applied

sciences
Article
Structural Performance of Bolted Lateral Connections in Steel
Beams under Bending Using the Component-Based Finite
Element Method
Guillermo Morido-García 1 and César De Santos-Berbel 2, *

1 Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain; gmorgar@arq.upv.es

2 Departamento de Estructuras y Física de Edificación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
* Correspondence: cesar.desantos@upm.es

Featured Application: The findings of this research can significantly contribute to the design and
construction of efficient and safe steel joints for building structures.

Abstract: Structures must provide strength, stability, and stiffness to buildings and at the same time
be efficient. This study addressed the effect of design elements and parameters on the strength of
bolted lateral connections in steel beams under bending using the component-based finite element
method. The variables evaluated were plate thickness, horizontal and vertical spacing between bolts,
and geometric arrangement of bolts. Finite element software was used to evaluate the stress state
of the junction plate, its plastic deformation, and bolt shear. A sensitivity analysis was performed
to determine which bolt arrangements result in safer and more efficient designs using the same
components. Stress distribution within the junction plate and plastic deformation values were used
to evaluate the structural performance of the joints according to EuroCode 3. The results showed
that placing bolts near the edge of a plate affected the bolts’ utilization, especially with thinner plates.
Additionally, introducing an offset between central and outer bolt rows is not recommended as it
worsened the stress distribution and the structural performance.

Keywords: bolted connections; steel structures; finite element method; ultimate limit state
Citation: Morido-García, G.; De
Santos-Berbel, C. Structural
Performance of Bolted Lateral
Connections in Steel Beams under
Bending Using the Component-Based
1. Introduction
Finite Element Method. Appl. Sci. Structures must provide strength, stability, and stiffness to buildings and at the same
2024, 14, 3900. https://doi.org/ time be efficient, ensuring that they can withstand extreme events. Connections are fun-
10.3390/app14093900 damental elements of steel structures because they are responsible for transferring loads
Academic Editor: Roberto Citarella
between different steel members in the structure. Furthermore, connections are impor-
tant because they can have a significant impact on the overall cost and construction of
Received: 29 March 2024 the steel structure. The design of the connections must be optimized to minimize the
Revised: 21 April 2024 amount of steel used, while ensuring that the connections are strong and reliable. This
Accepted: 30 April 2024 requires a careful analysis and design to ensure that the connection is the most efficient
Published: 2 May 2024
and economical solution.
The bolted connections are based on classic solutions of the traditional ribbed construc-
tion. Particularly, bolted lateral connections attach steel profiles with plates arranged as
joint covers. Their use is especially indicated in those cases where the frontal solutions are
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
not usable due to geometrical constraints, or because they do not allow some of the degrees
This article is an open access article
of freedom of movement required for the joint [1]. On the one hand, bolted lateral connec-
distributed under the terms and
tions avoid tensile stresses perpendicular to the rolling plane of the plate, an indispensable
conditions of the Creative Commons condition for joining the earlier steels, which were very susceptible to sheet defects. On
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the other hand, this solution is typically selected for long-span beams that would require
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ special transportation, which would increase its final cost significantly. Therefore, a joint is
4.0/). introduced in the beam that works well under shear forces, although it is true that this type

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093900 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 2 of 13

is not as effective against bending moments. Thus, when selecting the joint location, it must
be placed at approximately one fifth of the span, where the bending moment envelope is
closest to zero. Possible joint failures include breakage of the bolt and breakage of the sheet
metal, either by tearing or buckling. Given the location of the joint in the structure, in a
section subjected to a certain shear loading and with low bending moment loading, failure
of the steel profile would occur in the web.
Moreover, circumstances may arise on construction sites that may constrain the avail-
ability of materials or represent an opportunity to reduce costs, e.g., in relation to the length
of the steel profiles, thicknesses of the cover plate, etc. If changes are made to the original
design, they must be code-compliant and ensure safety.

2. Background
Limit states are those situations for which, if exceeded, the building may be considered
as not meeting any of the structural requirements for which it was designed. In the case of
the ultimate limit states, they are those that in the case of being exceeded, constitute a risk
for people, because they produce the rupture of some structural elements, and with it the
total or partial collapse of the building [2].
The finite element method (FEM) is a widespread numerical method for solving struc-
tural analysis models, dividing the system into smaller, simpler elements, and modeling
each element with equations that describe its mechanical behavior. The calibration pro-
cess involves comparing the output of the simulation with experimental data obtained
from physical testing, and adjusting the model parameters until a satisfactory match is
achieved. Current software suites provide calibrated FEM models that reproduce structural
performance of steel connections as well as the interaction between elements in a realistic
manner [3,4].
Research has recently been conducted on evaluating the performance of bolted con-
nection steel plates applying the FEM and the discontinuity layout optimization (DLO) [5].
The interactions between all the structural parts involved in a bolted connection are easier
to model when using the FEM. In addition, the FEM provides information on displace-
ments and stresses distribution prior to collapse. In turn, two commonly used possibilities
to analyze the structural behavior of steel joints are solid and shell FEMs. For example,
solid FEMs require more computational effort while providing more accurate modeling of
bending moment resistance in steel joints [6]. Thanks to the use of the FEM, it is possible to
optimize structural design as well as to develop reliable structural solutions for frames and
connections between members [7]. Different types of joints have been tested, particularly
T-joints and plate connections have been extensively studied using FEMs [3,4,8]. Shell
elements have been used to simulate laminates in 2D FEM single-lap joints, improving the
simulation of the stiffness of bolts and laminates as well as the model’s ability to simulate
the secondary bending [9].
The FEM provides valuable information about the interaction between the elements
that make up the joint. A literature review shows that traditional design methods, which
assume a rectangular stress block in plates, may inaccurately represent stress distribution
under base plates, especially with thicker plates, leading to potentially non-conservative
designs [10]. An adequate arrangement of the bolts improves stress distribution in con-
nection plates [11]. Thin plates can benefit from the clamping force generated during the
rivet installation process, which creates a localized compressive stress that helps to prevent
the initiation and propagation of cracks. However, this positive effect diminishes as the
thickness of the material increases [12].
Modeling of composite bolted joints recently incorporated friction, bolt-hole clearance,
bearing damage, and joint failure [13]. Composite bolted joints can be modeled through
a collection of components replicating the elastic properties of the bolt as demonstrated
by Belardi et al. [14]. A beam model simulated the structural behavior of the bolt shaft
while a nonlinear spring was employed to represent the frictional force between the plates,
accounting for bolt-hole clearance, allowing the calculation of the displacement caused
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900

shaft while a nonlinear spring was employed to represent the frictional force between the
3 of 13
plates, accounting for bolt-hole clearance, allowing the calculation of the displacement
caused by the contact between the bolt shaft and the plate holes. The deformation of the
plate holes was modeled by considering a beam resting on an elastic foundation. Addi-
by the contact between the bolt shaft and the plate holes. The deformation of the plate
tionally, a second spring component was utilized to account for the rotational stiffness
holes was modeled by considering a beam resting on an elastic foundation. Additionally, a
linking the bolt head and shaft, as well as the elastic support provided by the plates to the
second spring component was utilized to account for the rotational stiffness linking the
bolt head.
bolt head and shaft, as well as the elastic support provided by the plates to the bolt head.
The regulatory framework for steel connections in Europe is defined by a structural
The regulatory framework for steel connections in Europe is defined by a structural
standard for steel and composite connections, known as Eurocodes, prescriptions that
standard for steel and composite connections, known as Eurocodes, prescriptions that have
have
been been metthe
met for fordefinition
the definition
of theofcase
the studies
case studies developed
developed in thisinstudy.
this study.

3.
3. Materials
Materials and and Methods
Methods
The
The joint
joint case
case proposed
proposed in in this
this study
study connects
connects twotwo IPE240
IPE240 identical
identical profiles
profiles of of S275
S275
steel
steel bybymeans
meansofoftwo twoplates
platesononboth sides
both of the
sides webweb
of the andandtwelve boltsbolts
twelve (Figure 1). The
(Figure 1).plate
The
dimensions are conditioned
plate dimensions by the geometry
are conditioned of the IPE240
by the geometry of theprofile.
IPE240As shownAs
profile. in Figure
shown1a, in
the meeting
Figure ofmeeting
1a, the the flange andflange
of the the web andinthetheweb
profile
in theincludes
profile aincludes
circulararoot,
circular so that
root,the
so
available web height
that the available web to height
accommodate the plate is
to accommodate the190 mm.isTo
plate 190mount
mm. the bolts inside
To mount the
the bolts
plate
insidespaced at spaced
the plate similaratdistances horizontally
similar distances and vertically,
horizontally a length
and vertically, of 320ofmm
a length is se-
320 mm is
lected.
selected. Furthermore,
Furthermore, these dimensions
these dimensionsallow allowusustotomodify
modifythe theposition
positionand
and arrangement
arrangement
of
of the
the bolts,
bolts, whose
whose effect
effect is to be studied. In In addition,
addition, thethe parameters
parameters associated
associated with with
strength,
strength, dimensions, and and bolt
bolt tightening
tighteningare arefactors
factorsthat
thatarearemaintained
maintainedfor forallallcase
casestudies.
stud-
Particularly,
ies. prestressed
Particularly, prestressed connecting
connecting elements
elementsincluded
included high-strength
high-strength bolts. According
bolts. According to
the standard EN ISO 4014/4022 [15], which specifies the
to the standard EN ISO 4014/4022 [15], which specifies the characteristics characteristics of hexagon head
head
bolts, an
bolts, an M12
M12C8.8C8.8bolt
boltwaswas
selected. Its yield
selected. strength
Its yield strength is 640 2N/mm
is 640 N/mm and its tensile
2 and itsstrength
tensile
is 800 N/mm
strength is 8002N/mm
. As contact surfaces
2. As contact do notdoneed
surfaces to beto
not need prepared
be preparedin a in
special manner,
a special manner,the
jointjoint
the studied is grade
studied A. A.
is grade

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Joint components: (a) Cross-section view with dimensions in mm; (b) axonometric view.
Figure 1. Joint components: (a) Cross-section view with dimensions in mm; (b) axonometric view.

The
The failure
failure modes
modes of of this
this connection
connection include
include tearing
tearing resistance
resistance forfor bolt
bolt groups,
groups, local
local
bending, crushing, and block
bending, crushing, and block tearing. tearing.
IDEA
IDEA StatiCa v.20 software
StatiCa v.20 softwarewas wasused
usedtotocompute
computethe theresistance
resistanceand andthe
the stress
stress state
state of
of the joint elements. The program works with the component-based
the joint elements. The program works with the component-based finite element method finite element
method
(CBFEM), (CBFEM),
which iswhich is the combination
the combination of two methods:
of two methods: the FEMthe andFEMthe and the component
component method
method
(CM) [16].(CM)The[16].
CM TheisCM is implemented
implemented in theincurrent
the current Eurocodes
Eurocodes [17–19]
[17–19] andand applied
applied in
in
thethe majority
majority ofof softwarefor
software forstructural
structuralsteel
steelused
usedininEurope.
Europe. TheThe component model of of
connections
connections begins
beginsand andstems
stemsfrom fromthethe
decomposition
decomposition of aofjoint to components.
a joint to components. The con-
The
stitutive equations of the material model the deformation behavior in
constitutive equations of the material model the deformation behavior in relation to the relation to the nor-
mal andand
normal shear forces.
shear TheThe
forces. connection
connection components
components areare
grouped
groupedtotoexamine
examinejoint
jointmoment–
moment–
rotational
rotational behavior
behavior andand classification
classification representation
representation in a spring-shear
spring-shear model. Interactions
Interactions
between
between components
components incorporate
incorporate boundary
boundary conditions
conditions toto simulate
simulate thethe influence
influence between
between
the behavior of the connection elements for their consideration in the aggregate analysis
of the connection structural performance [20]. The IDEA StatiCa software calculation
procedure is supported by an extensive experimental validation campaign [16].
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

the behavior of the connection elements for their consideration in the aggregate analysis
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 4 of 13
of the connection structural performance [20]. The IDEA StatiCa software calculation pro-
cedure is supported by an extensive experimental validation campaign [16].
The CM is based on standard procedures that evaluate the internal forces in the geo-
metricThe layoutCMof is the
based on standard
connection and procedures that evaluate
their verification, involvingthethe
internal forcesofinre-
prediction the
sistance, stiffness, and deformation capacity. It permits predicting the 3D performance ofof
geometric layout of the connection and their verification, involving the prediction
resistance,
steel stiffness,
joints under and deformation
arbitrary loading despite capacity. It permits
the complex predicting
phenomena the 3D performance
(nonlinearities, resid-
of steel joints under arbitrary loading despite the complex
ual stresses, geometrical configurations, etc.) affecting the behavior of structural phenomena (nonlinearities,
steel [21].
residual
The weakness stresses,
of thegeometrical
standard CM configurations,
lies in the analysisetc.)ofaffecting the behavior
internal forces and stress of in
structural
a joint.
steelTo[21].
overcome this limitation, the CBFEM method replaces the specific analysis ofstress
The weakness of the standard CM lies in the analysis of internal forces and the
in a joint.
internal forces in the joint with the general FEM. Check that methods of specific compo-
To overcome this limitation, the CBFEM method replaces the specific analysis of the
nents like bolts, which are modeled as nonlinear springs, are performed according to the
internal forces in the joint with the general FEM. Check that methods of specific components
standard CM (Eurocode). In turn, special FEM components permit modeling the bolts be-
like bolts, which are modeled as nonlinear springs, are performed according to the standard
havior in a joint. All parts of one-dimensional members and all additional plates are mod-
CM (Eurocode). In turn, special FEM components permit modeling the bolts behavior
elled as plates. As elements are made of steel and their mechanical behavior is significantly
in a joint. All parts of one-dimensional members and all additional plates are modelled
nonlinear, the real stress–strain diagram of steel is replaced by the ideal plastic material
as plates. As elements are made of steel and their mechanical behavior is significantly
for design purposes in building practice. The advantage of ideal plastic material is that
nonlinear, the real stress–strain diagram of steel is replaced by the ideal plastic material for
only the yield strength and modulus of elasticity must be known to describe the material
design purposes in building practice. The advantage of ideal plastic material is that only
curve. As these elements are considered as an ideal elastic plastic material, their internal
the yield strength and modulus of elasticity must be known to describe the material curve.
forces can be retrieved for evaluation. Although the granted ductility of construction steel
As these elements are considered as an ideal elastic plastic material, their internal forces can
isbe
15%, the real
retrieved forusable value Although
evaluation. of limit plastic strain ductility
the granted is 5% forof anconstruction
ordinary design [22].
steel is 15%, Thethe
stress in steel cannot exceed the yield strength when using the ideal elastic–plastic
real usable value of limit plastic strain is 5% for an ordinary design [22]. The stress in steel stress–
strain
cannot diagram.
exceed the yield strength when using the ideal elastic–plastic stress–strain diagram.
The
TheCBFEM
CBFEMmethodmethodaims aimstotomodel
modelthe thereal
realstate
stateprecisely.
precisely.Meshes
Meshesofofplates
platesfromfrom
different components are not merged, and no intersections are
different components are not merged, and no intersections are generated between them.generated between them.
Instead,
Instead,a amesh
meshofoffinite
finiteelements
elementsisisgenerated
generatedon oneach
eachindividual
individualplate
plateindependently
independentlyon on
mesh
mesh of other plates. Between the meshes, special massless force interpolationconstraints
of other plates. Between the meshes, special massless force interpolation constraints
are
areadded.
added.They Theyensure
ensurethe theconnection
connectionbetween
betweenthe theedge
edgeofofone
oneplate
plateand
andthe thesurface
surfaceoror
edge
edgeofofthethe other
other plate. End forces
plate. End forceson onmembers
membersare areapplied
applied as as loads
loads on on segment
segment ends,
ends, with
with internal
internal forcesforces
fromfrom theoretical
theoretical nodes nodes transferred
transferred to segment
to segment ends,ends, maintaining
maintaining force force
values
values
whilewhile adjusting
adjusting momentsmoments
due todue to force
force actions
actions on corresponding
on corresponding arms,arms,
without without con-
connecting
necting inner ends of segments [16]. The model incorporates shear
inner ends of segments [16]. The model incorporates shear stress transmission by crushingstress transmission by
crushing and tensile–shear interaction. This unique calculation model
and tensile–shear interaction. This unique calculation model provides excellent results, provides excellent
results,
both fromboththefrom theof
point point
viewofofview of precision
precision and aanalysis.
and a speed speed analysis.
Figure 2Figure 2 illustrates
illustrates the joint
the joint as
model model as displayed
displayed by IDEA byStatiCa.
IDEA StatiCa.

Figure Jointmodel
Figure2.2.Joint modelininIDEA
IDEAStatiCa
StatiCausing
usingfinite
finiteelements
elementswith
withthe
therange
rangeof
ofcolors
colorsrepresenting
representing the
the state
state of of internal
internal tensions.
tensions.

Circularholes
Circular holesare
arearranged
arrangedboth
bothininthe
theIPE240
IPE240profile
profileand
andininthe
theplates.
plates.As
Asstipulated
stipulated
bybyEurocode
Eurocode3 3Part
Part1–8
1–8[17]
[17]for
forM12
M12andandM14M14bolts,
bolts,the
thestandard
standarddiameter
diameterofofthe
theholes
holes
equals the diameter of the screw shank plus 1 mm (Figure 3). Spacing between bolts and
between bolts and the plate border is regulated by Eurocode 3 Part 1–8.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 equals the diameter of the screw shank plus 1 mm (Figure 3). Spacing between bolts5and
of 13
between bolts and the plate border is regulated by Eurocode 3 Part 1–8.

Dimensionsof
Figure3.3.Dimensions
Figure ofsteel
steelplate
plateand
andposition
positionof
ofholes.
holes.

Thecase
The casestudies
studiesassume
assumeaasmall
smallbending
bendingmoment
momentvalue
valueininrelation
relationtotothe
theshear
shearstress.
stress.
This fact determines the placement of joint covers only in the web zone
This fact determines the placement of joint covers only in the web zone of the structural of the structural
section.AAtotal
section. totalofof80
80case
casestudies
studieswere
wereanalyzed
analyzedwithwiththe
thesame
samestatic
staticloading
loadinghypothesis,
hypothesis,
including the weighting coefficients of actions, resulting in a bending
including the weighting coefficients of actions, resulting in a bending moment stress moment stress of
of 10
10 kN-m and a shear stress of 75 kN. These values constitute the boundary
kN-m and a shear stress of 75 kN. These values constitute the boundary conditions, with conditions,
with
no no additional
additional constraints
constraints considered.
considered. As a result,
As a result, the model
the model is in equilibrium
is in equilibrium after
after com-
computation if the internal forces are added at the ends of related members.
putation if the internal forces are added at the ends of related members.
Table 1 contains model and mesh CBFEM parameters as well as calculation parameters
Table 1 contains model and mesh CBFEM parameters as well as calculation parame-
as introduced in IDEA StatiCa settings. A multiple of the height of the section is used to
ters as introduced in IDEA StatiCa settings. A multiple of the height of the section is used
determine the default length of a standard element. The ratio of the plate edge length to
to determine the default length of a standard element. The ratio of the plate edge length
the number of edge elements determines the number of elements in the largest flange or
to the number of edge elements determines the number of elements in the largest flange
web. Each calculation was conducted with 25 iterations with up to three divergence steps
or web. Each calculation was conducted with 25 iterations with up to three divergence
for its evaluation. The finite element mesh is composed of linear elements. To select the
steps for its evaluation. The finite element mesh is composed of linear elements. To select
size of the finite elements, a pilot sensitivity analysis was conducted. Element sizes of 2 to
the size of the finite elements, a pilot sensitivity analysis was conducted. Element sizes of
8 mm, 5 to 20 mm, and 10 to 40 mm were set to analyze the effect of the mesh size on the
2 to 8 mm, 5 to 20 mm, and 10 to 40 mm were set to analyze the effect of the mesh size on
target parameters of this study. It was concluded that reducing the mesh size beyond the
the target parameters of this study. It was concluded that reducing the mesh size beyond
latter values did not provide significant additional precision while the computational time
the
waslatter values
greatly did notAs
increased. provide significant
a result, the maximumadditional precision
element while
size was setthe computational
at 40 mm and the
time was greatly increased. As a result, the maximum element size
minimum element size was set at 10 mm since it provided a sufficient fineness was set at 40 mm and
to obtain
the minimum element size was set at 10 mm since it provided a sufficient
precise enough results without delaying the computational calculation, while the mesh fineness to ob-
tain precise
layout enough
provided resultsadaptation
sufficient without delaying the of
to the shape computational
the connection calculation,
components. while the
mesh layout provided sufficient adaptation to the shape of the connection components.
Table 1. Model and mesh CBFEM parameters.
Table 1. Model and mesh CBFEM parameters.
Parameter Value
Parameter Value
Default length of standard element 1.5
Default length of standard
Minimum element size element 10 mm 1.5
Minimum
Maximum element
element size size 40 mm 10 mm
Number of Maximum
elements in flange
element or web
size 8 40 mm
Number of iterations in analysis 25
Number of elements in flange or web 8
Diverging iteration count 3
Number of iterations in analysis 25
Diverging iteration count 3
The results of joint designs have been further checked and validated using the spread-
sheets for lateral bolted joints prepared by Ortiz et al. [1] These are based on the abovemen-
tioned EuroCode 3 specifications.
 The results of joint designs have been further checked and validated using the
spreadsheets for lateral bolted joints prepared by Ortiz et al. [1] These are based on the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 6 of 13
abovementioned EuroCode 3 specifications.

4. Results and discussion

4. Results and Discussion
In this section, the results of the analysis of case studies are described. First, the effect
In this section,
of modifying the results
the vertical of the
spacing analysis
between boltofrows
case studies are described.
was evaluated. Second,First,
the the effect
effect of
of modifying the vertical spacing between bolt rows was evaluated.
the horizontal spacing between the vertical edge and bolts was assessed. Second, the effect of
the horizontal spacing between the vertical edge and bolts was assessed.
4.1. Vertical Spacing between Bolt Rows
4.1. Vertical Spacing between Bolt Rows
The first set of case studies considered a steel plate where five hypotheses concerning
The first set of case studies considered a steel plate where five hypotheses concerning
the vertical spacing between bolt rows are contemplated: 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 mm. Four
the vertical spacing between bolt rows are contemplated: 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 mm. Four
steel plate thickness values were combined with each of them: 3, 3.5, 4, and 5 mm. It must
steel plate thickness values were combined with each of them: 3, 3.5, 4, and 5 mm. It
be noted that the selected spacing distances comply with the minimum distance to plate
must be noted that the selected spacing distances comply with the minimum distance
edges according to Eurocode 3 [17]. These variations were studied while the horizontal
to plate edges according to Eurocode 3 [17]. These variations were studied while the
spacing between bolts was kept constant. Figure 3 represents the dimensions and geomet-
horizontal spacing between bolts was kept constant. Figure 3 represents the dimensions
rical arrangement of the bolt holes in the plate.
and geometrical arrangement of the bolt holes in the plate.
Equivalent
Equivalentmaximum
maximumplastic
plasticdeformation
deformationisisdisplayed
displayedfor
forthe
theset
setof
ofcase
casestudies
studiesin
in
Figure
Figure 4. Eurocode 3 [17] requires that this measure does not exceed 5%. Of the20
4. Eurocode 3 [17] requires that this measure does not exceed 5%. Of the 20cases
cases
proposed,
proposed,15 15complied
compliedwithwiththe
themaximum
maximumplastic
plasticdeformation.
deformation.It It
can
canbebe
noted that
noted thethe
that 3
mm thick plate complied with the maximum plastic deformation for vertical
3 mm thick plate complied with the maximum plastic deformation for vertical spacing spacing dis-
tances overover
distances 60 mm
60 mmonly.
only.

Figure
Figure4.4.Equivalent
Equivalentplastic
plasticmaximum
maximumdeformation
deformationfor
forhorizontal
horizontalspacing
spacingof
of50–60
50–60mm.
mm.

Figure
Figure55displays
displaysthe thecontour
contourplot
plotof
ofplastic
plasticdeformation
deformationin inthe
thejoint
jointwith
withthethe33mmmm
thick
thick plate
plate and
and 70 mm vertical
vertical spacing
spacingalong
alongwith
withthe thecolor
colorscale
scalelegend.
legend.Plastic
Plastic defor-
deforma-
mations
tions areare located
located in in
thethe contact
contact zone
zone between
between thethe bolt
bolt and
and thethe profile
profile oror
thethe metal
metal plate.
plate. In
In
thethe profile
profile web,
web, it can
it can be noticed
be noticed howhow the kinematic
the kinematic field field of plastic
of plastic deformations
deformations re-
responds
sponds to a rotational
to a rotational field withfield
thewith
centerthe
at center at A
bolt #13. bolt #13. A
similar similar is
situation situation
observed is in
observed
the fieldin
of
plastic
the fielddeformations connected to
of plastic deformations the righttocomponent
connected around boltaround
the right component #20. bolt #20.
Figure 6 shows, on the one hand, the von Mises stress map of a 3 mm thick plate with
70 mm vertical spacing between bolt rows. This is one of the cases of the previous set that
narrowly met the EuroCode specifications. A significant portion of the plate area reached
the yield stress of the steel, which is displayed in dark red. On the other hand, the 5 mm
thick plate with 80 mm spacing is the case that met specifications the most loosely. In both
cases, it was observed that the most stressed areas are those close to the holes vertically
outside and horizontally inside (21 and 23).
The stress state of IPE profiles of the 3 mm thick plate and vertical spacing of 70 mm,
one of the designs that met the criteria of EuroCode 3 in an adjusted form, is displayed in
Figure 7. It can be observed that the plastic deformation values showed by the color scheme
are consistent with the plastic deformations in Figure 5. The von Mises stress distribution
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 7 of 13

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

showed that the joint plates (Figure 6a) have higher load stresses as the dark red areas are
greater in the plates than in the profile web.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Verification of plastic deformation in joint with 3 mm thick plate with vertical spacing of
70 mm: (a) IPE240 web; (b) plate.

Figure 6 shows, on the one hand, the von Mises stress map of a 3 mm thick plate with
70 mm vertical spacing between bolt rows. This is one of the cases of the previous set that
narrowly met the EuroCode specifications. A significant portion of the plate area reached
the yield stress of the steel, which is displayed in(b)
(a) dark red. On the other hand, the 5 mm
thick plate with 80 mm spacing is the case that met specifications the most loosely. In both
Figure 5. Verification of plastic deformation in joint with 3 mm thick plate with vertical spacing of
cases, 5.
Figure it Verification
was observed that the
of plastic most stressed
deformation in jointareas
with 3are
mm those
thickclose
plate to thevertical
with holes spacing
vertically
of
70 mm: (a) IPE240 web; (b) plate.
outside
70 mm: (a)and horizontally
IPE240 inside (21 and 23).
web; (b) plate.

Figure 6 shows, on the one hand, the von Mises stress map of a 3 mm thick plate with
70 mm vertical spacing between bolt rows. This is one of the cases of the previous set that
narrowly met the EuroCode specifications. A significant portion of the plate area reached
the yield stress of the steel, which is displayed in dark red. On the other hand, the 5 mm
thick plate with 80 mm spacing is the case that met specifications the most loosely. In both
cases, it was observed that the most stressed areas are those close to the holes vertically
outside and horizontally inside (21 and 23).

(a) (b)

Figure 6. von
Figure 6. von Mises stress distribution
Mises stress distribution in
in plates
plates with
withcolor
colorscale:
scale:(a)
(a)33mm
mmthick
thickplate
plateand
andvertical
vertical
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
spacing
spacing of 70 mm; (b) 5 mm thick plate and vertical spacing of 80 mm. The numbering of boltsbolts
mm; (b) 5 mm thick plate and vertical spacing of 80 mm. The numbering of is
is indicated.
indicated.

The stress state of IPE profiles of the 3 mm thick plate and vertical spacing of 70 mm,
one of the designs that met the criteria of EuroCode 3 in an adjusted form, is displayed in
(a)Figure 7. It can be observed that the plastic deformation (b) values showed by the color
scheme are consistent with the plastic deformations in Figure 5. The von Mises stress dis-
tribution
Figure 6. showed that
von Mises thedistribution
stress joint platesin(Figure 6a) have
plates with higher
color scale: (a)load
3 mmstresses as the
thick plate anddark red
vertical
areas areofgreater
spacing 70 mm;in
(b)the plates
5 mm than
thick inand
plate the vertical
profile spacing
web. of 80 mm. The numbering of bolts is
indicated.

The stress state of IPE profiles of the 3 mm thick plate and vertical spacing of 70 mm,
one of the designs that met the criteria of EuroCode 3 in an adjusted form, is displayed in
(a) (b)
Figure 7. It can be observed that the plastic deformation values showed by the color
Figure
scheme
Figure 7.
7. von
areMises
von Mises stress
stressdistribution
consistent with ininthe
the plastic
distribution web ofof
IPE240
deformations
the web IPE240profiles
inprofiles
Figurewith color
5. The
with scale:
von
color (a) left
Mises
scale: end;end;
(a)stress
left (b)
dis-
right end.
tribution
(b) right end.showed that the joint plates (Figure 6a) have higher load stresses as the dark red
areas are greater in the plates than in the profile web.
Regarding the
Regarding the calculation
calculation ofof bolt
bolt shear
shear utilization,
utilization, itit can
can be
be observed
observed in in Figure
Figure 88 that
that
15 of the 20 cases proposed met the maximum plastic deformation.
15 of the 20 cases proposed met the maximum plastic deformation. The case studies withThe case studies with
smaller vertical
smaller vertical spacing
spacing resulted
resulted inin aa peak
peak shear
shear utilization
utilization well
well above
above thethe limit
limit (100%),
(100%),
regardless of of the
theplate
platethickness.
thickness.OnOn thetheother hand,
other the plate
hand, thickness
the plate did affect
thickness the cases
did affect the
with greater
cases vertical
with greater spacing.
vertical The greater
spacing. the thickness,
The greater the lower
the thickness, the percentage
the lower the percentageof shear of
utilization in the bolts. In intermediate values of vertical spacing, the percentages
shear utilization in the bolts. In intermediate values of vertical spacing, the percentages were all
stabilized
were below the
all stabilized limitthe
below andlimit
are and
practically the samethe
are practically in same
each position. There are
in each position. 13 pos-
There are
sible cases out of 20 that met the specifications. The most efficient connections consisted
of a 3 mm thick plate with 60 or 70 mm vertical spacing.
 Regarding the calculation of bolt shear utilization, it can be observed in Figure 8 that
15 of the 20 cases proposed met the maximum plastic deformation. The case studies with
smaller vertical spacing resulted in a peak shear utilization well above the limit (100%),
regardless of the plate thickness. On the other hand, the plate thickness did affect the cases
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 with greater vertical spacing. The greater the thickness, the lower the percentage of 8shear
of 13
utilization in the bolts. In intermediate values of vertical spacing, the percentages were all
stabilized below the limit and are practically the same in each position. There are 13 pos-
sible
13 cases out
possible of 20
cases outthat metthat
of 20 themet
specifications. The mostThe
the specifications. efficient
most connections consisted
efficient connections
of a 3 mm thick plate with 60 or 70 mm vertical spacing.
consisted of a 3 mm thick plate with 60 or 70 mm vertical spacing.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Bolt
Bolt shear
shear utilization
utilization for
for horizontal
horizontal spacing
spacing of
of 50–60
50–60 mm.
mm.

4.2.
4.2. Horizontal
Horizontal Spacing
Spacing between
between Vertical
Vertical Edge
Edge and
and Bolts
Bolts
The
The second set of case studies considers a steel
second set of case studies considers a steel plate
plate where
where three
three hypotheses
hypotheses con-con-
cerning
cerning the horizontal spacing between the plate vertical edge and the outermost boltbolt
the horizontal spacing between the plate vertical edge and the outermost col-
columns
umns were were contemplated,
contemplated, 30, 30,
40, 40,
50, 50,
andand 60 mm,
60 mm, keeping
keeping at 60atmm
60 mm the bolt
the bolt columns
columns that
that are attached
are attached to thetoIPE
theprofile
IPE profile
on theon the side
same sameofside of the connection.
the connection. The twoThe two vertical
vertical spacing
spacing values between bolt rows that were found to have better mechanical
values between bolt rows that were found to have better mechanical behavior in the pre- behavior in
the previous section (60 and 70 mm) were considered, and each of them
vious section (60 and 70 mm) were considered, and each of them was also combined with was also combined
with four plate
four steel steel plate thickness
thickness values:values:
3, 3.5, 3,
4, 3.5,
and 4, and 5Inmm.
5 mm. theseIncases,
thesethe
cases, the selected
selected spacing
spacing distances also complied with the minimum distance to plate edges
distances also complied with the minimum distance to plate edges according to Eurocode according to
Eurocode 3 [17]. These variations were studied while the vertical
3 [17]. These variations were studied while the vertical spacing between bolts wasspacing between bolts
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 ofkept
14
was kept constant. Figure 9 represents the dimensions and geometrical arrangement of the
constant. Figure 9 represents the dimensions and geometrical arrangement of the bolt
bolt holes in the plate.
holes in the plate.

Figure
Figure9.9.Dimensions
Dimensionsof
ofsteel
steelplate
plateand
andposition
positionof
ofholes
holeswith
withvarying
varyinghorizontal
horizontalspacing.
spacing.

Equivalent
Equivalent maximum plastic
plasticdeformation
deformationvalues
valuesforfor 32 different
32 different designs
designs are dis-
are displayed
played in Figure
in Figure 10. As10. As mentioned
mentioned above,above, two vertical
two vertical offsetoffset
valuesvalues between
between bolt rows
bolt rows were
were considered: (a) 60 mm, and (b) 70 mm. It is observed that the latter designs showed
better mechanical performance not only in terms of bolt shear utilization but also in plastic
deformation. In total, 14 of the 16 designs shown in Figure 10a met the maximum plastic
deformation of the codes, while 15 of the 16 cases shown in Figure 10b comply with the
specifications. Not all cases of connections using 3 mm joint covers complied with the
 Figure 9. Dimensions of steel plate and position of holes with varying horizontal spacing.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 9 of 13
Equivalent maximum plastic deformation values for 32 different designs are dis-
played in Figure 10. As mentioned above, two vertical offset values between bolt rows
were considered:
considered: (a) 60(a) 60 mm,
mm, andand(b)(b)
7070mm.
mm. It is is observed
observed that thethe
that latter designs
latter showed
designs showed
better
better mechanicalperformance
mechanical performance not notonly
onlyinin terms
termsof bolt shear
of bolt utilization
shear but also
utilization butinalso
plastic
in plastic
deformation.In
deformation. Intotal,
total, 14
14 of
of the
the16
16designs
designs shown
shown in Figure 10a 10a
in Figure met met
the maximum
the maximumplasticplastic
deformation of the codes, while 15 of the 16 cases shown in Figure 10b complythe
deformation of the codes, while 15 of the 16 cases shown in Figure 10b comply with with the
specifications. Not all cases of connections using 3 mm joint covers complied with the
specifications. Not all cases of connections using 3 mm joint covers complied with the
maximum plastic deformation, particularly those where the distance to the vertical edges
maximum plastic deformation, particularly those where the distance to the vertical edges
is less than 40 mm, in contrast to all other plate thickness values. The relationship between
is less than 40 mm, in contrast to all other plate thickness values. The relationship between
the distance to the vertical edge and the plastic deformation was found to be inversely
theproportional
distance toupthe vertical
to 60 mm and edge and linear.
virtually the plastic
As thedeformation
outer column waswasmoved
foundawayto befrom
inversely
proportional
the vertical edge, while maintaining the distance between bolt columns, the strength is- from
up to 60 mm and virtually linear. As the outer column was moved away
thesues
vertical
were edge, whiletomaintaining
transferred the However,
the IPE profile. distance between bolt
the critical columns,
resistance the strength
values were not issues
were transferred
reached beyondto 60the
mmIPE profile.
spacing However,
between the critical
the vertical edge resistance values
and bolts since thewere not reached
web thick-
beyond
ness is60 6.2mmmm. spacing
It is also between the vertical
observed that, for 60 mm edge and bolts
of vertical since
spacing the web
between bolt thickness
rows, is
6.2atmm.
higher
It isplate
alsothicknesses,
observed that,the effect
for 60ofmmincreasing the distance
of vertical spacingtobetween
the vertical
boltedges
rows,wasat higher
very
plate small.
thicknesses, the effect of increasing the distance to the vertical edges was very small.

(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
Figure 10. Plastic deformation: (a) 60 mm vertical spacing; (b) 70 mm vertical spacing.
Figure 10. Plastic deformation: (a) 60 mm vertical spacing; (b) 70 mm vertical spacing.

Figure 11 displays the von Mises stresses in the 3 mm thick plate with 30 mm and
Figure 11 displays the von Mises stresses in the 3 mm thick plate with 30 mm and 60
60 mm
mmhorizontal
horizontal spacing to the vertical edge. In both cases, a significant portion of the
spacing to the vertical edge. In both cases, a significant portion of the plate
plate
areaarea is displayed
is displayed in dark inred,
dark red,indicates
which which indicates thatstress
that the yield the yield stress
of the steel ofreached.
was the steel was
reached.
However,However, onlycase
only the first thedoes
firstnot
case
meetdoes not meet specifications
the EuroCode the EuroCode duespecifications
to an excessivedue to
an plastic
excessive plastic deformation.
deformation. The second case The second
is the case
design thatismeets
the design that meets
the EuroCode the EuroCode
specifications
specifications
more strictlymore strictly
and can andbe
therefore can thereforeasbethe
considered considered
most efficient as the
one.most efficient one.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. von Mises stress distribution in plates with color scale: (a) 3 mm thick plate with 30 mm
Figure 11. von Mises stress distribution in plates with color scale: (a) 3 mm thick plate with 30 mm
horizontal spacing to the vertical edge; (b) 3 mm thick plate with 50 mm horizontal spacing to the
horizontal spacing
vertical edge. The to the vertical
numbering edge;
of bolts (b) 3 mm thick plate with 50 mm horizontal spacing to the
is indicated.
vertical edge. The numbering of bolts is indicated.
4.3. Offset in Central Row
In the third set of case studies, the bolts of the central row were arranged with a 20
mm offset to the lateral ends with respect to the outer ones as shown in Figure 12. This
layout can be used for two purposes. The first purpose is to optimize the stress distribu-
tion between the joint components. Second, if the joint is to be left as visible, an offset can
be introduced for aesthetical purposes. The horizontal spacing between bolt rows on the
 (a) (b)
Figure 11. von Mises stress distribution in plates with color scale: (a) 3 mm thick plate with 30 mm
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 horizontal spacing to the vertical edge; (b) 3 mm thick plate with 50 mm horizontal spacing10toofthe
13
vertical edge. The numbering of bolts is indicated.

4.3. Offset
4.3. Offset in
in Central
Central RowRow
In the
In the third
third set
set of
of case
casestudies,
studies,the
thebolts
boltsofofthethecentral
central row
row were
werearranged
arranged with a 20
with a
mm offset to the lateral ends with respect to the outer ones as shown
20 mm offset to the lateral ends with respect to the outer ones as shown in Figure 12. This in Figure 12. This
layout can
layout can be
beused
usedfor fortwo
twopurposes.
purposes.TheThefirst
first purpose
purpose is is
to to optimize
optimize thethe stress
stress distribu-
distribution
between the joint components. Second, if the joint is to be left as visible, an offset cancan
tion between the joint components. Second, if the joint is to be left as visible, an offset be
be introduced
introduced for aesthetical
for aesthetical purposes.
purposes. The The horizontal
horizontal spacing
spacing between
between bolt rows
bolt rows on theon the
same
sameofside
side of theis joint
the joint kept is kept constant
constant at 60 mm.at Concerning
60 mm. Concerning the variations
the variations considered, considered,
values of
values
40, of 40,
50, 60, 70,50,
and 60,8070,
mmandwere
80 mm were assigned
assigned to the vertical
to the vertical distancedistance
betweenbetween the non-
the non-central
central row and the horizontal symmetry axis. Second, the plate
row and the horizontal symmetry axis. Second, the plate thickness values considered thickness values consid-
were,
ered were, as in previous analyses,
as in previous analyses, 3, 3.5, 4, and 5 mm.3, 3.5, 4, and 5 mm.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Dimensions
Dimensions of
of steel
steel plate
plate and
and position
position of
of holes
holes with
with offset
offset in
in central
central row.
row.

Asshown
As shown in in Figure
Figure 13,equivalent
13, the the equivalent
plasticplastic deformation
deformation decreaseddecreased as the distance
as the distance
betweenthe
between thehorizontal
horizontal rowrow bolts
bolts increased.
increased. OutOut of the
of the twenty
twenty casescases analyzed,
analyzed, only ten met
only ten
met
the the maximum
maximum equivalentplastic
equivalent plastic deformation
deformation of of5%5%ofofthe EuroCode.
the EuroCode. ForFor
plate thick-
plate thicknesses
nesses
equal equal to or greater
to or greater than than 3.5 mm,
3.5 mm, the effect
the effect of increasing
of increasing plate
plate thicknesswas
thickness wasnegligible.
negli- With
gible. Within
an offset anthe
offset in the row,
central central
therow, the distance
distance between
between horizontal
horizontal rows
rows mustexceed
must exceed 60 mm to
60 mmthe
meet to meet the maximum
maximum equivalent
equivalent plastic
plastic deformation.
deformation.

Figure
Figure13.13.
Equivalent plastic
Equivalent maximum
plastic deformation
maximum for horizontal
deformation spacingsspacings
for horizontal of 50-60 mm with offset
of 50–60 mm with offset
in central row.
in central row.
Figure 14 shows bolt shear utilization for the different distances between the hori-
zontal bolt rows considered. For spacing between horizontal bolt rows equal to or smaller
than 60 mm, the shear utilization decreased with increasing row spacing, virtually inde-
pendent of plate thickness. If a spacing between rows greater than 70 mm was arranged,
shear utilization rose, and the more thin the plate was. As a result, only seven of these
joint designs met both EuroCode specifications. By separating the bolt rows by up to 80
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 Figure 13. Equivalent plastic maximum deformation for horizontal spacings of 50-60 mm with
11offset
of 13
in central row.

Figure14
Figure 14shows
showsbolt bolt shear
shear utilization
utilization for for
the the different
different distances
distances between
between the hori-
the horizontal
zontal
bolt rowsboltconsidered.
rows considered. For spacing
For spacing betweenbetween horizontal
horizontal bolt equal
bolt rows rows equal to or smaller
to or smaller than
than 60 mm, the shear utilization decreased with increasing row spacing,
60 mm, the shear utilization decreased with increasing row spacing, virtually independent virtually inde-
pendent
of of plate thickness.
plate thickness. If a spacing
If a spacing betweenbetween rows greater
rows greater than 70than
mm 70 mm
was was arranged,
arranged, shear
shear utilization rose, and the more thin the plate was. As a result,
utilization rose, and the more thin the plate was. As a result, only seven of these only seven of these
joint
joint designs
designs metEuroCode
met both both EuroCode specifications.
specifications. By separating
By separating the bolt the
rows bolt
by rows
up to by up tothe
80 mm, 80
mm, the
stress stress distribution
distribution betweenbetween
the boltsthe bolts
in the in the
joint joint is altered,
is altered, causingcausing thestress
the shear shearofstress
the
of the most peripheral ones to increase above their nominal strength when
most peripheral ones to increase above their nominal strength when the plate thickness is the plate thick-
ness isorequal
equal or less
less than than 4 mm.
4 mm.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Bolt
Bolt shear
shear utilization
utilization for
for horizontal
horizontal spacings
spacingsof
of50–60
50–60mm
mmwith
withoffset
offsetinincentral
centralrow.
row.

Figure 15
Figure 15 illustrates
illustrates the
the von
von Mises
Mises stresses
stresses in
in the
the 3.5
3.5 mm
mm thick
thick plate
plate with
with 60
60 mm
mm
vertical
vertical spacing
spacing between
between row
row bolts
bolts and
and the
the 55 mm
mm thick
thick plate
plate with
with 80
80 mm
mm vertical
vertical spacing
spacing
between
betweenrow rowbolts.
bolts.The
Theformer
formerrepresents
representsthe the
jointjoint
design with with
design the thinnest plate that
the thinnest meets
plate that
the EuroCode
meets 3 specifications
the EuroCode for the for
3 specifications defined load stresses.
the defined The latter
load stresses. Thecorresponds to the
latter corresponds
joint design
to the joint that most
design satisfactorily
that meets themeets
most satisfactorily requirements. For both designs,
the requirements. For bothwe observed
designs, we
the zone with stresses of 275 MPa around bolts 21 and 23, with significant differences
observed the zone with stresses of 275 MPa around bolts 21 and 23, with significant dif- in the
extension
ferences inofthe
theextension
zones withof high stresses.
the zones with high stresses.

(a) (b)
Figure 15. von Mises stress distribution in plates: (a) 3.5 mm thick plate with 60 mm vertical spacing
Figure 15. von Mises stress distribution in plates: (a) 3.5 mm thick plate with 60 mm vertical spacing
between row bolts; (b) 5 mm thick plate with 80 mm vertical spacing between row bolts. The num-
between row bolts; (b) 5 mm thick plate with 80 mm vertical spacing between row bolts. The
bering of bolts is indicated.
numbering of bolts is indicated.
Finally, the
Finally, the results
results obtained
obtained ininthis
thislast
lastset
setanalyzed were
analyzed compared
were comparedwith those
with of the
those of
set in which the distribution of the bolts was aligned both horizontally and vertically.
the set in which the distribution of the bolts was aligned both horizontally and vertically. It
was observed that the latter designs rendered slightly better structural performances.
When thinner plates are used, both the equivalent plastic maximum deformation and the
shear utilization of the bolts increase significantly in the cases with an offset in the central
row. Among the remainder of the plate thickness values, both the equivalent maximum
plastic deformation and the shear utilization of the bolts increase slightly in the cases with
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3900 12 of 13

It was observed that the latter designs rendered slightly better structural performances.
When thinner plates are used, both the equivalent plastic maximum deformation and the
shear utilization of the bolts increase significantly in the cases with an offset in the central
row. Among the remainder of the plate thickness values, both the equivalent maximum
plastic deformation and the shear utilization of the bolts increase slightly in the cases with
an offset in the central row.

5. Conclusions
As fundamental parts of steel structures, connections are responsible for transferring
loads between different steel components and have a considerable impact on the overall
cost and construction of the steel structure.
This study highlighted the possibility of optimizing steel connection components
within the requirements of codes under the restriction of available materials or designs.
Different combinations of plate thickness, bolt spacing, and geometric arrangements were
tested to observe their effects. The CB FEM was employed to assess the stress state of the
junction plate, plastic deformation, and bolt shear. This is a powerful and precise numerical
method used to simulate the behavior of structures under various conditions.
The nonlinear behavior of the elements that make up the connection is evident from
the results. First, the evaluation of the stress distribution within the junction plate helped
in identifying areas of high stress, which varied with the joint design layout with no
predictable pattern other than by the finite element analysis. Second, the plastic deformation
values showed that the connection components deform plastically under the applied loads
increasing more than proportionally for extreme values of the design parameters. Similarly,
the examination of the shear forces experienced by the bolts in the lateral connections
encountered a disproportionate rise for design parameters at the extreme values.
The results showed that placing the bolts close to the edge of the plate affects the
bolts more than the stress distribution of the plate itself when plate thicknesses are in the
lower end of the range. In addition, it is not advisable to introduce an offset between the
central bolt row and the outer ones since it worsens the stress distribution and the structural
behavior of the components. In summary, this text highlights the intricate nature of con-
nection behavior in structural systems, emphasizing the need for comprehensive analyses,
careful design consideration, and ongoing optimization efforts to ensure the reliability
and efficiency of engineered structures within the constraints of available materials. These
effects should be borne in mind by practitioners to optimize the joint design. The findings
of this research can significantly contribute to the design and construction of efficient and
safe steel bolted joints for building structures.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.M.-G. and C.D.S.-B.; methodology, C.D.S.-B.; soft-

ware, G.M.-G.; validation, G.M.-G.; formal analysis, G.M.-G. and C.D.S.-B.; investigation, G.M.-G.
and C.D.S.-B.; resources, G.M.-G. and C.D.S.-B.; data curation, G.M.-G.; writing—original draft
preparation, C.D.S.-B.; writing—review and editing, G.M.-G. and C.D.S.-B.; visualization, G.M.-G.
and C.D.S.-B.; supervision, C.D.S.-B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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17. EN 1993-1-8; Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-8: Design of Joints. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels,
Belgium, 2005.
18. EN 1194-1-1; Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. European Committee for
Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2013.
19. PrEN 1993-1-14; Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-14: Design Assisted by Finite Element Analysis. European
Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2022.
20. Sabatka, L.; Wald, F.; Kabeláč, J.; Gödrich, L.; Navrátil, J. Component Based Finite Element Model of Structural Connections. In
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22. EN 1194-1-5; Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-5: Plated Structural Elements. European Committee for Standardiza-
tion: Brussels, Belgium, 2013.

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