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Quantum Mechanics
Lecture-7
Reference: Concept of Modern Physics
by A. Beiser
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Matter Waves...Quantitative ; Wave Function
The wave associated with particles in motion are
mathematical constructs. It does not describe the
space time variation of any measurable quantity
like displacement or any other characteristics
present in the medium.

The wave relates to the probabilities [ |(x,y,z,t)|
2
]
of observing the particle at different space locations
as a function of time.

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Physical interpretation of Wave function
The probability P(r,t)dV to find a particle associated with the
wavefunction (r,t) within a small volume dV around a point in space
with coordinate r at some instant t is

P(r,t) is the probability density

For one-dimensional case

Wave function may be a complex quantity, but its mod square will
always be a positive quantity
dV t dV t P
2
) , ( ) , ( r r + =
2
P(x, t)dx (x, t) dx = +
Here |(r,t)|
2
=
*
(r,t)(r,t)
Thus if,
= A+iB

then , * = A iB
Hence *=A
2
+B
2
. thus * is always a positive real quantity.
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Physical interpretation of Wave function
The probability of finding
a particle somewhere in a
volume V of space is
Since the probability to find
particle anywhere in space is
1,we have condition of
normalization

For 1-Dimensional case,
the probability of finding
the particle in the
arbitrary interval a x
b is

} }
+ = =
V V
V
dV t dV t P P
2
) , ( ) , ( r r
1 ) , (

2
= +
}
space all
dV t r
}
}
+

+ =
+ =
dx t x P
dx t x P
everywhere
b
a
ab
2
2
) , (
) , (
NORMALIZED
WAVE FUNCTION
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Normalization and Normalized Wave Function
dv dv P
v v
2
*
+ = ++ =
} }
N P =
N dv
v
= ++
}
*
1
1
*
= ++
}
dv
N
v
1
*
=
++
}
dv
N
v
1
*
=
+

+
}
dv
N N
v
1
*
1 1
= + +
}
dv
v
The process of making probability density unity is called as
normalization and the wave function is called as normalized
wave function. The probability density of a particle in a given
volume is

The maximum value of P is 1 and minimum value is 0.
Suppose probability of finding a particle in a given volume be N.
i. e.

N
1
N
+
Here is called as a normalizing factor and is called as normalized wave function.
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Quantum Mechanics
The methods of Quantum Mechanics consist in
finding the wavefunction associated with a
particle or a system

Once we know this wavefunction we know
everything about the system!
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Physical Interpretation of Wave function : A satisfactory
interpretation of the wave function associated with a moving particle was given
by Born in 1926. He postulated that the square of the magnitude of the
wave function, ||
2
(or *, if is complex), evaluated at a particular
point is proportional to the probability of finding the particle at that
point.

A large value of ||
2
means a large possibility of the particles presence,
while a small value of ||
2
means the slight possibility of its presence. ||
2
is
called the probability density , and is the probability amplitude.

According to this interpretation, the probability of finding the particle within an
element of volume dt is ||
2
dt. Since the particle is certainly somewhere, the
integral of ||
2
dt over the whole space must be unity, that is




A wave function that obeys this equation is said to be normalized. Every
acceptable wave function must be normalizable.
2
d 1

t =
}
Physical interpretation of Wave function
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Properties of wave function
Besides being normalizable,

An acceptable wave function must fulfill the following requirements:

(i) must be finite everywhere
(ii) must be single valued.
(iii) must be continuous and have a
continuous first derivative everywhere.
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Schrdinger's Time-dependent Wave Equation: In 1926, Schrdinger
presented his famous wave equation as development of de-Broglie ideas of the
wave properties of matter. The Schrdinger's equation is the fundamental equation
of quantum mechanics in the same sense as the Newtons second law of motion of
classical mechanics. It is the differential equation for the de Broglie waves
associated with particles and describes the motion of particles.

The wave function is for a a particle moving freely in the x-direction is given as

=Ae
-ie(t-x/u)
(1)

In terms of energy E and momentum p:

Since v=E/h (Plancks relation) and =h/p (de Broglie relation)

(x , t) = A e
-(2ti/h)(Et-px)

Schrdinger's equation of Motion
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(2 i/h)(Et px)
2
2 2 2
(2 i/h)(Et px)
2 2
(x, t) Ae (i)
Differentiating above equation twice w.r.t. x
2 i 4 p
Ae p (ii)
x h h
Again differentiating eq (i
t
t
=
c t t
| |
= =
|
c
\ .
(2 i/h)(Et px)
2 2
2
2 2
) once w.r.t. t ,
2 i 2 iE
Ae E (iii)
t h h
eq (ii) and (iii) give
1 h
p = - (iv)
4 x
and
t
c t t
| |
= =
|
c
\ .
c
t c
1 ih
E= (v)
2 t
c
t c
Schrdinger's equation of Motion
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Schrdinger developed the wave equation which can be solved
to find the wavefunction by translating the equation for energy
of classical physics into the language of waves




For fixed energy, we obtain the time-independent Schrdinger
equation, which describes stationary states



the energy of such states does not change with time

n
(x) is an eigenfunction or eigenstate
V is a potential function representing the particle interaction with
the environment
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
x
V x E x
2m x
c
+ =
c
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
x x
V x i
2m x t
c c
+ =
c c
2
p
V E
2m
+ =
Schrdinger's equation of Motion
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2 2
2 iEt/h 2 iEt/h 2 iEt/h
2 2
h d ih 2 iE
- e V e e
8 m dx 2 h
t t t
t
| |
+ =
|
t t
\ .
Schrdinger's time independent wave equation
In many cases, the potential energy of a particle does not depend upon time and is a
function of the position only. When this is the case, the Schrdinger equation maybe
simplified. Let us start from first equation (in terms of energy and momentum)
(x , t) = A e
-(2ti/h)(Et-px)

In which variables x and t have been separated. If the spatial part is ( x )=Ae
2tipx/h


Then the above equation can be written as ( x , t) = (x) e
-2tiEt/h


Now, by differentiation twice w.r.t. x ,we get


And differentiation w.r.t. time gives


2 2
2 iEt/h
2 2
d
e
x dx
t
c
=
c
2 iEt/h
2 iE
e
t h
t
c t
| |
=
|
c
\ .
2 2
2 2
h ih
- V
8 m x 2 t
c c
+ =
t c t c
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For the same particle moving in three dimensional space, the equation
becomes


This is Schrdinger's time independent (steady state) wave equation for a
particle in three-dimensional space.

For a free particle V=0. therefore, the Schrdinger's equation for a free
particle is

This is the steady state or time-
independent form of Schrdinger
equation.

Note: Wave function is time
independent.-------- (x).
2 2
2 2
h d
- V E
8 m dx

+ =
t
2 2
2 2
d 8 m
(E V) 0
dx h
t
+ =
Schrdinger's time independent wave equation
Three dimensional space
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
8 m
(E V) 0
x y z h
c c c t
+ + + =
c c c
2
2
2
8 m
(E V) 0
h
t
V + =
2
2
2
8 m
E 0
h
t
V + =