Learn the Secrets of

Argumentative Speeches
Classic Rhetorical Devices in Today’s Speeches & Media

Listen like an Educated Citizen

Read Transcripts like an Expert
Write Speeches like a Professional

Notes for Students:

1. If there are ANY vocabulary words you don’t understand, OR if there are any
concepts/steps that you don’t know how to complete in this booklet, talk to
your teacher! 
2. Some of the rhetorical devices and figures of speech in this flipbook are in
literature too… they’re not just for speeches and nonfiction!
 Review Judging a Speech’s Quality
Any argument, including a speech, should have: Think about the speech that you are reading, writing, or
• An engaging introduction or “hook” listening to. When evaluating if it is “good” or if it is “done”, ask
• A clear thesis, message, or claim. yourself if it…
• Facts, examples, and reasons to prove or support the
claim (preferably from credible sources!)  Meets all of the criteria on the left of this page. Is it a
• A conclusion that summarizes and/or inspires the “complete” and professional argument?
audience. If you want the audience to act, such as voting  Sounds good out loud, and not just on paper. If it’s your
or buying, this moment is the “call to action”. speech, read it out loud to ensure that it flows well, that no
sentences are too long, and that everything will be smooth
for you as a reader.
In addition, the best speeches also…
• Consider the level of formality. How formal should your  Uses ethos, pathos, and logos.
word choices and speaking style be?  Ethos: the author’s credibility. Can we tell that this person
• Consider the audience. Is it a big or small group? Who is is an authority figure on this topic? Why should we listen
listening (supporters or critics)? How hard will you have to him/her?
to work to keep their attention?  Pathos: emotional appeals and/or stories. Can we relate
• Use the right tone and vocabulary. Can this audience to this person or speech? Is it engaging or emotional?
handle certain terminology? Do they expect you to seem  Logos: use of logic and reasoning. Does the speech appeal
mature, fun, respectful, apologetic, or other? to our minds and seem legitimate?
• Think about their genre. How long are speeches like this
supposed to be? What qualities should they have? NEXT STEP: On the blank flap above, write down what your gut
• Remember the media being used. Will this be online? reaction is to this speech so far. Is it “good”? What could be better?

The Basics

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 Parallelism Anaphora & Epistrophe
Parallelism is a broad category that includes many techniques, The left sidebar talked about repeating word PATTERNS. Now,
but in general, it’s all about repeating either exact words or here are two techniques that repeat EXACT words/phrases.
word patterns.
Anaphora is when a writer repeats specific words at the
For example, in grammar, parallel structure means that we BEGINNING of a sentence or phrase:
format a list’s items in the same way. Here’s an example of • “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We
parallel structure in which the verbs are all conjugated into shall fight in France, we shall fight on seas and oceans, we
the same tense: shall fight with growing confidence…” (Winston Churchill)
• Correct: We hiked, swam, and ran in the triathlon.
• Incorrect: We hiked, swim, and will run in the triathlon. Epistrophe is when a writer repeats specific words at the
END of a sentence or phrase:
Parallel structure has been used since ancient times by • “…and that government of the people, by the people, and
speechwriters, novelists, and other writers who wanted to for the people, shall not perish from the Earth” (Abraham
create a certain rhythm: Lincoln)
• Julius Caesar once said to the Roman Senate, “Veni, vidi,
vici.” = “We came, we saw, we conquered.” Some writers do BOTH! 
• “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was
Parallelism can also apply to repeated patterns in word order: the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…” (Charles
Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)
• Alexander Pope wrote, “To err is human; to forgive
• “There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem.
divine.”
There is no Northern problem. There is only an American
• (Notice how he used two infinitive verbs, “to err” and “to
problem” (Lyndon B. Johnson)
forgive”, as well as two adjectives, “human” and “divine”?)
• Neil Armstrong’s first words on the moon were, “That’s
one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”
• (Notice how he repeats some words (“one”), but mostly NEXT STEP: See if your speech already has any parallel structure,
just repeats a word pattern or a part of speech? “one anaphora, or epistrophe in it. If not, WRITE ONE that COULD be
[adjective] [noun] for [noun]”). added on the blank flap above.

Parallelism & Repetition

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 Antithesis Chiasmus
Synonym Alert! The word “antithesis” has different Chiasmus is somewhat similar to parallel structure, because
meanings in the world. Make sure you’re studying THIS it occurs when a writer repeats a pattern or concept IN
definition for antithesis, as used in the context of rhetoric. REVERSE WORD ORDER.

Antithesis is a rhetorical device in which two opposite Note: Antithesis was about true opposites; chiasmus is about
words or concepts are put together in a sentence to create reverse word order or patterns. They may look similar, but
contrast. they’re not the same!

It’s technically a form of parallel structure, because words This technique is sometimes used to show wit or sarcasm! 
and/or patterns tend to get repeated. You’ll sometimes see them in jingles, slogans, and song
lyrics, and not just in speeches.
Examples (repeated from this booklet). Can you see which
pairs are opposites? New Examples:
• Alexander Pope wrote, “To err is human; to forgive • “All for one, and one for all” (Alexander Dumas, The Three
divine.” Musketeers)
• “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was • “Do I love you because you’re beautiful, or are you
the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…” beautiful because I love you?” (Oscar Hammerstein,
(Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities) Cinderella)
• “Bad men live that they may eat or drink, whereas good
New Examples: men eat and drink that they may live” (Socrates)
• “We must learn to live together as brothers or perish • “With my mind on my money, and my money on my
together as fools” (Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.) mind” (Snoop Dogg)
• “We will extend a hand if you are willing to unclench • “Those who mind don’t matter, and those who matter
your fist” (Barack Obama) don’t mind” (Bernard Baruch)
• “To be, or not to be, that is the question” (Shakespeare,
Hamlet)
NEXT STEP: These two techniques don’t often happen naturally
Speechwriters often like to use antithesis to show a sense of
while writing; they usually require more planning. See if there are
before and after, present vs. future, or “us vs. them”. any in your speech; if not, write one of each (on the blank flap
Antithesis can be either very unifying or create serious above) that you could add to it!
division!

Antithesis & Chiasmus

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*Author’s side note: Yes, I know that technically, chiasmus and

antimetabole are different things, but in this page I’m using them
interchangeably. Feel free to edit this page if you prefer.
 Hypophora Spoken Rhythms
Hypophora is a really fun figure of speech in which a writer Have you ever listened to a really boring speech? Chances are,
raises a question and then immediately answers it. the delivery of that speech was equally or more to blame than
the content itself.
Side Note: A “hypothetical question” or a “rhetorical
question” is when a writer asks a question that does NOT Thus, while rhythm isn’t *exactly* a formal rhetorical device,
get answered. Hypophora is the opposite! all speechwriters DO have to make sure that their drafts sound
Why use hypophora? Well, it can… more like a speech than a boring essay! A rhythmically
• Make the audience feel like they’re in dialogue with the interesting speech will help keep the audience’s attention, so
speaker; it feels more interactive we want to avoid being too monotone or talking too much at
• Raise curiosity to hear the answer one plodding tempo/beat.
• Make the speaker seem smart, confident, and in control
(since they know the answer). That’s why so many There are a few ways that a speechwriter can make a draft
politicians and leaders use it! more rhythmically interesting:

Examples: Question & Answer • Cadence: the rising and falling of your voice’s pitches (also
• “But why, some say, the moon? Why choose this as our known as intonation).
goal? … We choose to go to the moon in this decade and
do the other things, not because they are easy, but • Speed & Volume: Try to vary these as much as possible!
because they are hard…” (John F. Kennedy)
• “You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It • Sentence Length: Try to switch up long & short sentences.
is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, (If you want to get fancy, you can match the sentence
victory, however long and hard the road may be” length to what you’re trying to accomplish… short
(Winston Churchill) sentences for bold statements, and longer sentences for
• “There are those who are asking the devotees of civil more flowery ones).
rights, ‘When will you be satisfied?’ We can never be
satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the • Sentence Structures: Just like sentence length, you can
unspeakable horrors of police brutality” (Dr. Martin very sentence types or syntax (word order):
Luther King, Jr.) • Simple: One independent clause
• “What does all this mean for farm workers? It means • Ex: “We’re here to put a dent in the universe.”
the right to vote in free elections is a sham… It means the • Compound: 2 independent clauses in one sentence
short life expectancy and the inhuman living and working • Ex: “Give me liberty, or give me death!”
conditions will continue” (Cesar Chavez). • Complex: One dependent clause and one independent
clause (doesn’t matter which is first).
NEXT STEP: On the blank flap above, make some observations
• Ex: “If we must die, we die defending our
about how rhythmically interesting this speech is (or isn’t). Make a
suggestion of what could be changed to make it better. rights.”

Hypophora & Cadence

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 Allusion Imagery
Allusion is a brief reference to an outside source, such as a One reason why allusion works so well is because it creates an
historical person, historical event, piece of literature, image in the reader’s mind… but there are many ways to
religious text, or cultural icon. create positive (or negative) pictures in an audience!

Allusion is used to… Imagery is literal and metaphorical language that creates an
• Make a connection with the listener/reader image in the reader or listener’s mind. As a reminder, imagery
• Create imagery in the audience’s head is usually associated with sensory detail: sight, smell, sound,
• Provoke emotions, including humor, anger, nostalgia, touch, and taste.
pride, or fear
• Add to the author’s ethos, such as to make him or her Why would a speech use imagery? It…
look smarter • Helps the listener imagine a better world/future
• Makes the listener feel disgust at the present, past, or
Have you heard any of these short, informal examples negative possible future
before? • Makes the listener imagine the product being sold
• “He’s such a Romeo.” • Keeps the listener’s attention, helps him/her understand,
• “It’s a total Garden of Eden.” and possibly aids memory
• “Hey Einstein, what’s the answer?”
• “Man, that dilemma is such a Catch-22.” Here are a few extended examples of spoken imagery. Can
• “The basketball player’s Achilles’ heel is his ego.” you identify sight, sound, touch, and more?
• “Don’t act like such a Scrooge!”
• “The shadows are lengthening for me. The twilight is here.
My days of old have vanished – tones and tints. They have
Formal examples:
gone glimmering through the dreams of things that were.
• “Olympus is but the outside of the earth everywhere”
Their memory is one of wondrous beauty, watered by
(Henry David Thoreau, Walden)
tears and coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday. I
• “Five score years ago, a Great American, in whose
listen, then, but with thirsty ear, for the witching melody of
symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the
faint bugles blowing reveille, of far drums beating the long
Emancipation Proclamation” (Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.)
roll” (General Douglas MacArthur)
• “And I can pledge our nation to a goal: When we see that
wounded traveler on the road to Jericho, we will not • “Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley
pass to the other side” (George W. Bush) of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is
• “Stay gold, Ponyboy” (SE Hinton, The Outsiders) the time to open the doors of opportunity to all God’s
• “Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’s Plutonian children. Now is the time to lift our nation from the
shore!” (Edgar Allen Poe, “The Raven”) quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of
• “Mr. President, it is natural to man to indulge in the brotherhood” (Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.)
illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a
painful truth, and listen to the song of that siren till she NEXT STEP: Try to identify moments of allusion and imagery in your
transforms us into beasts” (Patrick Henry) speech. How do they aid in the reader’s attention, visualizing, or comfort
zones? If it doesn’t have any, how could it be better by adding some?
(Answer one of those two questions on the flap above.)

Allusion & Imagery

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 Metaphor & Simile Example
Here’s the easy part, which might be review for you: Here’s a longer example. Can you identify all the ways that
• Figurative language is when words are used to convey the extended metaphor appears or is used? Highlight every
non-literal meanings. (Similes and metaphors are two instance that you see.
types of figurative language.)
• Similes are comparisons using “like” or “as” “In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a
• Metaphors are comparisons without “like” or “as”.
check. When the architects of our republic wrote the
Here are a few quick examples: magnificent words of the Constitution and
• Simile: “A Republic whose history, like the path of the
just, is as the shining light that shineth more and more the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a
unto the perfect day” (William Jennings Bryan) promissory note to which every American was to fall
• Metaphor: “But there are many mountains left to climb.
We will not rest until every American enjoys the fullness heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black
of freedom, dignity, and opportunity as our birthright” men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the
(Ronald Reagan).
‘unalienable Rights’ of ‘Life, Liberty and the pursuit of

Extended Metaphors Happiness.’ It is obvious today that America has

defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens
An extended metaphor is a comparison that lasts across
several sentences. It might last in less than one paragraph, or of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred
for several of them. obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad

Extended metaphors enjoy the “perks” of other figurative check, a check which has come back marked ‘insufficient
language, and then some: funds’”(Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., “I Have a Dream”
• Creates an image in the listener’s mind
• Helps the audience remember the point, since an idea is speech).
repeated or built up over time
• Can make a complex concept easier to understand Notice that this extended metaphor…
• Stretches across five sentences
Here are a few examples from speeches and other genres: • Uses a lot of synonyms; it’s not redundant
• “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women • Isn’t random; it helps illustrate a larger point about what
merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; America “owed” black Americans
And one man in his time plays many parts” (Shakespeare, • (Also has allusion, by the way!)
As You Like It)
• “But soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is
the East, and Juliet is the sun!” (Shakespeare, Romeo and
NEXT STEP: Extended metaphors take more effort to identify (while
Juliet) reading) or to draft (while writing).
• “America has tossed its cap over the great wall of space!” • First, see if your speech already has one.
(John F. Kennedy) • If not, the next step is to see if there are any similes or
• “This… decree came as a great beacon light of hope to metaphors that you could turn INTO one by making it longer.
millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the • Don’t already see one? Write an extended metaphor on the
flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak blank flap above that COULD go in this speech.
to end the long night of their captivity” (Dr. King)

Extended Metaphors

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 Propaganda Techniques
Propaganda techniques are improper appeals to emotion Other techniques are mildly inappropriate or situational…
used for the purpose of swaying the opinions of an audience; • Bandwagon: Using peer pressure to make you want to join
they also include misuse of facts, such as leaving something in what a larger group is doing
out or being vague. They can be tame and meant to persuade, • Example: (When a deodorant company tells you to
or they can be manipulative in an unfair way. “smell like a man”…)

(By the way, all the examples given on this flap are from REAL • Card-stacking: Only “piling on” or stacking the good reasons
speeches or commercials. I didn’t include the names to and ignoring the negative facts (or vice versa!)
protect the speakers’ identities.) • Example: (When a commercial to join the military
advertises travel and learning opportunities, and
Some of these techniques aren’t THAT bad… doesn’t mention length of commitment or danger!)
• Beautiful people: showing celebs or beautiful people to
make you want to be like them • Glittering generalities: Vaguely talking about something in
• Example: (When car commercials show seemingly a positive light without getting specific with details.
rich, attractive people driving luxury cars) • Example: When politicians say “Yes we can!”

• Common man: The opposite of beautiful people; appealing • Overpromising: Promising more to the audience than you
to the normal person who is “just like you” can actually guarantee
• Example: (When commercials for medicine show a • Example: “If I am elected, everybody will have a
normal, everyday person in pain who needs help) job, I guarantee it.”

• Flag-waving: Using patriotism to one’s advantage • Oversimplification: Making something seem more simple
• Example: (When commercials wave an American than it actually is, ignoring its complexity or full truth
flag or do patriotic things that are off-topic) • Example: “To blame the current situation on any
single policy platform, administration, or military
• Loaded words: Purposely using the right synonym to evoke operation is a comically absurd oversimplification.”
the most (positive or negative) emotion possible
• Quotes out of context: Only giving some of the quote, fact,
• Example: “Built Ford Tough” sounds manly or
or story instead of the whole thing
durable and may appeal to those who drive trucks
• Example: A movie review originally said, “The
action in this fast-paced, hysterically overproduced
• Nostalgia: Making us yearn for the past or “good old days”,
and surprisingly entertaining film is as realistic as a
such as returning to past ways
Road Runner cartoon.” But the quote was cut down
• Example: (An ad features old-time football players
to “Hysterically… entertaining.”
creating the first half-time; some cute girls show
up with sodas)
Some techniques are downright bad…
• Ad hominem attacks: personal attacks and/or name-calling
• Testimonials: When a celebrity OR normal person endorses
instead of attacking the argument itself, which is usually
an action/product (to add to its credibility)
unprofessional and may “cross a line”
• Example: (When Michael Jordan appears on a
• Example: “He’s not a great athlete. He’s a fraud, a
Hanes commercial, or when a “real user” tells how
cheat, and a liar.”
a product changed his/her life)
• Fear tactics: Purposely scaring the audience into doing or
NEXT STEP: First, check to see if your speech uses any propaganda avoiding something. (Fear tactics often use hyperbole or
techniques. If so, ask yourself if you can remove it OR if it needs other propaganda too, which is why they’re not okay.)
revision; make sure it doesn’t cross a line! On the blank flap above, • Example: “The worst thing we could do is go back
write an example of a propaganda technique in your speech, OR to the very same policies that created this mess in
write one that you’ve seen in your lifetime. the first place… be afraid of the future…”

Use with Caution: Propaganda

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 Logical Fallacies
Fallacies are similar to, but more serious than, propaganda • Faulty comparison: Comparing two things that are too
techniques. Fallacies are flaws in logic or reasoning. different to make it a fair comparison, OR making a
(Propaganda is more about misuse of emotion or facts.) comparison that is illogical. (This can overlap with name-
calling in some circumstances.)
Although fallacies get used all the time, they’re rarely • Example: Arguing that broccoli has less fat than a
considered acceptable. If you can successfully call someone chocolate bar is not only obvious, but it’s a bit
out on using one, then it weakens their argument! unfair because they’re completely different foods.
• Example: It’s not okay to call someone “like Hitler”
Here are some of the most common, serious fallacies to who really isn’t!
watch out for when you read, write, and listen:
• Guilt by association: Saying that one person or thing is
guilty just because something/someone else is guilty. (This
• Begging the question: The argument is based on a flawed can overlap with stereotyping.)
assumption, or uses a premise to support itself (which • Example: Saying that someone is a criminal just
makes zero sense). because their brother is.
• Example: “Freedom of speech is important
because we should be allowed to talk freely.” • Hasty generalization: Making a decision, assumption, or
sweeping generalization too soon, based on a stereotype
• Confirmation bias: Selectively reading, hearing or or insufficient evidence.
noticing ONLY the things that support your existing • Example: Based on this one bad cookie, all the
opinion (ignoring evidence for the other side). other types of cookies made by that company are
• Example: Reading a study and only picking up on also bad.
the facts that help your side, even though the
article is mostly against your side. • Red herring: Distracting an opponent/audience with facts
or ideas that are off-topic or not accurate; this can include
• Correlation vs. Causation (a.k.a. Post hoc fallacy): Saying using a distracting appeal to pity or a misleading fear tactic
that one thing causes the other when it actually doesn’t; to distract from the real topic.
maybe they’re only somewhat related. • Example: If two candidates are discussing the
• Example: Saying that “smoking causes cancer” economy in a debate, and one candidate derails
can be true, but technically it isn’t always true. the topic on purpose to avoid answering it.
They are correlated, and smoking CAN cause
cancer, but it’s not a perfect causation • Slippery slope: Claiming that one action step will quickly
relationship 100% of the time. escalate to much more significant ones, even if there’s no
evidence that it’ll actually happen.
• Extrapolation: Making huge predictions about the future • Example: Claiming that allowing refugees into a
based on insufficient evidence/data. This is a type of country will escalate into them taking over the
exaggeration or hyperbole. country (when that’s not true).
• Example: Arguing that the economy is “going” to
fall apart if a certain candidate is elected, if we • Tu Quoque (“You too”): Arguing that someone’s argument
really can’t prove it. is invalid because they don’t follow their own advice, or
they don’t meet their own criteria.
• False Dichotomy (a.k.a. Either/Or fallacy): Someone • Example: Since my gym teacher weighs 500
oversimplifies and presents an issue as only having two pounds, I don’t have to listen to his advice to get
options, when there really might be more; this is often 30 minutes of exercise daily.
used to scare someone into making a decision. This
strategy ignores all forms of compromise or other
alternatives. NEXT STEP: On the blank flap above, tell me if there are any
• Example: Arguing that there are only two fallacies in the speech right now. If there ARE, then tell me how
candidates to vote for, when there may be third- they could be fixed, removed, or revised; if there are NOT, then
party candidates or other options. write a fake example of one that COULD have gone in this speech.

Off-Limits: Logical Fallacies

 Glossary Self-Assessment
Here’s some of the big vocabulary words or phrases
from this booklet, in order of appearance. Can you 1. What are the top five things you have learned from this
define all of these? booklet?

1. Rhetoric

2. Rhetorical Devices

3. Ethos

4. Pathos
2. How have you grown or changed as a speechwriter (or
5. Logos maybe even ?

6. Call to action

7. Parallelism

8. Parallel structure

9. Anaphora

10. Epistrophe 3. What changes have you made to your writing since the first
draft? (How has the quality of your speech improved?)
11. Antithesis

12. Chiasmus

13. Hypothetical question

14. Hypophora

15. Cadence 4. Is there anything that you still don’t understand, OR that you
need help with in your writing?
16. Allusion

17. Imagery

18. Sensory detail

19. Figurative language

20. Simile
5. Is there anything else you want me to know about you, this
experience, or your current draft of writing?
21. Metaphor

22. Extended metaphor

23. Propaganda

24. Logical Fallacies

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