CHAPTER-I

I
Economi
csofGener
ati
onandEconomi
c
LoadDi
spatch

Cont
actHour
s-6
Variabl eLoadonPowerSt ati
on
Thel oadonapowerst ati
onvar i
esfromt imetotimeduet ouncertai
ndemands
oft heconsumer sandisknownasvar i
ableloadont hest ati
on.
Apowerst ati
onisdesi
gnedt omeett heloadrequi
rement soft heconsumers.An
i
deall oadont hestati
on,from standpointofequipmentneededandoper ati
ng
routine,woul dbeoneofconst antmagnit
udeandst eadydur at
ion.However,such
ast eadyl oadont hestati
onisn everreali
sedinactualpr acti
ce.Theconsumer s
requiret heirsmallorlargeblockofpoweri naccor dancewi tht hedemandsof
thei
ract iviti
es.Thust heloaddemandofone consumeratany t i
memay be
diff
er entf romthatoft heotherconsumer.Theresul ti
st hatloadont hepower
stationvar i
esfromtimet oti
me.

Effectsofvar i
ablel oad
The var i
ablel oad on a powers t
at i
on i ntr
oduces many per plexiti
es i ni t s
operation.Someoft hei mpor tantef f ect sofvar iableloadonapowerst ation
are:
(i
) Need of addi ti
onalequi pment .The var i
ablel oad on a power st ation
necessi tatest ohaveaddi tion alequi pment .Bywayofi ll
ust r
at i
on,consi dera
steampowerst at i
on.Ai r,coalandwat erar et her awmat eri
alsf ort hisplan t.
Inor dert o producevar iabl epower ,t hesuppl y oft hesemat er i
alswi l
lbe
requi redt obevar i
edcor res pondi ngly.Fori nstance,ift hepowerdemandon
thepl antincreases,i tmustbef ollowedbyt hei ncreasedf low ofcoal ,ai r
andwat ert ot heboi l
eri nor dert omeett hei ncreaseddemand.Ther efor e,
addi tionalequipmenthast obei nst all
edt oaccompl i
sht hisjob.Asamat ter
off act,inamoder npowerpl ant,ther eismuchequi pmentdevot ed ent i
rely
toadj ustther atesofsuppl yofr awmat erialsin accor dancewi ththepower
demandmadeont hepl ant .
(i
i)I
ncreasei nproduct ioncost .Thevar iableloadont hepl antincr easest he
costoft he
product ion of el ect r
icalener gy.An al ternator oper ates at maxi mum
effi
ciencyneari tsr at edcapaci t y.Ifasi nglealt er
nat orisused,i twi l
lhavepoor
effi
ciencydur i
ngper iodsof l ight l oads on t he plant.Ther efore,i n act ual
practi
ce,anumberfal ternatorsof di fferentcapaci ti
esar ei nstalledsot hat
mostoft healternator scanbeoper atedat near l
yf ulll
oadcapaci t y.However ,
theuseofanumberofgener at inguni tsi ncreases t he
i
nitialcostperk W oft hepl an tcapaci tyaswel lasf loorar ear equired.Thi s
l
eadst ot he
i
ncr easei npr oduct ioncostofener gy.

Import
anceFact ors
Thedai l
yloadcur veshaveattainedagreati
mpor
tancei
ngener
ati
onast
hey
suppl
yt hefol
lowinginf
ormat
ionreadil
y:
(i
)Thedai l
yl oadcur veshowst hevar i
ati
onsofl oadont hepowerst ati
on
duri
ngdiff
erenthoursoft heday.
(i
i
)Thear eaundert hedai l
yl oadcurvegi vesthenumberofuni tsgener
ated
i
nt heday.
Unit
sgener at
ed/day=Ar ea(i
nk Wh)underdai
lyloadcurve.
(i
i
i)The highestpoi nton t he dailyload curve repr
esentst he maximum
demandont hest at
ionont hatday.
(i
v)Thear eaundert hedail
yl oadcurvedi vi
dedbyt hetotalnumberofhours
gi
vest heaverageloadont hestationintheday.

(
v)Ther
ati
oofthear eaundertheloadcurvet
othet
otalar
eaofr
ect
angl
e
i
nwhi
chi
tiscont
ainedgivestheloadfact
or.

(
vi)Thel
oadcur
vehelpsi
nsel
ecti
ngthesizeandnumberofgenerat
inguni
ts.
(
vii
)Thel
oadcurvehel
psi
nprepar
ingtheoper
ati
onschedul
eoft hestati
on.

Effect sofvar iableload

Thevar i
abl el oadonapowers tat i
oni ntroducesmany per plexi ti
esi nit s
operat ion.Some oft he impor tantef fect sofvar iablel oad on a power
stati
onar e:
(i)Need ofaddi tionalequi pment .The var i
ablel oad on a powerst ation
necessi tat est ohaveaddi ti
onalequi pment .Bywayofi l
lust ration,consi dera
steampowerst at i
on.Ai r
,coalandwat erar ether aw mat eri
al sf ort hisplan t.
Inor dert o pr oducevar i
ablepower ,thesuppl y oft hesemat er i
alswi l
lbe
requiredt obevar iedcor respondi ngly.Fori nstance,ift hepowerdemandon
thepl anti ncreases,i tmustbef ollowedbyt heincreasedf lowofcoal ,airan d
wat ert ot he boi lerin or dert o meett he increased demand.Ther efor e,
addi t
ionalequi pmenthast obei nst alledt oaccompl i
sht hisjob.Asamat ter
off act ,inamoder npowerpl ant,ther ei smuchequi pmentdevot edent i
relyt o
adjustt her at esofsuppl yofr aw mat er ialsin accor dancewi tht hepower
deman dmadeont heplant .
(ii
)Incr easei npr oductioncost .Thevar iabl eloadont hepl anti ncr easest he
costoft he pr oduct i
on ofel ect ricalener gy.An al t
er nat oroper ates at
maxi mum ef ficiencyneari tsr atedcapaci ty.Ifasi ngleal t
er natori sused,i t
willhavepooref fi
ciencydur ingper iodsofl ightloadsont hepl ant .Ther efor e,
i
n act ualpr act i
ce,a numberof al ternat or s of differ ent capaci ties ar e
i
nst all
edsot hatmostoft heal ter nator scanbeoper atedatnear l
yf ul
lload
capaci ty.However ,theuseofanumberofgener atinguni tsi ncreasest he
i
nitialcostperk W oft hepl antcapaci t
yaswel lasf l
oorar ear equi red.Thi s
leadst ot heincr eas einproduct ioncostofener gy.
2.1LoadCur ves
Thecur veshowi ngthevar i
ationofl oadont hepowerst ati
onwi thr espectt o
(w.r.
t)t i
mei sknownasal oadcur ve.
Thel oadonapowerst ati
oni sn everconst ant ;i
tvar iesf rom timet ot i
me.
Thesel oadvar iati
onsdur i
ngt hewhol eday( i.e.
,24hour s)arer ecor dedhal f
-
hourlyorhour l
yandar epl ottedagai nstt imeont hegr aph.Thecur vet hus
obtain edisk nownasdai l
yloadcur veasi tshowst hevar i
ati
onsofl oadw. r.t.
timedur i
ngt heday.Fi g.3.2.showsat ypicaldai l
yl oadcur veofapower
stati
on.I tiscleart hatloadont hepowerst ationisvar ying,beingmaxi mumat
6P. M.i nthiscase.I tmaybeseent hatl oadcur vei ndi
cat esatagl ancet he
gener alcharact eroft heloadt hati sbei ngi mposedont hepl ant.Suchacl ear
represent ati
oncannotbeobt ainedf romt abul atedfigures.
Themont hl
yl oadcur vecanbeobt ainedf rom t hedai l
yl oadcur vesoft hat
mont h.Fort hispur pose,averageval uesofpoweroveramont hatdi f f
eren t
timesoft hedayar ecalculatedan dt henpl ottedont hegr aph.Themont hly
loadcur vei sgener all
y usedt of ixt her at esofener gy.Theyear lyl oad
curvei sobtainedbyconsi der i
ngt hemont hlyl oadcur vesoft hatpar ticular
year.Theyear lyload cur vei sgener al l
yusedt o det erminet heannuall oad
factor .

I
mpor
tanceFact
ors

Thedailyl oadcur veshaveat tai

nedagr eatimportancei ngenerationas
theysupplyt hef ol
lowinginformati
onreadi
ly:
(i
)Thedai l
yl oadcur veshowst hevari
ati
onsofl oadont hepowerst ati
on
duri
ngdiff
er enthour softheday.
(i
i)Theareaundert hedai l
yl oadcurvegivesthenumberofuni tsgenerated
i
nt heday.
Uni t
sgener at
ed/day=Ar ea(i
nk Wh)underdailyloadcurve.
(i
ii
)The highestpoi nton t he dail
yload curve representst he maxi mum
demandont hest at
ionont hatday.
(i
v)Thear eaundert hedailyloadcurvedivi
dedbyt het otalnumberofhour s
 gi
vest
heaver
agel
oadont
hest
ati
oni
ntheday.

(
v)Ther
ati
oofthear eaundertheloadcurvet
othet
otalar
eaofr
ect
angl
e
i
nwhi
chi
tiscont
ainedgivestheloadfact
or.

(
vi)Thel
oadcur
vehelpsi
nsel
ecti
ngthesizeandnumberofgenerat
inguni
ts.
(
vii
)Thel
oadcurvehel
psi
nprepar
ingtheoper
ati
onschedul
eoft hestati
on.

2.2(i) Connect edload.

I
tist hesum ofcont i
nuousr at
ingsofal lt heequipmentsconnect edt o
supplysyst em.
A powerst ati
onsuppliesloadt othous andsofconsumer s.Eachconsumer
hascer t
ainequi pmentinst
alledi nhispr emises.Thesum oft hecont i
nuous
rati
ngsofal ltheequipmentsi ntheconsumer ’spremisesi sthe“ connected
load”oft heconsumer .Forin st
ance,i faconsumerhasconnect ionsoff ive
100-wattlampsandapowerpoi ntof500wat t
s,thenconnect edl oadoft he
consumeri s5×1 00+500=1 000wat ts.Thesumoft heconnect edloadsof
alltheconsumer sistheconnect edloadt ot hepowerst at
ion.

i
(i
)Maxi
mumdemand:

I
ti sthegr eatestdeman dofl oadont hepowerst ati
ondur i
ngagi ven
peri
od.
Theloadont hepowerst at i
onvar iesf r
omt i
met oti
me.Themaxi mumofal lthe
demandst hathaveoccur r eddur ingagi venperi
od( sayaday)i sthemaximum
demand.Thusr eferri
ngbackt ot hel oadcur veofFig.3.2,themaximum deman d
onthepowerst ationduri
ngt hedayi s6MW andi toccursat6P. M.Maximum
demandi sgeneral
lylesst hant hecon nectedloadbecauseal ltheconsumersdo
notswitchont heirconnect edl oadt ot hesyst
em atat i
me.Thek nowledgeof
maximum demand i s veryi mport antas i thelps i
n determini
ng the i
nstal
led
capaci
tyoft hestation.Thest ationmustbecapabl eofmeet ingthemaximum
demand.

i
(i
i)Demandfactor
.Itist
her
ati mum demandont
oofmaxi hepowerst
ati
ont
o
i
tsconnect
edloadi.
e.,
The val ue ofdemand f actorisusual
lylessthan1 .Iti sexpected because
maxi mumdemandont hepowers tat
ioni
sgeneral
lylessthantheconnectedload.
I
ft hemaxi mumdemandont hepowerstati
onis80MW andt heconnectedloadis
100MW,t hendemandf actor=80/100=0·8.Thek nowledgeofdemandf actoris
vitalindetermi
ningt
hecapaci tyofthepl
antequi
pment.
(i
v)Aver ageload.Theaver ageofloadsoccurrngont
i hepowerstat i
onina
givenper iod (
day ormont horyear )isknownasaver age l
oad oraver age
demand.

(v)Loadf actor.Ther at
ioofaverageloadtothemaxi
mum demandduri
nga
givenperi
odisk nownasloadfact
ori.
e.
Thel oadfactormaybedai lyloadfact
or,mont
hlyl
oadfact
ororannualload
factorifthetimeperiodconsi
deredisadayormonthoryear.Loadf
actoris
alwayslessthan1because

averageloadi
ssmal l
erthant hemaxi mum demand.Thel oadfactorpl
ayskey
rol
eindetermi
ningtheover al
lcostperunitgener ated.Hi
ghertheloadfact
orof
thepowerstat
ion,lesserwil
lbet hecostperuni tgenerat
ed.
(vi
)Diver
sityf
act or.Therati
ooft hesumofi ndivi
dualmaximumdemandstothe
maximumdemandonpowerst at i
onisknownasdi versi
tyfactori
.
e.,

A powerst
ationsuppli
esl oadtovari
oust ypesofconsumerswhosemaxi mum
demandsgeneral
ly do notoccuratt he same ti
me.Therefore,the maximum
demandonthepowerst ationisal
wayslesst hant
hesum ofindivi
dualmaximum
demandsoftheconsumer s.Obvi
ousl
y,di
ver si
ty†fact
orwil
lalwaysbegr eater
than1
.Thegreaterthediversi
tyfact
or,thelesser
‡isthecostofgener at
ionof
power.

Ut
il
izat
ionf
act
or,col
dreser
ve,hotr
eser
ve,spi
nni
ngr
eser
ve

PowerSyst
em nowadaysi
son
e oft
he mostcompl
ex syst
em.Ther
e ar
ea
numberof ener ating stati
ons that gener ate powerequaltol oad at t
hat
part
icul
artime.However ,ifneedarises,thesystemcangeneratemorepower.
Thisabil
it
yofpowersyst em t
ogen erat epoweroverandabovet hecurr
ent
demandisexpr essedasr eservecapaci ty.Accor di
ngl
ytwoimpor
tanttermsHot
andColdReser veCapaci tycomesi ntopi ctur
e.

Col
dReser
veCapaci
ty:

Coldreserveinapowersyst em i
st hatreservecapaci t
ywhichisavailablefor
servi
cebutnor mallynotreadyforimmedi at
el oadi
ng.ACol dreser
veisensur ed
byspecialreserveunitswithsmal
lst ar
t-upandspi n-
upt i
me.Peri
odoft hecold
reser
vest art
-upisvariesfrom2t o24hour sandmor e.Uni
tswithsmallstart
-up
ti
meusuallyhaveapower -
onreserve.Forexampl e,wehaveani dlegenerator
thatcanbet akenintoservi
ceifdemandi ncreases.

HotReser
veCapaci
ty:

HotReser veinapowersyst em i
st hatreser
vecapaci t
y whichcanbemade
avail
abl
equickl
y.Forexampl
e,wehaveahydr oelect
ricgeneratorofrat
ingsay
100MVA butcurrent
lysuppl
i
esonly70MVA.I nthiscasewehave30MVA hot
reser
vet hancanbel oadedimmediatel
y by si
mply openingthe val
ve tothe
hydrotur
bine.
.

Spi
nni
ngReser
veCapaci
ty:

Spinni
ngReser veofacti
vecapacit
yiscapaci
tyr
eservelocat
edatoperati
ng
unitsand unit
swiththe st
art
-uptime ofupt
o 5 mi
nut
es.Thus,a f
ast
-st
art
reservei
sal soaSpi
nni
ngReserve.

Runofr
iverst
ati
on:

Runofriverstati
onisahydr
o-el
ect
ricst
ati
ont
hatut
il
izest
he st
ream f
low
wit
houtwaterstor
age.

Ut
il
izat
ionf
act
or:
Uti
li
zat i
onf act
oristher ati
oofmaximum demandofasyst
em orpar tofthe
system,t ot he r
ated capaci
ty oft
he syst
em,orpar
toft he syst
em,under
considerat
ion.

LoadDur ationCur ve
Whent hel oadel ement sofal oadcur vear earrangedintheor derofdescendi ng
magnitudes,t hecur vet husobt ainedi scall
edal oaddurationcur ve.
Thel oaddur ationcur veisobt ainedf r
om t hesamedat aast heloadcur vebut
theor dinatesar ear rangedi nt heor derofdescendi ngmagni tudes.I
not herwords,
the maxi mum l oad i sr epresent ed t ot he left and decr easi
ng l oads are
represent edt ot her ightinthedescendi ngor der.Hencet hear eaundert heload
durati
oncur veandt hear eaundert heloadcur vear eequal .Fi
g.3.3(i)showst he
dail
yl oadcur ve.Thedai l
yl oaddur ati
oncur vecanber eadi l
yobt ainedf rom i
t.
Itisclearf rom dai lyl oadcur ve[ SeeFi g.3. i
3.()
],thatl
oadel ement sinor derof
descendi ngmagni t
udear e:20MW f or8hour s;15MW f or4hour sand5MW f or
12hour s.Plot tingt hesel oadsi nor derofdescendi ngmagni tude,wegett hedail
y
loaddur at i
oncur veasshowni nFig.3.3(ii
).
Thef ollowi ngpoi nt smaybenot edaboutl oaddur ati
oncur ve:

(i
)Thel oaddur ati
oncur vegivesthedatai namor epresentableform.Inot her
wor ds,i
tr eadil
y showst henumberofhour sduringwhi chthegi venloadhas
prevail
ed.
(i
i)Thear eaundert hel oaddurati
oncurveisequalt ot hatoft hecorresponding
loadcurve.Obvi ousl y,areaunderdai
lyloaddur ati
oncur ve(inkWh)wi l
lgivet he
unit
sgener atedont hatday.
(i
ii
)Thel oaddur at
ioncur vecanbeext endedt oincludeanyper iodoft ime.By
layi
ngoutt heabsci ssaf rom 0hourto8760hour s,thevar i
ationanddistri
bution
ofdeman df oranent ir
eyearcanbes ummar isedinonecur ve.Thecur vet hus
obtainediscalledt heannuall oaddur
ati
oncur ve
Example1 .Themaxi mumdemandonapowerst ati
onis100MW.Iftheannualloadfactoris40%,
calcul
atet hetotalenergygener atedinayear.
Soluti
on.
Energygenerated/year=Max.deman dxL.FxHour si
nayear
=(100×103)×( 0·4)×( 24×365)k Wh
=3504×1 05kWh
Example2.Agener ati
ngst ati
onhasaconnect edloadof43MW andamaxi mumdemandof20
MW;t heunitsgeneratedbei ng61·51
06perannum.Cal
culat
e(i
)thedemandf actorand(i
i)load
factor.
Soluti
on.

Example3.3.A1 00MW powerstat

iondeli
vers100MW for2hours,50MW f
or6hoursandisshut
downf ort
her estofeachday.I
tisalsoshutdownformaint
enancefor45dayseachyear
.
Calcul
atei
t sannuall
oadfact
or.

Example4.Agenerati
ngstati
onhasamaxi mumdemandof25MW,al oadf act
orof60%,apl
ant
capaci
tyfactorof50% andaplantusefactorof72%.Find(i
)thereservecapacit
yofthepl
ant
(i
i
)thedail
yenergyproducedand( i
i
i)maxi
mum energythatcouldbepr oduceddai
lyi
fthepl
ant
whil
erunni
ngasperschedul
e,werefull
yloaded.
 e5.Adi
Exampl eselstati
onsuppl
iesthef ol
lowi
ngloadst ovariousconsumer
s:
Indust
rialconsumer=1500kW ;Commer cialestabli
shment=750kW
Domest i
cpower=1 00kW; Domest i
clight=450kW
I
fthemaximumdemandont hestati
oni s2500kW andt henumberofkWhgener at
edperyeari
s
45x1 05,determine(i
)thedi
versit
yf actorand(i
i)annualloadf act
or.

Example3.7.Apowers upplyishavingt hef ollowingl oads:

Typeofl oad Max.demand( kW) Diver si
t yofgroup Demandfactor
Domestic 1500 1·2 0·
8
Commer ci
al 2000 1·1 0·
9
I
ndustri
al 10,
000 1·25 1
I
ft heoverallsystemdi versit
yf actori s1·35,det ermine( i
)themaximumdemandand( i
i)
connectedloadofeacht ype.
Soluti
on.
(i
)Thesumofmaxi mumdemandsoft hreet ypesofl oadsi s=1 500+2000+1 0,000=13,500
kW.Ast hesyst emdi versi
tyf actori s1·35,
∴Max.demandonsuppl ys ystem=1 3,500/1 ·35=1 0,000kW
(ii
)Eachtypeofl oadhasi tsowndi versityf actoramon gitsconsumers.
Sumofmax.demandsofdi f
ferentdomes ti
ccon sumer s
=Max.domes ti
cdeman d×di versi
tyfactor
=1500×1 ·2=1 800k W
∴Connecteddomest icload=1 800/0· 8=2250k W
Connectedcommer ciall
oad=2000×1 ·
1/0· 9=2444k W
Connectedin dust
r i
alload=1 0,000×1 ·25/1 =1 2,500k W

Example3.10.Agener ati
ngstat
ionhasthefoll
owingdail
yloadcycle:
Time( Hours) 0— 6 6— 1 0 1
0— 1 212— 1
61 6— 2020— 24
Load( MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40
Draw t
hel oadcur veandf i
nd(i)maxi
mum demand( i
i)uni
tsgener
atedperday(
ii
i
)aver
agel
oad
and(i
v)loadf actor.

Solut
ion.Dail
ycur veisdrawnbyt akingt
heloadalongY -
axi
sandti
mealongX-
axi
s.Fort
he
gi
venloadcycl e,t
heloadcurveisshowninFi
g.3.
6.
(i
)Itisclearf r
om theloadcurvet hatmaxi
mum demandonthepowerst
ati
onis70MW and
occursduri
ngtheperiod16— 20hour
s .
∴
Maximumdemand=70MW
(
ii
) Uni
tsgen
er ed/day=Ar
at ea(
ink
Wh)undert
hel
oadcur
ve
 3
=1
0[ 40×6+50×4+60×2+50×4+70×4+40×4]
3
=1
0[ 240+200+1
20+200+280+1
60]k
Wh=1 05kWh
2×1

Exampl
e3.5.Apowerst
1 ationhast
hefoll
owingdail
yloadcycl
e:
TimeinHours 6— 8 8— 12 12— 16 16— 20 20— 24 24— 6
LoadinMW 20 40 60 20 50 20
Plottheloadcur
veandl oadduratoi
ncurve.Alsocal
cul
atetheener
gygenerat
edper
day.

Sol
uti
on.Fi
g.3.
9(i
)showsthedail
yloadcurve,wher
easFig.3.
9(i
i)showsthedailyloadduraton
cur
ve.Itcanbereadi
lyseenthatareaunderthetwoloadcurvesist hesame.Not ethatload
dur
ati
oncurvei
sdrawnbyarrangi
ngthel
oadsintheorderofdescendingmagni
tudes.

Uni
tsgen erat
ed/day=Area(i
nkWh)underdai
l
yloadcur
ve
3
=10[ 20×8+40×4+60×4+20×4+50×4]
3
=840×1 0k Wh
Al
ter
nat
ively:
Uni
tsgen erat
ed/day=Area(i
nkWh)underdai
l
yloaddur
ati
oncur
ve
3
=10[ 60×4+50×4+40×4+20×1 2]
3
=840×1 0k Wh
whichi st
hesameasabove.
TypesofLoads

A devicewhichtapselectr
icalenergyfr
omt heel
ectr
icpowersyst
emi scal
led
aloadont hesystem.Thel oadmayber esi
sti
ve(e.
g.,el
ect
ricl
amp),i
nduct
ive
(
e.g.
,induct
ionmot or
),capaciti
ve orsome combi
nati
onoft hem.The vari
ous
t
ypesofl oadsonthepowersyst emar e:

(i
)Domest i
cload.Domest icloadconsist
sofl ights,f
ans,refri
gerators,heat
ers,
tel
evision,smallmot orsforpumpi ngwat eret c.Mostoft he resi
dentiall
oad
occursonl yf orsome hour sduringthe day (i.e.
,24 hours)e.g.,li
ghti
ngload
occursdur i
ngni ghttime and domesti
cappl i
ance load occursf oronl y afew
hours.Forthisreason,theloadfactori
slow( 10%t o12%).

(i
i
)Commer ci
alload.Commercialloadconsist
sofl i
ghti
ngf orshops,fansand
electr
icappli
ancesusedinrest
aurantsetc.Thiscl
assofl oadoccursf ormore
hoursduringthedayascompar edtot hedomesti
cload.Thecommer ciall
oad
hasseasonalvariat
ionsduetot heextensi
veuseofai rcondit
ioner
sandspace
heaters.

(i
i
i)Industri
all oad.Industr
iall
oadconsist
sofl oaddemandby i ndustr
ies.The
magnitudeofi ndustr
ialloaddependsuponthetypeofi ndust
ry.Thussmal lscal
e
i
ndustryr equi
resloadupt o25k W,mediums cal
ei ndust
rybet ween25k W and100
kW andl arge-scaleindustryrequi
resloadabove500k W.Industr
iall
oadsar e
generall
ynotweat herdependent.

(i
v)Municipall
oad.Munici
palloadconsistsofstreetli
ghti
ng,powerr equi
redfor
watersupplyanddr ai
nagepurposes.Streetli
ghti
ngloadispr acti
cal
lyconstant
thr
oughoutt he hours of t
he night.Forwat ersupply,wat eris pumped to
overhead tanksby pumpsdr ivenby electri
c motors.Pumping iscarri
ed out
duri
ng the off
-peakper i
od,usuall
y occurri
ng duri
ng the ni
ght.This hel
ps to
i
mprovet heloadfactorofthepowersyst em.

(v)Ir
rigat
ionload.Thist ypeofl oadist
heel ect
ricpowerneededforpumps
dri
venby mot orst o supply watertofi
elds.General
lythi
stype ofload i
s
suppl
iedfor12hoursduringnight
.

(vi
)Tracti
onload.Thistypeofl oadi
ncludest r
am cars,tr
olleybuses,r ai
lways
etc.Thi
sclassofl oadhaswi devari
ation.Duri
ngt hemor ni
nghour ,itreaches
peakvaluebecausepeoplehavet ogotot hei
rwor kplace.Af t
ermor ninghours,
theloadstart
sdecreasi
ngandagai nr
isesduringeveningsincet hepeoplest ar
t
comingtothei
rhomes.
2.
3LoadCur
vesandSel
ect
ionofGener
ati
ngUni
ts

Thel oadonapowerst ati

oni sseldom cons tant;i
tvar i
esf rom ti
met ot i
me.
Obviously,asi ngle generati
ngunit( i.
e.,alternator)wil
lnotbe aneconomi cal
proposit
iont omeett hisvaryingload.I tisbecauseasi ngl
euni twil
lhavever y
pooref fi
ciencydur i
ngt heperi
odsofl i
ghtloadsont hepowerst ati
on.Ther efore,
i
nact ualpract i
ce,anumberofgen er ati
ngun it
sofdi ffer
entsizesar einst
alledi n
apowerst ation.Thesel ecti
onoft hen umberandsi zesoft heunitsisdeci ded
from theannuall oadcur veoft hest ati
on .Thenumberandsi zeoft heunit sare
selectedinsuchawayt hattheycor r
ectlyf i
tt hestati
onloadcur ve.Oncet his
underlyi
ngpr i
nciplei
sadher edt o,i
tbecomespossi bletooper atethegener ating
unitsatorneart hepointofmaxi mumef fi
ciency.

I
mpor
tantPoi
ntsi
ntheSel
ect
ionofUni
ts

Whi
lemak
ingtheselecti
onofnumberandsi
zesoft
hegener
ati
nguni
ts,t
he
f
oll
owi
ngpoi
ntsshouldbekepti
nvi
ew:

(i
)The numberand si
zes ofthe uni
ts shoul
d be so sel
ect
ed t
hatt
hey
appr
oxi
matelyfi
ttheannuall
oadcurveoft hest
ati
on.

(i
i)Theunit
sshouldbepr eferabl
yofdi f
ferentcapaci
tiest omeett heload
requi
rement
s.Although use ofident
icalunit
s( i
.e.
,having same capacit
y)
ensur
essavingi
ncost ,t
heyof tendonotmeett heload requi
rement
.

i
(i
i
)Thecapaci
ty oft
heplantshoul
dbemade1 5% to 20% mor
ethant
he
maxi
mumdemandtomeett
hefuturel
oadr
equi
rement
s.

i
(v)Thereshoul
dbeasparegener
atinguni
tsot
hatr
epai
rsandover
haul
i
ngof
t
hewor ki
ngunit
scanbecarr
iedout.

(v)Thet endencytoselectalar
genumberofuni t
sofsmallercapaci
tyin
ordertof i
ttheloadcur
veveryaccurat
elyshoul
dbeavoided.I
tisbecause
theinvestmentcostperkW ofcapaci
tyincr
easesasthesizeoft heuni
ts
decreases.

BaseLoadandPeakLoadonPowerSt
ati
on

Thechangingl oadonthepowerstati
onmak esi
tsl
oadcurveofvariable
natur
e.Fig.3.
13.showst
hetypi
call
oadcurveofapowerstati
on.I
tisclear
thatloadont hepowerstat
ionvar
iesfrom t
imetot
ime.However
,aclos e
l
ook att he l
oad cur
ve reveal
sthatl
oad on t
he powerst
ati
on can be
consi
der
edi ntwopart
s,namely;

i
()Basel
oad

i
(i
)Peakl
oad

(
i)Baseload.Theunvar
yingloadwhi
choccur
sal
mostt
hewhol
edayont
he
stat
ioni
sknownasbasel oad.

Ref erri
ngtot heloadcurveofFi g.3.1
3,iti
sclearthat20MW ofl oadhast o
besuppl iedbyt hestationatal ltimesofdayandni ghti.
e.throughout24
hour s.Therefor
e,20MW i sthebasel oadofthestation.Asbaseloadont he
stationisal mostofconst antnature,ther
efore,i
tcanbesui tablysuppli
ed
withoutf acingt
heproblemsofvar iabl
eload.

i
(i
)Peakload.Thevar
iouspeakdemandsofl
oadoverandabovet
hebase
l
oadofthestati
oni
sknownaspeakload.

Refer
ring t
ot he l
oad cur
ve ofFig.3.1
3,itiscl
earthatthere ar
e peak
demandsofl oadexcludi
ngbaseload.Thesepeakdemandsoft hestati
on
gener
allyform asmal
lpartofthetotalloadandmayoccurthr
oughoutthe
day.

QUESTI
ONS

1
.Fi
l
lint
hebl
ank
sbyi
nser
tingappr
opr
iat
ewor
ds/f
igur
es:

(
i)Thear
eaundert
hedai
l
yloadcur
vegi
ves.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
..
.

(
ii
)Theconnect
edl
oadi
sgener
all
y..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.thant
hemaxi
mumdemand.

(
ii
i
)Theval
ueofdemandf
act
ori
s..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.than1
.

(
iv)Thehi
ghert
hel
oadf
act
orofapowerst
ati
on,t
he.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.ist
hecostper
uni
tgener
ated.

(
v)Theval
ueofdi
ver
sit
yfact
ori
s..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.than1
.

(vi
)Thelessert
hedi
ver
sit
yfact
or,t
he.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.ist
hecostofgener
ati
onof
power.

(
vii
)Agener
atinguni
toper
ateswi
thmaxi
mumef
fici
encyatabout.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.%of
i
tsrat
edcapacit
y.

(vi
ii
)AccordingtoIndi
anEl ect
rici
tySuppl
yAct(
1948)
,thecapaci
tyoft
he
sparesetshouldbe..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.

(i
x)Inanannuall
oadcur
ve,.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.ist
akenal
ongY-
axi
sand.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.al
ongX-
axis.

(
x)Basel
oadoccur
sont
hepowerst
ati
onf
or.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.hour
sinaday.

2.Pi
ckupt
hecor
rectwor
ds/f
igur
esf
romt
hebr
ack
etsandf
il
lint
hebl
ank
s:

(
i)Ar
eaundert
hedai
l
yloadcur
vedi
videdby24gi
ves.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
..

aver
( agel
oad,maxi
mumdemand,uni
tsgener
ated)

(
ii
)Thek
nowl
edgeofdi
ver
sit
yfact
orhel
psi
ndet
ermi
ni
ng.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.

aver
( agel
oad,uni
tsgener
ated,pl
antcapaci
ty)

(i
i
i)Mor eef
fici
entpl
ant
sar
eusedas.
.
..
..
.
..
..(
.
. basel
oadst
ati
ons,peakl
oad
stat
ions)

(i
v)A di
eselpowerpl
anti
sgener
all
yusedasa.
.
..
..
.
..
..(
.
. basel
oadst
ati
on,
peakl
oadstati
on)

(v)Ina hydro-
steam syst
em,st
eam powerst
ati
oncar
ri
est
he base l
oad
duri
ng.
.
..
..
..
..
.
..

hi
( ghf
lowday,l
owf
lowday)

(vi
)I naninter
conn
ect
ed gr
id syst
em,t
he di
ver
sit
yfact
oroft
he whol
e
system..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.

i
(ncr
eases,decr
eases,r
emai
nsconst
ant
)

(
vii
)Inst
alledcapaci
tyofapowerst
ati
oni
s..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.thent
hemaxi
mumdemand.
(
less,more)

(
vii
i
)Annuall
oadf
act
ori
sdet
ermi
nedf
rom.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
.l ve.(
oadcur dai
l
y,mont
hly,
annual
)

1.Whyist hel
oadonapowerstati
onvari
able?Whatar
etheef
fect
sof
vari
abl
eloadontheoper
ati
onoft
hepowerstat
ion?

2.Whatdo you under

stand by t
he l
oad cur
ve ? Whati
nfor
mat
ionsar
e
conveyedbyal
oadcurve?

3.Def
ineandexpl
aint
hei
mpor
tanceoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ermsi
ngener
ati
on:

i
()connect
edl
oad(
ii
)maxi
mumdemand(
ii
i
)demandf
act
or(
iv)aver
agel
oad.

4.Expl
aintheter
msloadf actoran
ddi
vesi
tyf
act
or.How dot
hesef
act
ors
i
nfl
uencethecostofgener
ation?

5.Explainhow load cur

veshel
pint
he sel
ect
ionofsi
ze and numberof
gener
atinguni
ts.

6.Discusst
heimport
antpoint
stobet
akeni
ntoconsi
der
ati
onwhi
l
esel
ect
ing
thesizeandnumberofuni
ts.

7.Whatdoyouunder
st i
andby()basel
oadand(
ii
)peakl
oadofapower
stat
ion?

8.Di
scusst
hemet
hodofmeet
ingt
hepeakl
oadofanel
ect
rif
iedar
ea.

9.Di
scusst
headvant
agesofi
nter
connect
edgr
idsyst
em.

1
0.Wr
iteshor
tnot
esont
hef
oll
owi
ng:

(
i)l
oadcur
ves,

(
ii
)loaddi
visi
ononhydr
o-st
eams
yst
em,

(
ii
i
)loadf
act
or,

(
iv)pl
antcapaci
tyf
act
or,