CHAPTER ONE

1.0 MATRIX ALGEBRA

1.1 Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a pair of brackets [ ] or ( ) subject
to certain rules of operation. A set of numbers a 11 , a 12 , a 13 , ... a mn , arranged in a

rectangular array m rows and n columns like

a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n

a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
am1 am3 am3 amn

and subject to certain rules of operation is called an mxn (read “m by n”) matrix. The
numbers a11, a12 - - - amn are called the elements (entries) of the matrix. We denote this
matrix by aij where i = 1, 2, 3… m
j = 1, 2, 3… n
The matrix above has m rows and n columns. Aij also denotes the element of the matrix
lying in the ith row and jth column and we call this element as the (i,j)th element of the
matrix.

The Setting and Overview

Matrices are mathematical objects which are useful in the study of systems of linear
equations. Matrices are arrays of numbers, and they can be manipulated and combined in
much the same way as we handle numbers. In this chapter we are going to develop the
“algebra” of matrices, i.e a method of adding, subtracting and multiplying matrices when
these operations make sense.
In real life, we do not have to deal with a single magnitude but with a set of magnitudes.
In analysis, we treat such set of magnitudes as a single entity or a single object of
thought, abstracted by numbers.

2
Suppose there are 3 brothers: A, B and C in a family and that,
A has a set of 3 pants, 3 shirts, 2 Trousers and 1 tie
B has a set of 5 pants, 2 shirts, 3 Trousers and 2 ties
C has a set of 4 pants, 4 shirts, 5 Trousers and no tie
Now, we can arrange this data systematically in the following convenient way.

Brothers Pants ShirtsTrousers Tie

(P) (S) (Tr) (T)

A 3 3 2 1 1st row
B 5 2 3 2 2nd row
C 4 4 5 0 3rd row

1st column 2nd column 3rd column 4th column

The above system comprises 3 rows and 4 columns. (Note that we write rows first and
columns after wards). Clearly, therefore, 1st column gives us the total number of pants
(3+5+4 = 12) that A, B and C have. While 2nd, 3rd and 4th columns enumerate
respectively the number of shirts, Trousers and Ties that three brothers together have in
their family.

Numbers written in such a particular form of rows and columns enclosed by [ ] square
brackets or ( ) large parentheses are called a matrix.

Example 1

The matrix 2 3 8 has two rows and three columns.

2 -1 3 and hence it is a 2x3 matrix.

Similarly, 4 3
2 5 is a 3x2 matrix
7 4

1 2
3 4 is a matrix of order 2. (2x2 matrix)

1 2 3 is a 1x3 matrix and

3
 1
2 is a 3x1 matrix
3

Example 2

In the matrix

1 2 3
A= 5 6 7
8 9 10

a11 = 1 an entry located in the first row and first column

a32 = 9 an entry located in the 3rd raw and 2nd column
a23 = 7 an entry located in the 2nd row and 3rd column

Remark 1: unless and otherwise stated, we shall consider matrices over the field of real
numbers for simplicity.
Remark 2: A matrix is simply an arrangement of elements and has no numerical value,
it is wrong to say 8 9 is greater than 1 2
6 4 3 4

1.2. Various Types of Matrices

We shall now define some useful matrices.
1. Row matrix: a matrix having only one row is called a row matrix (a row vector).
Example: 1 2 3 is a 1x3 row matrix and
a11 a12 a13 . . . a 1n is a 1x n row matrix
2. Column Matrix: a matrix having only one column is called a column matrix (a
column vector)
1 a11
2 a21
Example: 3 is a 4x1 column matrix and a31 is nx1 column matrix.
4 .
.
an1

4
3. Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of
columns is called a square matrix.
Example: 1 2
3 4 is a 2x 2 square matrix

1 2 3
4 5 6 is a 3x3 square matrix
7 8 9
4. Null (Zero) matrix: A matrix of any order whose all elements are zero is called a
null (zero) matrix and denoted by 0.
Example: 0 0
0 0 is a null matrix of order 2 (2 by 2)

0 0 0
0 0 0 is a null matrix of order 2x3.
5. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix whose all elements except those in the main
diagonal are zero is called a diagonal matrix.
Example:
A= 2 0 1 0 0 are diagonal matrices of order
0 3 and B= 0 4 0 2 and 3 respectively.
Main 0 0 9
diagonal
Main
diagonal

6. Scalar Matrix: A square matrix whose all elements except those in the main
diagonal are zero and the diagonal elements are all equal is called a scalar matrix
Example:
2 0 4 0 0
0 2 & 0 4 0 are scalar matrices of order 2 & 3
0 0 4 respectively.
7. Unit (identify) matrix: A square matrix whose main diagonal entries are all unity
(1) and the other elements are zero is called a unit or Identify matrix. A unit
matrix of order n is denoted by In.

5
 Example:
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
I2 = 0 1 I3 = 0 1 0 I4 = 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

are unit matrices of order 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

8. Singular and Non- singular Matrices: with every square matrix A of certain
order, we associate a determinant /A/ or det A of the same order formed by the
corresponding elements of A. If /A/= 0, the matrix A is called a singular matrix
and if /A/ 0, the matrix A is called a non – singular matrix
Definition:- if A = a b , then /A/ = ad – bc (details will be
c d
discussed later on)

Example:
i. If A = 4 6
2 3 then by definition /A/ = 4x3 -2x6 = 12 – 12 = 0
and therefore, A is a singular matrix of order 2
ii. If A = 4 5
6 8 , then /A/ = 4x8 – 6x5 = 32 – 30 = 2
/A/ 0. Hence, A is a non – singular matrix of order 2.
9. Symmetric and skew – symmetric matrices: A square matrix A = (aij) is said to be
symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j, i.e., a12 = a21 , a23 = a32, soon.
Example:
2 7 -5 a b c
7 8 -4 and b d a are symmetric matrices of
-5 -4 3 c a e order 3

A square matrix A is said to be skew – symmetric If aij = - aji for all i

and j, i.e., if a21 = - a12 , , a13 = - a31 , a32 = -a23 and so on and a11 = a22
=… = 0

Example
0 -2 -4 0 a b
2 0 -6 & -a 0 -c are skew symmetric matrices of
4 6 0 -b c 0 order 3.

6
10. Triangular matrix: A square matrix whose elements aij = 0 whenever i<j is called
a lower triangular Matrix. Similarly, a square matrix whose elements aij = 0
whenever i> j is called an upper Triangular Matrix.
Example:
2 0 0
8 10 0 and 4 0
14 16 18 10 15 are lower triangular matrices

2 4 6 5 10
0 8 10 and 0 15 are upper triangular matrices.
0 0 12

11. Augmented matrix: A matrix which includes both coefficients and constants of a
linear system of equations is called an augmented matrix.
Example
Given: 3x+ 2y +z = 18
9x+ 3y +3z = 28
3x+6y + 5z = 20
The above system of linear equations can be written in matrix form as
3 2 7
9 3 3 = coefficient matrix (A)
3 6 5
x
y = Variable matrix (x)
z

18
28 = constant matrix. (c)
20

3 2 7 18
9 3 3 28 thus, this is an augmented matrix
3 6 5 20

7
1.3 Rules of Operations on Matrices (Algebra of Matrices)
Under the operations on matrices, we shall discuss scalar multiplication of a matrix,
addition of matrices, subtraction and multiplication of a matrix by a matrix.

a. Equality of matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if
i. A and B have the same order (dimension) and
ii. Each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B

Example

3 5 7 3 5 7
1. Let A = 4 8 9 2 x3
and B= 4 8 9 2 x3
, then A = B
as they satisfy the conditions for equality having the same dimension (2x3) and
corresponding entries are equal a 11  b 11 , a 22  b
22
, and so on.
1 2 3 1 2 3
Let A= 4 5 6 and B= 7 8 9
A B even if matrix A& B have the same order (2x3) due to 4 different from 7.

2. The following two matrices are also not equal

A= 1 2 3 B= 1 2 3
5 6 7 and 4 6 7
A B as a 21 = 5 and b21 = 4 are different corresponding entries.

3. Suppose the following two matrices are equal. Find the value of the variable t, a, b
and m.
4t b-2 t2+4 -7
81
A= log a
9 2x2
and B = 4 m 2x2

Solution:
Since the matrices are equal they must have equal dimension and corresponding
entries of the matrices should be equal.

8
 a) 4t = t2 +4 b) b- 2 = -7 c) log
81
a
=4 d) 9 = m
t2 -4t+4 = 0 b = -7+2 a4 = 81
(t – 2) 2 = 0 b = -5 a4 = 3
4

t=2 a=3
Thus, A = B if and only if t=2, b = -5, a =3 and m = 9.

b. Scalar multiplication of a matrices

Let  be a scalar and A be a matrix. Then the produce of the scalar  and the matrix A,
written as  A, is the matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by  .

Example

a. If = 4 and A = 1 2 4
2 -3 4 , then

 A= 4 4 1 2 4x1 4x2 4x4 4 8 16

2 -3 4 = 4x2 4x-3 4x4 = 8 -12 16

c. Addition and subtraction of two matrices

If two matrices A and B are of the same order, i.e., if they have same number of rows and
columns, then the sum of A and B or subtraction of B from A (A+B) or (A – B) is the
matrix obtained by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements of A and B. Note
that A – B = A+ (-B), adding the negative of B to A.

Example

If A = 1 2 3 B= 2 3 4
4 5 6 , and
2 x3
5 6 7 2 x3

Then A + B = 1+2 2+3 3 -4 3 5 7

4+5 5+6 6+7 = 9 11 13 2 x3

And A – B = 1-2 2-3 3+4 -1 -1 -1

4-5 5-6 6-7 = -1 -1 -1

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 d. Matrix multiplication (multiplication of a matrix by a matrix)
The product AB of two matrices A and B is defined only when the number of columns of
the first matrix A is the same as the number of rows of the second matrix in B and by
definition the product AB is a matrix C of order mxp if A and B were of order mxn and
nxp respectively. The following example will give the rule to multiply two matrices.

a11 a12 a13 b11 b12

Let A = a21 a22 a23 and B = b21 b22
2 x3
b31 b32 3 .. x 2

Order of A is 2x3 while it is 3x2 for B

 The product AB is defined since the numbers of the pre multiply matrix
columns of A is (3) and numbers of rows of matrix B (3) are the same.
 When the numbers of the post multiply columns of the first matrix and the
numbers of rows of the second matrix (B) are equal, then the two matrices A
and B are conformable for the product AB.

Let us see now how to multiply the above two matrices A and B.
C = AB = a11 a12 a13 b11 b12
a21 a22 a23 x b21 b22
b31 b32
C = AB = a11 b11+ a12b21+ a13 b31 a11 b12 + a12 b22 + a13 b32
a21 b11+ a22b21+ a13 b31 a21 b12 + a22 b22 + a23 b32
n

C = ail blj + ai2 b2j + - - - + ain bnj = 

a ik b kj
k 1

C= C11 C12 Where C11 = a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a13 b31
C21 C22 C12 = a11 b12 + a12 b22 + a13 b32
C21 = a21 b11 + a22 b21 + a23 b31
C22 = a21 b12+ a22 b22 + a23 b32

Entries of the product matrix C = AB is obtained as follows,

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 i. C11 is obtained by multiply elements of the first row of A with corresponding
elements of the first column of B and add
ii. C 12 is obtained by multiply elements of the first row of A with corresponding
elements of the second column of B and add.
iii. C21 is obtained by multiply elements of the second row of A with
corresponding elements of the first column of B and add.
iv. C22 is obtained by multiply elements of the second row of A with
corresponding elements of the second column of B and add.

Remark:
1. If A and B are two matrices, then AB may not be equal to BA (even though both
are defined).

Example

A= 2 2 B= 2 0
0 0 2x2
& 0 0 2x2

AB = 2 2 x 2 0 2x2 + 2x0 2x0 + 2x0 4 0

0 0 0 0 = 0x2 + 0x0 0x0 + 0x0 = 0 0

BA = 2 0 2 0
0 0 x 0 0
2x2 + 0x0= 2x0 + 2x0 4 4
0x2 + 0x0 0x2 + 0x0 = 0 0
Thus, this example confirm that AB BA.
2. If product AB is defined, then it is not necessary that BA must also be defined.

Example

If A is of order 2x3 and B is of order 3x1 then clearly AB is defined, but BA is

not defined as the number of columns of B is different from the number of rows
of A (commutative property doesn‟t hold true in matrix multiplication): AB BA.
3. Note the following properties

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 i. Associative property: A (BC) = (AB)C
ii. Distributive property: A(B+C) = AB+ AC
(A+B) C = AC + BC

Example

Verify remark 3 i for the following matrices

A= -1 0 5 ,B= 1 7 0 -1 -1
7 -2 0 2x3 -3 -1 0 , C= 2 0
1 0 5 3x3
0 4 3x2

Solution:
i. Checking for the right side of equality: (AB)C
Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, we can
obtain the product AB as follows:

AB = (-1x1) + (0x-3) + (5x1) (-1x7) + (0x -1) + (5x0) (-1x0) + (0x0) + (5x5)
(7x1) + (-2x-3) + (0x1) (7x7) + (-2 x-1) + (0x0) (7x0) + (-2x0) + (0x5)
AB = 4 -7 25
13 51 0 2x3

So, (AB) C = 4 -7 25 -1 -1 -18 96

13 51 0 x 2 0 = 89 -13 2x2
0 4
4 -7 0 -1 -1 13 -1
Again BC = -3 -1 0 x 2 0 = 1 3
1 0 5 0 4 -1 19

So, A (BC) = -1 0 5 13 -1 -18 96

7 -2 0 x 1 3 = 89 -13 2x2
-1 19
Therefore, A (BC) = (AB) C and condition of associative property.

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Example

If A = 1 -2 3 2 3 -1
2 4 -1 and B = 1 0 2
-3 4 5

Find AB and BA if possible it is possible.

Solution:

Matrix A is a 2x3 matrix and B is a 3x3 matrix so that the product AB is

defined and it is a 2x3 matrix.

AB = 1 -2 3 2 3 -1
2 4 -1 x 1 0 2
-3 4 5

(1x2+(-2x1) + (3x-3) (1x3) (-2x0)+(3x4) (1x-1) +(-2x2) +3x5)

= (2x2)+(4x1) +(-1x-3) (2x3)+(4x0)+(-1x4) (2x-1) +(4x2) +(-1x5)

= -9 15 10
11 2 1

Note: that the product BA is not defined in this case, since the number of
columns in B  the number of rows in A. since the number of columns of the
first matrix B is different from the number of rows of the second matrix A we
cannot multiply B with A.)

13
Some more illustrative examples

Attempt the following questions:

1. If A = 0 2 3 7 6 3
2 1 4 2x3 and B = 1 4 5 2x3

Find the value of 2A +3B

2. Find x and y, if x+y = 7 0 3 0

2 5 & x-y = 0 3

3. Find the product AB of two matrices A& B

1
Where A = 0 and B = 2 4 9 6 5 0
7 1x6
8 4x1

4. A man buys 8 kgs of Mangoes, 10 kgs of apples, and 4kgs of bananas. Managoes
cost birr 4 per kg, apples 9 birr per kg and bananas cost birr 6 per kg, represent the
quantities bought by a row matrix and the prices by a column matrix and hence
obtain the total cost.
5. If A = 2 -1 and B = 2 , find the matrix C of suitable
4 -3 -3 order such that AC = B.

here are solution for the above questions:

1. We have 2 A = 2x 0 2 3 0 4 6
2 1 4 = 4 2 8

And 3B = 3 x 7 6 3 21 18 9
1 4 5 = 3 12 15
Hence, 2A +3B = 0 4 6 + 21 18 9
4 2 8 3 12 15
= 0+21 4+18 6+ 9
4+ 3 2+12 8+15
= 21 22 15
7 14 2

14
2. If x+y = 7 0 3 0
7 5 and x – y = 0 3

We have x+y = 7 0
1
2 5

And x-y = 3 0
0 3 2

Adding 1 and 2, we get

(x+y) + ( x-y) = 7 0 3 0
2 5 + 0 3

10 0
2x = 2 8 => multiplying both sides by ½

10 0
x= ½ 2 8

x= 5 0
1 4

Now we can substitute the value of x = 5 0

1 4 to obtain the value of y.
From 1, x+y = 7 0
2 5

5 0 7 0
1 4 +y = 2 5

y= 7 0 5 0
2 5 - 1 4

y= 2 0
1 1

1
0 xB= 2 4 9 6 5 0
3. A = 7 1x6
8 4x1

1
AB = 0 x 2 4 9 6 5 0
7
8

15
 1x2 1x4 1x9 1x6 1x5 1x0
AB = 0x2 0x4 0x9 0x6 0x5 0x0
7x2 7x4 7x9 7x6 7x5 7x0
8x2 8x4 8x9 9x6 8x5 8x0 4x6

AB = 2 4 9 6 5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
14 28 63 42 35 0
16 32 72 48 40 0

4. Let A be the row matrix representing the quantities bought. And B be the column
matrix representing the price
4
A= 8 10 4 1x3
and B = 9
6 3x1

The total cost is given by the element of the product AB which is 1x1 matrix.

4
AB = 8 10 4
x 9
6
AB = 8x4 + 10x9 + 4x6

AB = 32 + 90 + 24

AB = 146

Hence, the required total cost is birr 146.

5. If A = 2 -1 2
4 -3 and B = -3 , find C such that AC = B

Since A is a 2x2 matrix and AC i.e B Is a 2x1 matrix

Therefore, C must be a 2x1 matrix and let C = x
Y

Then, AC = B gives = 2 -1 x 2
4 -3 x y = -3

2x –y 2
4x-3y = -3

Thus, by equality of two matrices, we get

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 2x – y = 2
4x – 3y = -3
-4x + 2y = -4 Multiplying the 1st equation by - 2
4x – 3y = -3
-y = -7
y=7

Substituting y = 7 in the first equation, we get:

2x – 7 = 2
2x = 9
x= 9/2
Hence, the required matrix is C = x 9/2
y = 7

Exercise 1

Show all the necessary steps to solve the following problems:

1. i. If A = 1 2 3 0 1 2
2 3 4 and B = 3 2 5 , find A+B A-B, 2A+3B and 3A-2B

ii. Given A = 4 2 -1
3 -7 1 and B = 2 3
-3 0 , find where possible A+B,
-1 5

AB and BA, stating the reason where the operations are not possible.
2. i. Find the values of x and y if 2 x y + 3 4 = 5 8

ii. Find the value of x, y ,z and t if x+y y-z t-x z-t

5-t 7+x z-y 2+z+t
3. If P = 9 1 Q= 1 5
4 3 , 7 12 , find the matrix R such that

5P +3Q +2R is a null matrix.

17
4. Let two matrices A and B be given by A = 1 -1 0
2 3 4 , and
0 1 2

B = 2 2 -1
-4 2 -4
2 1 5

Verify that BA = 6I, where I is unit matrix of order 3.

5. If A = 1 2 3 6 -2 -3
1 3 3 and B = -1 1 0 evaluate AB and
1 2 4 -1 0 1 also BA ,

Check that AB = BA
Is it in general, true for matrix multiplication? Give an example to justify your
assertion.
6. A man buys 5 dozens of oranges, 6 dozens of apples and 3 dozens of bananas.
Oranges cost birr 15 per dozen, apples birr 12 per dozen and bananas birr 8 per
dozen. Represent the quantities purchased by row matrix and prices by column
matrix and obtain the total cost.
7. Three persons buy cold drinks of different brands A,B and C. The first person
buys 12 bottles of A, 5 bottles of B and 3 bottles of C. The second person buys 4
bottles of 4,6 bottles of B and 10 bottles of C. The third person buys 6 bottles of
A, bottles of B and 9 bottles of C. Represent these information in the form of a
matrix. If each bottle of A costs birr 4, each bottle of B costs birr 5 and each bottle
of C costs birr 6, then using matrix operations find the total sum of money spent
individually by the three persons for the purchase of cold drinks.
8. A manufacturer produces three products A, B, C which are sold in Nekemte and
Gimbi cities. The annual quantity sold of these products are given below:
Products
City A B C
Addis Ababa 9000 12,000 8700G
Wolkite 5000 7500 15000

If the selling prices of A, B, C per unit be birr 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Calculate

the total revenue in each city by using matrix.

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1.4. Transpose of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. The matrix obtained from A by interchanging its rows and columns is
called the transpose of A, i.e., as the name implies rows become columns or columns
become rows.

The transpose of matrix A is denoted by At.

Let us see the following examples on row to find transpose of a matrix.

i. If A = 1 0 2 then transpose of A = At = 1 2
2 3 4 2x3 0 3
2 4 3x2

ii. If B = a b c a d g
d e f , then Bt = b e h rows become columns.
g h i 3x3 c f I 3x3

It can be verified that for two matrices A and B,

a) (At)t = A
b) (A+B)t = At +Bt
c) (AB)t = Bt At

Example:

For the following two matrices verify that (At)t = A and (A+B)t = At+Bt
A= 1 2 3 2 3 4
4 5 6 , and B = 1 8 6

Solution:

a.) At = 1 4 2 1
2 5 and Bt = 3 8
3 6 4 6

(At)t = 1 2 3
5 5 6 =A

Thus, (At)t = A

b) A+B = 3 5 7
5 13 12

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 (A+B)t = 3 5 3 5
5 13 and At +Bt = 5 13
7 12 7 12

Hence, (A+B)t = At +Bt

Note that (AB)t At Bt for two comfortable matrices

Example

Verify that (AB)t =Bt At and (AB)t At Bt

Give A = 1 2 3 and B = 4 7
4 5 6 2x3 5 8
6 9 3x2

Solution:

At = 1 4 4 5 6
2 5 Bt = 7 8 9 2x3
3 6 3x2

So, At Bt = 1x4+4x7 1x5+4x8 1x6 +4x9 32 37 42

2x4+5x7 2x5+5x8 2x6+5x9 = 43 50 57
3x4+6x7 3x5+6x8 3x6+6x9 54 63 72 3x3

and Bt At = 4 5 6 1 4 4x1+5x2+6x3 4x4+5x5+6x6

7 8 9 x 2 5 = 7x1+8x2+9x3 7x4+8x5+9x6
3 6

Bt At = 32 77
50 122 2x2

20
 1 2 3 4 7 1x4+2x5+3x6 1x7+2x8+3x9
Again (AB)t = 4 5 6 x 5 8 = 4x4+5x5+x6x 4x7+5x8+6x9
6 9

(AB)t = 32 50 t

77 122

So, (AB)t = 32 77
50 122 2x2

Hence, (AB)t = Bt At = 32 77
50 122

But, (AB)t At Bt, having different orders which is 2x2 and 3x3 respectively.

Note the following points:

i. A matrix „A‟ with a property A = At is called a symmetric matrix.
Example:
If A = 2 8 18 2 8 18
8 14 10 , then At = 8 14 10
18 10 16 18 10 16

Write any three symmetric matrices. Based on the above example.

ii. A square matrix with the property of A = A2 is known as idempotent matrix.
iii. A square matrix with the property of A2 = I is called involuntary matrix.

21
Exercise 2

1. Let A = 1 1
0 1

a. Find a matrix B such that AB = 1 0

0 1

b. Find a matrix D such that AD = 2 0

4 3
2. For each of the following matrix, show that A+At = 0

a. 0 1 4 0 6 -4 0 -1 2
-1 0 7 b. -6 0 8 c. 1 0 5
-6 -7 0 4 -8 0 -2 -5 0

3. If A = ( 1 2 3) and B = 4
5 , then
6
Verify that (AB)t = Bt At.
4. If A = 2 1 1 -2
3 4 and B = -1 1 , then verify (AB)t = Bt At
5. Let A = 1 0 0
4 2 3 , show that A2 – 3A+2I = 0
2 0 1

6. Find the values of x,y,z if the matrix A = 0 2y z

x y -z
x -y z

obeys the law At. A = I where I is an identity matrix.

22
1.5 Determinants
If A is a square matrix with entries (elements) from the field of complex numbers, then
determinant of A is some complex number. This will be denoted by det A or /A/.
Determinant is a numerical value of a square matrix.
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
If A= , , , ,

, , ,

An1 an3 an3 ann

a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n

a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
, , , ,

then det A = /A/ = , , , ,

an1 an3 an3 ann

Note: the following points.

i) det A or /A/ is defined for square matrix A only
ii) det A or /A/ will be defined in such a way that A is invertible iff  A  0
iii) The determinant of an nxn matrix will be called determinant of order n.

1.5.1. Determinant of Order One

Let A = (a11) be a square matrix of order one. Then detA = a11
Example: let A = (3), then det A = /A/ = 3 by definition.

1.5.2. Determinant of Order Two

Let A = a11 a12 be a square matrix of order two.
a21 a22

then we define det A as: /A/ = a11 a22 – a12 a21

23
If B = a b
c d , then  B = ad – bc

Example: find det A or /A/ if A= 3 4

5 6
Solution: Det A = /A/ = (3x6)-(4x5) = 18 -20 = -2

1.5.3. Determinant of Order Three or More

The determinant of order three or more is determined using two methods (Laplace‟s
expansion method and Sarru‟s method).

1.5.3.1. Laplace’s Expansion Method

Laplace‟s expansion method to determine the determinant of order three or more requires
the knowledge of minors and cofactors which will be covered in later topics. Thus, I will
use the formula which defines the determinant of a square matrix.
+ - +
Let A= a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 be a 3x3 square matrix.
a31 a32 a33

Then we define determinants of A as,

det A = a11 (a22 x a33 - a23 x a32 ) - a12 (a21 x a33 - a23 a31 ) + a13 (a21 x a32 - a22 x a31)

The above definition may be explained as follows:

 The first bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing first row and
first column. (a22 a33 - a23 a32 )
 The second bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing first row and
second column. (a21 a33 - a23 a31)
 The third bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing first row and
third column (a21 a32 - a22 a31)

24
  The elements before three brackets are first, second and third element respectively
of first row with alternate positive and negative signs.

Example 1

Find the determinant of the following matrix

1 2 3
A= 4 5 -6
7 8 9
Solution:
The first bracket in the definition of det A is determinant of the matrix after deleting the
first row and first column. Of matrix A

1 2 3 5 -6
4 5 -6 = 8 9 = (5x9) – (-6x9) = 45+54 = 99
7 8 9

The second bracket is determinant of the matrix after removing the first row and the
second column of matrix A.

1 2 3 4 -6
4 5 -6 = 7 9 = (4x9) – (-6x7) = 36 +42 = 78
7 8 9

The third bracket is determinant of the matrix after removing the first row and third
column of matrix A.

1 2 3
4 5 -6 4 5
7 8 9 = 7 8 = (4x8) – (5x7) = 32 -35 = -3

So, det A = 1 (99) -2 (78) +3 (-3) = - 66

25
Example 2

Find the determinants of the following matrices.

2 -1 3 -4 -5 6
i) A= 1 2 -4 ii) B = 7 8 9
-3 1 5 1 2 3

Solution:
i. det A = 2 2 -4 1 -4 1 2
1 5 - (-1) -3 5 + 3 -3 1
= 2 (2x5) – (1x-4) +1 (1x5) – (-3x-4) +3 (1x1) – (2x-3)
=2 (10+4) + (5-12) +3 (7)
= 28 -7 +21
= 42

1.5.3.2. Sarru’s Method

Sarru‟s diagram (method) is the most convenient method of determining the determinant
of orders three or more square matrices. To use this method to order three matrices,
follow the following steps.

Step 1: extend the (n-1) columns to the given matrix.

Step 2: Multiply entries on the main diagonal and add. (Diagonal drawn from the left
upper corner to the right bottom)
Step 3: Multiply entries on the off diagonal and add (diagonal drawn from left bottom to
the right upper corner).
Step 4: The determinant is the difference between the sum of the product of elements on
the main diagonal (Step2) and the sum of the product of elements on the off
diagonal (step3)

Example: if A= 2 -1 3
1 2 -4 , then det A ?
-3 1 5

26
 Md1 Md2 Md3 Od1 Od2 Od3
2 -1 3 2 -1
1 2 -4 -1 2
-3 1 5 -3 1

Solution:
We can compute the determinant of the matrix using sarru‟s method as follows.
2 -1 3
1 2 -4 =
-3 1 5

Where md = main diagonal

od = off diagonal
Md1 = 2x2x5 = 20
Md2 = -1x-4x-3 = -12
Md3 = 3x1x1 =3
and
Od1 = 3x2 x(-3) = -18
Od2 = 2x-4x1 = -8
Od3 = 1x1x5 = -5
det A = (md1+md2+md3) – (od1+0d2+od3)
= (20 – 12+3) – (-18 – 8-5)
= 11- (-31)
= 11+31
= 42
a b c
Example2: If A = d e f , then det A = ?
g h i

27
 Md1 Md2 Md3 Od1 Od2 Od3
a b c a b
d e f d e
g h i g h

det A = (aei+ bfj+ dch) – (ceg + afh + bdi)

Exercise 3

Find the determinants of the following matrices using both method if possible.

i. A = 1 -1 p 1
2 -1 and B = f -1

ii. A = 1 2 3 2 2 0
3 -2 1 and 2 1 1
4 2 1 -7 2 -3

iii. A = 1 2 3 1 2 3
4 5 6 and B= 4 5 6
7 8 9
1.5.4 Properties of Determinants
List of some important properties of determinants
1. If two rows (or columns) of a matrix are interchanged, its determinant retains its
absolute value but changes its sign,
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ = ad – bc

and B= c d
a b , interchanging the two rows of A

/B/ = bc – ad = - (ad-bc) = -/A/

28
2. If rows are changed in to columns or columns into rows, the determinate remains
unchanged.
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ = ad – bc

B= a c
b d rows are changed into columns

/B/ = ad – bc = /A/

Hence, the result follows.

3. If two rows (or columns) are identical, the determinant is zero (vanishes).
Let A = a b
a b , then /A/ = ab – ab = 0

Similarly if A = a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3 , then /A/ = 0
c1 c2 c3

4. If any row (or column) is multiplied by a real number k, then the determinant
obtained is k times the original determinant.
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ ad – bc

and let B = ka kb
c d = multiplying the first row by K.

then /B/ = kad kbc = k (ad – bc) = k /A/

5. If to any row (or column) is added k times a the corresponding elements of

another row cor column), the determinant remains unchanged.
i.e if A= a b
c d and

B = a+kc b+kd
c d adding k times of the second row to the first row

29
 Now. /B/ = (a+kc) d- (b+kd) c

= ad + kdc – bc – kdc
= ad – bc = /A/

Self test

Prove (show) the above five properties of determinants by taking your own examples of
having two and three orders.

1.6 Minors and Cofactors of the Element of a Determinant

1.6.1 Minors
A minor is a sub determinant of a given order determinant obtained by deleting
(canceling) the ith and jth column of the required element and evaluating the n-1 order
determinant Minors are denoted by Mij. Mll is a minor of the element located in the first
row and first column and obtained by canceling the first row and first column.

Similarly, M23 is a minor of the element located in the 2nd row and 3rd column and
obtained by canceling the 2nd row and 3rd column of the given determinant.

Example 1

If A = a b
c d , then find the minors of each element.

Solution:
/A/ = a b = ad-bc
c d
M11 (minor of a) = a b =d
c d

30
M12 (minor of b) a b
c d =c

M21 = (minor of c) a b
c d =b

M22 (minor of d) a b
c d =a

Example 2

If A = 1 -2
-3 -4 , then find minors of each element

Solution:

/A/ = 1 -2 M11 = -4 M21 = -2

-3 -4 M12 = -3 M22 = 1

Example 3

If A = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 , find the minors of each
a3 b3 c3 element and evaluate then.

Solution:

The minor of any element in /A/ is a determinant of second order obtained by omitting
from /A/ the row and column in which that element occurs. Thus minors by a1, b1, a2, b2,
c2
M11 = b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2 a2 b2
b3 c3 , m12 = a3 c3 , M13 = a3 b3 , M21 = a3 b3 , so on.

31
Example 4

Write the minors of the elements of the first row of the following determinant and hence
evaluate them.
/A/ = 1 2 3
-4 3 6
2 -7 9

Solution:
M11 = 3 6
-7 9 = 27 – (-42) = 69

-4 6
M12 = 2 9 = -36 -12 = -48

-4 3
M13 = 2 -7 = 28 -6 = 22

Use the same procedures to find minors of the 2nd and 3rd row elements

1.6.2. Cofactors
The cofactor of any element in /A/ is the minor of that element in /A/ with proper sign
depending on the numbers of the row and the column in which the element occurs. If an
element occurs in ith row and jth column in /A/, then the cofactor of the element = (-1) i+j x
(Minor of the element), cofactor of the element is denoted by Cij.
Thus, Cij = (-1) i+j x Mij

Example 1

If A = 2 -3
4 3 , find the cofactors of each element.

32
Solution:

Recalling the method of finding minor of an element, we obtain

M11 = 3, M21 = -3 and
M12 = 4 M22 = 2
After obtaining the minors of the elements, we simply substitute them in the formula to
find the corresponding cofactors.
C11 = (-1) 1+1 .M11 = 1x3=3
C12 = (-1) 1+2 .M12 = -1x4 = -4
C21 = (-1) 2+1 . M21 = -1x(-3) = 3
C22 = (-1) 2+2 .M22 = 1x2 = 2
In matrix form the cofactors can be put as follows

cA= 3 -4
3 2

Example 2

If A = 1 2 3
-4 3 6 , find the cofactors of each element
2 -7 9

Solution:
First find the minors of each element and multiply each minor by (-1) i+j obtain cofactors.
M11 = 3 6
-7 9 = 27 – (-42) = 69

C11 = (-1) 1+1 M11 = M11 = 69

-4 6
M12 = 2 9 = -36 -12 = -48

33
 C12 = (-1) 1+2 xM12 = -1x (-48) = 48
M13 = -4 3
2 -7 = 28 -6 =22
1+3
C13 = (-1) xM13 = M13 = 22

Self test

Obtain the cofactors of the 2nd and 3rd row elements in a similar manner.
Note: that in the identity Cij = (-1) i+j x Mij,
i. The minor and cofactor of an element is equal if the sum of row and column in
which it is located is even and
ii. The cofactor of an entry is the negative of its minor if the sum of row and
column in which the element is located is odd.

Exercise 4

1. Find the determinants of the following matrices

1 2 3 2 5 7 1 1 1
A= 2 4 6 B= 3 6 10 C= 1 1+x 1
3 5 7 8 4 15 1 1 1+y

2. Solve for x if

1 1 1 x+1 2 3
i. 1 x 1 =0 ii. 3 x+2 1 =0
1 1 x 1 2 3

x 1 1 x-5 2
iii. 1 x 1 =0 iv. -3 x =0
1 1 x

34
 3. Find the minors and cofactors of each element for the following Matrices
1 2 0 2 5 4 46 32 15
i. A = 0 1 2 ii) B= 1 4 3 iii) C= 27 21 9
1 0 6 8 10 17 16 7

1.7. Adjoint of A Square Matrix

Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n. Then /A/ is the determinant of A of the same
order n formed by the corresponding elements of A. If Cij be the cofactors of aij in A, then
the transpose of the matrix (Cij) obtained by replacing the elements of A by their
corresponding cofactors in A is called the adjoint (or adjugate) of the matrix A and it is
denoted by adj A,

Follow the following steps to obtain the adjoint of a square matrix.

Step 1: Obtain the cofactors of each element of the square matrix A
Step 2: From a cofactor matrix by replacing entries of the original matrix by the
corresponding cofactors
Step3: Transposing the cofactor matrix gives the adjoint matrix

Example 1

Let A= 1 2
3 4 , then find adj A.
Solution:
Step1: C11 = 4, C12 = -3, C21 = -2, C22 = 1
Step2: Cofactor of matrix A = CA = 4 -3
-2 1
Step3: Transposing the cofactor matrix, we get
CAt = 4 -2
-3 1 = adjA.
Hence, adj A = CAt = 4 -2
-3 1

35
Example2

For the following matrix A, prove that A. adjA= 0

1 -1 1
A= 2 3 0
18 2 10

Solution:-
We have A = 1 -1 1
2 3 0
18 2 10
and using the steps above to find adjoint of a matrix we obtain adj A =

3 0 -1 1 -1 1
2 10 2 10 3 0

2 0 1 1 1 1
- 18 10 18 10 2 0

2 3 1 -1 1 -1
18 2 18 2 2 3

30 22 -3
Adj A= -20 -8 2
-50 -20 5

Therefore, adj A = 1 -1 1 30 22 -3 multiplying

2 3 0 x -20 -8 2 the conformable
18 2 10 -50 -20 5 matrices

36
 0 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0
where 0 is the null matrix of order 3.

1.8. Inverse of A Square Matrix

If A is a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of the same order n is said to be
inverse of A if AB = BA = I (unit matrix of order n).

Consider the matrices

2 0 -1 3 -1 1
A= 5 -1 0 , B = -15 6 -5
0 1 3 5 -2 2

Multiplying A and B
It can be easily see that
AB = BA = I (unit matrix)
In this case, we can say that B is inverse of A and A is inverse of B.

Note that:
i. Inverse of a square matrix is defined only for square matrices. But this does
not mean that every square matrix is invertible.
ii. If B is an inverse of A, then A is also an inverse of B.
iii. If a matrix A has an inverse, then A is said to be invertible
iv. Inverse of a matrix is unique

Uniqueness of inverse of a matrix can be easily shown as follows

For, let B and C be two inverses of A.
then, AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I
So B = BI = B(AC) = (BA)C = IC = C
Hence, B = C

37
This shows that the matrix A cannot have two distinct inverse.
Notation: Inverse of A is denoted by A-1

In this section, we give a method to determine the inverse of a matrix. .

Let us see now the following two ways of finding the inverse of a square matrix, namely,
adjoint method and Gaussian elimination procedure.

a) The adjoint method of finding an inverse

Theorem: If A be a square matrix of order n, then A (adjA) = (adj A) A = ǀAǀI, where I is
the Identity matrix of order n.

By this theorem above, we have

A (adjA) = (adjA) A = ǀAǀI

A ( adjA ) ( adjA ) A A I
⇒ = ⇒ (Dividing both sides by ǀAǀ ≠0.)
A A A

-1 A ( adjA ) ( adjA )

Since A A= AA-1= I, = A = AA
-1
= I
A A

adj A 1

This relation shows that A-1 = = ( adjA ) dividing again both
A A

sides by A
1
Hence, A-1 = inverse of A= ( adjA ), where A ≠0
A

We can easily obtain the inverse of a square matrix A using adjoint method following
the steps below:
step 1: finding the determinant of the given matrix A
step 2: finding the adjoint of the given matrix
step 3: dividing the adjoint matrix by the determinant obtained in step1.
t
-1 adjA CA
Thus, A = =
A A

Note that if ǀAǀ= 0, then A-1 does not exist.

38
Example

Find the inverse of each of the following matrices

i. 2 -1 a b 2 -3 5
-1 2 , ii. c d iii. 5 2 -7
-4 3 1
Solution:

We give below the solution to i and ii, and try iii by your own.
i. A = 2 -1
-1 2
Step1: ǀAǀ= 4-(1) = 3
Step2: C11 = 2, C12 = -(-1) = 1, C21 = -(-1) = 1, C22 = 2

Remember how to find cofactors of each element,

2 1
CA = -1 2
2 1
CAt = 1 2 = adj. A

  2 1
-1 1 1 
2 1 3 3
Step3: A = . adj A   =

A 3   1 2

1 2
3 3

2 1
-1 3 3
Thus, A =
1 2
3 3

ii. B = a b
c d

Step 1: ǀBǀ= ad – bc
Step 2: C11 = d, C12 = -C, C21 = -b, C22 = a

39
 CB = d -c
-b a

CBt = d -b
-c a = adj B

d b
d b
1 1 ad bc ad bc
Step 3: B-1 = adj B = x =
B ad bc
c a
c a
ad bc ad bc

b) The Gaussian Elimination Procedure

The following elementary operations are needed to use Gaussian method of finding an
inverse of a matrix
i. Interchanging two rows
ii. Multiplying a row by a non-zero scalar
iii. Adding a scalar multiple of one row to another.

Briefly, the Gaussian method starts by writing the given matrix at the left and the
corresponding identify matrix at the left and the corresponding identify matrix next to it
at the right). Then select and carry out row operations that will convert the given matrix
into the identify matrix, and apply the same operations to the matrix at the right. When
the left matrix becomes the identify matrix, the matrix on the right will be the desired
inverse.

Zeros first: For simplicity, the Gauss- Jordan method proceeds to obtain ones on the
main diagonal and zeros on the off- diagonal elements.

 obtain the off –diagonal zeros first and following this, obtain ones on the main
diagonal.
To illustrate, let us find the inverse of the matrix
A= 3 2
1 1

40
A = AI = 3 2 1 0
1 1 0
= 1 1 0 1 interchanging row 1 and row 2
3 2 1 0
= 1 1 0 1 R 2 = -3 R1+R2
0 -1 1 -3
R
= 1 1 0 1 R2 = 2

 1

0 1 -1 3

= 1 0 0 1 R 1 = R1 –R2
0 1 -1 3

We now have the identify matrix at the left, so the inverse of

A= 3 2
1 1 is the matrix at the right, namely;

A-1 = 1 -2
-1 3

As a check, we have
3 2 1 -2 1 0
1 1 x -1 3 = 0 1

Example

Find the inverse of the following matrices using Gaussian elimination method.
i. A 7 3 ii. 0 1
2 1 , 2 3

41
Solution:
Applying the procedure of the above example, we can obtain the inverse of the matrices
A and B as follows.

i. A = AI= 7 3 1 0
2 1 0 1

2 1 0 1
= 7 3 1 0 - Interchanging rows.

= 2 ½ 0 ½ Dividing row 1 by 2 R1=R 1 to obtain 1

7 3 1 0 2 in the main
diagonal

= 1 ½ 0 ½ R2 = R2 – 7 R1 converting a21 (7) to zero.

0 -½ 1 0

1 0 1 -3
7
= 0 -½ 1 /2 R1 = R1+R2

= 1 0 1 -3
0 1 -2 7 R2 = -2 R2

Since the left matrix is converted to identify, the inverse of A

=
-1
A 1 -3
-2 3 at the right.

42
ii. B = 0 1
2 3

B= BI = 0 1 1 0 , we have un wanted zero as the upper left

2 3 0 1 diagonal element.

Inter changing rows we have,

= 2 3 0 1 Interchanging rows
0 1 1 0

= 2 0 -3 1 R1 = -3R2 +R1
0 1 1 0

3
= 1 0 /2 ½
0 1 1 0

Hence, A
 1
= -3/2 ½
1 0

Exercise 4

1. Find the adjoint of the following matrices

i. 1 -2 ii. 4 6 iii. 1 -1 1 iv. 4 -2 1

-3 4 -2 -3 , 2 3 0 1 10 -7
16 2 10 2 -4 1
2. Find the inverse of the following matrices, if it exists,

i. 3 8 ii. 3 1 iii. 0 1 2 iv. 3 2 7

2 1 , 4 0 1 2 3 4 -3 -2
3 1 1 5 9 23

43