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Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification Technologies

Chapter · January 2022

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-94774-3_27

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Lecture Notes in Intelligent Transportation and Infrastructure
Series Editor: Janusz Kacprzyk

Olegas Prentkovskis
Irina Yatskiv (Jackiva)
Paulius Skačkauskas
Raimundas Junevičius
Pavlo Maruschak Editors

TRANSBALTICA
XII: Transportation
Science and
Technology
Proceedings of the 12th International
Conference TRANSBALTICA,
September 16−17, 2021,
Vilnius, Lithuania
 Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification
Technologies

Vigailė Semaškaitė(&) and Marijonas Bogdevičius

Department of Mobile Machinery and Rail Transport, Vilnius Gediminas

Technical University, Plytinės St. 27, 10105 Vilnius, Lithuania
{vigaile.semaskaite,
marijonas.bogdevicius}@vilniustech.lt

Abstract. Environment restrictions of global energy market lead to consider

new energy resources. The important aspect is oil, coal transformation to others
sources which could be changed by growth of natural gas market. Natural gas is
getting as an alternative for changing oil and coal. Looking for better eco-
nomical perspective, natural gas could be used as LNG, which contains a huge
amount of cold energy. Conventionally, this energy is generated during
regasification process of LNG and released as wasted energy into atmosphere or
dump into seawater. In this paper, reviewed the comparative analysis of LNG
regasification technology indicated, that possibility to recover LNG cold energy
is the better solution with intermediate fluid vaporizer, which uses special
cryogenic fluid. The second part of this paper, the 3‐D numerical model for
counter-flow of a single channel in the intermediate fluid vaporizer (Printed
Circuit Heat Exchanger) is introduced with governing equations for mass,
momentum and energy conservation.

Keywords: Liquefied natural gas vaporizers
Liquefied natural gas cold

energy
Printed circuit heat exchanger
Governing equations
Fluid flow in tube

1 Introduction

Natural gas is getting as an alternative for changing oil and coal market until 2040 year.
The growth of natural gas market influences extraction of natural gas from conven-
tional and from unconventional supplies which accounts approximately (NG) supply
form conventional reserves about 185.7 trillion m3 and NG supply from non-
conventional source (shale gas, tight gas, coal bed methane, aquifer gas, methane
hydrates) about 845 trillion m3 [1]. Commonly, natural gas is transferring by pipelines
systems, which causes many restrictions especially in those places where are not
convenient for construction. As better solution realization of NG is liquefied natural
gas, which is 600-times less volume comparing with natural gas and could be stored
underground, on the ground or by storage facility in the sea or open area [2]. Fur-
thermore, LNG is cleaner product than natural gas doe to its extra purification that is
performed during liquefaction. The liquefaction is thermodynamic process when nat-
ural gas is liquefied under boiling point (−162 °C) at atmospheric pressure. During this
process, the energy is used to liquefy the natural gas and it is estimated more than

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

O. Prentkovskis et al. (Eds.): TRANSBALTICA 2021, LNITI, pp. 270–280, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94774-3_27
 Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification Technologies 271

830 kJ/kg [3]. Looking for better economical perspective, this energy could be reused
during regasification process and reduce the production of LNG. Conventional LNG
regasification systems release wasted energy into atmosphere or dump into seawater,
which not only consumes power to drive pumps or blowers but also exerts influence on
the environment and ecosystem nearby the LNG receiving terminal [4].
In this research work analyses LNG regasification technologies, which have main
impact on LNG cold energy generation process. The object was selected LNG Floating
Storage Regasification Unit (FSRU). The comparative analysis of LNG vaporizers was
done to compare possibility to change regasification technology in LNG FSRU. The
second part of research concerns on LNG heat exchanger analysis.

2 Review of LNG Regasification Technologies

2.1 Literature Review

The regasification technology consists of special heat exchangers, that the main work is
circulation of special fluid, water or air in tubes, pipes, etc. and heating of LNG under
gaseous state. The typical heat exchanger is characterized as vaporizer in LNG
regasification process. Construction of vaporizer could be several types: ORV (Open
Rack vaporizer), AAV (Ambient Air vaporizer), IFV (Intermediate Fluid vaporizer),
STV (Shell Tube vaporizer), SCV (Submerged Combustion vaporizer) [5–7] (see
Fig. 1). According to statistics of LNG receiving terminals, 70% use ORV&Super-
ORV, 2% use SCV, 5% use IFV [8].

Fig. 1. LNG vaporizers: a – Ambient Air Vaporizer [6]; b – Open Rack Vaporizer [15]; c –
Intermediate Fluid Vaporizer [17]; d – Submerged Gas Vaporizer [18].
272 V. Semaškaitė and M. Bogdevičius

Ambient Air Vaporizer. (AAV) is suitable in those places with warmer ambient
temperatures and it is mainly used in peak shaving plants [8, 9]. The main heat source
of AAV is the energy, which is extracted from the ambient air. The heat is absorbed
directly from the surrounding air to heat the LNG by natural convection [9]. A typical
AAV design configuration consists of long parallel or in serial fin tubes, that could
allow air to exchange heat over a large area [6, 10]. Principle of vaporization process
starts when LNG is vaporized directly with air passing through a number of inter-
connected tubes and then the air condenses and freezes forming frost. Looking for
technical aspect, the frost is poor conductor and its generation reduces heat transfer
coefficient which indicates effectiveness of vaporizer. Also, the AVV is commonly
installed sections of vaporizers to prevent ambient air recirculation and to increase
vaporization capacity [6, 9]. The vaporization efficiency of AAV depends on the heat
transfer performance of AAV finned tube bundle, which greatly affects the stable and
effective operation of LNG gas station [11]. The vaporization of AVV depends on frost
growth and the deposition on the vaporizer wall because it causes limitation of working
conditions [12]. So, some researchers are intensively working on frost formation
solving this technical problem.
Open Rack Vaporizer. (ORV) is a type of commercial heat exchanger widely used in
large regasification plants for base load Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) receiving ter-
minals. The mechanism of vaporizer is heat transfer tubes in which LNG flows from
the bottom to the top inside the tube and other direction is seawater flow, which starts
from the top to the bottom outside the tube [13]. The water spray equipment is installed
on the top of vaporizer, which facilitates forming a uniform liquid falling film along the
tube outside the heat transfer tubes [14]. The LNG is circulated in tubes and extracted
heat transferred from seawater. The type of tubes is selected in this vaporizer with ribs,
which is important for heat transfer area. The main challenge of this vaporizer is the
heat transfer characteristics of the supercritical fluid flow inside the ribs tubes, which
are different from that of a smooth tube [13]. The improved type of vaporizer is
SuperORV, which also uses the sensible heat of seawater, but has different configu-
ration of the heat transfer tube comparing with ORV. This new type SuperORV is
characterized by its heat transfer tubes with double tube structure at the lower part [15].
Intermediate Fluid Vaporizer. (IFV) is a shell-and-tube vaporizer, which uses an
intermediate fluid and it circulates by the gravitational force in the system. Before start
work, intermediate fluid is evaporated by a heating source in the evaporator, then it is
sent to transfer heat to LNG. After LNG heating, the intermediate fluid is cooled and
condensed. A typical IFV is composed of a condenser, an evaporator and a thermolator,
similar to a combination of three shell-and-tube heat exchangers [8, 16]. The heat
transfer process of intermediate fluid occurs on the shell-side in which transfer heat to
LNG inside the tube [8]. Looking for technical aspect, the intermediate fluid selection
has to be considered according these criteria: a sufficient latent heat, environmental
regulations such as ozone depletion potential (ODP) and global warming potentials
(GWP) [17]. As well, the indirect heat transfers between the seawater and LNG allow
to avoid the seawater freezing and improves heat transfer coefficient and operation
reliability.
 Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification Technologies 273

Submerged Combustion Vaporizer. (SCV) This type of vaporizer is used in peak

shave terminals. The SCV structure is a water tank, a submerged burner, a flue gas
distributor, a chimney, a serpentine tube bundle, and a cofferdam. The mechanism of
this vaporizer mixture of natural gas and air is burned by the gas burner and after
combustion through the sparge distributor at the bottom to generate an immersed jet to
heat the water bath directly [18]. Then, LNG regasification process starts in the ser-
pentine tube bundle, which function is to absorb heat from the turbulent water bath
After LNG vaporization, steam from the combustion products condensates into liquid
water and releases a lot of latent heat [8]. Even the sensible and the latent heat contents
of the flue gas are recovered in the water, the overall thermal efficiency is enough high
[19]. Based on many studies, the main challenge of this vaporizer remains huge thermal
resistance of the ice layer, which causes the thermal behavior and has effect of
regasification efficiency [18].
After LNG vaporization, steam from the combustion products condensates into
liquid water and releases a lot of latent heat [8]. Even the sensible and the latent heat
contents of the flue gas are recovered in the water, the overall thermal efficiency is
enough high [19]. Based on many studies, the main challenge of this vaporizer remains
huge thermal resistance of the ice layer, which causes the thermal behavior and has
effect of regasification efficiency [18].

2.2 Comparative Analysis of LNG Vaporizers

The production of natural gas in regasification terminals depends on technology for
regasification equipment. The following Table 1 shows the detailed analysis of LNG
vaporizers, which was performed to verify 6 different criteria.

Table 1. Comparative analysis of LNG vaporizers.

Type Environmental Construction Technological Maintenance Operation Capture of
friendly cost simplicity cost LNG cold
technology energy
AVV Low Low Simple Low Low No
operation
ORV Medium High Simple High High Possible
operation
IFV Medium High Complex High Low Yes
technology
SCV High Low Need to High High Possible
observe

The Table 1 indicated, that the most suitable for small scale LNG plants is AAV
with compact structure and low operating cost. Though, it is limited for large scale
LNG terminals doe to the low efficiency. In those places, where are inland areas and no
area for seawater or river water enough, the option is SCV vaporizer with large
274 V. Semaškaitė and M. Bogdevičius

evaporation capacity. Also, the advantage of SCV that, unlike with ORV, AVV, IFV, it
has fast start-up with high heat transfer efficiency. One of the key issues for SCV is
high operating costs, which leads to consider about selection of ORV and IFV. In
addition, ORV is mainly used in LNG terminals doe to low running cost, convenient
maintenance and operation. However, the maintenance and operation cost of ORV is
high and specific requirements for seawater. The main advantage of IFV, is possibility
to utilize LNG cold energy for many cryogenic processes such as power generation,
warehouse cooling, air separation, water desalination, carbon dioxide capturing and etc.
For this reason, the many investigations were done, to adopt intermediated fluid
between LNG and heat source to transfer heat and utilize LNG cold energy as a new
product.
After introducing the LNG vaporizers, the theoretical research of LNG regasifi-
cation process using IFV type is presented in the following sections.

3 Research Object

The main objective of this research work was concerned on Floating Storage and
Regasification Unit. At present, FSRU is commercial type facility, which could rega-
sify LNG to NG, storage LNG and reload LNG to another carrier. However, it is
complicated system with variety of heat transfer mechanism, and the actual demand of
improving efficiency and compactness [20]. The main heat exchange process starts in
PCHE (Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger), where LNG extracts heat from transferred
propane. Also, PCHE is characterized as intermediate fluid vaporizer type. The greatest
advantage of this a new type of micro-channel heat exchanger is the compactness as
main cryogenic heat exchanger on LNG carriers and LNG floating terminals for high
efficiency [18, 20].
In the PCHE, LNG is heated from −155/−135 °C to −10 °C. Passages are between
1–2 mm. The PCHE is manufactured by SLS technology using SS316 stainless steel
and constructed of stack of diffusion-bounded flat plates with flow channels. According
to technical sheets, the core dimension of test PCHE is 646 * 552 * 1520 (L * H *
W). At the start of a process propane enters as a saturated vapor to PCHE and after
regasification it condenses as a liquid −20 °C. Meanwhile, the cross-flow heat
exchange with the propane gas makes propane condense on the propane side as LNG is
evaporated on the LNG side.
To conclude the previous sections above, the main issue of regasification process is
described LNG cold energy waste. As solution could be adopted PCHE technology
with LNG cold energy capture integration. To understand better cryogenics heat
transfer mechanism and evaporation process in PCHE, the detailed theoretical approach
is performed in following section.
 Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification Technologies 275

4 Theoretical Approach of LNG Printed Circuit Heat

Exchanger

Many studies have been done to analyze the evaporation and condensation processes
for volatile liquids. Though, there many challenges for LNG regasification process as
cryogenic conditions, determination of liquid and gaseous state which need to
investigate.
Increasing regasification efficiency, it is important to observe heat transfer process,
which depends on many variables such as pressure (p), temperature (T), mass flow (Q),
volume fraction changes (a). In addition, the most equations are based on heat and
mass transfer process. As solution, in this research, 3‐D numerical model for counter-
flow of a single channel in the PCHE is introduced with governing equations for mass,
momentum and energy conservation for the entire computational domain. The gov-
erning equations indicate the alteration of surface area to volume ratio, that signifi-
cantly impacts the heat transfer characteristics and internal flow dynamics of the system
[21].
Momentum Equation. The flow pattern is described by momentum equation, which
indicates how different forces influence fluid flow. The momentum equation consists of
momentum source term (qg) presenting gravity and (Fr) presenting surface tension
[18, 22–24].

   
@ q! v
!!  2
! !  lrv þ q!
T
þ r q v v ¼ rp þ r l r v þ r v g þ Fr ; ð1Þ
@t 3

where Fr – surface tension force (N
m−3); ~ v – velocity vector shared by two phases
ðm
s1 Þ; q  density ðkg
m3 Þ (Tube density); l – dynamic viscosity ðPa
sÞ; ~
g–
2
gravitational vector ðm
s Þ; p  pressure ðPaÞ; r  del operator.
Calculation of Density and Dynamic Viscosity. Mass and volume-averaged cell
properties (q, l) are used in a control volume containing more than one phases, are
estimated [21]:


q ¼ aq qq þ 1  aq qp ; ð2Þ

where q – density (kg
m−3); aq – volume fraction of qth phase (−); qq – density of qth
phase (kg
m−3); qp – density of pth phase (kg
m−3).


l ¼ aq lq þ 1  aq lp ; ð3Þ

where l – dynamic viscosity (Pa
s); aq – volume fraction of qth phase (−); lq –
kinematic viscosity of qth phase (Pa
s); lp – dynamic viscosity of pth phase (Pa
s).
According to [18, 24] research, the volume of fluid model is the most suitable model
for regasification process. Firstly, this model is used to separate the liquid and gas
phases. The development of model was done by creating the propane condensation
process in program Fluent [18, 21]. For this aspect, this model could be provided in
276 V. Semaškaitė and M. Bogdevičius

PCHE to verify liquid and gas volume at the same time. Using continuity equation, the
LNG mass transfer rate (Sm) could be predicted as shown Eq. (4), (5), (6).

Continuity Equation

@

ð a v q v Þ þ r av q v !
vv ¼ Sm ; ð4Þ
@t
@

ðal ql Þ þ r al ql !
vl ¼ Sm ; ð5Þ
@t
av þ al ¼ 1; ð6Þ

where a – volume fraction (−); q – density ðkg
m3 Þ; t – time (s); Sm – the mass term
source (kg
m−3
s−1); r – del operator (−).
The mass source term is verified the rate of mass transfer due to evaporation and
condensation, as follows [18]:

_ lv  m
Sm ¼ m _ vl ; ð7Þ

where m_ vl – mass transfer doe to condensation (kg
m−3
s−1); m_ lv – mass transfer doe
to vaporization (kg
m−3
s−1).
The evaporation (vaporization) starts, when liquid temperature is higher than the
saturation temperature Tl [ Tsat: . The rate of evaporation mass transfer is calculated by
formula [18, 22]:

ðTl  Tsat: Þ
m_ lv ¼ coeff  al ql ; ð8Þ
Tsat:

where m_ lv – mass transfer doe to vaporization (kg
(m3
s)−1); coeff – configurable
mass transfer parameter (s−1); al – liquid volume fraction (−); Tl – liquid temperature
(K); Tsat. – saturation temperature (K); ql – liquid density ðkg
m3 Þ.
Condensation process starts, when vapor temperature is lower than saturation
temperature Tv \Tsat: . The rate of condensation mass transfer is calculated by:

ðTsat:  Tv Þ
m_ vl ¼ coeff  av qv ; ð9Þ
Tsat:

where m _ vl – mass transfer doe to condensation (kg/(m3/s)−1); coeff – configurable mass

transfer parameter (s−1); av – vapor volume fraction (−); Tv – vapor temperature (K);
Tsat. – saturation temperature (K); qv – vapor density ðkg
m3 Þ.
Energy Equation. The energy source term (Q) presenting the latent heat transfer is
added to reflect the heat transfer of phase transition) [22–24]:
 Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification Technologies 277

@ ðqE Þ
þ r½~
vðqE þ pÞ ¼ rðkrTÞ þ Q; ð10Þ
@t
where Q – latent heat source term; k – heat conductivity coefficient (W/(m
K)); T –
temperature (K); q – density ðkg
m3 Þ; ~ v – velocity vector shared by two phases
ðm
s1 Þ; E – Energy (J).
Above introduced Eqs. (1), (4–5), (10) present the Navier–Stokes equations, which
are a set of partial differential equations and describe the motion of viscous fluid
substances. The disadvantage of this method is the large number of equations, long
solution time. Meanwhile, the equations could be solved using the method of the
concentrated parameters to obtain a system of simple nonlinear differential equations.
Medium (LNG flow in channel) is divided into the separated control volumes and the
variable such as temperature could be determined in every moment in different control
volume using Runge-Kutt method.
Heat Balance of Control Volume for Two Fluids and One Solid Plate. The main
temperatures changes are described in below Eqs. (11–13), which indicate LNG flow
during regasification process in channel, when the propane transfers the heat on PCHE
plate.
For the hot-side fluid (propane):

dTh

mh Cp;h þ m_ h Cp;h Tout
h  Th ¼ ðhAÞh ðTP  Th Þ;
in
ð11Þ
dt
where mh – mass of propane (kg); Cp;h – specific heat of propane (J
(kg
K)−1); Th –
temperature of propane (K); m_ h – mass flowrate of propane kg
(s)−1; Thout – tem-
perature of propane outlet (K); Thin – temperature of propane inlet (K); hh – heat transfer
coefficient of propane (W
(m2
K)−1); TP – temperature of plate (K); Ah – heat
transfer area (m2).
For the cold-side fluid (LNG):

dTc

mc Cp;c þ m_ c Cp;c Tout
c  Tc ¼ ðhAÞc ðTP  Tc Þ;
in
ð12Þ
dt
where mc – mass of LNG (kg); Cp;c – specific heat of LNG (J
(kg
K)−1); Tc –
_ c – mass flow rate of LNG kg
(s)−1; Tout
temperature of LNG (K); m c – temperature of
LNG outlet (K); Tc – temperature of LNG inlet (K); hc – heat transfer coefficient of
in

LNG (W
(m2
K)−1); TP – temperature of plate (K); Ac – heat transfer area (m2).
For the solid plate:

dTP
mP Cp;P ¼ ðhAÞh ðTh  TP Þ  ðhAÞc ðTP  Tc Þ; ð13Þ
dt
where mp – mass of plate (kg); cp;P – specific heat of plate (J
(kg
K)−1); TP –
temperature of plate (K); TP – temperature of plate (K); Th – temperature of propane
(K); Tc – temperature of LNG (K); Ac – heat transfer area of LNG (m2); Ah – heat
transfer area of propane (m2).
278 V. Semaškaitė and M. Bogdevičius

The most difficult part, is to determine LNG temperature, density, pressure in

different time during regasification process doe to the cryogenic conditions. From the
literature review, pressure, density and temperature for vapor phase could be deter-
mined according Peng-Robinson equation state [2, 25]:

RT a
aci
p¼  ; ð14Þ
ðv  bÞ vðv þ bÞ þ bðv  bÞ

where p – pressure (Pa); v – molar volume (m3
mol−1); R – gas constant

(8,314 J ∙ (mol ∙ K)−1); T – absolute temperature (K); a, b, aci – effective parameters
(−).
For cryogenic liquid phase, the specific molar calculation is made according to
standard ISO 6976:1995 and Klosek-McKinley method [25].
LNG Density calculation is expressed by following equitation:

Mmix
qLNG ¼ ; ð15Þ
Vmix

where qLNG – density of LNG (kg
m−3) by reference temperature, Mmix – molecular
mass of mixture (kg
kmol−1), Vmix – molar volume of mixture (m3
kmol−1).
Molecular mass of mixture is expressed by following equitation:
X
Mmix ¼ Mi
xi ; ð16Þ

where Mmix – molecular mass of mixture (kg
kmol−1), xi – molar fraction of con-
stituent i.
X   
xN2
Vmix ¼ M i
V i  K 1 þ ðK 2  K 1 Þ

xCH4 ; ð17Þ
0; 0425

where Vmix – molar volume of constituent i at the temperature of LNG (m3), Vi – molar
volume of constituent i at the temperature of LNG (m3), xi – molar fraction of con-
stituent i (mol), K1 , K2 – volume correction factors (−); 0.0425 – this number is
accepted for industry, that the nitrogen or butane content may not exceed 4% (−).

5 Conclusions

The comparative analysis was performed to verify possibility to change regasification

technology in LNG FSRU. The results show, that the intermediate fluid vaporizer is the
better option comparing with other types vaporizers. The main advantage of IFV, is
possibility to utilize LNG cold energy for many cryogenic processes such as power
generation, warehouse cooling, air separation, water desalination, carbon dioxide
capturing and etc.
 Liquefied Natural Gas Regasification Technologies 279

The main issue of regasification process is described LNG cold energy waste. As
solution is investigated an adopted PCHE technology with LNG cold energy capture
integration.
The evaporation and condensation process is analyzed in PCHE using the volume
of fluid model. The model is focused on governing equations for mass, momentum and
energy conservation. These equations are differential equation with partial derivatives.
Conventionally, the equations could be solved using the method of the concentrated
parameters to obtain a system of simple nonlinear differential equations (Runge-Kutta
method).

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