1.

Wave-particle duality
describe explain
Its wave-like properties are inferred from the random nature of the observed particle-like properties.

it shows that, when it is possible to identify the slit through which a particle passes, there is no wave-like
passage through both slits, but when there is no possibility of identifying the slit, the particle covertly passes
through both slits in a wave-like way

Procedure Classical view point.

Wave-like properties − wave-like properties are inferred from the a classical electromagnetic
random nature of the observed particle-like wave, the wave describing a
properties. quantum particle cannot be
Results directly observed.
− The wave-like passage of the quantum Quantum view point
particle through both the slits is not the wave-like behaviour of
observed. quantum particles is always
covert
Particle-like properties − The particle-like properties of a quantum
particle are observed when it is detected
− In a two-slit experiment, particle-like
properties are observed when the position
of a quantum particle is measured on the
screen
2. De Broglie hypothesis
The possibility that particles of matter like electrons could be both particle-like and wave-like was first
proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1923. Specifically he proposed that a particle of matter with momentum p
could act as a wave with wavelength ( behave like wave)
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
This wavelength is now called the de Broglie wavelength.
the de Broglie wavelength of a particle of matter is small and difficult to measure.
ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝐸
particles of lower mass have longer wavelengths, which implies that the wave properties of the lightest
particle of matter, the electron, should be the easiest to detect. We obtain
1.5
𝜆=√ 𝑛𝑚
𝐸

3. Uncertainty principle
Considering a famous thought experiment due to Werner Heisenberg in which the position of a particle is
measured using a microscope.
The position of the observed particle has an uncertainty given approximately by
 𝜆
∆𝑥 ≈
sin 𝛼
where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the illumination and sin 2𝛼 is the angle subtended by the lens at the particle.

Thus the sideways momentum of the scattered photon is uncertain to the degree
ℎ
∆𝑝 ≈ sin 𝛼
𝜆
The sideways momentum of the observed particle has a similar uncertainty, because momentum is conserved
when the photon scatters.

∆𝑥, ∆𝑝, ∆𝐸, ∆𝑡

4. Schrodinger equation
Time-dependent S.eq Time-independent S.eq
𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝜓(𝒓,𝑡)
̂ 𝜓(𝒓, 𝑡)
=𝐻 𝐻̂ 𝜓(𝒓) = 𝐸𝜓(𝒓)
𝜕𝑡

The general solution is: General Solution:

𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝐸𝑡/ℏ Ψ(𝒓) = ∑ 𝜓(𝒓)
Ψ(𝒓, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝒓) 𝑒 −𝑖𝐸𝑡/ℏ
Two protons with an energy of approach E are
described by an eigenfunction 𝜓(𝒓) which obeys the
time-independent SchroÈdinger equation,
ℏ2 2
[− ∇ + 𝑉(𝑟)] 𝜓(𝒓) = 𝐸𝜓(𝒓)
2𝑚
where V(r) is the potential
𝑉(𝑥) = 0; 𝑉(2) = 𝑉0

=> Compare: energy & momentum of particle in

these two cases
5. Operator: these two cases
Linear operator Hermintian operator
The operator 𝐴̂ must be a linear operator. This The operator 𝐴̂ must be a Hermitian operator which
̂
means that, if the action of 𝐴 on the wave functions means that it obeys the condition
Ψ1 and Ψ2 is given by ∗
∫ Ψ1∗ 𝐴̂ Ψ2 𝑑 3 𝒓 = ∫(𝐴̂Ψ1 ) Ψ2 𝑑 3 𝒓,
̂ ̂
𝐴(𝜓1 + 𝜓2 ) = 𝐴𝜓1 + 𝐴𝜓2 ̂
Complex conjugate
where Ψ1 and Ψ2 are any two wave functions; the
∗
brackets in the term (𝐴̂Ψ1 )
 Some important operators in quantum mechanics
̂ , 𝐿̂, 𝐿̂2
𝑥̂, 𝑝̂ , 𝐻
 Eigenfunction of position/ momentum operator
Position
 Eigenvalue equation:
𝑥̂𝜓𝑥 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ 𝜓𝑥 ′ (𝑥)
Rewritten using 𝑥̂ = 𝑥
𝑥𝜓𝑥 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ 𝜓𝑥 ′ (𝑥)
equation confirms the assumption that a wave
function Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) is a probability amplitude for the
position of the particle.
+∞
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝑐(𝑥 ′ , 𝑡)𝛿(𝑥 ′ − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝑐(𝑥, 𝑡)
−∞
Where the function 𝑐(𝑥 ′ , 𝑡) is a position probability
amplitude;
𝛿(𝑥 ′ − 𝑥) is a Dirac delta function
Momentum
Eigenvalue equation:
𝑝̂ 𝜓𝑝′ (𝑥) = 𝑝′ 𝜓𝑝′ (𝑥)
𝜕
Rewritten using 𝑝̂ = −𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑥
𝜕
−𝑖ℏ 𝜓𝑝′ (𝑥) = 𝑝′ 𝜓𝑝′ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
=>Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) =
 Compatible observables
Such observables are called compatible observables
 Constants of motion
Observables that are compatible with the energy
observable have a particular physical significance.
They are constants of the motion. To explain the
significance of this statement we consider the
expectation value for an observable A for a particle
with wave function Ψ,
〈𝐴〉 = ∫ Ψ∗ 𝐴̂Ψ𝑑 3 𝒓
For an observable A which is compatible with the
energy, the commutator [𝐴̂, 𝐻
̂ ] is zero and Eq. (7.22)
gives

Such an observable is called a constant of motion

(tích phân chuyển động)because its expectation value
does not change as the wave function evolves with
time
6. Wave function, Physical meaning of WF
Quantum states
The key idea is that a wave function represents a quantum state of a particle
− In the absence of measurements, a quantum state evolves with time smoothly and deterministically in
accordance with the time-dependent SchroÈdinger equation,

− A quantum state describes potentialities which can become realities. More generally, a quantum state can
predict the possible outcomes of any measurement.ư
− A quantum state is a linear superposition of other quantum states which means that a particle in one
quantum state is also simultaneously in other quantum states. This property is called the principle of linear
 superposition.
− Lastly, a quantum state is fragile. When a measurement occurs, a quantum state is destroyed and replaced
by a new quantum state which is compatible with the random outcome of the measurement. This abrupt
and non-deterministic process is called the collapse of the wave function.
Stationary states
the probabilities and the expectation value for any observable never change. Such a state is called a stationary
state.
− The eigenfunction has an observable property called parity, If the position coordinate is changed
from x to −𝑥, the eigenfunction has a definite symmetry:
𝜓𝑛 (−𝑥) = +𝜓(𝑥) if n is even positive parity
And position expectation values are
𝜓𝑛 (−𝑥) = −𝜓(𝑥) if n is odd negative parity
− The position probability density of the particle,

is time-independent, the particle can have any location between 𝑥 = −∞ and 𝑥 = +∞, in marked contrast
with a classical particle which is confined to the region −𝐴 < 𝑥 < +𝐴, where A is the amplitude of
oscillation.
− The position expectation values are

so that the uncertainty in position is

Where 𝑎 = √ℏ/𝑚𝜔

Because the position and momentum of the particle are uncertain, the potential energy and the kinetic energy
are uncertain. The expectation values of these uncertain observables are

zero point energy of the harmonic oscillator

Non-stationary states
The general wave function of a particle in a harmonic oscillator potential has the form

This wave function represents a state of uncertain energy because when the energy is measured many
 1 3
outcomes are possible: 𝐸0 = 2 ℏ𝜔, 𝐸1 = 2 ℏ𝜔, …. With probabilities |𝑐0 |2 , |𝑐1 |2 , …
This wave function also represents a non-stationary state, a state with time-dependent observable properties.

7. Applications
Quantum Well Quantum barries Harmonic oscillator
𝑥
𝑉(𝑥) = +∞ 𝑉(𝑥) = −𝑉0 𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑉(𝑥) = 0 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑉𝐵 𝑉(𝑥) = 0 1
𝑉(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑘𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝑘𝑥 2
0 2
Engery of harmonic
oscillator.
𝑥=0 𝑥=𝑎 1
0 𝑖𝑓 − ∞ < 𝑥 < 0 𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + ) ℏ𝜔
2
𝑉(𝑥) = { 𝑉𝐵 𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 Eigenfunction
𝑚𝜔 2
𝑥=0 𝑥=𝑎 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑥 < +∞ 𝜓𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 (𝑎+ )𝑛 𝑒 − 2ℏ 𝑥
∞ 𝑖𝑓 − ∞ < 𝑥 < 0 𝐴𝐼 𝑒 +𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐴𝑅 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 1 ℏ 𝑑
𝑎± = ( 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑖𝑚𝜔𝑥)
𝑉(𝑥) = { −𝑉0 𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 𝜓𝐸 (𝑥) = { 𝐵𝑒 −𝛽𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑒 +𝛽𝑥 √2𝑚
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑥 < ∞ 𝐴𝑇 𝑒 +𝑖𝑘𝑥
infininite Free Particle
ℏ𝑘 2
Ψ𝑘 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥− 2𝑚 𝑡)
Because
1 +∞ ℏ𝑘 2
𝑖(𝑘𝑥− 𝑡)
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝜙(𝑘)𝑒 2𝑚 𝑑𝑘
√2𝜋 −∞

8. Motion in the radial field:

Eigenfunction & Eigenvalue 𝐿̂
Orbital angular momentum in quantum physics is described by the operator

This a vector operator with three Cartesian components,

when the wave function is an eigenfunction of 𝐿̂𝑥 with eigenvalue 𝐿𝑥 , i.e. when
𝐿̂𝑥 Ψ(𝒓, 𝑡) = 𝐿𝑥 Ψ(𝒓, 𝑡)
the eigenfunction represents a quantum state with a precise value for the x component of the orbital angular
momentum given by the eigenvalue 𝐿𝑥 .
𝐿 = √𝑙(𝑙 + 1)ℏ 𝑙 = 0, 1,2 …
Quantum numbers (𝑙, 𝑚𝑙 )
+𝑙
𝐿𝑧 = 𝑚𝑙 ℏ where { …
−𝑙
𝑙 and 𝑚𝑙 can take on the values 𝑙 = 0,1,2, … and 𝑚𝑙 = −𝑙 , … . , +𝑙
𝐽 = √𝑗(𝑗 + 1)ℏ and 𝐽𝑧 = 𝑚𝑗 ℏ
𝑗=𝑙+𝑠
̂𝐿2 𝑌𝑙,𝑚 = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)ℏ2 𝑌𝑙,𝑚 and 𝐿̂𝑧 𝑌𝑙,𝑚𝑙 = 𝑚𝑙 ℏ𝑌𝑙,𝑚𝑙
𝑙 𝑙
Consider eigenfunction (𝜃, 𝜙) : 𝑌; (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙): 𝜓
 𝑢𝑛,𝑙 (𝑟)
𝜓𝑛,𝑙,𝑚𝑙 (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑌𝑙,𝑚𝑙 (𝜃, 𝜙)
𝑟
𝐸𝑅
𝐸𝑛 = − 2
𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑙 + 1
Principal quantum number can take on the values 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 ….
9. Perturbation theory:
first- order correction
new Hamiltonian as the sum of two
terms
𝐻 = 𝐻 0 + 𝜆𝐻′
where H' is the perturbation. We
write 𝜓𝑛 and 𝐸𝑛 as a power series in
𝜆:
𝜓𝑛 = 𝜓𝑛0 + 𝜆𝜓𝑛1 + 𝜆2 𝜓𝑛2 + ⋯
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛0 + 𝜆𝐸𝑛1 + 𝜆2 𝐸𝑛2 + ⋯
1
𝐸𝑛 is the first-order correction to the
nth eigenvalue
𝜓𝑛1 is the first-order correction to the
nth eigenfunction
𝐸𝑛1 = ⟨𝜓𝑛0 |𝐻 ′ |𝜓𝑛0 ⟩
This is the fundamental result of
first-order perturbation theory
Infinite square well with small
perturbation.