We live in a world where we rely on data and

information. It is important that data is accurate.

Introduction Digital technology helps us to manage the input and Importance of accurate data in the digital age
transfer of data so that it is fit for purpose for its
intended audience.
Data is raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or
images with no meaning.
P952BR
Data processing and information @bbcclick
Some examples of data are:
359
Data and information Data 23557.99
a product code
Information Information is data with context and meaning. The data P952BR could have several meanings. It a postal/ZIP code
could be:
Training and Experience of the Workforce Level of Responsibility Accepted a car registration number.
Amount of Time Available for Consultation and Because we do not know what the data means, it is
Participation meaningless.
Attitude of Managers Personality and Business Background
Importance of the Issues Under Consideration Autocratic Decision Making in Risky Situations
The Best Management Style Depends on Many Involving Participation and Two-Way Communication
Factors Higher Expectations of Working People
Democratic Leadership
Need to Consult and Involve Workers in Change
Process
Difficulty in Adapting to New Ways
Managers' Resistance to Consultation and Worker Doubt in Ability to Discuss Issues and Persuade
Participation Workers
Preference for Issuing Instructions without Feedback

Data collected for the purpose it will be used

Collected or requested by the person who intends to
use the data
Visiting other shops and noting down prices
Various direct sources for collecting data: Visiting other shops' websites and noting down
prices
Surveying other shop owners to ask their prices
Structured carefully to elicit required information
Direct Data Source
Questionnaires for gathering specific data: Enable effective analysis of the data
Gather enough information without discouraging
respondents
Quicker analysis as data is entered directly into a
Online questionnaires: database
Saves time as no third-party data entry is required
Directly asking questions to respondents
Data Sources Interviews:
Allows for elaboration on answers
Data collected for a different purpose (secondary
source)
Data will be relevant Often collected by a different person or organization
Original source is known and trusted Surveying customers who have purchased from
Time-consuming to gather original data Various indirect sources for collecting data: other shops
Difficulty in collecting large sample of statistical data Looking at till receipts from the shop
Direct data source Contains names and addresses of registered voters
Up-to-date data
Indirect Data Source Used by credit reference agencies and marketing
Bias can be eliminated Electoral register as an indirect source: agencies
Data can be collected and presented in required Option to hide individual entries from public view
format
Advantages and disadvantages of gathering data Additional unnecessary data may exist Companies buying email addresses, telephone
from direct and indirect data sources numbers, or addresses
Required data may be missing Purchasing data for marketing purposes: Selling data to target specific markets
Original source may not be known and reliable Data protection laws require customer consent
Immediate availability of data before sharing data with third parties
Indirect data source Availability of large samples for statistical analysis
Data may be out of date
Bias in original data
Data may not be in required format, making
extraction difficult
Data precision
Error-free data
Accuracy* Decimal mistakes
Misspellings
Misplaced characters
Decimal point in the wrong place Pertinent information
Accuracy Misspelling Decimal point in the wrong place Intended purpose
Misplaced characters Relevance*
Accuracy Misspelling Avoid unnecessary details
Bus timetable instead of train timetable Misplaced characters Effort to filter through
Relevance Rental price instead of purchase price Bus timetable instead of train timetable Timeliness
Irrelevant instructions in a user guide Relevance Rental price instead of purchase price Age* Outdated information
Quality of Information Outdated census data Quality of Information User guide with irrelevant instructions Verification of data currency
Age
Delayed rugby score Outdated census data Optimal amount of information
Insufficient information for a pizza order Age
Delayed rugby score Usability
Excessive information making it difficult to find what Level of Detail*
Insufficient information for pizza order Overwhelming information
Level of Detail is needed Level of detail
Listening to all station times for train departure Insufficient information
Listening to all train times before getting the arrival
time Completeness Missing building number for car service booking Necessary information
Completeness Missing building number in a car service booking Effective utilization
Completeness* Missing data
Usability compromise
Reliability compromise
Disk Encryption
Types of Encryption
Network Encryption
Protection of Sensitive Data
Importance of Encryption
Prevention of Unauthorized Access
Encryption Encryption Algorithms
Encryption Process
Encryption Keys
Definition of Cipher
Caesar Cipher History of Caesar Cipher
Vulnerabilities of Caesar Cipher

A secret way of writing

A code
Definition Converts a message into an encrypted message
A special type of algorithm
Defines the set of rules to follow to encrypt a
message
Caesar cipher
Created by Roman Emperor Julius Caesar
Origin
Used to communicate in secret with his generals
Shift cipher Selects replacement letters by shifting along the
alphabet
Very easy to use
Ease of use
Very easy to crack
Oldest method of encryption
Oldest method of encryption
Requires a private key
Requires a private key Symmetric encryption
Symmetric encryption Secret key needs to be sent to the recipient
Secret key needs to be sent to the recipient
Key could be intercepted during transmission
Key could be intercepted during transmission
Also known as public-key cryptography
Also known as public-key cryptography
Overcomes the problem of intercepted keys
Overcomes the problem of intercepted keys
Uses a pair of keys: public key and private key
Uses a pair of keys: public key and private key
Asymmetric encryption Public key is available to anyone
Public key is available to anyone
Private key is known only to the recipient
Private key is known only to the recipient Asymmetric encryption Tomasz encrypts the message using Helene's public
Example: Tomasz sends encrypted message to key
Helene Example: Tomasz sends a message to Helene
Helene decrypts the message using her private key
Asymmetric encryption requires more processing
Requires more processing than symmetric
Encryption Processing and Security Takes longer to decrypt data encryption
More secure than symmetric encryption More secure than symmetric encryption
Encryption
Required to find a public key Required to find a public key
Identifies user or server Identifies the user or server
Digital Certificates Includes organization name, issuer, email, country, Provides the public key
and public key
Organisation name
Used to request encrypted data Digital certificates
Organisation that issued the certificate
Asymmetric encryption used for SSL (Secure Socket
Layer) Includes: User's email address
Applications SSL is the security method for secure websites User's country
TLS (Transport Layer Security) has superseded SSL User's public key
SSL and TLS both used for secure communication Security method used for secure websites
SSL: Secure Socket Layer Transport Layer Security (TLS) has superseded SSL
Keywords
TLS: Transport Layer Security Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) SSL and TLS are often referred to as SSL
Establishes an authenticated session
Client and server create symmetric keys for faster
secure communication
Encrypts every bit of data on a disk
Requires encryption key to access any file on the disk
Can be used on other storage media like backup Validation: the process of checking data matches
Hard disk tapes and USB flash memory acceptable rules
Important for portable storage media to prevent Purpose of validation: ensure data is sensible and
data loss or theft conforms to defined rules
Data is accessed by password or fingerprint Season ticket is valid until it expires
Validation Rule: date of usage must be before expiry date
Encrypts web pages and data transmitted over the
internet Example: railway season ticket validation Conforming to rules: data is accepted
Prevents interception and reading of sensitive data Not conforming to rules: data is rejected and error
Uses SSL or TLS protocols for encryption and message is presented
HTTPS decryption Validation does not ensure data is correct
Applications of encryption SSL has vulnerabilities and TLS is recommended Purpose: ensure data is entered
Secure web pages start with https:// and may display If data is entered, it is accepted
a padlock
If data is not entered, user is presented with an error
Uses asymmetric encryption message
Recipients need the private key matching the public Filling in a 'contact us' form on a website
key used to encrypt the email
Email Essential to enter an email address
Requires exchanging digitally-signed messages and
adding digital certificates to contacts Presence check a
Encrypts email attachments as well a@b
Scrambles data to make it unreadable if found Checking the accuracy of data Example: required data on a website Valid inputs with presence check: a@bc.d
How encryption protects data Does not prevent interception, theft, or loss of data @
Strong 256-bit AES encryption makes it virtually 372823
impossible to decrypt the data None of these inputs are correct, but they pass the
Age must be an integer
presence check rule
Grade must be text with no numbers
Purpose: ensure data is within a defined range
Type check Price must be numerical
Range check includes two boundaries: lower
Date of birth must be a date boundary and upper boundary
Data that is valid and of the correct data type is not > : greater than
necessarily correct
< : less than
Password must be at least six characters long Symbols used when comparing with a boundary:
>= : greater than or equal to
Grade must be exactly one character long
Range check <= : less than or equal to
Length check Product code must be at least four characters and no
more than six characters Data within the boundaries is valid
Data that is of the allowed length is not necessarily Data outside the boundaries is invalid
correct Data within the boundaries is not necessarily correct
Data must match a defined format Grade of C entered when grade of A should have
Data that matches the pattern is valid Example: grade range check been entered
Format check
Data that is valid and of the defined format is not C is valid but incorrect
necessarily correct
Data must exist in a list
Gender can be 'Male' or 'Female'
Lookup check
Grades can be 'Pass', 'Merit', or 'Distinction'
Data Validation
Data that is within the list is valid
Compares data in one field with data in another field
Consistency check
Checks if both are consistent with each other
A number (or letter) added to the end of an
identification number
Form of redundancy check
Check digit is redundant and used for validation
Algorithm performed on identification number to
generate check digit
Same algorithm performed on identification number
when input
Check digit Result of algorithm should match the check digit
Data is valid when result of algorithm matches check
digit
Data is not valid when result of algorithm does not
match check digit
Variety of calculations can be performed
Calculation for check digit Same calculation used to create check digit should
be used to confirm it when identification number is
input

Protect sensitive data

Prevent unauthorized access
Purpose of Encryption
Secure data during transmission
Safeguard against data theft or loss
Symmetric Encryption
Asymmetric Encryption
Types of Encryption Hash Encryption
Stream Cipher Encryption Verification is the process of checking that the
Ensures accuracy of data Verification Meaning data entered into the computer system matches the
Block Cipher Encryption Prevents errors and inconsistencies original source.
Data Scrambling Importance of Verification Enhances data quality Read data displayed on screen
Encryption Key Builds trust in the system Compare with original data
Encryption Process Decryption Key Facilitates decision-making Data matches: Passed verification
Encryption Read data displayed on screen
Encryption Algorithms Double entry Data does not match: Failed verification, needs to be
Visual checking re-entered Compare with original data
Encryption Strength Comparison with source documents
Note: Visual checking does not ensure data Visual checking If data matches, it has passed verification
Data Storage Methods of Verification Reconciliation with external data correctness If data does not match, it has failed verification and
Network Communication Cross-referencing with related records Example: Intended data is ABCD, but ABC is on the needs to be re-entered
Encryption Applications Email Encryption Use of checksums or hash functions source document Visual checking does not ensure data correctness Original data may be wrong
Verification Input data twice
File Encryption Identify the original source Input data into computer system twice
Verification Computer system compares the two inputs
Database Encryption Enter data into the system Compare the two items of data
Key Management Verification Process Compare entered data with the original source Inputs match: Verified If they match, they are verified
Performance Impact Resolve any discrepancies Inputs do not match: One of the inputs is incorrect Verification Methods If there are differences, one of the inputs must be
Encryption Challenges Compatibility Issues Document verification results Note: Double data entry does not guarantee data incorrect
correctness User enters new password twice
Vulnerabilities and Attacks Human error in data entry
Double data entry Example: Changing a password, entering the new Double data entry Critical for password to be entered correctly
Regulatory Compliance Incomplete or inaccurate source documents password twice
Example: Changing a password If new passwords match, password will be changed
Challenges in Verification Time-consuming and resource-intensive If new passwords match: Password will be changed
Difficulty in verifying large volumes of data If new passwords do not match: One of the If new passwords don't match, one of the passwords
passwords is incorrect must be entered incorrectly
Lack of standardized verification procedures
It is still possible to pass double-entry verification If data is entered incorrectly twice, the two values
Double-entry verification can still pass with incorrect may match
and have incorrect data data
Example: CAPS key left on, both entries would match Example: CAPS key left on by mistake

Calculation of hash total

Manual calculation of hash total
Hash Total Comparison of hash totals
Detection of mistakes in data input or manual
Data Validation calculation
Similarity to hash total
Meaningful use of control totals
Control Total
Number of items in a batch
Examples of control totals
Total of prices for individual items on an order
Purpose of Parity Check Find errors during data transmission
Calculation on file contents
Each byte (or word) of data is checked individually
Check if file transmitted/copied correctly
Byte-level Parity Check One bit is used as the parity bit
Useful for detecting disguised malicious files
Other 7 bits represent the data
Slight change in file generates different checksum
Total number of on bits in a byte must be even
Numbers 0 to 9
If number of on bits in data is odd, parity bit is set to
Checksum represented as hexadecimal digits Letters A to F Even Parity on
2 hexadecimal digits represent a single byte If number of on bits in data is even, parity bit is set to
SHA-256 off
Checksum Types of Parity Check
Different algorithms for generating checksum SHA-1 Parity Check Total number of on bits in a byte must be odd
MD5 If number of on bits in data is even, parity bit is set to
Odd Parity on
Same checksum for different files
If number of on bits in data is odd, parity bit is set to
MD5 and SHA-1 can generate collisions Enables hacker to disguise malicious file off
Unlikely to happen by chance Only checks for errors, does not correct them
SHA-1 and MD5 suitable for checking transmission If start and end checksums don't match, If error occurs, data must be sent again
errors transmission error
Limitations of Parity Check Can find error when a single bit is transmitted
SHA-256 currently safest checksum method incorrectly
Possible to enter valid but incorrect data May not find error if more than one bit is transmitted
Possible to verify incorrect data incorrectly

Validation and Verification Using both reduces chances of entering incorrect

data
Validation check reduces errors
Verification check spots errors

Data is input by the user

Definition
Feedback is given in the form of outputs
User and computer communicate together
User inputs data
Computer responds with an output
Data is stored in RAM during processing
Data is not saved to non-volatile memory until user
saves it
Interactive Processing Processing is done as quickly as possible
Word processing
Analyzing data in a spreadsheet
Response times for everyday tasks:
Browsing the web
Checking emails
Response times are in thousandths of a second
Definition: sets of data are processed all at one time
Online Processing Small amount of data without user interaction
Collection of data for each transaction Examples: automated backups, processing of
Data as Transactions employees' wages, customer orders, stock control
Processing of data
Next transaction Master File: stores data about a thing (e.g.,
employees)
Customer data Data Storage
Transaction File: stores data about an event (e.g.,
Flight data order, electricity usage, travel expenses)
Online Booking System Seat number Repeat Read the next record in the master file
Data collection Examples
Online Processing Ticket output Until the transaction file ID matches the master file
Data storage Transaction Processing Algorithm For each line in the transaction file ID
Avoid double-booking
Collection and storage Data organization Concert Ticket Booking System Similar process as airline ticket booking system Update master file total for current record
Data backup Regular recording for accurate billing Merge transaction and master files
Data retrieval Invoice and Delivery Note Generation Update data in the master file (e.g., recalculate Total
PDA or smartphone used by employee Spent field)
Data editing Electricity Meter Readings Interactive methods Homeowner enters reading via web
Data validation Validate transaction file
Homeowner enters reading via phone Error Handling
Editing and updating Data verification Move invalid transactions to an errors file
Smart meter for automatic readings Batch Processing
Data correction 16936
Data updating 09763
Data sorting Customer_Id 06342
Data filtering 03678
Data processing Sorting and searching Data indexing 04632
Data searching Sweater
Data querying Blouse
Data presentation Example Transaction File Product_Ordered Jeans
Data reporting Shirt
Immediate transfer Jacket
Output and dissemination Data visualization
Direct payments Transfer within a given time frame 25.00
Data sharing
Batch process 30.50
Data distribution
Cash withdrawal Cost (£) 60.75 Reduces costs
Batch processing Automated teller machines (ATMs)
Account balance deduction 35.60 Single, automated process requiring little human Fewer repetitive tasks for human operators
Online processing
Payment instruction 100.00 participation None of the transcription and update errors that
Processing methods Real-time processing Advantages
Electronic funds transfer (EFT) PIN confirmation human operators would produce
Parallel processing
Debit cards Contactless payments Can be scheduled to occur when there is little For example, at night
Distributed processing demand for computer resources
Transaction verification Definition: sets of data are processed all at one time
without user interaction Delay in processing data until the specific time
Funds transfer period
Examples: automated backups, processing of
Regular payments employees' wages, customer orders, stock control Identical, automated process is being applied to all
Disadvantages Only data of the same type can be processed the data
Direct debits Automatic payment authorization Master File: stores data about a thing (e.g.,
Utility bill payments employees) Errors cannot be corrected until the batch process is
File Types complete
Transaction File: stores data about an event (e.g.,
Customer can purchase a product from anywhere in order, electricity usage, travel expenses)
the world Repeat Read the next record in the master file
Product can be delivered to customer's home Until the transaction file ID matches the master file
address Transaction Processing Algorithm For each line in the transaction file ID
Online store uses an interactive system Update master file total for current record
Customer can browse or search for products using a Batch Processing Move to the next line in the transaction file
Online stores website
Single, automated process requiring little human
Customer can add products to a virtual shopping participation
basket
Can be scheduled during low demand for computer
Payment can be made using electronic funds transfer Advantages resources (e.g., at night)
Online store sends confirmation email to customer No transcription and update errors from human
Online store sends email updates about product operators
delivery Fewer repetitive tasks for human operators
Stock control system ensures shop always has Delay in processing data until specific time period
enough stock
Disadvantages Only data of the same type can be processed
Stock control system ensures shop never has too
many products Errors cannot be corrected until batch process is
complete
Stock control system can also manage parts needed
for manufacturing process
Stock control system has a database to store data
about each product
Stock control system has a database to store data
about suppliers Small amount of data
Automatic stock control Data stored about stock includes quantity in stock Collection of data for each transaction
Data as Transactions
Data stored about stock includes reorder level Processing of data
Data stored about stock includes reorder amount Next transaction
Barcode of purchased product is scanned at the till Customer data
Quantity in stock is reduced by one when product is Flight data
purchased
Online Booking System Seat number
Automatic order is placed when quantity in stock Examples
reaches reorder level Online Processing Ticket output
Quantity in database is increased when ordered Avoid double-booking
products arrive at the shop Concert Ticket Booking System Similar process as airline ticket booking system
Regular recording for accurate billing
PDA or smartphone used by employee
Electricity Meter Readings Interactive methods Homeowner enters reading via web
Homeowner enters reading via phone
Smart meter for automatic readings

Standardised format for exchanging data between

organisations
School submits coursework marks and estimated Online submission
Electronic data exchange grades to awarding organisation Software designed for data exchange
Standard interface for data exchange
APIs used for importing and exporting data between
different software Accounts software automatically sends data to
government for tax purposes using API
Common interface for sending and receiving orders
Large wholesalers may insist on using their own Most provide an API for clients to link their own
software software to
Buyer creates purchase order, prints and posts it to Immediate transfer
supplier Direct payments Transfer within a given time frame
Traditional process of placing an order Supplier receives paper copy, enters order onto Batch process
order entry system, prints delivery note and invoice
Buyer receives invoice and arranges payment Withdraw cash
Business-to-business buying and selling Buyer creates purchase order, software transmits Collection and storage Automated teller machines (ATMs) Check account balance
order using EDI directly to supplier's ordering system Editing and updating Deduct withdrawn amount
Supplier's system provides immediate confirmation Sorting and searching Linked to a bank account
and updates on the order
Output and dissemination Electronic funds transfer Debit cards PIN confirmation
B2B electronic data interchange Supplier creates electronic invoice, transmitted to
buyer's software and matched with original purchase Automated backups Transaction processing
order Batch processing Regular payments
Definition: Data is processed as soon as it has been Processing of employees' wages Direct debits
Payment made using electronic funds transfer once Examples of batch processing Authorization for automatic payments
input and outputs are generated immediately Customer orders
buyer confirms receipt of goods
Location of aeroplanes Stock control Purchase products online
Immediate processing Master files Virtual shopping basket
Air traffic control File types for storing data Online stores
Data given back to each plane Transaction files Electronic funds transfer
Collision prevention User input and computer response Confirmation and delivery updates
Catastrophic consequences Catastrophic result of delay Data stored in RAM Interactive processing Standardized format for data exchange
Vital data Processing speed Application program interfaces (APIs)
Data processing Electronic data exchange
User input Small amount of data input as a transaction Online processing Data exchange between organizations
Immediate processing Processing of each transaction Government tax reporting
Online processing as transactions Common interface for orders
Computer games Game control Online booking system
Examples of online processing Supplier's own software or API
Character movement Electricity meter readings
Real-time processing system Single, automated process Business-to-business buying and selling Traditional vs B2B electronic data interchange
Real-time processing Reduced costs Immediate confirmation and updates
Real-time processing Temperature control Scheduling flexibility Advantages Electronic invoice and payment
Central heating system Immediate response Elimination of human errors Data processed immediately
Real-time processing
Heating adjustments Fewer repetitive tasks Advantages and disadvantages of batch processing Outputs generated immediately
System efficiency Delay in processing Immediate processing of airplane location data
Air traffic control
Real-time processing Limited to processing data of the same type Vital for avoiding collisions
Disadvantages
Temperature control Errors cannot be corrected until batch process is Real-time processing of user input
complete Computer games
Air conditioning system Immediate response Immediate game control
Cooling adjustments Central heating system
System efficiency Air conditioning system
Real-time launch Real-time stability and control
Rocket guidance systems
Immediate instructions Immediate response to position changes
Rocket guidance systems Stability control
Course correction
Position input