Chapter two

Prepared by course Instructors!

 Analog and digital signal transmission
 Digital data transmission format
 Transmission mode
 Transmission media
 GUIDED MEDIA
 UNGUIDED MEDIA
 Transmission Impairment
 Data Encoding Techniques
 Error detection and Error correction
 Multiplexing
 2.1 Analog and digital signal
transmission
 The Data can be analog or digital.
 The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous.
 Analog signal is measured in Volts and its frequency in
Hertz (Hz).
 Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage represented in
binary form.
 The technique by which a digital signal is converted to
analog form is known as modulation and the reverse
process, that is the conversion of analog signal to its
digital form, is known as demodulation.
 The device, which converts digital signal into analog, and
the reverse, is known as modem.
 2.1 Analog and digital signal
transmission

Fig 2.1 analog signal Fig 2.1 digital signal

 Digital data transmission format

The transmission of binary data across a link can

be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each
clock tick.
 In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
There is only one way to send parallel data, there
are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
Digital data transmission format
 Bv

Fig 2.4 Serial data transmission

Fig 2.3 Parallel data transmission
 Transmission mode
 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is
unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive.
Eg. Keyboards, Television and traditional monitors devices.
The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can
only accept output.
Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can
both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa. The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with
traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are travelling in
one direction, a car going the other way must wait.
Eg.Walkie-talkies or police radio
 Transmission mode
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously.
Eg. telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all
the time. The capacity of the channel, however,
must be divided between the two directions.
Transmission mode
 Transmission media

 Transmission media anything that can carry information from a

source to a destination.
 The information is usually a signal that is the result of a
conversion of data from another form.
 The transmission medium is usually free space (air, vacuum,
and water), metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.
 In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided
into two broad categories:
 Guided and
 unguided.
 Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.
Transmission media
 Transmission media
 GUIDED MEDIA
A signal traveling along any media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium.
Includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic
(copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.
 Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.
 GUIDED MEDIA

Twisted-Pair Cable
 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally
copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.

 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,

and the other is used only as a ground reference.
 Connected by RJ 45 connector.
 Types of Twisted-Pair Cable
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable(UTP)
 It is commonly used in communication system.
 Has seven catagories,each suitable for specific use.
 In computer networks,cat 5,cat5e, and cat 6 cables
are mostly used.
 UTP cables are connected by RJ 45 connectors.
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable (STP).
 Cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal
foil. This makes it more indifferent to noise and cross
talk
 STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering
that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
 Applications of Twisted-pair cables
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and
data channels.
The local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central
telephone office-commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.

 The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide
high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of
unshielded twisted-pair cables.
 Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.
 GUIDED MEDIA
 Coaxial Cable
 Has two wires of copper
 Coax has a central core conductor of solid which lies in the center
and is made of solid conductor.
 Core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
 This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and
the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
 The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and
cross talk.
 Because of its structure coax cables are capable of carrying high
frequency signals than that of twisted pair.
 Provides high bandwidth rate up to 450 mbps.
 Connected by BNC connector
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio

government (RG) ratings.

Each RG number denotes a unique set of

physical specifications, including

The wire gauge of the inner conductor

 The thickness and type of the inner insulator

 The construction of the shield

Three Categories of coaxial cables

Performance
 The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in
twisted-pair cable.
 coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal
weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of
repeaters.
Applications of coax cable
Television distribution
Long-distance telephone transmission
Short-run computer system links
Local area networks
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog
telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
Used in digital telephone networks where
a single coaxial cable could carry digital
data up to 600 Mbps.
 Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
 However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today
with fiber-optic cable.
 GUIDED MEDIA
Fiber-Optic Cable
Works on the properties of light.
The core of fiber is made of glass or plastic
and transmits signals in the form of light.
A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a
cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light
through a channel.
 Parts of Fiber-Optic Cable

FOC provides the highest mode of speed.

It comes in two modes , one is single mode fiber and second is
multimode fiber.
Single mode fiber can carries single ray of light whereas
multimode is capable of carrying multiple beam of light.
The FO special connectors are SC (Subscriber
channel),ST(Straight Tip) or MT -RJ
 Advantages of OFC over other cables
 Enormous potential bandwidth .
 Small size and light weight
 Electrical isolation
 Immunity to interference and crosstalk
 Signal security
 Low transmission loss
Less signal attenuation.
Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
Resistance to corrosive materials.
Greater immunity to tapping.
 System reliability and ease of maintenance
 DISADVANTAGES OF OF CABLES
Interfacing costs
Strength
 Remote electrical power
 Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to
losses due to bending the cable
Specialized tools, equipment, and training
 Applications of OFC
LAN(Local area networks)
Cable Tv.
Long-haul trunks
Metropolitan trunks
Rural exchange trunks
 Transmission media
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.
Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.
The part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for
wireless communication.
UNGUIDED MEDIA
 UNGUIDED MEDIA(wireless
transmission)
Radio waves: - are used for multicast
communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems.
Microwaves: - are used for unicast
communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Infrared signals: - can be used for short-range
communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation
 Transmission Impairment
 In a communication system the signal transmitted
through the Transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of signals this imperfection
scenario is called transmission impairment.
 There have three main causes of impairments:
Attenuation : it means loss of energy.
Distortion :it is changes of shapes of the signals.
Noise : the unwanted signals that mixed up with the original signals.
 Type of noise:
 Thermal: movements of electrons in a wire which
creates extra signals.
 Crosstalk: noise exists when one wire affects the other
wire.
 Impulse noise: a signal with high energy that comes
from lightening or power lines
 Data Encoding Techniques

 Encoding is the process of converting the

data or a given sequence of characters,
symbols, alphabets etc., into a specified
format, for the secured transmission of data.
 Decoding is the reverse process of encoding
which is to extract the information from the
converted format.
 Data Encoding: Encoding is the process of
using various patterns of voltage or current
levels to represent 1s and 0s of the digital
signals on the transmission link.
 Data Encoding Techniques
The data encoding technique is divided into the
following types, depending upon the type of data
conversion.
Analog data to Analog signals: the modulation
techniques such as Amplitude Modulation,
Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of
analog signals, fall under this category.
Analog data to Digital signals: this process can be
termed as digitization, which is done by Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM). Hence, it is nothing but
digital modulation.
 The above is the block diagram of PCM which represents the basic
elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.
 Data Encoding Techniques
 Digital data to Analog signals: the modulation techniques
such as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying
(FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), etc., fall under this category.
 Digital data to Digital signals: in this section there are several
ways to map digital data to digital signals. Some of them are:
 The process for converting digital data into digital signal is
said to be Line Coding.
 The common types of line coding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar,
and Manchester.
 Non Return to Zero (NRZ): NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage
level and 0 for Low voltage level.
 The main behavior of NRZ codes is that the voltage level
remains constant during bit interval.
 The end or start of a bit will not be indicated and it will
maintain the same voltage state, if the value of the previous
bit and the value of the present bit are same.
 Digital data to Digital signals

The following figure explains the concept of

NRZ coding.
 Error detection and Error correction

 Error is a condition when the output

information does not match with the input
information.
During transmission, digital signals suffer from
noise that can introduce errors in the binary
bits travelling from one system to other.
That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit
may change to 0.
 Error detection and Error correction
Error-Detecting codes
Whenever a message is transmitted, it may get
scrambled by noise or data may get corrupted.
 To avoid this, we use error-detecting codes
which are additional data added to a given digital
message to help us detect if an error occurred
during transmission of the message.
 A simple example of error-detecting code
is parity check.
 Error detection and Error correction
 Error-Correcting codes
 Along with error-detecting code, we can also pass
some data to figure out the original message from the
corrupt message that we received.
 This type of code is called an error-correcting code.
 Error-correcting codes also deploy the same strategy
as error-detecting codes but additionally, such codes
also detect the exact location of the corrupt bit.
 In error-correcting codes, parity check has a simple
way to detect errors along with a sophisticated
mechanism to determine the corrupt bit location.
 Once the corrupt bit is located, its value is reverted
(from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0) to get the original message.
 DLC (Data Link Control)

 It is the task referring to framing, Flow control

and Error control.
 Generally data link control function includes
Framing, Flow control, Error control and
software implemented protocol that provide
smooth and reliable transmission of frames
between two nodes.
 DLC (Data Link Control)
 Framing
Data transmission in physical layers means
moving bits in the form of signal from the
source to the destination.
The physical layer provides bit synchronization
to ensure that the sender and the receiver use
the same bit duration and timing.
The datalink layer on the other hand need to
pick bits into frames, so that each frame is
distinguishable from others.
 DLC (Data Link Control)
 Flow Control and Error Control
 Refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the a mount of
data that the sender can send before waiting for
acknowledgment.
 The most important responsibilities of data link layer are
Flow Control and Error control. Collectively these functions
are known as Data Link Control.
 Flow control
 Coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgment & it is one of the most important
duties of the data link layer.
 In most protocols flow control is a set of procedures that
tells the sender how much data it can transmit before it
must wait for acknowledgment from the receiver.
 DLC (Data Link Control)
 Error Control
Refers to both error detection and error
correction.
It allows the receiver to inform the sender of
any frames lost or damaged in transmission
and coordinates retransmission of those
frames by the sender
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across
a single data link.
Multiplexing is developed to enable multiple
communication with a single communication link.

The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from

the n input lines and transmits over a higher-
capacity data link.
 Multiplexing
There are n inputs to a multiplexer.
The multiplexer is connected by a single data link
to a demultiplexer.
The link is able to carry n separate channels of
data.
The demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data
stream, separates (demultiplexer) the data
according to channel, and delivers data to the
appropriate output lines.
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing Techniques
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Wave length Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Multiplexing Process
 Each source generates a signal of a similar
frequency range.
 Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals
modulate different carrier frequencies (f1, f2 and
f3).
 The resulting modulated signals are then
combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over a media link that has enough
bandwidth to accommodate it.