists of a glomerulus, which is a
blood vessels. knot of capillaries.

(c) Summary of the pathway of renal blood vessels. The renal tubule, which makes up the rest of the nephron,
is about 3 cm (approximately 1.25 inches) long. As it
extends from the glomerular capsule, it coils and twists
NEUPHRONS before forming a hairpin loop and then again becomes
coiled and twisted before entering a collecting duct.
Nephrons are the structural and functional units of the
kidneys and are responsible for forming urine. Each These different regions of the tubule have specific names.
kidney contains over a million of these tiny filters. In In order from the glomerular capsule, they are the (1)
addition, there are thousands of collecting ducts, each of Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT); (2) The Nephron
which collects fluid from several nephrons and conveys it Loop, or Loop of Henle; and (3) The Distal Convoluted
to the renal pelvis. Tubule (DCT).

Most nephrons are called cortical nephrons because they DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE RENAL TUBULE
are located almost entirely within the cortex. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
In a few cases, the nephrons are called Juxtamedullary - Has a high capacity for reabsorption, hence it has
nephrons because they are situated close to the cortex- specialized features to aid with this.
medulla junction, and their nephron loops dip deep into
the medulla. - It is lined with simple cuboidal epithelial cells which
have a brush border to increase surface area on the apical
side.
STRUCTURE OF THE NEPHRON - The epithelial cells have large amounts of mitochondria
(a) Wedge-shaped section of kidney tissue indicating the present to support the processes involved in transporting
position of nephrons in the kidney. ions and substances.

(b) Detailed anatomy of a nephron and its associated

blood supply. Part of the distal convoluted tubule and Loop of Henle
afferent arteriole have been sectioned to reveal the
location of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. - The principal function of the loop of Henle is in the
recovery of water and sodium chloride from urine. This
(c) Diagrammatic view of the relationship of the visceral function allows production of urine that is far more
layer of the glomerular capsule to the glomerular concentrated than blood, limiting the amount of water
capillaries. needed as intake for survival
(d) Scanning electron micrograph of podocytes clinging
to the glomerular capillaries. Each nephron consists of
two main structures: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. Distal Convoluted Tubule
- It is a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of
Henle and the collecting duct system.
- It is partly responsible for the regulation of potassium, 2. TUBULAR REABSORPTION
sodium, calcium, and pH.
Besides wastes and excess ions that must be removed
- It is the primary site for the kidneys' hormone-based from the blood, the filtrate contains many useful
regulation of calcium (Ca) substances (including water, glucose, amino acids, and
ions), which must be reclaimed from the filtrate and
returned to the blood.
Tubular reabsorption begins as soon as the filtrate enters
Each and every nephron is associated with two capillary the proximal convoluted tubule. The tubule cells are
beds: the Glomerulus and the Peritubular Capillary Bed. “transporters,” taking up needed substances from the
filtrate and then passing them out their posterior aspect
into the extracellular space, from which they are absorbed
(1) The Glomerulus, specialized for filtration, differs from into peritubular capillary blood.
any other capillary bed in the entire body because it is Needed substances (for example, glucose and amino
both fed and drained by arterioles. acids) are usually entirely removed from the filtrate.

-The glomerulus is fed by the afferent arteriole, which 3. TUBULAR SECRETION

arises from a cortical radiate artery, thus the “feeder
vessel, ” and the efferent arteriole receives the blood that Tubular secretion is essentially tubular reabsorption in
has passed through the glomerulus. reverse. Some substances, such as hydrogen and
potassium ions (H+ and K+) and creatinine, also move
Each and every nephron is associated with two capillary from the blood of the peritubular capillaries through the
beds: the Glomerulus and the Peritubular Capillary Bed. tubule cells or from the tubule cells themselves into the
filtrate to be eliminated in urine.

(2) The second capillary bed, the Peritubular Capillaries This process seems to be important for getting rid of
or also known as the vasa recta, arises from the efferent substances not already in the filtrate.
arteriole that drains the glomerulus. Unlike the high- Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed
pressure glomerulus, these capillaries are low-pressure, materials eliminated via the kidney. Tubule cells have few
porous vessels adapted for absorption instead of filtration. membrane carriers to reabsorb these substances because
we do not need them. They tend to remain in the filtrate
and are found in high concentrations in urine excreted
URINE FORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS from the body.
Urine formation is a result of three processes:
(1) glomerular filtration NITROGENOUS WASTES
(2) tubular reabsorption common nitrogenous wastes include the
(3) tubular secretion. following:
Urea - formed by the liver as an end product of protein
breakdown when amino acids are used to produce energy
1. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
Uric acid - released when nucleic acids are metabolized
• As just described, the glomerulus acts as a filter.
• Glomerular filtration is a nonselective, passive Creatinine - associated with creatine metabolism in
process in which fluid passes from the blood into muscle
the glomerular capsule part of the renal tubule.
Once in the capsule, the fluid is called filtrate; it
is essentially blood plasma without blood
proteins.
URINE Each ureter features a layer of smooth muscle that
contracts to move urine using peristalsis. The frequency
Freshly peed urine is usually 95% water, slightly acidic
and strength of these peristaltic waves varies, depending
with a pH value of around 6 sterile, and its odor is slightly
on how fast urine is being produced, and a series of vales
aromatic. It is generally clear and pale to deep yellow. The
prevent pee from backing up, making sure that instead it
normal yellow color is due to urochrome, a pigment that reaches the bladder.
results from the body’ s destruction of hemoglobin. The
more solutes are in the urine, the deeper yellow its color. When urine becomes extremely concentrated, solutes
such as uric acid salts form crystals that precipitate in the
An abnormally low urinary output is called oliguria if it is renal pelvis.
between 100 and 400 ml/day, and anuria if it is less than
100 ml/day. Low urinary output usually indicates that These crystals are called renal calculi. Frequent bacterial
glomerular blood pressure is too low to cause filtration. infections of the urinary tract, urinary retention, and
alkaline urine all favor calculi formation.
Substances not normally found in urine are glucose, blood
proteins, red blood cells, hemoglobin, white blood cells
(pus), and bile.

URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, AND URETHRA

Ureters
The ureters are two slender tubes each 25 to 30 cm (10 to
Made up of three layers
12 inches) long and6 mm (1⁄4 inch) in diameter.
Each ureter runs behind the peritoneum from the renal - Smooth muscle
hilum to the posterior aspect of the bladder, which it - Fibrous tissue
enters at a slight angle.
- Mucous layer
The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
Urine reaches the bladder even when standing on your
head because the ureters do play an active role in urine PERISTALSIS - a rhythmic contraction of the ureter
transport. smooth muscle which helps to move the urine into the
bladder
URINARY BLADDER - Formed by skeletal muscle as the urethra passes through
the pelvic floor
- A smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine
temporarily - Voluntarily controlled
- Located retroperitoneally in the pelvis just posterior to
the pubic symphysis
The length and relative function of the urethra differ in the
- Has three openings—the two ureter openings (ureteral two sexes.
orifices), and the single opening of the urethra (the
internal urethral orifice), which drains the bladder In men, the urethra is approximately 20 cm (8 inches) long
and has three named regions: the prostatic, membranous,
and spongy (or penile) urethrae. The urethra opens at the
tip of the penis after traveling down its length. The urethra
TRIGONE PROSTATE of the male has a double function. It carries both urine and
- The smooth triangular region of the bladder base sperm (in semen) from the body, but never at the same
outlined by the three openings of the bladder time. Thus, in males, the urethra is part of both the urinary
and reproductive systems.
- Important clinically because infections tend to persist in
this region In women, the urethra is about 3 to 4 cm (1½ inches) long,
and its external orifice, or opening, lies anterior to the
vaginal opening. Its only function is to conduct urine from
PROSTATE the bladder to the body exterior.

- Part of the male reproductive system that surrounds the

neck of the bladder where it empties into the urethra URINARY SYSTEM DISEASES
The bladder wall contains layers of smooth muscle: URETHRITIS- inflammation of urethra
1. Detrusor muscle CYSTITIS- bladder inflammation
2. Mucosa is a special type of epithelium, transitional PYELONEPHRITIS, OR PYELITIS- kidney
epithelium inflammation
- Both of these structural features make the bladder URINARY TRACT INFECTION (UTI)- common
uniquely suited for its function of urine storage. infections that happen when bacteria, often from the skin
or rectum, enter the urethra, and infect the urinary tract.

URINE The infections can affect several parts of the urinary tract,
but the most common type is a bladder infection (cystitis)
- Formed continuously by the kidneys, but it is stored in
the bladder until its release is convenient SYMPTOMS OF UTI
1. Dysuria (painful urination)

URETHRA 2. Urinary urgency and frequency

- A thin-walled tube that carries urine by peristalsis from 3. Fever

the bladder to the outside of the body 4. Cloudy or blood-tinged urine.
5. When the kidneys are involved, back pain and a severe
INTERNAL URETHRAL SPHINCTER headache are common.

- Formed by a thickening of the smooth muscle at the

bladder-urethra junction
EXTERNAL URETHRAL SPINCTER
MICTURITION -In renal failure, filtrate formation decreases significantly
or stops completely. Because toxic wastes accumulate
-Micturition, or voiding, is the act of emptying the bladder
quickly in the blood, dialysis (dialys = separate) is
-Occurs whether the person wills it or not necessary to cleanse the blood while the kidneys are shut
down.
-In hemodialysis, which uses an “artificial kidney ”
Two sphincters, or valves—the internal urethral sphincter apparatus, the patient’s blood is passed through tubing
(more superiorly located) and the external urethral that is permeable only to selected substances, and the
sphincter (more inferiorly located)—control the flow of tubing is immersed in a bathing solution that differs
urine from the bladder. Ordinarily, the bladder continues slightly from normal “ cleansed” plasma.
to collect urine until about 200 ml have accumulated. At
this point, stretching of the bladder wall activates stretch
receptors.
INCONTINENCE
- Occurs when a person is unable to voluntarily control
RENAL FAILURE AND ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY the external sphincter
- Normal in children 2 years old or younger because they
have not yet gained control over their voluntary sphincter
- Warning signs of kidney trouble may include high blood
pressure, frequent urination, painful urination, puffy eyes, - May also occur in older children who sleep so soundly
or swollen hands or feet. that they are not awakened by the stimulus

- Urinalysis can detect proteinuria, a sensitive and early -After the toddler years, incontinence is usually a result of
marker of kidney damage, and a simple blood test can emotional problems, pressure (as in pregnancy), or
determine the creatinine level, which can be used to nervous system problems (stroke or spinal cord injury)
estimate the rate of blood filtration.
- In adults, chronic renal disease often develops together
URINARY RETENTION
with other chronic health conditions.
- Essentially the opposite of incontinence
The leading causes are diabetes mellitus, which accounts
for approximately 44 percent of new cases each year, and - The bladder is unable to expel its contained urine
hypertension, accounting for about 28 percent of cases.
Hypertension is both a cause and a symptom: High blood
CAUSES FOR URINARY RETENTION
pressure impairs kidney function by damaging renal blood
vessels and reducing circulation to the organs, even as 1. Often occurs after surgery in which general anesthesia
hypertension-battered kidneys push blood pressure has been given, because it takes a little time for the smooth
upward. Atherosclerosis compounds the problem by muscles to regain their activity.
further impairing circulation.
2. Another cause of urinary retention, occurring primarily
Other possible causes of renal failure include the in older men, is enlargement, or hyperplasia, of the
following: prostate, which surrounds the neck of the bladder.
• Repeated kidney infections
• Physical trauma to the kidneys (crush injury and others)
• Chemical poisoning of the tubule cells by heavy metals
(mercury or lead) or organic solvents (drycleaning fluids,
paint thinner)
• Prolonged pressure on skeletal muscles (causes release
of myoglobin, a muscle pigment that can clog renal
tubules)
CATHETER REGULATION OF WATER INTAKE & OUTPUT
- A slender flexible drainage tube That must be inserted we cannot lose more water than we take in
through the urethra to drain the urine and prevent bladder
-water intake is controlled by neurons in the
trauma from excessive stretching
hypothalamus called the THIRST CENTER
thirst mechanism- the driving force of water intake
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE
BALANCE MAINTAINING WATER BALANCE OF osmoreceptors- sensory receptor in the hypothalamus that
BLOOD detects changes in osmotic pressure

-The composition of the blood depends on three major -when the concentration of blood increases,
osmoreceptors activates the thirst center, which in turn
factors: diet, cellular metabolism, and urine output.
initiate the sensation of thirst
-Kidneys have four major roles to play, which help keep
the blood composition relatively constant: -The mouth also becomes dry because the salivary glands
obtain the water they require from the blood
• Excreting nitrogen-containing wastes
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
-Some water vaporizes out of the lungs, some is lost in
• Maintaining electrolyte balance of the blood perspiration, and some leaves the body in the stool
• Ensuring proper blood pH
What does the kidney do?
MAINTAINING WATER BALANCE OF BLOOD -if large amounts of water are lost in other ways, the
kidneys compensate by producing less urine to conserve
Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments
body water. However, when water intake is excessive, the
-50% of women’s body weight is water kidneys excrete generous amounts of water in urine to
reduce fluid volume.
-60% of men’s body weight is water
-Reabsorption of water and electrolytes by the kidneys is
-75% of infants’ body weight is water regulated primarily by hormones. antidiuretic hormone
INTRACELLULAR FLUID (ICF)- contained within the (ADH)- prevents excessive water loss in the urine
living cells -when osmoreceptors become more active, nerve
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (ECF)- includes all body impulses are sent to the posterior pituitary, which then
fluids located outside the cells. ECF includes blood releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
plasma, interstitial fluid (IF), lymph, and transcellular
fluid, which includes cerebrospinal and serous fluids, the
humors of the eye, and others. DIABETES INDIPIDUS
When ADH is not released (perhaps because of injury or
destruction of the hypothalamus or posterior pituitary
Water & Electrolytes gland), huge amounts of very dilute urine (up to 25
THERE IS MORE TO FLUID BALANCE THAN JUST liters/day) flush from the body day after day. This
WATER condition, diabetes insipidus (in-sip′˘ ı-dus), can lead to
severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
ELECTROLYTES- charged particles (ions) that conduct
an electrical current in an aqueous solution
Sodium
potassium,
and calcium ions
MAINTAINING ELECTROLYTE BALANCE DISTURBANCES OF POTASSIUM BALANCE
aldosterone (al″dos′ter-on) Hypokalemia (kalium, potassium)
-is a second hormone that helps to regulate blood -Below 2 mEq/L in plasma
composition and blood volume
-Can be caused by: Diuretics, Aldosteronism (excessive
-the major factor regulating sodium ion content of the aldosterone secretion)
ECF and in the process helps regulate
-Symptoms: Muscular weakness, followed by paralysis
the concentration of other ions (potassium, chloride [Cl–
], and magnesium [Mg2+]) •Hyperkalemia
-Above 8 mEq/L in plasma
Sodium ions (Na+)
-Can be caused by:Chronically low pH, Kidney
-most responsible for osmotic water flow
failure,Drugs promoting diuresis by blocking Na+/K+
-too few in the blood will cause water to leave the blood pumps
and enter tissues, causing edema
-Symptoms : Muscular spasm including heart arrhythmias
-for each sodium ion reabsorbed, a chloride ion follows,
and a potassium ion is secreted into the filtrate
-regulated by Aldosterone, Renin/angiostensin, Atrial Blood Buffers
Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) - Chemical buffers are systems of one or two molecules
Potassium ions (K+) that act to prevent dramatic changes in the hydrogen ion
concentration when acids or bases are added.
-major intracellular cation
They do this by binding to hydrogen ions whenever the
-regulates resting membrane potential pH drops and by releasing hydrogen ions when the pH
rises.
-regulates fluid, ion balance inside cell
- chemical buffers act within a fraction of a second, so
-Regulation in kidney through: Aldosterone, Insulin
they are the first line of defense in resisting pH changes.

SODIUM BALANCE
The three major chemical buffer
Relatively small changes in Na+ are accommodated by
• bicarbonate
changes in ECF volume
• phosphate
Homeostatic responses involve two parts • protein buffer system
1.ADH control of water loss/retention by kidneys and -each of which helps to maintain the pH in one or more of
thirst the fluid compartments. They all work together, and
anything that causes a shift in hydrogen ion concentration
2.Fluid exchange between ECF and ICF
in one compartment also causes changes in the others.

DISTURBANCES OF SODIUM BALANCE

Hyponatremia (natrium, sodium)
Low ECF Na+ concentration (<136 mEq/L) Can occur
from overhydration or inadequate salt intake
Hypernatremia
High ECF Na+ concentration (>145 mEq/L) Commonly
from dehydration
BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM Conversely, when blood pH falls, bicarbonate is
reabsorbed and generated, and hydrogen ions are secreted.
- a mixture of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and its salt, sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3). bicarbonate buffer system
-Carbonic acid is a weak acid, so it does not dissociate RENAL FASCIA.
much in neutral or acidic solutions.
The renal fascia, the outermost capsule, anchors the
-When a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid is added, kidney and helps hold it in place against the muscles of
most of the carbonic acid remains intact. However, the the trunk wall.
bicarbonate ions of the salt act as bases to tie up the
hydrogen ions released by the stronger acid, forming more
carbonic acid RENAL CORTEX.
-Because the strong acid is (effectively) changed to a The outer region, which is light in color, is the renal
weak one, it lowers the pH of the solution only very cortex.
slightly.
Similarly, if a strong base such as sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is added to a solution containing the bicarbonate RENAL MEDULLA
buffer system, NaHCO3 will not dissociate further under Inner tissue layer deep to the cortex is a darker, reddish-
such alkaline conditions. However, carbonic acid brown area, the renal medulla.
(H2CO3) will be forced to dissociate further by the
presence of the strong base—releasing more H+ to bind
with theOH– released by NaOH.
RENAL COLUMNS.
The pyramids are separated by extensions of cortex-like
RESPIRATORY MECHANISMS tissue, the renal columns.

- The respiratory system eliminates carbon dioxide from

the blood while it “loads” oxygen into the blood.
RENAL PELVIS.
- When carbon dioxide enters the blood from the tissue
Medial to the hilum is a flat, basin like cavity, the renal
cells, most of it enters the red blood cells, where it is
pelvis, which is continuous with the ureter leaving the
converted to bicarbonate ion for transport in the plasma.
hilum
-In healthy people, carbon dioxide is expelled from the
lungs at the same rate as it is formed in the tissues.

Renal Mechanisms
-Chemical buffers can tie up excess acids or bases
temporarily, but they cannot eliminate them from the
body. And although the lungs can dispose of carbonic acid
by eliminating carbon dioxide, only the kidneys can rid
the body of other acids generated during metabolism.
Additionally, only the kidneys have the power to regulate
blood levels of alkaline substances. Thus, although the
kidneys act slowly and require hours or days to change
blood pH, they are the most potent of the pH regulating
- Renal mechanisms undertake these adjustments: As
blood pH rises, bicarbonate ions are excreted and
hydrogen ions are retained by the tubule cells.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Scrotum - the "pouch" is a divided sac of skin with sparse
hairs that hangs between the legs at the root of the penis.
Under normal conditions, the scrotum hangs loosely,
The reproductive system of an organism, also known as providing the testes with a temperature that is below body
the genital system, is the biological system made up of all temperature. This is a rather exposed location for a man’s
the anatomical organs involved in sexual reproduction. testes, which contain his entire genetic heritage, but
Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and apparently viable sperm cannot be produced at normal
pheromones are also important accessories to the body temperature. When the external temperature is very
reproductive system. Both sexes gonads, produce cold, the scrotum becomes heavily wrinkled as it pulls the
gametes. testes closer to the warmth of the body wall.
Penis - functions to deliver sperm into the female
reproductive tract. The skin covered penis consists of a
GONADS shaft, which ends in an enlarged tip, the glans penis. The
The gonads (go′nadz; “seeds”), or primary sex organs, are skin covering the penis is loose, and it folds downward to
the testes in men and the ovaries in women. The gonads form a sleeve of skin, the prepuce (pre′pˉus), or foreskin,
produce sex cells, or gametes (gam′ˉets), and secrete sex around the proximal end of the glans penis. The surgical
hormones. removal of foreskin is called circumcision.

The remaining reproductive system structures are Internally, the spongy urethra is surrounded by three
accessory reproductive organs. elongated areas of erectile tissue, a spongy tissue that fills
with blood during sexual excitement. This causes the
penis to enlarge and become rigid. This event, called
erection, helps the penis serve as the male organ of
Although male and female reproductive systems are quite
copulation (sexual intercourse) to deliver the semen into
different, their joint purpose is to produce offspring. The
the female reproductive tract.
reproductive role of the man is to manufacture male
gametes called sperm and deliver them to the woman’s
reproductive tract. The woman, in turn, produces female
gametes, called ova (singular ovum), or eggs. If the
conditions are suitable, a sperm and egg fuse to produce a The testes are the male gonads and contain hundreds of
fertilized egg, called a zygote. tiny seminiferous tubules where sperm cells are produced.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - is approximately 4 cm (1.5 inches) long and 2.5 cm (1

Major parts: inch) wide and is connected to the trunk via the spermatic
cord.
• PENIS
- the seminiferous tubules are the "sperm-
• SCROTUM
forming factories“
• TESTES
• EPIDIDYMIS - Sperm travel through the rete testis to enter the
• VAS DEFERENS/ DUCTUS DEFERENS first part of the duct system, the epididymis,
• PROSTRATE GLAND which hugs the external surface of the testis.
• URETHRA
- interstitial cells produce androgens- which includes the
testosterone

MALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA

SCROTUM - the "pouch" is a divided sac of skin with The cup-shaped epididymis is a highly convoluted tube
sparse hairs that hangs between the legs at the root of the about 6 m (20 feet) long that hugs the posterior side of the
penis. testis (see Figure 16.1). The epididymis is the first part of
the male duct system and provides a temporary storage
PENIS - functions to deliver sperm into the female site for the immature sperm. While the sperm make their
reproductive tract.
way along the tortuous course of the epididymis (a trip containing fluid that is propelled out of the male’s
that takes about 20 days), they mature, developing the reproductive tract during ejaculation.
ability to swim. When a man is sexually stimulated and
ejaculates (ejac = to shoot forth), the walls of the
epididymis contract to expel the sperm into the next part SEMINAL VESICLES
of the duct system, the ductus deferens
- The large hollow glands produces about 60% of
seminal fluid, the fluid portion of semen. Their
thick, yellowish secretion is rich in sugar
When you ejaculate, the ductus deferens, or vas deferens,
(fructose), Vitamin C, prostaglandins, and other
runs upward from:
substances. The duct of each seminal vesicle joins
Vas deferens - upward - loops medially over the ureter - that of the ductus deferens on the same side to
descends the posterior bladder wall - the end of vas form the ejaculatory duct. Thus, sperm and
deferens expands, the ampulla - empties to ejaculatory seminal fluid enter the urethra together during
duct - passes through the prostate to merge with the ejaculation.
urethra
PROSTRATE
Ductus deferens purpose is to propel live sperm from
- It encircles the upper (prostatic) part of the
storage sites (epididymis) into urethra. At the moment of
ejaculation, the thick layers of smooth muscle in its walls urethra just inferior to the urinary bladder.
Prostate fluid is milky and plays a role in
create peristaltic waves that rapidly squeeze the sperm
forward. activating sperm. During ejaculation, the fluid
enters the urethra through several small ducts.
Some men voluntarily opt to take full responsibility for Because the prostate is located immediately
birth control by having a vasectomy (vah-sek′to-me; anterior to the rectum, its size and texture can be
“cutting the vas”). In this relatively minor operation, the palpated (felt) by digital (finger) examination
surgeon makes a small incision into the scrotum and then through the anterior rectal wall.
cuts through and ties off the ductus deferens. Sperm are
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
still produced, but they can no longer reach the body
exterior, and eventually they deteriorate and are - penile urethra. This secretion is the first to pass
phagocytized. A man is sterile after this procedure, but down the urethra when a man becomes sexually
because testosterone is still produced, he retains his sex excited. It cleanses the urethra of trace acidic
drive and secondary sex characteristics. urine prior to ejaculation, and it serves as a
lubricant during sexual intercourse.
SEMEN
URETHRA
- a milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of sperm and
The urethra, which extends from the base of the urinary
accessory gland secretions. The liquid portion acts as a
bladder to the tip of the penis, is the terminal part of the
transport medium for nutrients and chemicals that protect
male duct system. The male urethra carries both urine
and sperm to the body exterior; thus, it serves two the sperm and aid their movement. The fructose in the
masters, the urinary and reproductive systems. seminal vesicle secretion provides essentially all of their
However, urine and sperm never leave the body at the energy fuel. Semen also contains antibiotic chemicals that
same time. The bladder sphincter constricts which destroy certain bacteria, the hormone relaxin, enzymes
that enhance sperm motility, and substances that inhibit
prevents urine from passing urethra and prevents sperm
an immune response in the female reproductive tract. The
from entering urinary bladder.
amount of semen propelled out of the male duct system
during ejaculation is relatively small, only 2 to 5 ml (about
ACCESSORY GLANDS AND SEMEN a teaspoonful), but there are between 50 and 150 million
sperm in each milliliter.
The accessory glands include the paired seminal
vesicles, the single prostate, and the paired
bulbourethral (bul-bo-u-re′thral) glands. These glands
produce the bulk of semen (se′men), the sperm-
 ➢ SEMINAL VESICLES 1. Spermatogonia - begun by primitive cells that goes
through rapid mitotic divisions to build up the stem cell
• produces 6-% of seminal fluid, the fluid
line.
portion of semen rich in fructose, vit. C,
prostaglandins, etc. each division of speermatogonium produces one
stem cell, type A daughter cell - which remains at the
➢ PROSTATE
tubule for population maintenance. And type B daughter
• encircles the upper part of urethra and has cell, which pushed toward the tubule lumen too become a
prostrate fluid which is a milky fluid that primary spermatocyte to undergo meiosis and form 4
plays a role in activating sperm. cells.

➢ BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
• produces thick, clear mucus that drains 2. Primary spermatocyte- undergo meiosis.
into the penile urethra which cleanses the
Meiosis: type of nuclear division occuring for
urethra of trace acidic urine. most part of gonads. Different from mitosis bcs it consists
➢ SEMEN of two division of nucleus and results in four daughter
cells or gametes.
• milky white, sticky mixture of sperm and
accessory gland secretions; acts as The division of the cell is then called the
transport medium for nutrients and secondary spermatocytes. The spermatids produced by
chemicals. Average amount of semen is meiosis are non-functional and nonmotile.
about 2 to 5mL (about a tsp full) and
3. The last sperm development is called spermiogenesis.
between 50 to 150 million sperm in each All the excess cytoplasm is sloughed off, remains is
mL. compacted into the three regions of the mature sperm—
the head, midpiece, and tail.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Male infertility, the inability to conceive a child, may be THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
due to obstructions of the duct system, hormonal
The major portion of the uterus is referred to as the body.
imbalances, environmental estrogens, pesticides, Its rounded region superior to the entrance of the uterine
excessive alcohol, or many other factors. One of the first
tubes is the fundus, and its narrow outlet, which protrudes
series of tests done when a couple has been unable to inferiorly into the vagina, is the cervix. The thick wall of
conceive is semen analysis. Factors analyzed include
the uterus is composed of three layers. The inner layer, or
sperm count, motility and morphology (shape and mucosa, is the endometrium (en-do-me′tre-um). If
maturity), and semen volume, pH, and fructose content. A fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg (actually the young
sperm count lower than 20 million per makes embryo by the time it reaches the uterus) burrows into the
impregnation improbable. endometrium (in a process called implantation) and
resides there for the rest of its development. When a
woman is not pregnant, the endometrial lining sloughs off
SPERMATOGENESIS periodically, usually about every 28 days, in response to
➢ the sperm production begins during puberty and changes in the levels of ovarian hormones in the blood.
continues throughout life. The sperms are formed This process, called menstruation or menses, is often
in the seminiferous tubules. The process is begun referred to as a woman getting her “period”
by primitive stem cells called spermatogonia.

The vagina (vah-ji′nah) is a thin-walled tube 8 to 10 cm

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPERM (3 to 4 inches) long. It lies between the bladder and rectum
and extends from the cervix to the body exterior. Often
(1) spermatogonia, (2) primary spermatocytes, (3) called the birth canal, the vagina provides a passageway
secondary spermatocytes, (4) spermatids, and (5) for the delivery of an infant and for the menstrual flow to
spermatozoa. leave the body. Because it receives the penis (and semen)
during sexual intercourse, it is the female organ of pigmented area, the areola (ah-re′o-lah), which surrounds
copulation. The distal end of the vagina is partially closed a central protruding nipple.
by a thin fold of the mucosa called the hymen (hi′men).
Internally, each mammary gland consists of 15 to 25 lobes
The hymen is very vascular and tends to bleed when it is
that radiate around the nipple. The lobes are padded and
ruptured during the first sexual intercourse. However, its
durability varies. In some women, it is torn during a sports separated from one another by connective tissue and fat.
activity, tampon insertion, or pelvic examination. Within each lobe are smaller chambers called lobules,
Occasionally, it is so tough that it must be ruptured which contain clusters of alveolar glands that produce
milk when a woman is lactating (producing milk). Milk
surgically if intercourse is to occur.
produced by the alveolar glands exits each lobule by
The female reproductive structures that are located passing into lactiferous (lak-tif′er-us) ducts, which open
external to the vagina are the external genitalia to the outside at the nipple. Just deep to the areola, each
duct has a dilated region called a lactiferous sinus, where
The external genitalia, also called the vulva, include the
milk accumulates during nursing.
mons pubis, labia, clitoris, urethral
and vaginal orifices, and greater vestibular glands.
For fertilization to occur, a sperm must reach the ovulated
The mons pubis (“mountain on the pubis”) is a fatty, secondary oocyte. The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours
rounded area overlying the pubic symphysis. After
after ovulation, and sperm generally retain their fertilizing
puberty, this area is covered with pubic hair. Running
power within the female reproductive tract for 24 to 48
posteriorly from the mons pubis are two elongated hair-
hours after ejaculation. Consequently, for fertilization to
covered skin folds,
occur, sexual intercourse must occur no more than 2 days
the labia majora (la′be-ah ma-jo′ra), which enclose two before ovulation and no later than 24 hours after. At this
delicate, hair-free folds, the labia minora. The labia point, the oocyte is approximately one-third of the way
majora enclose a region called the vestibule, which down the uterine tube. Remember that sperm are motile
contains the external openings of the urethra,* followed cells that can propel themselves by lashing movements of
posteriorly by that of the vagina. Just anterior to the their tails. If sperm are deposited in a female’s vagina
vestibule is the clitoris (kli′to-ris; “hill”), a small, at the approximate time of ovulation, they are attracted to
protruding structure that corresponds to the male penis. the oocyte by chemicals that act as “homing devices,”
Like the penis, it is hooded by a prepuce and is composed allowing them to locate the oocyte. It takes 1 to 2 hours
of sensitive erectile tissue that becomes swollen with for sperm to complete the journey up the female duct
blood during sexual excitement. The clitoris differs from system into the uterine tubes, even though they are only
the penis in that it lacks a reproductive duct. about 12 cm (5 inches) away. However, millions of sperm
leak out of the vagina, and of those remaining, millions
A pair of mucus-producing glands, the greater vestibular more are destroyed by the vagina’s acidic environment.
glands, flank the vagina, one on each side . Their secretion Only a few hundred to a few thousand sperm make it to
lubricates the distal end of the vagina during intercourse. the egg’s vicinity. Once a path has been cleared through
The diamond-shaped region between the anterior end of the corona, thousands of sperm undergo the acrosomal
the labial folds, the anus posteriorly, and the ischial reaction, in which the acrosome membranes break down,
tuberosities laterally is the perineum (per″˘ı-ne′um). releasing enzymes that digest holes in the surrounding
oocyte membrane. Once the sperm has entered, the ovum
sheds its remaining membrane surface receptors for
The biological role of the mammary glands is to produce sperm, preventing other sperm from gaining entry. In
milk to nourish a newborn baby, they are actually humans, of the millions of sperm ejaculated, only one can
important only when reproduction has already been penetrate an oocyte. Fertilization occurs at the moment
accomplished. Stimulation by female sex hormones, the genetic material of a sperm combines with that of an
especially estrogens, causes the female mammary glands ovum to form a fertilized egg, or zygote (zi′gˉot), with a
to increase in size at puberty. complete set of 46 chromosomes. The zygote represents
the first cell of the new individual.
The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that are
part of the skin. Each mammary gland is contained within
a rounded skin-covered breast anterior to the pectoral
muscles. Slightly inferior to the center of each breast is a
From fertilization and cleavage to implantation.Cleavage During an extremely prolonged or difficult stage 2, a
is a rapid series of mitotic divisions that begins with the condition called dystocia (dis-to′se-ah) may occur. In
zygote and ends with the blastocyst. The zygote begins to dystocia, oxygen delivery to the infant is inadequate,
divide about 24 hours after fertilization and continues to leading to fetal brain damage (resulting in cerebral palsy
divide rapidly (undergo cleavage) as it travels down the or epilepsy) and decreased viability of the infant. To
uterine tube. The embryo reaches the uterus 3 to 4 days prevent these outcomes, a cesarean (se-zayr′e-an) section,
after ovulation and floats freely for another 2 to 3 days, also called a C-section, may be performed. A C-section is
nourished by secretions of the endometrial glands. At the delivery of the infant through a surgical incision made
late blastocyst stage, the embryo implants into the through the abdominal and uterine walls.
endometrium; this begins at about day 7 after
ovulation.After it is securely implanted, the trophoblast
Stage 3: Placental Stage The placental stage, or the
part of the blastocyst develops elaborate projections,
delivery of the placenta, is usually accomplished within
called chorionic villi, which combine with the tissues of
15 minutes after birth of the infant. The strong uterine
the mother’s uterus to form the placenta (plah-sen′tah).
contractions that continue after birth compress uterine
Once the placenta has formed, the platelike embryonic
body, now surrounded by a fluid-filled sac called the blood vessels, limit bleeding, and cause the placenta to
amnion (am′ne-on), is attached to the placenta by a blood detach from the uterine wall. The placenta and its attached
fetal membranes, collectively called the afterbirth, are
vessel–containing stalk of tissue, the umbilical cord.
then easily removed by a slight tug on the umbilical cord.
All placental fragments must be removed to prevent
continued uterine bleeding after birth (postpartum
Many potentially harmful substances can cross through
bleeding)
the placental barrier into the fetal blood; therefore, a
pregnant woman should be very aware of what she is
taking into her body. Substances that may cause life-
threatening birth defects (and even fetal death) include
alcohol, nicotine, and many types of drugs
(anticoagulants, antihypertensives, sedatives, and some
antibiotics). Maternal infections, particularly German
measles (rubella), may also cause severe fetal damage.
Natural termination of a pregnancy before a fetus can
survive on its own is called miscarriage. A medical
termination of a pregnancy is called abortion.

Stage 1: Dilation Stage The dilation stage is the time from

the appearance of true contractions until the cervix is fully
dilated by the baby’s head (about 10 cm in diameter).

Stage 2: Expulsion Stage The expulsion stage is the period

from full dilation to delivery of the infant. In this stage,
the infant passes through the cervix and vagina to the
outside of the body. During this stage, a mother
experiencing natural childbirth (that is, undergoing labor
without local anesthesia) has an increasing urge to push,
or bear down, with the abdominal muscles. Although this
phase can take as long as 2 hours, it is typically 50 minutes
in a first birth and around 20 minutes in subsequent births.