ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

First Degree Program

In
B.Sc Physics under CBCS System

Year 2018-2021
MOTHER THERESA COLLEGE
NELLIKAD
TRIVANDRUM
 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Project submitted to the University of Kerala

In partial fulfillment of the Degree of Bachelor of Science

Course Code : PY-1647

Names of Candidates with Candidate’s Codes:

1. Anusekhar : 23018150020
2. Aparna P Ajay : 23018150021
3. Aparna Sankar : 23018150022
4. Aswin K Alphonse : 23018150023
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of any task would be incomplete without

mentioning the names of those persons who helped to make it possible. I
take this opportunity to express my gratitude in few words and respect to
all those who helped me in the completion of this project.

It is my humble pleasure to acknowledge my deep senses of

gratitude to, Mrs. Gayatri Nair G, Assistant Professor, Department of
Physics, Mother Theresa College, Nellikad for her valuable support,
constant help and guidance at each and every stage, without which this
project would not have come forth. We record our sincere thanks to Prof.
Y. George, Head of the Department of Physics Mother Theresa College,
Nellikad, who granted us permission to undertake this project work. We
feel indebted to our teachers for their kind co-operation they had lent for
the completion of this project. We also extend our sincere thanks to
Principal of Mother Theresa College, Nellikad, for allowing us to do this
project at college. Here we like to record the encouragement support and
co-operation given to us by our friends of BSc physics.

Above all we thank God for making us able to do this project work.

Anusekhar

Aparna P Ajay

Aparna Sankar

Aswin K Alphonse
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled ASTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR is a record of studies carried out by Anusekhar,
Aparna P Ajay, Aparna Sankar and Aswin K Alphonse at the
Department of Physics, Mother Theresa College, under my guidance and
submitted to the University of Kerala in partial fulfillment of the Degree
of Bachelor of Science, First Degree Programme in Physics under CBCS
System.

Prof. Y. George Supervising Teacher

Head of the Department of Physics Mrs. Gayatri Nair G

Mother Theresa College Assistant Professor

Thiruvananthapuram Department of Physics

Mother Theresa College

24 March 2021
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this project entitled “Astable multivibrator” is a

group work carried out by us under the supervision & guidance of

Mrs. Gayatri Nair G, Assistant Professor Department of Physics

Mother Theresa College Nellikad. It has not been included in any other

project submitted previously for the award of any degree.

Anusekhar
Thiruvananthapuram
Aparna P Ajay
24/03/2021
Aparna Sankar

Aswin K Alphonse
 CONTENTS
Sl.NO Title Page No

1 Introduction 7

2 Types of multivibrator 8

3 Components

 Resistor
 Transistor
10
 Integrated circuit (IC)
 Capacitor
 Function generator
 CRO

4 Astable Multivibrator

 Aim
 Components
24
 Theory
 Procedure
 Observation

5 Result and discussion 29

6 Conclusion 30

7 Reference 31
 Page |7

Chapter1
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
INTRODUCTION
An electronic device that produces a non-sinusoidal waveform as its
output is known as a Multivibrator. The generated non-sinusoidal waveforms
are basically a square wave, rectangular wave, a triangular wave, saw tooth
wave, or ramp wave etc. A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching
circuit. Multivibrator are used frequency generators, frequency dividers and
generators of time delays and also as memory elements in computers etc. A
transistor basically functions as an amplifier in its linear region. If a transistor
amplifier output stage is joined with the previous amplifier stage, such a
connection is said to be coupled. If a resistor is used in coupling two stages of
such an amplifier circuit, it is called as Resistance coupled amplifier.

According to definition, A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled

amplifier with positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of
the other.
Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state of the
other. Hence the ON and OFF states of the whole circuit, and the time periods
for which the transistors are driven into saturation or cut off are controlled by
the conditions of the circuit
The following figure shows the block diagram of a Multivibrator
 Page |8

Types of multivibrator
They are basically two-stage amplifiers with positive feedback from the output
of one amplifier to the input of the other. This feedback is supplied in such a
manner that one transistor is driven to saturation and the other to cut-off. It is
followed by new set of conditions in which the saturated transistor is driven to
cut-off and the cut-off transistor is driven to saturation. Depending upon the
manner in which these two states are interchanged, the Multivibrator are
classified into three types. They are
 Astable multivibrator
It is also called free-running relaxation oscillator. It has no stable state but
only two quasi- half-stable) states between which it keeps oscillating
continuously of its own accord without external excitation. In this circuit,
neither of the two transistors reaches a stable state. When one is ON, the
other Sind they continuously switch back and forth at a rate depending on
the RC time constant in the Hence, it oscillates and produces pulses of
certain mark-to-space ratio. Moreover, two outputs (1800 out of phase with
each other) are available. It has two energy-storing elements i.e. two
capacitors.
 Monostable multivibrator
It is also called a single-shot or single swing or a one-shot multivibrator.
Other names are: delay multivibrator and univibrator. It has (i) one
absolutely stable (stand-by) state and (ii)one quasi-stable state.
It can be switched to the quasi-stable state by an external trigger pulse but it
returns to the stable condition after a time delay determined by the value of
circuit components. It supplies a single output pulse of a desired duration for
every input trigger pulse. It has one energy-storing element i.e., one-
capacitor.
 Page |9

 Bistable Multivibrator
It is also called Eccles-Jordan or flip-flop multivibrator. It has two absolutely
stable states. It. can remain in either of these two states unless an external
trigger pulse switches it from one state to other. Obviously, it does not
oscillate. It has no energy storage element.

Astable multivibrator are commonly used in relaxation oscillators because they

are simple, reliable and ease of construction they produce a constant square
wave output waveform.

Figure: Astable multivibrator using transistors

Figure: Astable multivibrator

using Op amp IC
 P a g e | 10

Chapter 2
COMPONENTS

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used
to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active
elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances
that only change slightly with temperature,
time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as
a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as
sensing devices for heat, light, humidity,
force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic

circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms.
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing
tolerance, indicated on the component.
 P a g e | 11

There are many different types of Resistor available which can be used in
both electrical and electronic circuits to control the flow of current or to produce
a voltage drop in many different ways. But in order to do this the actual resistor
needs to have some form of “resistive” or “resistance” value. Resistors are
available in a range of different resistance values from fractions of an Ohm (Ω)
to millions of Ohms

The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed
onto the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big
enough to read the print, such as large power resistors. But when the resistor is
small such as a 1/4 watt carbon or film type, these specifications must be shown
in some other manner as the print would be too small to read. So to overcome
this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their resistive
value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its
wattage rating. These coloured bands produce a system of identification
generally known as a Resistors Color Code. An international and universally
accepted resistor colour code scheme was developed many years ago as a
simple and quick way of identifying a resistors ohmic value no matter what its
size or condition. It consists of a set of individual coloured rings or bands in
spectral order representing each digit of the resistors value. The resistor colour
code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to the
right, with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating
its tolerance. By matching the colour of the first band with its associated
number in the digit column of the colour chart below the first digit is identified
and this represents the first digit of the resistance value. Again, by matching the
colour of the second band with its associated number in the digit column of the
colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on
 P a g e | 12

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch
electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor
material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many
more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and some from
germanium, but certain other semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A
transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier, in a field-effect transistor,
or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices.
Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller and require
less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at
very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages

There are three terminals for a transistor. They are;

Base: This is used to activate the transistor.
 P a g e | 13

Collector: It is the positive lead of the

transistor.
Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.

Transistors are basically classified into two types; they are Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJT) and Field Effect Transistors (FET). The BJTs are again
classified into NPN and PNP transistors. The FET transistors are classified into
JFET and MOSFET.

NPN Transistor
NPN is one of the two types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The NPN
transistor consists of two n-type semiconductor materials and they are separated
by a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor. Here the majority
charge carriers are electrons and holes
are the minority charge carriers. The
flowing of electrons from emitter to
collector forms the current flow in the transistor through the base terminal.

PNP Transistor

The PNP is another type of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The PNP
transistors contain two p-type
semiconductor materials and are
separated by a thin layer of n-type
semiconductor. The majority charge
carriers in the PNP transistors are
holes and electrons are minority
charge carriers. The arrow in the emitter terminal of transistor indicates the flow
 P a g e | 14

of conventional current. In PNP transistor the current flows from Emitter to

Collector.
Different types of transistor

INTEGRATED CIRCIUT (IC)

The most advanced electrons circuits contain millions of diodes,

transistors, resistors and capacitors These components are fabricated onto
wafers, or chips, of semiconductor material commonly silicon The chips are
enclosed in little boxes or cans with pins for connection to external components
IC - Classification
An integrated circuits consists of various electronic components and their inter
connection single small semiconductor chip There are four basic types of
constructions employed in manufacturing of integrated circuits, namely
1. Monolithic IC-In this IC all electronic components (resistors, capacitors,
diodes and transistors) are made on a single wafer (substrate) of semiconductor.
This type of ICs are used widely
2. Thin -film IC- In this IC, the thickness of the substrate is kept 0.001 inch or
0.0025 cm only
 P a g e | 15

3. Thick -film IC Thickness of substrate material is kept more in this type of IC,
comparison to a thin film IC.
4. Hybrid - These ICs are formed either by combining two or more monolithic
ICs by combining monolithic IC's with thick film or thin film components.
IC – Package type

1. The metal can package 2.The dual inline package

3. The Single inline package 4.The flat package

Advantages of IC technology

Integrated circuits have several advantages over individual, or discrete,

components.
 Compactness-extremely small size
 High speed
 Low power requirement
 Reliability
Example for an IC: OP AMP-IC-741
Typical representative of a linear IC is an Operational Amplifier (OPAMP-741).
Operational amplifier is also termed as Op-Amp. Basically it is a differential
amplifier having two inputs and the output is the amplified form of the
difference of the two signals applied so these two inputs. Out of these two
inputs, one input is known as inverting input and the other input is called non
inverting input. The main features of this IC are its very high gain and very
large bandwidth. This IC is widely used for performing various mathematical
 P a g e | 16

operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, integration,

differentiation, logarithm, antilogarithm etc. This is the reason why the IC is
known as operational amplifier.

Figure: OPAMP – DIP Package

Figure: OPAMP Symbol

Figure: OP AMP Pin out Diagram

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It
is a passive electronic component with two terminals. The effect of a capacitor
is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two
electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component
designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as
a condenser or condensator. This name and its cognates are still widely used in
 P a g e | 17

many languages, but rarely in English, one notable exception being condenser
microphones, also called capacitor microphones.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely

and many types of capacitor are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least
two electrical conductors often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces
separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered
bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include
glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, air, and oxide layers. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy, although real-life
capacitors do dissipate a small amount. When an electric potential, a voltage, is
applied across the terminals of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is
connected across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric,
causing a net positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to
collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through the dielectric.
However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the condition is
maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. If a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source
experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles of
the capacitor.

Today, capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking

direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter
networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they
tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems,
they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in
 P a g e | 18

capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers, and

still is in modern DRAM.

Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms.

The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device
packaging all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its
applications.

Values available range from very low (Pico farad range; while arbitrarily low
values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the
limiting factor) to about 5 kF super capacitors.

Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually

used because of their small size and low cost compared with other types, unless
their relatively poor stability, life and polarized nature make them unsuitable.
Very high capacity super capacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode
material.

Figure: Capacitor Symbol

 P a g e | 19

Different types of Capacitor

Ceramic capacitor Electrolytic capacitor Paper capacitor

Variable capacitor smd electrolytic capacitor

FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able to
generate waveforms with common shapes. Unlike RF generators and some
others that only create sine waves, the function generator is able to create
repetitive waveforms with a number of common shapes. In particular it can be
made to become a sine wave generator, square wave generator, and triangular
wave generator. Also a function generator may be able to vary the
characteristics of the waveforms, changing the length of the pulse, i.e., the mark
space ratio.
Many function generators are also capable of generating two different
waveforms simultaneously (from different output terminals, of course). This can
be a useful feature when two generated signals are required for a particular
application. Another important feature of some function generators is their
capability of phase-locking to an external signal source. One function generator
may be used to phase lock a second function generator and the two output
signals can be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount. In addition, one
 P a g e | 20

function generator may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sine-wave of

another function generator. By adjustment of the phase and the amplitude of the
harmonics, almost any waveform may be produced by the summation of the
fundamental frequency generated by one function generator and the harmonic
generated by the other function generator. The function generator can also be
phase locked to an accurate frequency standard, and all its output waveforms
will have the same frequency, stability, and accuracy as the standard. Apart
from just generating the waveforms themselves, this type of test instrument has
the capability to add a DC offset to the signal. This can be very useful in a
number of testing applications.
Function Generator Capabilities
Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms,
 Sine wave: A function generator will normally be able to act as a sine
wave generator. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between
two levels with a standard sinusoidal shape. Using the function generator
as a sine wave generator is one of the more commonly used applications.
Sine waves are widely used in testing applications.
 Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a
function generator. It is effectively the same as a square wave, but with
the mark space ratio very different to 1:1. This form of waveform is again
often used within digital applications.
 Square wave: Another very widely used waveform is the square wave. It
consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels. Used as
a square wave generator, this test instrument provides a very useful
source of a basic digital waveform.
 Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator
linearly moves between a high and low point. This form of waveform is
often generated using an operational amplifier acting as an integrator. The
triangular waveform generator typically also has a square wave output as
 P a g e | 21

well, and it is used as the basis for generating all the waveforms in a
function generator test instrument. The triangular waveform is often used
in testing amplifiers - it is far easier to see distortion and clipping on a
triangular waveform than it is on a sine waveform.
 Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise
edge of the waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of
shape similar to a saw tooth. It is generated by the same circuit as the
triangular waveform, but with the different rise and fall times created by
changing the charge rate for the rise and fall elements of the integrator.

Figure: Function Generator

Waves getting as output from
a function generator

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electrical instrument
which is used for showing the measurement and analysis of waveforms and
others electronic and electrical phenomenon. It is a very fast X-Y plotter shows
the input signal versus another signal or versus time. The CROs are used to
analyze the waveforms, transient, phenomena, and other time-varying quantities
from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies.
 P a g e | 22

The CRO is mainly operated on voltages. Thus, the other physical

quantity like current, strain, acceleration, pressure, is converted into the voltage
with the help of the transducer and thus represent on a CRO. It is also used for
knowing the waveforms, transient phenomenon, and other time-varying quantity
from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies. The CRO has Stylus
(i.e., a luminous spot) which moves over the display area in response to an input
voltage. This luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking on a
fluorescent screen. The normal form of the CRO uses a horizontal input voltage
which is an internally generated ramp voltage called “time base”.

The horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a

horizontal direction from left to right over the display area or screen. The
vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation. The vertical voltage moves
the luminous spot up and down on the screen. When the input voltage moves
very fast on the screen, the display on the screen appears stationary. Thus, CRO
provides a means of the visualizing time-varying voltage.

Figure: CRO
 P a g e | 23

Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through
the control grid. The control grid controls the intensity of electron in the
vacuum tube. If the control grid has high negative potential, then it allows only
a few electrons to pass through it. Thus, the dim spot is produced on the
lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control grid is low, then the
bright spot is produced. Hence the intensity of light depends on the negative
potential of the control grid. After moving the control grid the electron beam
passing through the focusing and accelerating anodes. The accelerating anodes
are at a high positive potential and hence they converge the beam at a point on
the screen. After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under
the effect of the deflecting plates. When the deflecting plate is at zero potential,
the beam produces a spot at the center. If the voltage is applied to the vertical
deflecting plate, the electron beam focuses at the upward and when the voltage
is applied horizontally the spot of light will be deflected horizontally.

Figure: Block diagram of CRO

 P a g e | 24

Chapter 3
Aim
To design and construct an astable multivibrator using op-amp and to study the
output wave form
Components
IC µA 741C, Resistors, Capacitors, Dual power supply, CRO, Function
Generator.

Theory
Square wave output can be generated when the op-amp is found to operator in
the saturated region, i.e., the output of the op-amp is found to swing repeatedly
between the positive and negative saturation (±Vsrt or ±VZ) resulting in the
square wave output.
From the figure it is clear that the potential dividers R1 and R2 promote
a feedback to the non-inverting terminal when output voltage,VO = +Vsat or +VZ,

Feedback voltage ( )

Where, VUT=Upper Trigger Voltage, ( ) is the feedback factor.

Rf provides a negative feedback to the non-inverting terminal. When VO = +VSat

(+Vz), current flows through Rf to change C to +VZ. Output remains +VZ as
long as the voltage at the inverting terminal is less than VUT. When the voltage
at the inverting terminal become higher than Vut, output switches to –VZ.
The voltage at the non-inverting terminal is given by

( )( ) VLT = Lower trigger voltage

As Vo become –VZ, the capacitor C starts discharging to –VZ .When the voltage
at the inverting terminal became slightly more negative than VLT ,output again
switches to +VSat.
 P a g e | 25

Time for which the output is high is given by

( ) ( ) ( )

T = t1+ t2.
If t1 = t2

∴ ( ) , if R2 = 1.16R1.

∴T=2RC

Procedure

Design:
R2=1.16R1 .Choose R1 and R2.f=1/2RC. For fixed f, choose C and R.
To construct an astable multivibrator, connections are made as shown in the
figure. The output waveform is observed on a CRO.T is measured and hence f is
calculated. Error estimation is done

Figure
 P a g e | 26

Observations

C R Observed Frequency % of
(µF) (KΩ) T errors
(s)
Observed Calculated

0.01 47 9×10-4 1111.11 968.33 12.8%

0.01 22 5×10-4 2000 2068.72 3.43%

0.01 33 7×10-4 1428.51 1379.15 3.45%

0.02 15 5×10-4 2000 1517.06 24.1%

0.02 22 7×10-4 1428.57 1034.36 27.5%

0.02 33 1.1×10-4 909.09 689.57 24.14%

 P a g e | 27

C = 0.01µF R=47 KΩ

C = 0.01µF R = 22 KΩ

C = 0.01µF R = 33 KΩ
 P a g e | 28

C = 0.02µF R=15KΩ

C = 0.02µF R=22KΩ

C = 0.02µF R=33KΩ
 P a g e | 29

Result

An astable multivibrator using op-amp is designed and

constructed. Its output waveform is studied using CRO
 P a g e | 30

CONCLUSION

The input branch in an astable multivibrator is a feedback loop

with an additional RC series component. No external input is present
in this circuit as the discharge/charge cycles of the capacitor provides
the necessary trigger signal in order for the output to permanently
switch between its high and low states.
An astable multivibrator is designed and constructed. The time
period of the output wave is determined using a CRO.
 P a g e | 31

REFERENCE

1. Basic electronics: Devices, circuits and IT fundamentals: Santiram

Kal, PHI 2009
2. Basic Electronics-Solid State: B. L. Theraja, S. Chand Ltd., 2005
3. Principles of Electronics: V. K. Mehta, S. Chand Ltd.,2005
4. Communication Electronics:Jose Robin and Ubald Raj, Indira
Publications, 2002
5. Electronic Devices and Circuits: Theodore F. Bogart Jr., Universal
book stall
6. Electronic devices and Circuit theory: Robert Boylestad & Louis
Nashelski, PHI, 5th Edn.
7. Electronic fundamentals & applications: John D Ryder, PHI,
4thEdn
8. www.electronicstutorials.ws/waveforms/astableen.html
9. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component.html
10.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_symbol
11.https://www.electronicsforu.com/electronics-projects/demo-opam-
based-astable-multivibrator-