HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Concrete

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

2.1 Introduction
Concrete is essentially a mixture of cement, aggregates and water. Other
materials added at the mixer are referred to as ‘admixtures’. Materials based on
cement have the following general attractions:

 Low cost.
 Flexible of application – for example, mortars, concretes, grouts, etc.
 Variety of finishes obtainable.
 Good compressive strength.
 Protection of embedded steel.

The following are some disadvantages/problem areas:

 Low tensile strength/brittleness.

 Rather high density (though lower density types are available).
 Susceptibility to frost/chemical deterioration (depending on type).

Environmental considerations are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Environmental considerations: concrete

Considerations Assessment
Raw material availability Very good
Extraction Care necessary to avoid damage to
landscape
Energy used in manufacture Cement is a high energy material
Health/safety hazards Slight hazard from cement dust.
Fresh cement is caustic – can cause
burns
Recyclability Concrete can be crushed to be reused
as aggregate or for hard-core

Table 2: Summary of equivalent British and European standards

Subject British Standard Euro
standard
Cement BS 12: Ordinary and rapid hardening BS EN 197
specification PC
BS 915: High alumina cement
BS 1370: Low heat PC
BS 4027: Sulphate-resisting PC
Cement BS 4550 BS EN 196
Testing
Aggregates BS 812: Testing aggregates BS EN 12620
for concrete
BS 882: Specification for aggregates
Water for BS 3148 BS EN 1008
concrete
Concrete BS 1881: Testing Concrete BS EN 206
BS 5328: Specification for concrete

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Admixtures BS 5075: Admixtures for concrete BS EN 934

2.1.1 Cement and concrete standards
The industry is currently in the transitional stage between British and European
standards. Many British Standards are still valid but will be replaced by their
European counterparts during the upcoming years. A summary of some of the
equivalent standards is given in table 2. In many cases the British Standards
have been modified in anticipation of the change, but the reader should check
validity to ensure that the correct specification is being referred to.

Go to the following site for a full view of concrete developing.

http://www.cement.org/tech/index.asp

2.2 Cements
Why is it called "Portland" cement?

Joseph Aspdin, an English mason who patented the product

in 1824, named it Portland cement because it produced a
concrete that resembled the colour of the natural limestone
quarried on the Isle of Portland, an island in the English
Channel.

2.2.1 Portland Cements

They do not rely on atmospheric action or drying for their strength.

Manufacture

Portland cements are made by heating a finely divided mixture of clay or shale
and chalk or limestone in a kiln to a high temperature – around 1500 oC, such
that chemical combination occurs between them. About 5 per cent gypsum
(calcium sulphate) is added to the resulting clinker in order to prevent ‘flash’
setting and the final stage involves grinding to a fine powder.

Composition

Although the familiar grey powder may appear to have a high degree of
uniformity, it is important to appreciate that Portland cement is a complex
combination of the minerals contained originally in the clay or shale and the

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calcium carbonate which constitutes limestone or chalk. The chief compounds

are listed below, together with commonly used abbreviations.

Clay or shale

 SiO2 silica (silicon oxide), abbreviated S

 Fe2O3 ferrite (iron oxide), abbreviated F
 Al2O3 alumina (aluminium oxide), abbreviated A

Limestone or chalk

 CaCO3 (calcium carbonate on heating gives CaO quicklime), abbreviated C

The properties of Portland cements vary markedly with the proportions of the
four compounds, reflecting substantial differences between their individual
behaviour. The proportion of clay to chalk (usually approximately 1 : 4 be
weight) must be very carefully controlled during manufacture of the cement,
since quite small variations in the ratio produce relatively large variations in the
ratio of dicalcium silicate to tricalcium silicate. A greater proportion of chalk
favours the formation of more of the latter, since it is richer in lime. This would
lead to cement with more rapid early strength development. The tricalcium
aluminate and the tetracalcium aluminoferrite contribute little to the long-term
strength or durability of Portland cements but would be difficult to remove and,
in any case, are useful in the manufacturing process. They act as fluxes,
assisting in the formation of the silicate compounds, which would otherwise
require higher kiln temperatures.

Table 3: Properties of the four chief compounds in Portland cements

Approximate Heat of
Abbrevi
Name ation
percentage Properties Hydration
in OPC (J/g)
Slow strength gain –
Dicalcium
C2 S 20 responsible for long- 260
Silicate
term strength
Rapid strength gain –
Tricalcium
C3 S 50 responsible for early 500
Silicate
strength (e.g. 7 days)
Quick setting
Tricalcium (controlled by
C3 A 12 865
Aluminate gypsum); susceptible
to sulphate attack
Little contribution to
Tetracalcium setting or strength;
C4AF 8 420
aluminoferrite responsible for grey
colour of OPC

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Quite a major part of the energy cost of manufacturing cement is incurred in

baking off the water contained in the raw materials. For this reason current
practice (where feasible) favours the ‘dry’ process in which the raw materials are
mixed in a dry state rather than the more traditional ‘slurry’ which has quite a
high water content.

There will be variations in cement properties from one work to another as a

result of differences in the composition of the clay or shale so that, if maximum
uniformity is to be achieved in a concreting job, cement from the same works is
essential.

The properties of cement are dependent not only on its composition but also on
its fitness. This is because cement grains have very low solubility in water. This
could be demonstrated by mixing a small amount of cement with water in a
beaker and leaving for some hours, stirring occasionally. There will be no visible
change in the appearance of the cement. Cements hydrate by a surface reaction
and the rate of reaction, and hence setting and hardening, therefore increase as
the surface area of grains increases- that is, as they become finer. Fineness is
measured by the term ‘specific surface’, which is defined as:

The units of specific surface are m2/kg, that of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
being required by earlier editions of BS 12 to be not less than 225 m2/kg, though
in practice it is usually in the range 350-380 m2/kg. The current edition of BS 12
(1996) does not specify a minimum fineness for OPC; indeed the standard,
which has been produced with the developments in European standards in mind,
does not use the term ‘ordinary Portland cement’ though the term is still used by
cement manufacturers to describe Portland cements of strength class 42.5N as
described in the standard. This strength is based on mortar cube tests.

Ordinary Portland cement is the cement best suited to general concreting

purposes. It is the lowest priced cement and combines a reasonable rate of
hardening with moderate heat output. Other types of cement are, however,
available, each being recommended for specific applications.

Go to the following link to view how cement is made.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n-Pr1KTVSXo

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2.2.2 Other types of Portland Cement

The chief variants on ordinary Portland are given below.

Type Description Application

 Subsequent lifts of concrete
can proceed more rapidly on
account of its increased early
This type of cement tends to set strength.
Rapid-
and harden at a faster rate than  Used in frosty weather to
hardening
OPC. The rate is controlled by reduce risk of the concrete
Portland
adding more gypsum during freezing, since the cement has
cement
manufacturing. a higher early output.
 Can be safely exposed to frost
sooner, since it matures more
quickly.
This cement has better resistance
to sulphate attack than OPC. This is
produced by adding extra iron oxide
before firing and combines with
alumina which forms C4AF which is
not affected by sulphate. This type
of cement may be slightly darker in Used for foundations in sulphate-
Sulphate-
colour. bearing soils, in mortar for flues in
resisting
which sulphur may be present
Portland
from fumes and in marine
cement
structures, since sea water
(BS 4027)
contains sulphates.

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The chief use of LHPC is in mass

This type of Portland cement lowers concrete for minimum dimensions
the heat output of concrete during greater than 1000 mm. There is a
solidification. This heat is limited by tendency for the heat to build up
BS 1370 to 250 J/g after one week internally in such structure, the
Low-heat
and 290 J/g after four weeks inner core of the material being
Portland
compared to 330 J/g and 400 J/g much warmer than the exterior. A
cement
respectively when using normal temperature difference of 10oC
(BS 1370)
cement. The early strength of could cause internal cracking as
concrete is lower than OPC but the the warmer inner layer eventually
strength is similar when compared cool and are thrown into tension.
on the long run. Typical applications include large
raft foundations and dams.

This cement comprises a mixture of

OPC and a maximum of 65% of the
Portland total volume of ground blast-
blast- furnace slag. The slag contains
Costs are reduced due to the use
furnace mainly lime, silica and alumina. The
of ground blast-furnace slag.
cement characteristics of this type of
(BS 146) cement are similar to LHPC but
produces better sulphate
resistance.
PFA is a by-product of coal-
Pulverised powdered power stations and is an
fuel ash example of a pozzolanic material- Can be incorporated in cement
(PFA) in one which, in presence of lime during manufacture.
cements (liberated by Portland Cement) has
hydraulic (cementing) properties.
This is a by-product of electric arc
furnaces used to produce silicon
and ferrosilicon, most material
Improves resistance to sulphate
Microsilica being imported from Scandinavia. It
attack and alkali-silica reaction.
is strongly pozzolanic and can also
be incorporated with cement during
manufacture.
This contains not more than 1% of
iron oxide, which is responsible for
the grey colour of OPC. Firing and It is used to produce white or
White
grinding are also modified to coloured concretes. Used to create
Portland
prevent coloured matter being aesthetic or light-reflecting
cement
introduced. This cement cost twice qualities.
that of OPC. The strength
development is faster than OPC

Go to the following link to see deep down the concrete.

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x4mv6d_zoom-into-concrete_tech

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2.2.3 Testing cements

Checking of materials is an essential part of civil engineering as the life of

structure is dependent on the quality of material used. Following are the tests to
be conducted to judge the quality of cement.

1. Fineness
2. Soundness (BS EN 196-3)
3. Consistency
4. Initial And Final Setting Time Of Cement (BS EN 196-3)
5. Compressive Strength (BS EN 196-1)

Fineness

The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration and
hence on the rate of gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution of heat.
Finer cement offers a greater surface area for hydration and hence faster the
development of strength. The fineness of grinding has increased over the years.
But now it has got nearly stabilised. Different cements are ground to different
fineness. The disadvantages of fine grinding are that it is susceptible to air set
and early deterioration. Maximum number of particles in a sample of cement
should have a size less than about 100 microns. The smallest particle may have
a size of about 1.5 microns. By and large an average size of the cement particles
may be taken as about 10 micron. The particle size fraction below 3 microns has
been found to have the predominant effect on the strength at one day while 3-
25 micron fraction has a major influence on the 28 days strength. Increase in
fineness of cement is also found to increase the drying shrinkage of concrete. In
commercial cement it is suggested that there should be about 25-30 per cent of
particles of less than 7 micron in size.

Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

a) By sieving.
b) By determination of specific
surface (total surface area of
all the particles in one gram
of cement) by air-
permeability apparatus.
Expressed as cm2/gm or
m2/kg. Generally Blaine Air
permeability apparatus is
used.

1. Sieve Test :

Weigh correctly 100 grams of cement and take it on a standard IS Sieve No. 9
(90 microns). Break down the air-set lumps in the sample with fingers.
Continuously sieve the sample giving circular and vertical motion for a period of
15 minutes. Mechanical sieving devices may also be used. Weigh the residue left
on the sieve. This weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. Sieve test is
rarely used.

Go to the following video clip to see a demonstration of how Fineness of cement

is tested.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44yrGm2fxfU&feature=related

2. Air Permeability Method:

This method of test covers the procedure for determining the fineness of cement
as represented by specific surface expressed as total surface area in cm2/gm. of
cement. It is also expressed in m2/kg. Lea and Nurse Air Permeability Apparatus
is shown. It can be used for measuring the specific surface of cement. The
principle is based on the relation between the flow of air through the cement bed
and the surface area of the particles comprising the cement bed. From this the
surface area per unit weight of the body material can be related to the
permeability of a bed of a given porosity. The cement bed in the permeability
cell is 1 cm. high and 2.5 cm. in diameter. Knowing the density of cement the
weight required to make a cement bed of porosity of 0.475 can be calculated.
This quantity of cement is placed in the permeability cell in a standard manner.
Slowly pass on air through the cement bed at a constant velocity. Adjust the
rate of air flow until the flow meter shows a difference in level of 30-50 cm.
Read the difference in level (h1) of the manometer and the difference in level
(h2) of the flow meter. Repeat these observations to ensure that steady
conditions have been obtained as shown by a constant value of h1/h2. Specific
surface Sw is calculated from the following formula:

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

where,
ξ = Porosity, i.e., 0.475
A= Area of the cement bed
L= Length (cm) of the cement bed
d = Density of cement, and
C= Flow meter constant.

Fineness can also be measured by Blain Air Permeability apparatus. This method
is more commonly employed in India.

Soundness

It is very important that the cement after setting shall not undergo any
appreciable change of volume. Certain cements have been found to undergo a
large expansion after setting causing disruption of the set and hardened mass.
This will cause serious difficulties for the durability of structures when such
cement is used. The testing of soundness of cement, to ensure that the cement
does not show any appreciable subsequent expansion is of prime importance.

Go to the following video clip to see a demonstration of how a Soundness Test is

conducted.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqxAabDdmTE

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The unsoundness in cement is due to the presence of excess of lime than that
could be combined with acidic oxide at the kiln. This is also due to inadequate
burning or insufficiency in fineness of grinding or thorough mixing of raw
materials. It is also likely that too high a proportion of magnesium content or
calcium sulphate content may cause unsoundness in cement. For this reason the
magnesia content allowed in cement is limited to 6 per cent. It can be recalled
that, to prevent flash set, calcium sulphate is added to the clinker while grinding.
The quantity of gypsum added will vary from 3 to 5 per cent depending upon
C3A content. If the addition of gypsum is more than that could be combined with
C3A, excess of gypsum will remain in the cement in Free State. This excess of
gypsum leads to an expansion and consequent disruption of the set cement
paste. Unsoundness in cement is due to excess of lime, excess of magnesia or
excessive proportion of sulphates. Unsoundness in cement does not come to
surface for a considerable period of time. Therefore, accelerated tests are
required to detect it. There are number of such tests in common use. The
apparatus is shown in figure. It consists of a small split cylinder of spring brass
or other suitable metal. It is 30 mm in diameter and 30 mm high. On either side
of the split are attached two indicator arms 165 mm long with pointed ends.
Cement is gauged with 0.78 times the water required for standard consistency
(0.78 P), in a standard manner and filled into the mould kept on a glass plate.
The mould is covered on the top with another glass plate. The whole assembly is
immersed in water at a temperature of 27°C – 32°C and kept there for 24 hours.

Measure the distance between the indicator points. Submerge the mould again
in water. Heat the water and bring to boiling point in about 25-30 minutes and
keep it boiling for 3 hours. Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool
and measure the distance between the indicator points. The difference between
these two measurements represents the expansion of cement. This must not
exceed 10 mm for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat Portland cements. If
in case the expansion is more than 10 mm as tested above, the cement is said
to be unsound.

The Le Chatelier test detects unsoundness due to free lime only. This method of
testing does not indicate the presence and after effect of the excess of
magnesia. Indian Standard Specification stipulates that cement having a
magnesia content of more than 3 per cent shall be tested for soundness by
Autoclave test which is sensitive to both free magnesia and free lime. In this test

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

a neat cement specimen 25 × 25 mm is placed in a standard autoclave and the

steam pressure inside the autoclave is raised in such a rate as to bring the
gauge pressure of the steam to 21 kg/cm2 in 1 – 11/ 4 hour from the time the
heat is turned on. This pressure is maintained for 3 hours. The autoclave is
cooled and the length measured again. The high steam pressure accelerates the
hydration of both magnesia and lime.

Consistency

For finding out initial setting time, final setting time and soundness of cement,
and strength a parameter known as standard consistency has to be used. It is
pertinent at this stage to describe the procedure of conducting standard
consistency test. The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that
consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger having 10 mm diameter and 50
mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould
shown in figure. The apparatus is called Vicat Apparatus. This apparatus is used
to find out the percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency. The standard consistency of the cement paste is some
time called normal consistency (CPNC).

The following procedures are adopted to find out standard consistency. Take
about 500 gms of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity of water
(say 24 per cent by weight of cement) for the first trial. The paste must be
prepared in a standard manner and filled into the Vicat mould within 3-5
minutes. After completely filling the mould, shake the mould to expel air. A
standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and brought down
to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly released allowing
it to sink into the paste by its own weight. Take the reading by noting the depth
of penetration of the plunger. Conduct a 2nd trial (say with 25 per cent of water)
and find out the depth of penetration of plunger. Similarly, conduct trials with
higher and higher water/ cement ratios till such time the plunger penetrates for
a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. That particular percentage of water which
allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top is
known as the percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency. This percentage is usually denoted as ‘P’. The test is
required to be conducted in a constant temperature (27° + 2°C) and constant
humidity (90%).

Setting Time Test:

An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of cement as initial
setting time and final setting time. It is difficult to draw a rigid line between
these two arbitrary divisions. For convenience, initial setting time is regarded as

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

the time elapsed between the moments that the water is added to the cement,
to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity. The final setting time is the
time elapsed between the moment the water is added to the cement, and the
time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient
firmness to resist certain definite pressure.

In actual construction dealing with cement paste, mortar or concrete certain

time is required for mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing.
During this time cement paste, mortar, or concrete should be in plastic
condition. The time interval for which the cement products remain in plastic
condition is known as the initial setting time. Normally a minimum of 30 minutes
is given for mixing and handling operations. The constituents and fineness of
cement is maintained in such a way that the concrete remains in plastic
condition for certain minimum time. Once the concrete is placed in the final
position, compacted and finished, it should lose its plasticity in the earliest
possible time so that it is least vulnerable to damages from external destructive
agencies. This time should not be more than 10 hours which is often referred to
as final setting time.

The Vicat Apparatus shown in figure is used for setting time test also. The
following procedure is adopted. Take 500 gm. of cement sample and gauge it
with 0.85 times the water required to produce cement paste of standard
consistency (0.85 P). The paste shall be gauged and filled into the Vicat mould in
specified manner within 3-5 minutes. Start the stop watch the moment water is
added to the cement. The temperature of water and that of the test room, at the
time of gauging shall be within27°C ± 2°C.

Figure 1: The Vicat Apparatus

Initial Setting Time Test:

Needle may penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. Lower the
needle (C) gently and bring it in contact with the surface of the test block and

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

quickly release. Allow it to penetrate into the test block. In the beginning, the
needle will completely pierce through the test block. But after some time when
the paste starts losing its plasticity, the between the time when water is added
to the cement and the time at which the needle penetrates the test block to a
depth equal to 33-35 mm from the top is taken as initial setting time.

Final Setting Time Test:

Replace the needle (C) of the Vicat apparatus by a circular attachment (F) shown
in the figure. The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon, lowering
the attachment gently cover the surface of the test block, the centre needle
makes an impression, while the circular cutting edge of the attachment fails to
do so. In other words the paste has attained such hardness that the centre
needle does not pierce through the paste more than 0.5 mm.

Go to the following video clips to see a demonstration of how the initial set time
and final set time and consistency of cement experiment is conducted.

Consistency of cement

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MrwAjLwycN8

Initial Setting Time

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Hh8i0lpuCs&feature=related

Final Setting Time

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ZvcKWUo1tg&feature=related

Compressive Strength

The current test for compressive strength of cements relates to samples of size
40 × 40 × 160 mm, made from a 3 : 1 sand/cement mortar with a water/cement
ratio of 0.5. The sample is first tested in flexure and then the broken pieces are
tested in compression using a special 40 × 40 mm jig. The test employs a
standard CEN sand of specified grading, the particle sizes being between 1.6 mm
and 80 m. A sand/cement ratio of 3 : 1 is employed with a water/ cement ratio
of 0.4. Standard sands such as Leighton Buzzard sand should be checked
against the EN 196 specification before being used. The mortar is prepared by
mechanical mixing. Requirements for the compressive strength of mortar cubes
are given in the following table.

Note that an extra letter is added after the strength class to denote the rate of
early strength development. Most common cements are given the letter ‘N’
corresponding to normal development, while the letters ‘L’ and ‘R’ are used to
denote low and rapid rates of development respectively.

Table 4: Strength requirements of mortar cubes

Data taken from BS 12 (1996)

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Early strength Standard strength

(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Class 2 days 7 days 28 days
32.5N - 16 32.5 52.5
42.5N 10 - 42.5 62.5
52.5N 20 - 52.5 72.5

Go to the following video clip to see a demonstration of how compressive

strength testing is done.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Gq3bzLRWtM

2.2.4 High-alumina cement

It is important to appreciate that the high-alumina cement (HAC) is not Portland
cement and has quite different properties. It was developed in the 1930s to
resist sulphates and is manufactured from limestone and bauxite (aluminium
ore). The main cementing ingredient is mono-calcium aluminate (CA using
cement notation) and since C3A (Tricalcium Aluminate) is not present; the
cement normally has good sulphate resistance. It also exhibits very rapid
hardening properties (but is not quick setting). In consequence, the cement has
been widely used for precasting, since the turn-round time of expensive steel
moulds is reduced. The design of HAC concrete is in fact based on 24-hour
strength rather than 28-day strength for OPC concrete. Concretes made with
HAC are usually a darker colour than Portland cement equivalents, reflecting the
dark grey colour of the cement. Use of HAC concrete for structural purposes in
building has been banned since 1973 following the collapse of a school roof and
swimming pool roof. At least partly responsible for the collapse was the
phenomenon of ‘conversion’. This is the name given to a rearrangement of the
crystalline hydrate which results in the formation of pores in the concrete. This
leads in turn to permeability and reduced strength. Conversion was initially
thought to be associated with high temperatures and humidity (as might occur in
a swimming pool environment), though it is now known to occur slowly in
normal conditions. The strength reduction can be minimised by use of low
water/cement ratio concretes. These concretes not only have higher initial
strength, but on conversion, it is possible that residual unhydrated cement can
hydrate, filling pores as they are formed. There are many HAC structures still in
existence, but these should be periodically checked to determine the degree of
conversion and the consequent effect on strength. On heating to high
temperatures HAC forms a ceramic bond and is hence widely used for refractory
purposes such as flue linings.

Go to the following website for more information on HAC.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 15

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

http://www.almatis.com/download/technical-
papers/High%20Calcium%20Aluminate%20Cements_and_Chemical_Binders.pdf

2.3 Aggregates for Concrete

Aggregates are used in concrete for the following reasons:

 They greatly reduce cost’

 They reduce the heat output per unit volume of concrete and therefore
reduce thermal stress.
 They reduce the shrinkage of the concrete.
 They help to produce a concrete with satisfactory plastic properties.

There may be other reasons for which ‘special’ aggregates would be employed;
for example:

 Low-density concrete (2000 kg/m3 or less) to decrease foundation loads,

increase thermal insulation and reduce thermal inertia (lightweight
aggregates).
 High-density concrete (2600 kg/m3 or more) as required, for example, for
radiation shielding (barytes – barium sulphate – or iron-based
aggregates).
 Abrasion-resistant concretes for floors (granite or carborundum
aggregates).
 Improved fire resistance (limestone, lightweight aggregates such as
expanded pulverised fuel ash).
 Decorative aggregates – for example, crushed granite is available in
several different colours which can be revealed by use of an exposed
aggregate finish.

2.3.1 Maximum Aggregate Size

As a general rule

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Table 5: Concrete aggregate sizes: typical applications

Nominal max size (mm) Application
40 Mass concrete, road construction
20 General concrete work, including
reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
10 Thin sections, screeds over 50mm
thickness
5 Screeds of 50mm thickness or less

Larger aggregates result in a lower sand requirement. This reduces the specific
surface of the aggregate overall and consequently reduces water and cement
requirements. The resulting concrete should therefore be more economical and
exhibit lower shrinkage for a given strength.

There are, of course, constraints on the maximum size that can be employed;
first the maximum aggregate size should not exceed approximately one-fifth of
the minimum dimension in the structure, consideration also being given to
spacing between reinforcing bars. Secondly, the aggregate chosen will need to
be a size that is readily available. The standard sizes, together with typical
applications are given in table 5.

Aggregates which are largely retained on a 5mm mesh sieve are described as
coarse aggregates. These may comprise uncrushed natural gravels which result
from the natural disintegration of rock or crushed stones and crushed gravel,
produced by crushing hard stone and gravel respectively. Aggregates that
largely pass a 5mm sieve are referred to as sands. (The current edition of
BS882, 1992, uses the term ‘sand’ in preference to ‘fine aggregate’ though the
latter term is retained in the latest edition of the DoE method of mix design. The
term ‘fines’, is reserved for material such as silt or clay, passing the 75 m
sieve.) Sands may comprise natural sands; that is, sands resulting from natural
disintegration of rock or crushed stone, or crushed gravel sands.

2.3.2 Grading of aggregates

Aggregates for concrete are usually graded continuously from their maximum
size down the size of the cement grains, since this ensures that all voids
between larger particles are filled without an excess of fine materials. (It will be
recalled that an excess of fine material results in increased water and cement
requirements, as explained above.) This effect is illustrated in the following
figure.

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 2: Polished section of concrete, viewed with a scanning electron microscope, showing a chert aggregate particle
with extensive internal cracks due to ASR (Alkali Silica Reaction). The cracks extend from the aggregate into the nearby
concrete (arrowed).

Both crushed and uncrushed natural gravels have naturally continuous gradings,
but to comply with BS 882, the gradings must be within certain limits. Gradings
are determined by passing aggregates through a set of standard sieves, the
particular sieves used depending on the maximum aggregate size. The grading is
then defined by the percentage of the total sample used which passes each
sieve. Table 6 shows the sieves used for concreting sands, together with
specimen results.

Table 6: Example sieve analysis of a sand used for concreting

Sieve size Cumulative
Mass
Mass Mass Percentage
retained
retained passing (g) passing
(g)
(g)
10 mm 0 0 287 100
5 mm 6 6 281 98
2.36 mm 17 23 264 92
1.18 mm 32 55 232 81
600 m 48 103 184 64
300 m 81 184 103 36
150 m 86 270 17 6
Passing 150m 17 287 - -

These are plotted in the following figure; note that the sieve sizes are not plotted
to a linear scale, successive sizes being spaced equally instead, and points are
joined by straight lines. This figure shows also the limits of BS 882 grading F into
which this particular sand fits.

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 3: Sand grading corresponding to sieve analysis results (red line). The F grading envelope into which this sand fits
is also indicated.

Figure 4: This table was taken from BS 882 and shows the maximum and minimum permissible amount of sand
according to size

The current edition of the standard gives three gradings, C, M and F,

corresponding to fine, medium and coarse sands, replacing the four ‘zones’ of
earlier editions. This reflects the fact that the previous zones were rather
restrictive in terms of sand acceptance; materials which did not comply with a
‘zone’ often being perfectly acceptable for use in concrete, with suitable mix
proportioning. There are no rigid distinctions between the C, M and F gradings
and an aggregate may comply with two of the envelopes. The aggregate shown
in figure 3, for example, complies with grading M as well as with grading F.
However, very fine gradings may cause problems and BS 882 states that sands

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

should comply with gradings C or M if being used for heavy duty concrete floor
finishes.

Concrete aggregates are not assigned grading ‘zones’, since the range of particle
size is, in general, smaller than that of sands. They should, however, fit into a
BS grading envelope for that particular size and type.

2.3.3 Aggregate Density

Before classifying aggregates into density groups, it is necessary first to examine
the meaning of the term ‘density’, since a number of differing definitions exist,
according to the context of use.

Relative and solid density

Most aggregates comprise a mass of solid material containing air pores which
may or may not be accessible to water. The term which describes the density of
the solid material itself is relative density (formerly called specific gravity) or
density relative to that of water, though several definitions are possible
according to the way in which accessible pores are treated.

Perhaps the most important of these is relative density in the saturated

surface dry (SSD) state – that is, when all accessible pores are full of water but
the aggregate surface is dry. This relative density usually forms the basis of mix
design methods and is defined as:

( )

Note that because it is a ratio, relative density has no units.

Relative density could be defined in other ways – for example, by taking the
mass of dry aggregate with the same volume as given above. (This is referred to
as the oven dry relative density and gives a lower result because the mass in
the numerator of the equation does not include the mass of water as
previously.)

In the case of most natural aggregates, void contents are small, so that
differences between the various definitions of relative density are
correspondingly small. The term ‘solid density’ will be taken to mean 1000 ×
relative density (say, on a saturated surface dry basis), normally having the
units kg/m3.

Bulking and Bulk density

When aggregates are loosely packed together or stockpiled, large volume of air
are trapped between particles – usually many times the volume of air present
within particles. This is referred to as ‘bulking’ and for coarse aggregates it
amounts to between 30 and 50 per cent of the total space occupied. The extent

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

of bulking of sands depends very much on their moisture content. The void
content of dry sand may be quite small – say, 20 per cent since the particles of
different sizes exhibit a void filling action. This can increase to 40 per cent when
5-10 per cent moisture is present, thereafter decreasing as further moisture
tends to assist particles to consolidate. The bulking at intermediate moisture
contents is the result of thin water films increasing friction between sand
particles. The situation is illustrated in fig. 5.

Bulking of aggregates produces uncertainty in the solid content of aggregates

batched by volume and for this reason batching by weight (mass) is much
preferred, except for concrete having only nominal performance requirements.
Hence, most concrete production equipment is geared to weight batching.

2.3.4 Low-, medium- and high-density Aggregates

Most natural aggregates have solid densities within quite a narrow range of
values, between 2400 and 2700 kg/m3 (corresponding to relative densities
between 2.4 and 2.7). These would result in concrete having densities normally
in the range 2200-2500 kg/m3, slightly lower than the corresponding aggregate
densities on account of the water content of the concrete.

Lightweight aggregates comprise highly porous particles and are widely used in
the construction industry. They have the advantage that:

 Fewer raw materials are used in producing the concrete.

 Foundation loads are reduced.
 Thermal properties are improved.

Examples of synthetic lightweight aggregates are sintered pulverised fuel ash,

expanded clay, blast-furnace slag and expanded slate. Natural lightweight
aggregates such as pumice may also be used. Densities as low as 500 kg/m3 can
be obtained in this way

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 6: Lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA)

Figure 5: Fly ash (also known as Pulverised fuel could be used in construction fields, such as lightweight
1
ash/chimney ash/hopper ash) aggregate of L. W. A. concrete, insulating layer against
heat or cold, sound absorbing material.

Figure 7: Ground granulated blast furnace slag powder; is Figure 8: Expanded shale or slate allows excess water to
used to make durable concrete structures in combination drain away. This natural rock is kiln-fired to form small
with ordinary Portland cement and/or other pozzolanic pockets on its surface that hold air, moisture, and
materials. nutrients, making them available for plants.

Figure 9: Pumice is basically lava froth, an extrusive rock frozen as its dissolved gases come out of solution. It looks solid
but often floats on water.

There are certain situations in which high-density concretes are required – for
example, for radiation shielding for nuclear reactor vessels. Such concretes are
produced by use of high-density aggregates such as:

1
For more info go to the following site: http://www.concretebasics.org/articlesinfo/fa1.php

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 22

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

 Barytes (barium sulphate); relative density 4.1.

 Magnetite (iron ore) relative density 4.5.
 Metallic aggregates such as steel shot relative densities over 7.0.

Metallic aggregates may result in concrete having over twice its normal density.

2.3.5 Silt and clay (defined in BS 882 as ‘fines’)

These may be defined as material passing a 75 m sieve (compared with the
smallest BS sieve size for sand, 150 m).

Sands are likely to contain more silt than coarse aggregates and a rapid
estimate of the silt/clay content of sands (other than crushed stone sands) can
be made by a ‘field settling test’. The test involves shaking a measuring cylinder
containing a 1 per cent salt and sand mixture. The salt helps to separate the silt
into a separate layer whose volume can be measured after being allowed to
stand for three hours. (See next figure). If the amount is more than
approximately 8 per cent by volume, separate tests are necessary to determine
whether the material passing the 75 m sieve by weight is in excess of the BS
882 limit of 4 per cent for natural sand and crushed gravel sand or 16 per cent
for crushed rock sand. Coarse aggregates can be checked for silt and clay by
visual inspection. When in doubt, the test of BS 812: Part 103.1 should be used
to ascertain whether the silt content is in excess of BS 882 limits.

2.3.6 Moisture contents

It is advisable during quality concreting to check moisture contents of
aggregates prior to batching, so that accurate adjustment of batch weights can
be made where necessary. The amount of free-water in aggregates should be
deducted from the water to be added, and batch quantities of aggregates must
be slightly increased if free water is present since some of the ‘aggregate’ is
actually water. (A further possibility, though this is not common with natural
aggregates in the UK, is that extra water may be required if the aggregates are
dry, such that they absorb water on wetting. The latter situation is quite
common with lightweight aggregates which absorb substantial quantities of
water.) Sands normally trap more water than is trapped by coarse aggregates,
since there are more points of contact between particles.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 23

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Aggregate stockpiles are normally wet, assuming that they are replenished
regularly, though the surface may dry, especially in warm windy weather. In this
situation there may be quite large variations in moisture content from place to
place, requiring additional care when batching.

The principles of three types of test are given below and in each case the aim
will be to obtain the free-water content of the aggregates since no adjustment is
necessary in mixing water for moisture which is absorbed within aggregate
particles.

Figure 10: Field settling test for detection of silt/clay in sand.

Drying Methods

In these a sample of damp aggregate is carefully weighed (Mw) and dried until it
reaches a saturated surface dry condition. A suitable method is by hairdryer,
sand being dried uniformly until it is just free flowing. Coarse aggregate should
be dried until all traces of surface moisture have disappeared. A frying pan on a
gas or electric ring may alternatively be used (though care is necessary to
ensure uniform heating of the sample). The aggregate is then weighed again
(Md). The moisture based on wet weight is then given by:

( )

Siphon can

This relies on the fact that the volume of an accurately measured mass of
aggregate of given density depends on the amount of moisture in it, water
having a density of only approximately 40 per cent that of most natural
aggregates. Hence the greater the moisture content, the greater the volume of a
given mass (normally 2kg). A sample of dried aggregate is necessary for the
test. To give the free-water content this should be in the saturated surface

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

dry condition. Accurate weighing of dry and damp samples is necessary in this
method, which is suitable for both coarse aggregate and sand.

Calcium carbide method

A rapid estimate of the moisture content of sand can be made by mixing a

standard quantity of aggregate with an excess of calcium carbide in a pressure
vessel. The calcium carbide reacts with moisture, releasing a gas whose pressure
is measured. The pressure scale is calibrated to read moisture content based on
wet weight directly. This method measures the free-moisture contents of hard
materials such as aggregate, since the calcium carbide cannot easily penetrate
pores in the stones. The sample size for this test is quite small so that careful
sampling is necessary for sand and the test is not suitable for coarse aggregate
– there would be too few particles to give a representative sample.

2.3.7 Correction for moisture contents

A method of correction of batch quantities for a given volume of concrete will be
illustrated by means of a worked example. Determine the correct batch
quantities for 1 cubic metre of concrete if the quantities based on saturated
surface dry aggregates are:

Cement 310 kg
Sand 650 kg
Coarse Aggregate 1190 kg
Water 180 litres

Moisture content of sand and coarse aggregates is 4.5 and 1.5 per cent
respectively, based on wet weight.

Answer

The moisture in 650 kg of sand equals

Hence, add this amount to the quantity of sand giving

650 + 29.29 = 679.25 (say 680) kg

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 25

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

as the correct batch mass of sand.

The moisture in 1190 kg of coarse aggregates equals

Again this amount must be added to the quantity of coarse aggregate, giving

1190 + 17.85 = 1207.85 (say 1208) kg

as the correct batch quantity of coarse aggregate.

To obtain the batch quantity of water, the water contents above are subtracted
from the given batch quantity:

180 – (29.28 + 17.85) = 132.9 (say 133)kg, or litres

It may be argued that the above method is inaccurate, since the extra material
added to sand and coarse aggregates also contains water, which should be
allowed for. Strictly speaking this is true, but the errors in percentage terms are
small enough to be ignored and the actual errors would normally be smaller than
the tolerances in batching equipment. The above method is given on the account
of its simplicity.

For more information about aggregates go to the following site:

http://training.ce.washington.edu/wsdot/Modules/03_materials/03-
2_body.htm#durability_soundness

2.4 Water for Concrete

Water is the chemical means by which cement is converted from a powder into a
hardened material with strength and durability. It therefore needs to be of
appropriate quality and two main aspects may need to be considered.

2.4.1 Organic contamination

Water which is in contact with organic matter such as vegetation can be
contaminated by organic acids. These can reduce the rate of hydration by
increasing the pH value (acidity) of the wet concrete. Water which appears green
due to the presence of algae can lead to air entrainment which reduces strength.

2.4.2 Dissolved salts

Sea water, for example, may contain dissolved salts such as sulphates which can
react with the hydrated cement, or chlorides which tend to accelerate hydration
and increase the risk of corrosion of embedded steel. Where chlorides are
present the salt content of the water should be added to that of the aggregates
to obtain a combined total figure. This should then be checked against allowable
values.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 26

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

In general, clear, flowing water or drinking water should be suitable for

production of concrete but, if in doubt, cubes can be made to the required
specification and checked against similar cubes made with distilled water. BS
3148 (substituted by BS EN 1008 2002) gives details.

2.5 Principles of Proportioning Concrete Mixes

Consideration has already been given to properties of cements and aggregates
and it is now necessary to identify the important properties of the concrete itself
in the fresh and hardened states and to examine the effect of materials types
and proportions on them.

Perhaps the most important single term in understanding how mix parameters
affect concrete properties is the water/cement ratio.

Note that the free-water/cement ratio is the most important ratio since it is this
that affects strength and durability. Free-water/cement ratio would be based on
the free-water content of the mix – that is, water absorbed in the aggregates is
disregarded.

A further term traditionally used is the aggregate cement/ratio.

For most concrete mixes the aggregate/cement ratio would be in the range 4-
10, small ratios indicating rich, expensive mixes and high ratios lean, cheaper
mixes. Although mortars are still commonly specified in terms of aggregate
(sand)/cement ratios the richness of concrete mixes is now more commonly
specified in terms of cement content per cubic metre. For example, an
aggregate/cement ratio of 4 would correspond to about 450 kg of cement per
cubic metre while an aggregate/cement ratio of 10 would correspond to about
200kg of cement per cubic metre. One advantage of expressing the richness of
mixes in terms of cement content is that the cost of the concretes of varying
richness can be relative easily compared, cement being the most costly item.

2.5.1 Properties of fresh Concrete

The fresh concrete must be satisfactory in relation to its workability and its
cohesion.

Workability

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 27

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Of these three operations, the greatest emphasis should be placed on

compaction, (elimination of air voids), since the consequences of inadequate
compaction are serious.

(Note that the new BS EN 206 uses the term consistence instead of workability,
though the latter term will be retained here in view of its current continued use
in the industry.)

Workability may be measured by the slump test, compacting factor test and
Vebe test (BS 1881: Parts 102-104), for which brief details of each will be given.
For each test it is essential that a representative sample of concrete be obtained.
Details of how to obtain such samples are given in BS 1881: Part 101.

In the slump test concrete is placed into a special cone in three layers of equal
height, each layer being compacted in a standard manner. On removing the
cone the concrete ‘slumps’, the slump being equal to the difference between the
height of the cone and the highest point of the concrete. (See figure 12). When
the concrete slumps evenly, a ‘true slump is said to occur. In less cohesive
concretes, collapse may occur on an n inclined shear plane, producing a ‘shear’
slump. A wet mix of low cohesion may produce a ‘collapse’ slump. Slumps may
vary from zero for dry concrete mixes, through 50-70 mm for medium
workability concretes to 150mm or more for wet or harsh mixes. The test is
widely used as an on-site check, though it is not suitable for dry mixes which
tend to give low or zero slumps.

Figure 11: Slump cone and rod

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 12:Types of slump: (a) collapse slump, (b) shear slump, (c) true slump

Go to the following videos to see field testing concrete methods.

Field testing concrete Part 1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W64uhS5TBn0&feature=relmfu

Field testing concrete Part 2

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHPvFRhwO2c&feature=relmfu

Field testing concrete Part 3 Air content

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTK1RXs0ULc&feature=relmfu

Figure 13: Compacting Factor test

In the compacting factor test concrete is first gently loaded into a hopper, is
then allowed to fall vertically into a similar lower hopper and finally into a
cylinder, by the action of gravity. The concrete in the cylinder is then struck off
level and weighed. The cylinder is emptied and refilled, this time with fully
compacting the concrete. The ratio

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

is known as the ‘compacting factor’. The value will approach unity for wet mixes
(for which the test is not suitable) and may be as low as 0.65 for very dry
mixes.

Go to the following site to see the compacting factor test.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRo2vYw_QPI

The third test, the Vebe test utilises a slump cone in a cylindrical container fixed
to a small vibrating table. A slump test is first carried out and a Perspex disc
attached to a vertical guide is allowed to rest gently on the concrete. The table is
then made to vibrate and the time taken for the underside of the Perspex disc to
become completely covered in concrete is measured in seconds. The time may
vary from a few seconds for wet mixes (for which the test is not suitable) to over
20 seconds for dry concretes.

Go to the following site to see the Vebe test

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8n2wpCwYtq4&feature=related

Figure 14: A sketch of a Vebe consistometer

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 15: Vebe consistometer model

Comments on workability tests

From the descriptions given above it will be evident that the slump test is the
most suitable for the measurement of medium to high workability. The test has
the advantage that the equipment is simple, portable and does not require an
electrical supply.

The compacting factor test is sensitive to medium and low workability, though its
use is not included in the current DoE design document Design of normal
concrete mixes since ‘it is not possible to establish consistent relationships
between it and the slump or Vebe tests’. The compacting factor test may
nevertheless be useful as a control test for drier concretes and is used in civil
engineering applications.

The Vebe test has the disadvantage of requiring mains electricity, though it is
very sensitive to changes in the water content of dry mixes, this providing the
main basis for its use.

It is important to appreciate that all the above tests are used to check the
workability of the concrete, once mixed; and that, since design methods rarely
give a very accurate water batch quantity, even with moisture content
correction, there is a need to be able to judge the workability of the concrete

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

while in the mixer. The mixer operator may well be able to do this, for example,
by the appearance of the concrete, the sound made by the concrete within the
drum, or the sound of the engine or motor which is used to drive the mixer,
since drier mixes may increase the power consumption. Hence an experienced
mixer operator is a very useful part of the construction team in producing
concrete of consistently correct workability.

Workability requirements

The workability of concrete for a given situation should be the minimum value
that will ensure full compaction with the plant available, due consideration being
given to difficulties that may arise from access, congested reinforcement or
depth of pour. The following table gives the main workability categories and
applications.

Factors affecting Workability

The chief factor affecting workability is water content

(usually expressed as volume in litres of water per cubic
metre of concrete)

For a given aggregate type and size, workability is highly sensitive to changes of
water content – for example, in the case of 20mm uncrushed aggregate, a water
content of 160 litres per cubic metre would result in low workability, while a
water content of 200 litres would result in high workability.

The following factors also affect workability:

 Maximum aggregate size

A smaller maximum aggregate results in a higher specific surface (surface area

per unit mass) of the mix overall. Therefore more water is required to ‘wet’ the
larger surface areas involved. For a given aggregate type, decreasing the
maximum size from 20 to 10mm would increase the water requirement by
approximately 10 per cent. Increasing the maximum aggregate size from 20 to
40 mm would clearly have the reverse effect.

 Aggregate shape

Crushed (angular) aggregates similarly result in a larger specific surface than

uncrushed (irregular) aggregates and therefore an increase of 15-20% in water
requirement.

 Aggregate surface texture

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Aggregates having a coarse surface texture will also increase water

requirements, though it should perhaps be added that, for high-strength
concretes, angular shapes combined with a rough surface texture allow fuller
exploitation of hard aggregate. Conversely, the strength of concretes made with
natural flint-based gravels is limited at the high-strength end by a tendency of
smooth aggregate surfaces to debond from the cement mortar under stress.

The workability of concrete can also be greatly influenced by incorporating

plasticisers. Their use in industry is therefore increasing. Plasticisers effectively
make the water ‘wetter’ so that less is required. A 10% reduction is easily
achievable at constant workability. (The action is similar to that by which the
cleansing power of water is improved by the addition of soap, which reduces the
surface tension of water). Even greater effectiveness can be achieved by use of
superplasticisers which are used at higher dosages and achieve 20% or greater
reductions in water without loss of workability. These materials can be used to
enhance the quality of concrete provided they are used correctly and not used as
an economy measure to reduce the amount of cement in the concrete.

Cohesion

Though perhaps not of such critical importance as workability, the choice of

concrete of correct cohesion is an essential part of the mix design process.
Cohesion (or cohesiveness) may be defined as the ability of the fresh concrete to
resist segregation, though a cohesive mix will also be easier to finish than a
relatively harsh mix. The cohesion in a concrete mx is provided by the fine
material – that is, the finer fractions of sand and the cement. It follows that
richer mixes which have higher cement content should, in general, have a
reduced sand requirement and this is obtained when concrete is designed by the
DoE method of mix design. It should perhaps also be stated that cohesion should
be the minimum required for the purpose. If, in common with workability,
cohesion is higher than necessary, the water content of the mix will also be
unnecessarily high, leading to the disadvantages described earlier.

2.5.2 Properties of hardened Concrete

In the context of mix design the most important properties of concrete are
strength and durability.

Strength

This is normally considered to be the most important property in relation to

mature concrete. In the UK, ‘strength’ most commonly means compressive
strength as measured by cubes manufactured, cured and tested according to BS
1881

(Note that the European Standard (BS EN 206) will refer to cylinders also, which
in general give lower strength results for a given concrete mix than cube test
results. When specifying strength it is therefore important that the type of test

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 33

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

required is included in the description. All references made to strength below will
be to compressive cube strength.)

The strength of concrete is affected by the following aspects of mix materials

and proportions:

 Free-water/cement ratio

As the quantity of free-water in a mix increases in relation to the quantity of

cement, the density and, consequently, the strength of the concrete decrease.
At very low water/cement ratios (e.g. below 0.4) a significant part of the cement
never hydrates, due to inadequate space and/or inadequate water. Since
unhydrated cement is of high strength, the resulting product will also be of high
strength, provided full compaction is achieved. At water/cement ratios above
0.4, the expansion of cement on hydration is insufficient to occupy the space
previously filled with water. Hence porosity increases and strength decreases. At
water/cement ratios in the range of 0.3-1.0, strength increases progressively
with decreasing water/cement ratio. At values below 0.3 strength of fully
compacted concrete continues to rise, reaching values over 100N/mm2 at 0.2 or
less, though the concrete is very difficult to compact at such values. Plasticisers
or superplasticisers would be used to help achieve these high-strength levels.

 Aggregate properties

Crushed aggregates generally result in higher strength than uncrushed

aggregates, since they form a better key with hydrated cement. To obtain very
high strengths the use of crushed aggregates may be essential.

 Cement type

Where high early strength is required, the use of rapid-hardening Portland

cement (52.5N) may be considered, though long-term strength will be similar to
that of OPC (42.5N).

Durability

The durability of normal concrete depends mainly on its

permeability, and hence on the porosity of the hydrated
cement.

The arguments determining durability are similar to those given under strength,
low water/cement ratios resulting in greatest durability. To illustrate this,
concretes of free water/cement ratio 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 would result in very good,
moderate and poor durability respectively in concrete subject to average
exposure. It is not always easy to measure the free-water/cement ratio in
production, so that durability is sometimes specified alternatively by means of

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 34

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

minimum cement content on the basis that, for a given workability, the water
content would be constant; hence, by specifying cement content, one is
effectively specifying a water/cement ratio. Another way of specifying durability
indirectly is by specifying strength, though the correlation depends on aggregate
properties.

2.6 Perspective concrete mixes

There are various ways of proportioning concrete mixes, but they all converge to
the same point – that is, the identification of batch quantities for a given volume
of concrete. The simplest way is by prescription, in which mixes are specified
by referring directly to their constituent quantities.

Nominal mixes

This is the simplest and least rigorous way of specifying concrete. For oversize
concrete or strip foundations it may be sufficient to specify ratios such as

1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts coarse aggregate

Or, even simpler

1 part cement, 6 parts all-in aggregate (ballast)

The aggregate size and workability should also be stated. It may be satisfactory
to batch concrete by volume (for example, using gauging boxes) for such mixes.
They may produce perfectly adequate concrete, but offer little control over
variations and so would not be acceptable where structural concrete is specified.

Standard mixes

Examples of these can be found in BS 5328. The next table gives batch
quantities for one cubic metre of concrete for 20 mm aggregate. The quantities
shown will ‘normally’ give characteristic strengths stated in the table. Volume
batching is permitted for mixes ST1, ST2 and ST3. This procedure permits a
simple approach to specifying structural concrete, albeit of limited strength-
maximum characteristic value 25 N/mm2. Note the simple numerical differences
between the figures in the table. Cube testing is not required but might be
specified as a quality control tool.

28 day
125
Standard Characteristic 75 mm
Constituents mm
mix strength slump
2 slump
(N/mm )
Cement (kg) 210 230
ST1 7.5
Total aggregate (kg) 1940 1880
Cement (kg) 240 260
ST2 10.0
Total aggregate (kg) 1920 1860
ST3 15.0 Cement (kg) 270 300

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 35

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Total aggregate (kg) 1890 1820

Cement (kg) 300 330
ST4 20.0
Total aggregate (kg) 1860 1800
Cement (kg) 340 370
ST5 25.0
Total aggregate (kg) 1830 1770
ST1
Sand (percentage by mass of
ST2 35-50 35-50
total aggregate)
ST3
Sand (percentage by mass of
total aggregate)
ST4
Sand grading C 35-45 35-45
ST5
Sand grading M 30-40 30-40
Sand grading F 25-35 25-35

Designated mixes

These are recommended mixes for specific applications. BS 5328, for example,
defines a ‘GEN 1’ concrete suitable for a range of applications including

 Blinding and mass concrete fill

 Strip footings
 Mass concrete foundations
 Trench fill foundations
 Unreinforced house floors (under screed)
 Drainage applications

In all the above applications standard mix ST2 is identified with workability
appropriate to application. Hence designated mixes provide a simple way of
specifying concrete for common applications.

2.7 Calculation of concrete fresh density

It is only from an accurate knowledge of concrete density that batch
masses of cement and aggregates for a given volume of concrete can be
reliably predicted. The following technique is therefore given and serves
as an alternative to the DOE method of mix design.

Suppose for example, that 400 m3 of concrete are to be produced. The

batch quantities per cubic metre are:

Water 210 litres

Cement 360 kg
Sand 865 kg
Coarse aggregate 965 kg

The relative densities of the aggregates are required. In general, the

relative density of each material is calculated by the following formula;

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 36

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

where RD = relative density

= the density of the substance being measured

= the density of the reference

Relative density (RD) or specific gravity (SG) is a dimensionless quantity,

as it is the ratio of either densities or weights.

The reference material can be indicated using subscripts:

RDsubstance/reference, which means "the relative density of substance with
respect to reference". If the reference is not explicitly stated then it is
normally assumed to be water at 4 °C (or, more precisely, 3.98 °C, which
is the temperature at which water reaches its maximum density).
In SI units, the density of water is (approximately) 1000 kg/m3 or
1 g/cm3, which makes relative density calculations particularly
convenient: the density of the object only needs to be divided by 1000 or
1, depending on the units.

Tables of densities of each material can be found from the internet. But
make sure that the data is reliable. For calculation purposes it is sufficient
to use such tables but to calculate the exact value one should rely on
testing directly the material.

The relative density of the cement is normally assumed to be 3.15. See

the following site for more relative density materials.
http://www.reade.com/Particle_Briefings/spec_gra2.html

The figures are tabulated as in the following table, and, to simplify them,
all figures are divided by the mass of cement, giving masses which would
correspond to 1 kg of cement.

Mass ratio
Relative Volume
Material Mass (kg) (per kg of
density (litres)
cement)

Water 210 0.583 1.00 0.583

Cement 360 1 3.15 0.317

Sand 865 2.403 2.70 0.890

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 37

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Coarse
965 2.681 2.70 0.993
aggregate

Total 2400 6.667 2.783

The mass ratio of water is find by direct proportion with those of cement.
i.e.

Hence the volume of water was found by using the standard density
equation. i.e. .

In this case

The other quantities were worked in a similar manner.

Then, the concrete density can be found by dividing the total mass by the
total volume. i.e.

Or, to the nearest 10kg/m3 = 2400 kg/m3. (Note; 1000 litre = 1m3)

This figure agrees with the following graph.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 38

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 16: Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete. (crown copyright)

To obtain the batch quantities for 400 m3 of concrete, the batch quantities
per m3 are simply multiplied by 400. If, as may be the case, mass ratios
only are given, the ratios are multiplied by the appropriate factor:

(in our example)

to give batch quantities per cubic metre. The procedure is then as before.
If the presence of air is to be allowed for in calculating density (as, for
example, in air-entrained concrete, used to increase frost resistance), this
is easily done by increasing the total volume of concrete (but not the
mass) by the percentage of air that is expected.

Exercise
Calculate the concrete density of the following mixture:

Water 180 litres

Cement 320 kg
Sand 755 kg
Coarse aggregate 845 kg

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 39

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Answer

Mass ratio
Relative Volume
Material Mass (kg) (per kg of
density (litres)
cement)

Water 180 0.5625 1.00 0.5625

Cement 320 1 3.15 0.317

Sand 755 2.359 2.70 0.874

Coarse
845 2.641 2.60 1.016
aggregate

Total 2100 6.5625 2.7695

Or, to the nearest 10kg/m3 = 2370 kg/m3.

Q1. Compare these results with figure 1 as see whether they match.
What do you conclude from these results and figure 1?

Q2. Calculate the batch quantities to produce 600 m3 of concrete.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 40

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

2.8 Curing of concrete

Curing is the process by which cement is enabled to hydrate. Since water is
involved in the process it is important to maintain the concrete in s saturated
condition for a sufficient length of time to develop a satisfactory hydrate
structure. This is essential not only in relation to strength development but also
to enable the concrete to withstand the stresses caused by shrinkage. The
minimum period for this is usually considered to be about one week, though it
may be longer with cements which hydrate slowly, such as pozzolanic types. The
temperature is also an important factor, the ‘ideal’ value being between 5 and
15oC since hydration is very slow at lower temperatures, while high
temperatures tend to cause evaporation, together with an inferior ‘gel’ structure.
With care, concrete can be cured up to temperatures of about 30oC. In no
circumstances must concrete be allowed to freeze before it reaches maturity;
the accompanying expansion of water could cause serious surface damage.

As an aid to memory it may be added that if good concrete is to be produced,

the four ‘C’s should be considered:

Cement content
Cover to steel reinforcement
Compaction
Curing

Go to see the following video to see a lesson on internal concrete curing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ee0HGlwKvMY&feature=related

2.9 Durability of concrete

In the 1980s, there was increasing concern over the rate of deterioration of
some concrete structures. This, and the fact that concrete buildings can be very
expensive to repair, together with a revitalised steel industry, led to a decline in
the use of concrete for some applications. In most instances, deterioration of
concrete could be linked to failure to implement existing technology due, for
example, to a lack of supervision, though, in a few instances, decay has been
the result of inadequate understanding of the behaviour of the material. There is
now a greater awareness of potential problems and greater confidence in the
performance of concrete generally.

Almost all forms of deterioration are the result of

water ingress.

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

The need to keep water out of structures, or to take special care where this is
not feasible, cannot be overstated. The action of water may be two-fold:

1. Physical attack, where water itself crystallises on freezing or where

drying out causes damage due to crystallisation of dissolved salts in the
water.
2. Chemical damage. Most forms of chemical damage are associated with
water since water is essential for the formation of ions – the chemically
active form of salts or other materials.

The main types of deterioration are given below.

2.9.1 Frost attack

There are three prerequisites for frost attack:

1. A permeable form of concrete able to admit water.

2. The presence of water (though materials need not be saturated to be
affected by frost).
3. Temperatures below 0oC.

The mechanism of attack has long been attributed to the 10% expansion of
absorbed water on freezing, though it is now known that further damage can
result from movement of water within concrete on cooling below 0oC. Ice builds
up in large pores and cracks and may cause very large expansion in such
positions, while other areas become dryer (desiccation). Perhaps the extreme
example of this is frost heave, as found in soils where large ice lenses can be
obtained. Frost damage in concrete is exaggerated as follows:

1. Horizontal surfaces tend to absorb more water in wet conditions, take a

longer time to dry and also cool quicker by radiation to the sky on a clear
night.
2. Very low temperatures increase the extent of migration of water and
result in freezing to greater depths in the concrete.
3. Repeated freezing and thawing (rather than prolonged steady freezing)
add to the damage. Once freezing has occurred no further damage is done
at a steady low temperature. However, a thaw followed by a further frost
will start another cycle of damage. Hence climates such as those found in
the northern UK could be more damaging than colder climates where
thawing is less frequent and, in any case, precipitation in such climates is
more likely to be in the form of snow which, being solid, cannot penetrate
and therefore cannot damage concrete until thawing occurs.
4. Weak, permeable concretes which absorb water more readily are much
more vulnerable to attack.
5. De-icing salts melt the ice but add to saturation of the concrete. They
then crystalize on drying, adding to the damage.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 42

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Most of the measures required to avoid frost attack will be evident from the
above, though it should be added that use of air-entraining agents has been
found to be particularly effective in avoiding damage to surfaces at risk. It is
important to appreciate that new concrete with its incomplete hydrate structure
and high permeability is particularly at risk from frost, and must be protected by
an insulating material until it has sufficient maturity to resist frost.

2.9.2 Sulphate attack

Sulphates are often found in the ground, mainly associated with clay soils. These
have low permeability, which means there is little chance of sulphates being
washed out. To be active the sulphates must be in solution so that the risk of
attack depends not only on the salt content of a solid but on the presence and
movement of moisture, The principal mechanism is one in which sulphate ions
react with hydrated C3A in the cement, producing an expansive product, calcium
sulphoaluminate, which disrupts the concrete. Sulphates commonly occur in
three forms – calcium, sodium and magnesium – which pose quite different
risks. Calcium has low solubility (about 1.4 mg of ions per litre) and does not
constitute a high risk. Of the other two, magnesium is more harmful because:

 The reaction product is insoluble, precipitating out of solution. This avoids

‘chemical congestion’ in the solution, which would tend to reduce the rate
of attack.
 Magnesium sulphate also reacts with the C3S hydrate in cement.

When estimating the risk of sulphates it is therefore important to identify

the type of sulphates present. Total sulphate content could be misleading if it
were mainly in the form of calcium sulphate. Careful sampling is also necessary
since levels may vary widely from place to place and ground water may be
diluted during sampling or after wet weather. The best procedure is normally
analysis of ground water or water obtained from a 2 : 1 water-soil mixture.

For ground water containing up to 1.4 g/litre of SO4 ions, OPC can be used
provided a cement content of at least 330kg per cubic metre is used with water
cement ratio not higher than 0.5.

At sulphate levels up to 6.0 mg/litre without high magnesium concentrations,

use of pozzolanas at high replacement levels, or sulphate-resisting Portland
cement, would be necessary.

At higher sulphate levels, or when high magnesium levels are found, the use of
sulphate-resisting Portland cement in conjunction with a waterproof coating
would be essential.

In all cases it is of paramount importance that attention is given to achieving full

compaction of a good-quality impermeable concrete.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 43

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

2.9.3 Crystallisation damage

This may occur in concretes which are resistant to chemical attack. Sulphates (or
other salts) may be admitted by permeable concretes and if, at a later stage,
drying occurs, these salts crystallise, causing damage similar to that caused by
frost. The condition may be severe when concrete is subject to wetting and
drying cycles – as, for example, in sea walls around the high-tide mark. Attack
may also be serious if one area of a structure is saturated while an adjacent area
is dry – salts migrate towards the dry area, causing extensive crystallisation in
the region of drying. This type of damage may also be avoided by the use of low
water/cement ratio concretes, fully compacted to produce low permeability.

2.9.3 Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)

Although relatively uncommon at the moment ASR, sometimes called ‘concrete
cancer’, has evoked a strong public response because it is a relatively new form
of deterioration and there is no effective repair technique for structures that are
seriously affected. ASR occurs when three conditions are met:

 The concrete has a very high pH value (over 12) resulting from presence,
in quite small quantities, of sodium and potassium alkalis originating from
the oxides of these elements if present in the cement (high-alkali
cements).
 Aggregates contain reactive forms of silica such as found in opal,
tridymite, some flints and cherts.
 The presence of water.

The reactive components of the aggregates form a gel, leading to expansion and
disruption of the concrete, often producing ‘map’ cracking. The reaction is slow
and the cracking usually takes 10-20 years to become evident. There is a
‘pessimum’ level of reactive aggregate of about 2 per cent since smaller
quantities do not form sufficient gel while larger quantities ‘swamp’ the excess
alkali present. Once formed, cracks admit further water, accelerating the rate of
deterioration. ASR can be avoided by applying one or more of the following:

 Use of low-alkali cements. For example, low alkali versions of OPC (BS 12)
containing less than 0.6 per cent alkali, expressed as Na2O equivalent.
Alternatively, pozzolanic additions are known to be beneficial in reducing
ASR.
 Avoidance of reactive aggregates. Some types, such as granite or
limestone, are unlikely to be reactive. In areas of doubt, expansion tests
can be carried out on samples of concrete made from the aggregates in
question placed in water at 38oC for some weeks.
 Exclusion of water. Most structures affected to date have been severely
exposed; for example, concrete bridges or buildings near the sea. The risk
to interior concrete is very small except in swimming pools or other damp

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 44

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

areas. Once attack has commenced, it may be very difficult to exclude

further water from affected structures.

The types of attack referred to above are summarised in the following table.

Figure 17: Map cracking due to ASR in concrete. This is sometimes called 'Isle of Man' cracking because cracks meet in
groups of three.

Table 7: Common modes of deterioration of concrete

Type of High risk
Symptoms Means of avoidance
attack situations
Frost Use concrete of suitable
specification for exposure
Poor quality Surface
category; protect new
concrete; exposed scaling/disint
concrete; avoid ponding
horizontal surfaces egration
of water; use air-
entraining agents
Sulphates Clay soils, below Use resistant cement at
Cracking/disi
water table low water/cement ratio;
ntegration of
especially if soluble in extreme cases use
concrete
sulphates present impermeable coating
Alkali- Exposed structures; Use low-alkali cement;
‘Map’
silica high-alkali cements; avoid use of reactive
cracking
reaction reactive aggregates aggregates

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 45

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

2.10 Corrosion of steel reinforcement

This is one of the commonest problems in structural concrete. Where damage is
localised, repair is possible, though in view of the labour intensive nature of the
repair process, it can be very expensive. Extensive corrosion of reinforcement
may result in the need to demolish the structure.

The corrosion of steel in moist environments is described in the following

chapter. Steel in concrete will be protected, provided an alkaline environment
exists, since a protective layer of Fe2O3 (ferric oxide) is formed and there is no
tendency to ionise (corrode). Such an environment is provided by calcium
hydroxide, one of the products of hydration. This material is however, attacked
from the surface by carbon dioxide in normal moisture-containing atmospheres,
producing almost neutral calcium carbonate:

Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O

i.e. Calcium Hydroxide + Carbon dioxide  Calcium Carbonate + Water

The rate of attack and hence the depth of penetration of this ‘carbonation’
reaction depend chiefly on the permeability of the concrete. Well-compacted, low
water/cement ratio concretes have low permeability such that carbonation would
only reach perhaps 5 mm depth – much less than the depth in normal steel
reinforcement over many years. In lower quality concretes, much higher
carbonation depths of 25mm or more may occur, putting steel at risk. The need
to fix steel accurately in position at the time of construction in order to give
consistently adequate cover will be apparent.

The steel must be fixed at a depth greater than the 'minimum' depth by a
margin which is sufficient ensure adequate cover at all positions.

The risk of corrosion to steel in existing structures can easily be checked by

breaking off pieces of concrete from the surface and spraying the freshly
exposed surface with a phenolphthalein solution. This indicator turns pink in
alkaline areas, revealing clearly the carbonation depth. (see next figure) (The
damaged area must, of course, be made good after the test.) Depths of
reinforcing bars can be ascertained by using a covermeter, based on the
magnetic effect of steel. Unless the steel is well beneath the carbonated layer,
there is a risk that corrosion could occur.

Where chlorides are present – for example, from admixtures used in the
concrete, or de-icing salts – the corrosion risk is greatly increased since chloride
ions have a de-passivating effect; that is, they reduce the ability of an alkaline
environment to protect the steel from corrosion. They also increase the electrical

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 46

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

conductivity of the concrete and their use is now strictly controlled in structural
concrete.

Figure 18: Phenolphthalein test on precast concrete post used in the prefabricated housing; the alkaline areas are
darker.

In situations of high risk the likelihood of reinforcement corrosion can be

reduced by:

 Utilising anti-carbonation coatings (usually also decorative) on the

concrete surface to reduce the rate of carbon dioxide ingress.
 Using special steels for reinforcement; for example, in order of increasing
cost, galvanised, epoxy coated and stainless steel.

The best means of achieving longevity, nevertheless, remains the use of good-
quality concrete with careful supervision to ensure that cover to steel is always
adequate.

2.11 Admixtures (BS 5075)

Admixtures are materials other than cement, water

or aggregates added at the mixer.

The use of admixtures has increased greatly in recent years and there are many
instances in which marked improvements in properties for specific applications
are obtainable. However, careful precautions regarding their use are advised for
the following reasons.

 Doses are usually very small, often less than 1 per cent by weight of
cement, hence careful batching is necessary, the use of special dispensers
being recommended.
 Effects are sometimes very sensitive to variations in dose; hence, good
supervision is essential.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 47

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

 Side effects are often present, especially if overdoses occur.

 To ensure effective dispersion, liquid admixtures should be added to the
mixing water rather than to the mixer and water-soluble solid admixtures
should be dissolved in the mixing water before use.

There are four main categories of admixture, though in practice it may be

convenient to combine several effects within one admixture. In particular, most
admixtures are formulated to have a plasticising action since very little increase
in cost is needed to achieve this. Most admixtures are now manufactured to BS
5075, and with careful use can be very beneficial to concrete for specific
applications.

2.11.1 Water reducers (plasticisers)

These are perhaps the most widely used admixtures in the concrete industry,
their use in ready-mixed concrete being especially common. The main water-
reducing compounds are lignosulphonates and hydrocarboxylic acids and they
operate by attaching themselves to cement grains, imparting a negative charge
which causes grains to disperse more effectively. Hence, the formation of ‘flocks’
(groups of cement particles), which tend to trap mixing water, is avoided.
Water-reducing admixtures may be used for any of the following reasons:

1. To allow a water reduction, hence reducing the water/cement ratio and

increasing the strength.
2. To produce an increase in workability at a given water and cement
content.
3. To allow a reduction in water and cement contents in concrete of a given
strength, hence reducing the cost.

Typical water reductions are in the region of 5-15 per cent when used in items 1
or 3 above. Side effects include air entrainment and retardation of set, though
these are only slight at normal doses. Plasticisers are relatively cheap and form
an economical means of improving concrete quality if used in 1 above. However,
when used in 3 above, the reduced cement content could lead to durability
problems.

More recently, a number of ‘superplasticisers’, based on compounds such as

sulphonated melamine formaldehyde, have been introduced. These can be used
at higher dosages than ordinary water reducers without the same side effects.
Since they are quite expensive, they are used mainly for applications 1 and 2
above. In the latter, the concrete, which has a slump of over 150mm, is often
referred to as ‘flowing concrete’, since it is more or less self-levelling and self-
compacting, reducing labour costs in applications such as large floor slabs. The
effect of superplasticisers is short lived-only 30-45 minutes, hence they are
usually added to the concrete just before placing. Care is necessary to avoid
segregation but hardened properties, such as strength, shrinkage and creep, do
not appear to be adversely affected.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 48

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Go to the following link for more details on superplasticisers.

Superplasticisers: the wonder of fluid concrete

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6s9mn_superplasticizers-the-wonder-of-flu_tech

Granular stacking for more resistant concrete

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6s9oe_granular-stacking-for-more-resistan_tech#rel-page-1

2.11.2 Retarders
The object of these would normally be to retard the set (rather than the strength
development) of the concrete. Hence, their effect should last only a few hours.
They are normally based on lignosulphonates, hydrocarboxylic acids or sugars.
They act mainly on those compounds in cement which are responsible for setting
and early strength; that is, C3A and C3S. Uses include the following:

 To reduce the setting rate when concreting in hot weather. In many cases
the retarder can improve long-term strength when used in this way, since
slower hydration of cement leads to an improved ‘gel’ structure.
 In very large pours – for example, in mass concrete foundations in order
to produce monolithic (structurally continuous) concrete despite a
prolonged placing period.
 A large overdose (which may still only be 0.5 per cent by weight of
cement) will ‘kill’ the set. Retarders can be used, for example, to avoid
hardening of concrete in the drum of a ready-mix agitator truck which has
broken down.

2.11.3 Accelerators
These are designed to accelerate the early strength development of concrete.
They are traditionally based on calcium chloride, which increases the hydration
rate of the calcium silicates and, to some extent, the C3A in the cement.
Substantial improvements can be obtained between the ages of 1 day and 7
days, especially in cold weather; for example, the 3-day strength of concrete
may be doubled at a temperature of 2oC. Long term strength is unaffected by
the use of calcium chloride. Most important are the side effects of the material.

The susceptibility of steel in structural concrete to corrosion

is greatly increased in the presence of chlorides.

BS 5328 limits chloride, measured as chloride ion content by weight of cement,

as follows:

Prestress concrete, steam-cured concrete 0.1 per cent

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 49

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Sulphate-resisting cement with embedded metal 0.2 per cent

Other concretes containing steel 0.4 per cent

(These chloride ion contents are equivalent to approximately 50 per cent greater
percentages of anhydrous calcium chloride by weight.)

Any chlorides present in the aggregates – for example, from sea-dredged

sources – must be included in the above figures. The shrinkage of concrete is
also increased by the presence of chloride. Chloride-free accelerators are now
available but these are more expensive than chloride-based accelerators and it
should be noted that more rapid strength development can be obtained by other
means; for example, use of water-reducing agents or increased cement content.

2.11.4 Air-entraining agents

These are based on substances such as vinsol resins, which reduce the surface
tension of the water, allowing stable air bubbles to be introduced by mixing.
These air bubbles are much smaller than pockets of entrapped air; most are less
than 1mm in diameter and do not admit water, even in saturated conditions. The
uses of air-entraining agents are based on the following properties of air-
entrained concrete:

 Resistance of hardened concrete to frost and de-icing salts is greatly

improved. The close distribution of small air bubbles throughout the
mortar fraction of the concrete appears to act as a means of pressure
relief as freezing occurs in the concrete. Current specifications for
concrete roads in the UK stipulate an air content of 5 per cent in the top
50mm of the concrete (20mm aggregate).
 Resistance to segregation and bleeding are improved, together with
workability, hence air-entrained concrete could be used to improve harsh
mixes or to permit placing in conditions where segregation might be a
problem. The air present reduces the concrete strength, though at least
part of this shortfall can be avoided by the use of lower water contents for
a given workability.

2.12 Lightweight concretes

These may be defined as concretes that have a dry density of less than 2000
kg/m3, and they offer the following advantages over ordinary dense concrete:

 Since fewer raw materials are involved, it may be argued that lightweight
concretes help to conserve materials resources.
 A number of lightweight aggregates are produced from what are otherwise
waste materials – for example, pulverised fuel ash and blast-furnace slag.
 Foundation loads are reduced, hence foundation size can be decreased.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 50

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

 Higher lifts can be cast for a given formwork system, since formwork
pressures are lower; hence, the number of construction joints can be
reduced.
 Some lightweight concretes, such as precast aerated blocks and no-fines
concrete provide an excellent key for rendering and plastering.
 Fixings are often more easily made than with dense concretes. Some
lightweight concretes can be nailed (using cut nails).
 Thermal insulation is improved compared with dense aggregate concrete.
 Fire resistance of lightweight concretes is superior to that of most dense
concretes.
 High-frequency sound absorption is better than that of dense concrete.
 Lightweight precast blocks are much easier to handle and cut than dense
concrete equivalents.

There are three main methods of producing lightweight concretes, each method
producing concrete with characteristic properties and applications.

2.12.1 Lightweight aggregate concrete

A large range of concrete densities – from 500 kg/m3 to 2000 kg/m3 – can be
obtained using lightweight aggregates. The thermal conductivity of concrete
decreases as density decreases, values ranging from about 1.0W/moC for the
higher densities to under 0.2 W/moC for concrete of very low density. Strengths
decrease similarly with density, though certain aggregates may give higher
strengths than other at a given density. An aggregate would normally be chosen
according to the density and strength required , subject also, of course, to the
local availability. Lower density concretes would be used in situations where,
perhaps, thermal insulation properties rather than strength are important – for
example, as insulating layers in floors or roofs. Concretes having densities of
over 1000 kg/m3 can, however, be used ‘structurally’ and there are now many
structures incorporating reinforced and pre-stressed lightweight aggregate
concrete. By choice of suitable aggregates, such as foamed slag or sintered
pulverised fuel ash, concrete strengths of over 40 N/mm2 are obtainable with
densities in the range of 1500-2000 kg/m3. The substitution of natural sand for
lightweight fine aggregate can be used to increase strength still further,
although density will also clearly rise. In designing lightweight concrete
structures, allowance must be made for the lower elastic modulus and higher
shrinkage and creep of lightweight aggregate concretes. The production of
lightweight aggregate concretes requires care because:

1. Design is best tackled from volume considerations in conjunction with

trial mixes. Hence, bulk densities must be known if, as is normally the
case, weight batching is used.
2. Aggregates often absorb a great deal of moisture: 15 per cent or more is
weight. Hence, the effective free-water/cement ratio, an important factor
in controlling strength, is often difficult to predict.

Chapter 2: Concrete Page 51

 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

2.12.2 Aerated Concrete

Aerated concrete comprises a cement/sand mortar into which gas is introduced.
This may be obtained chemically, for example, by the use of aluminium powder,
which produces hydrogen in the presence of alkalis released by the cement, or
by the use of foaming agents. Careful control of plastic properties is essential in
order that the gas aerates the mortar without escaping; hence, these concretes
are mainly produced in the foam of manufactured precast blocks. Densities in
the range 400-800 kg/m3 are obtained, corresponding to compressive strengths
of 2-5 N/mm2.

Conventionally cured aerated concretes would have high shrinkage but this can
be reduced by high-pressure steam curing (autoclaving). Hence many
commercial precast blocks are autoclaved and these would also normally contain
a pozzolanic material, such as pulverised fuel ash, which contributes to strength.

With increased standards of thermal insulation now being mandatory in

residential buildings, the use of aerated concretes, which have very low thermal
conductivity (in the region of 0.2 W/moC) has increased greatly. Products are
available for walling of low-to medium-strength requirement. Aerated blocks are
reasonably frost-resistant, though they would normally be protected from the
weather, if used externally, by cladding or rendering.

2.12.3 No Fines Concrete

As the name implies, this concrete is produced from cement and coarse
aggregate only, the atter usually being graded between 20 and 10mm.The
aggregate may be ordinary dense aggregate, which would result in the concrete
having a density in the region of 1800 kg/m3, or lightweight aggregate, resulting
in a concrete density as low as 500 kg/m3. Dense aggregates would produce
strengths of up to 15 N/mm2, according to cement content, while the ceiling
strength for lightweight aggregates would be approximately 10 N/mm2.

In producing no-fines concrete, great care should be taken to obtain the correct
water content, since a low value would result in uneven distribution of cement,
while a high value would cause settlement of the cement paste fraction to the
base of the concrete. Only minimal vibration should be used for compaction.

Shrinkage of no-fine concrete is low, since the cement paste is discontinuous,

though shrinkage occurs quickly due to the high air permeability of the material.
No-fines concrete is resistant to frost, though rendering of exposed surfaces is
normally carried out to prevent water penetration.

No-fines concrete was formerly used as an in-situ walling material for low-rise
dwellings. It is also manufactured in the form of lightweight precast blocks.

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2.13 High-Strength Concrete

The term ‘high- strength concrete’ generally refers to concretes having 28-day
compressive strength over 60 N/mm2. Such concretes may offer the following
advantages:

 Increased hardening rates leading to reduced construction times.

 Smaller section sizes for a given load, leading to economies of space.
 Greater stiffness, hardness, chemical resistance and durability.

The DoE method of mix design can be used to produce high-strength concrete
by the use of one or more of the following modifications:

1. Use superplasticisers to obtain water/cement ratios of 0.3 or less.

2. Produce rich mixes of very low workability. It should be noted that such
mixes will require pressure/vibration for compaction and therefore have
limited site application. Their use would also be confned to situations
where increased shrinkage is not a problem - for example, in precast
units.
3. Use vacuum de-watering followed by power trowelling (for floors).
4. High-strength precast units can be made by autoclaving mixes containing
pozzolanas.

To obtain concrete of strength up to 100 N/mm2 the use of high-strength

aggregate such as crushed granite may be essential since low-strength
aggregates, or those having smooth surfaces, will tend to fail or become
debonded under stress. Such concretes are readily obtainable either site mixed
or ready mixed. Production of strengths of over 100 N/mm2 is likely to be
confined to pre-casting works that have suitable facilities.

One of the factors to be considered when employing very high-strength

concretes is the applicibilty of normal structural design principles. It is found that
very strong concretes do not have proportionately higher stiffness (elastic
modulus) and this implies that strains/deflections in service will be higher than
with convetional concrete. The effects of this on the behaviour of reinforcing
steel, as well as on the structure as a whole, should be considered as part of the
design process.

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2.14 Production of High-Quality Surface Finishes

The smooth off-white finish of newly produced concrete is usually attractive,
often giving clean lines and a pleasing appearance to the structure as a whole. It
is unfortunate that in many cases the appearance is not retained in the long
term and older buildings often take on a ‘drab’ appearance even if the concrete
remains in good condition. Some of the reasons for these changes are:

1. The surface of even good-quality concrete can be quite permeable. The

production of a good-quality surface involves the presence of a layer of
fine material conforming to the formwork surface. Such layers are usually
of higher permeability than the core of the concrete. Hence they can
readily absorb dirt, especially if not exposed to the cleaning action of rain.
2. More coarsely textured surfaces provide sites for dirt to be trapped within
their texture.
3. Surfaces quite commonly contain small ‘deflects’ such as low holes
resulting from entrapped air. (These can be minimised by correct choice of
release agent for the formwork material being used.)
4. In general, the concrete surface cannot be inspected until it is hard.
Therefore experienced personnel are required to judge whether the
concrete has been correctly and fully compacted. Honeycombing in areas
where coarse aggregate is insufficiently enclosed in mortar is quite
common.

Figure 19: An example of honeycombing in concrete

5. Joints in formwork may leak and lead to grout loss.

6. In-situ concrete must be provided with construction joints. Since it can be
almost impossible to provide an invisible joint, they are best made a
feature of the design, so that the joint profile hides imperfections in the
joint detail.

Preferred finishes have, to some degree, been a matter of fashion at the time of
construction. For example, in the 1970s, sawn board finishes were often

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

favoured. However, they were very expensive since they required solid sawn
timer for formwork, and labour costs in fixing were also high. The final finish also
tends to attract dirt, producing a predominantly dull effect, especially if used in
large areas.

Current practice tends to avoid large areas of plain concrete;instead the finish
can be textured, for example:

 Bush hammering to remove the permeable laitance layer and to provide a

partially exposed aggregate surface texture.
 Application of a surface retarder. The surface remains soft and can be
brushed off to reveal aggregate.
 Use of textured formwork to provide an interesting concrete texture.
 Use of aggregate transfer techniques so that the surface appearance is
dominated by the aggregate itself.

Figure 3.25 shows a close view of a building, now 10 years old, in which several
techniques have been combined.

 The precast, smooth finish, light coloured sill units have weathered well,
except in a recess where dirt has gathered.
 The exposed aggregate precast concrete blocks (comprising an integral
insulating backing) have shed the dirt very effectively.
 The bush-hammered in situ-concrete (buttress) has a rust stain due to
corroding reinforcement on one arris, and has darkened due to damp near
ground level.
 The exposed aggregate paving is affected by moss growth (little exposure
to the sun on the north side of the building).

These points illustrate the factors to be considered if designing concrete to have

longlasting, high-quality appearance. The need for the very highest quality
procedures at each stage of production, therefore, cannot be over emphasised.

Figure 20: Concrete pavement with various decorative finishes.

Go to the following link to read a report on polished concrete.

http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/artdesign/writing/3.5.xml

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 21: Polished concrete

2.15 Recycling Concrete

In terms of volume, concrete is now one of the most widely used materials in
the construction industry and, consequently, its treatment at the point of
demolition is attracting much interest. With landfill taxes likely to rise sharply,
some form of the recycling is increasingly making economic as well as
environmental sense. The main factors affecting recycling are:

1. The physical form of concrete can make handling and recycling difficult,
especially if reinforced. Heavy machinery is essential for separating steel
and for crushing the concrete. For this reason, recycling is restricted to
situations where such plant is accessible. The initial stages of recycling
concrete containing steel involve breaking up in-situ frames and then
reducing columns and beams to a more manageable size by large scissor-
action machines which cut through the concrete and steel. These produce
material which is easier to handle and transport. Mobile crushers are
available but transport costs restrict their applications to situations in
which large quantities of concrete are involved.
2. Pure crushed concrete (for example, from highways works) may
occasionally be available but demolition waste is normally contaminated
by brick and other waste, which may not be acceptable for some
applications.
3. Unless extensive stockpiling facilities are available, demand for the
recyclate must be roughly matched to the supply of concrete waste.

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

2.15.1 Possible Applications

ROAD SUB-BASES

Pure crushed concrete may well satisfy requirements for use in sub-bases but
compositional limits of such specifications are not usually satisfied by demolition
waste. However, there is evidence that acceptable behaviour can be obtained for
sub-bases application and there is perhaps the need for additional flexibility to
be built in (for example, by concentrating on performance rather than
composition) to permit maximum reuse in lower performance applications such
as housing estate roads.

One Dutch specification that has been used succesfully for some years requires
at least 50 per cent of the material to be crushed concrete or equivalent, but up
to 50 per cent to be other crushed masonry of density at least 1600 kg/m3 (the
latter density range includes crushed brick). There are also particle-grading
requirements and limits to organic materials such as plastics (1 per cent by
mass) and perishable materials such as paper (0.1 per cent by mass).

The specifications can be satisfied relatively easily by construction waste as

follows:

Separate large timber pieces hand

Primary size reduction/ screening machine
Separation of steel electromagnet
Separation of non-ferrous metal hand
Separation of wood, plastic, paper machine or hand
Secondary crushing/screening machine

The labour and plant requirements for the process are evident and it is therefore
best carried out on a relatively large scale.

RECYCLED CONCRETE

1. When used as a source of aggregate for concrete, crushed concrete has in

general lower strength and higher water absorption characteristics than
primary aggregates. This makes mix design more difficult.
2. Since the proportion of cement paste in recycled concrete is much larger
than in the original material, shrinkage and creep will be increased.
3. Perhaps the largest problem for reuse as concrete is that large variations
in quality can be expected. This, in general, rules it out for structural
concrete. Such variations can, however, be minimised by the use of
several stockpiles which are then blended to average out composition over
longer time periods.

The above suggest that unless uniform sources are available, the use of
construction waste should focus upon non-structural applications and those
without demanding exposure requirements. There are, however, many such

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

applications in low-rise construction. The operations referred to in sub-base

applications could form a basis for suitable aggregate with the further
requirement that the material is washed to remove very fine or other unsuitable
components. The following figures shows sample of concrete obtained from
construction waste and processed to be reused for the construction industry.

Figure 22: Recycled concrete reused to create a stair case outside a building

Figure 23: Recycled concrete for outdoor paving

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 HND in Construction UNIT 2 Notes

Figure 24: Recycled concrete used to create a sink

Figure 25: Countertops manufactured from recycled concrete

All the notes in this chapter were taken from the following book and modified to
suite the unit content.

Materials in Construction; by G.D.Taylor; Pearson Education, 2000; ISBN 0 582

36889 8

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