Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TH
CHANGE LOG, 4 EDITION .................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 14
BU-001: Sharing Battery Knowledge ................................................................................ 15
BU-002: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 16
BU-003: Dedication........................................................................................................... 17
CRASH COURSE ON BATTERIES ...................................................................... 19
BU-101: When Was the Battery Invented? ........................................................................20
BU-102: Early Innovators ..................................................................................................27
BU-103: Global Battery Markets ........................................................................................29
BU-103a: Battery Breakthroughs: Myth or Fact? ..............................................................32
BU-104: Getting to Know the Battery................................................................................33
BU-104a: Comparing the Battery with Other Power Sources ..........................................35
BU-104b: Battery Building Blocks .....................................................................................37
BU-104c: The Octagon Battery – What makes a Battery a Battery ...................................39
BU-105: Battery Definitions and what they mean............................................................. 41
BU-106: Advantages of Primary Batteries ........................................................................44
BU-106a: Choices of Primary Batteries .............................................................................49
BU-107: Comparison Table of Secondary Batteries .........................................................52
BATTERY TYPES .............................................................................................. 55
BU-201: How does the Lead Acid Battery Work? .............................................................56
BU-201a: Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) .............................................................................60
BU-201b: Gel Lead Acid Battery .......................................................................................62
BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems ....................................................................................65
BU-203: Nickel-based Batteries ........................................................................................68
BU-204: How do Lithium Batteries Work?........................................................................72
BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion...........................................................................................75
BU-206: Lithium-polymer: Substance or Hype? ..............................................................84
BU-206a: Finding the Optimal Runtime and Power Ratio of Li-ion..................................85
BU-208: Cycling Performance ..........................................................................................87
BU-209: How does a Supercapacitor Work?....................................................................90
BU-210: How does the Fuel Cell Work? ............................................................................95
BU-210a: Why does Sodium-sulfur need to be heated ................................................... 101
BU-210b: How does the Flow Battery Work? ................................................................. 102
BU-211: Alternate Battery Systems ................................................................................. 104
BU-212: Future Batteries ................................................................................................. 106
BU-213: Cycle Performance of NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion .................................................. 109
BU-214: Summary Table of Lead-based Batteries .......................................................... 112
BU-215: Summary Table of Nickel-based Batteries ........................................................ 114
BU-216: Summary Table of Lithium-based Batteries ...................................................... 115
BU-217: Summary Table of Alternate Batteries .............................................................. 116
BU-218: Summary Table of Future Batteries ................................................................... 118
PACKAGING AND SAFETY.............................................................................. 119
BU-301: A look at Old and New Battery Packaging ........................................................ 120
BU-301a: Types of Battery Cells ..................................................................................... 123
BU-302: Series and Parallel Battery Configurations....................................................... 129
BU-303: Confusion with Voltages .................................................................................. 134
BU-304: Why are Protection Circuits Needed? .............................................................. 136
BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion ........................................................................... 137
BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe ................................................................................. 141
BU-304c: Battery Safety in Public................................................................................... 143
BU-305: Building a Lithium-ion Pack .............................................................................. 147
BU-306: What is the Function of the Separator? ............................................................ 149
BU-307: How does Electrolyte Work? ............................................................................. 151
BU-308: Availability of Lithium ....................................................................................... 153
BU-309: How does Graphite Work in Li-ion? ................................................................. 155
BU-310: How does Cobalt Work in Li-ion? ..................................................................... 157
BU-311: Battery Raw Materials ........................................................................................ 159
CHANGE METHODS ........................................................................................ 162
BU-401: How do Battery Chargers Work? ...................................................................... 163
BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers............................................................................ 166
BU-402: What Is C-rate? ................................................................................................. 170
BU-403: Charging Lead Acid .......................................................................................... 172
BU-404: What is Equalizing Charge? .............................................................................. 177
BU-405: Charging with a Power Supply ......................................................................... 178
BU-406: Battery as a Buffer ............................................................................................ 180
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 BU-407: Charging Nickel-cadmium ................................................................................. 181
BU-408: Charging Nickel-metal-hydride ........................................................................ 184
BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion ........................................................................................ 186
BU-409a: Why do Old Li-ion Batteries Take Long to Charge? ........................................ 191
BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures ......................................................... 193
BU-411: Charging from a USB Port ................................................................................. 197
BU-412: Charging without Wires .................................................................................... 200
BU-413: Charging with Solar, Turbine ............................................................................ 204
BU-413a: How to Store Renewable Energy in a Battery................................................. 207
BU-414: How do Charger Chips Work? ..........................................................................209
BU-415: How to Charge and When to Charge? .............................................................. 210
DISCHARGE METHODS .................................................................................. 212
BU-501: Basics about Discharging.................................................................................. 213
BU-501a: Discharge Characteristics of Li-ion ................................................................. 215
BU-502: Discharging at High and Low Temperatures ................................................... 219
BU-503: How to Calculate Battery Runtime ...................................................................220
BU-504: How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity ........................................................ 223
"SMART" BATTERY ......................................................................................... 225
BU-601: How does a Smart Battery Work? .....................................................................226
BU-602: How does a Battery Fuel Gauge Work? ........................................................... 230
BU-603: How to Calibrate a “Smart” Battery ..................................................................232
BU-604: How to Process Data from a “Smart” Battery .................................................. 235
FROM BIRTH TO RETIREMENT ...................................................................... 237
BU-701: How to Prime Batteries ..................................................................................... 238
BU-702: How to Store Batteries ..................................................................................... 242
BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries ........................................................................245
BU-704: How to Transport Batteries .............................................................................. 247
BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air ....................................................... 253
BU-704b: CAUTION & Overpack Labels .........................................................................259
BU-704c: Class 9 Label ................................................................................................... 261
BU-705: How to Recycle Batteries ................................................................................. 262
BU-705a: Battery Recycling as a Business .....................................................................265
BU-706: Summary of Do’s and Don’ts ...........................................................................267
HOW TO PROLONG BATTERY LIFE ............................................................... 269
General ................................................................................................................ 269
BU-801: Setting Battery Performance Standards ........................................................... 270
BU-801a: How to Rate Battery Runtime .......................................................................... 271
BU-801b: How to Define Battery Life .............................................................................. 273
BU-802: What Causes Capacity Loss? ............................................................................ 274
BU-802a: How does Rising Internal Resistance affect Performance? ........................... 276
BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge Do? ........................................................ 279
BU-802c: How Low can a Battery be Discharged? ........................................................ 282
BU-803: Can Batteries Be Restored? .............................................................................. 284
BU-803a: Cell Matching and Balancing ..........................................................................287
BU-803b: What causes Cells to Short?...........................................................................290
BU-803c: Loss of Electrolyte .......................................................................................... 291
Lead Acid ............................................................................................................. 291
BU-804: How to Prolong Lead-acid Batteries.................................................................292
BU-804a: Corrosion, Shedding and Internal Short ........................................................ 293
BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it .....................................................................295
BU-804c: Acid Stratification and Surface Charge .......................................................... 296
BU-805: Additives to Boost Flooded Lead Acid ............................................................. 298
BU-806: Tracking Battery Capacity and Resistance as part of Aging ............................ 299
BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life ...................................................... 302
Nickel-based ........................................................................................................ 303
BU-807: How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries ............................................................ 304
BU-807a: Effect of Zapping ............................................................................................ 306
Lithium-ion ........................................................................................................... 306
BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries ......................................................... 307
BU-808a: How to Awaken a Sleeping Li-ion .................................................................. 314
BU-808b: What Causes Li-ion to Die? ............................................................................ 315
BU-808c: Coulombic and Energy Efficiency with the Battery ........................................320
BU-809: How to Maximize Runtime ............................................................................... 321
BU-810: What Everyone Should Know About Aftermarket Batteries ............................ 323
BATTERY TESTING AND MONITORING ........................................................ 324
BU-901: Fundamentals in Battery Testing ......................................................................325

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 BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance................................................................ 329
BU-902a: How to Measure CCA ..................................................................................... 333
BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge .....................................................................336
BU-904: How to Measure Capacity ................................................................................ 340
BU-905: Testing Lead Acid Batteries .............................................................................. 343
BU-905a: Testing Starter Batteries in Vehicles .............................................................. 345
BU-906: Testing Nickel-based Batteries ......................................................................... 351
BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries.......................................................................353
BU-907a: Battery Rapid-test Methods ............................................................................ 356
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) ................................................................ 360
BU-909: Battery Test Equipment .................................................................................... 364
BU-910: How to Repair a Battery Pack ............................................................................ 367
BU-911: How to Repair a Laptop Battery.........................................................................369
BU-912: How to Test Mobile Phone Batteries ................................................................ 371
BU-913: How to Maintain Fleet Batteries ........................................................................374
BU-914: Battery Test Summary Table ............................................................................ 377
AMAZING VALUE OF A BATTERY ................................................................. 380
BU-1001: Batteries in Industries ...................................................................................... 381
BU-1002: Electric Powertrain, then and now ..................................................................385
BU-1002a: Hybrid Electric Vehicles and the Battery ....................................................... 388
BU-1003: Electric Vehicle (EV) ........................................................................................ 392
BU-1004: Charging an Electric Vehicle ...........................................................................397
BU-1005: Does the Fuel Cell-powered Vehicle have a Future? ...................................... 401
BU-1006: Cost of Mobile and Renewable Power ............................................................ 403
BU-1007: Net Calorific Value ........................................................................................... 407
BU-1008: Working towards Sustainability ...................................................................... 410
BU-1009: Battery Paradox – Afterword........................................................................... 412
INFORMATION ................................................................................................ 415
BU-1101: Glossary ............................................................................................................ 416
BU-1102: Abbreviations...................................................................................................424
BU-1103: Bibliography.....................................................................................................430
BU-1104: About the Author ............................................................................................. 433
BU-1105: About Cadex ....................................................................................................435
BU-1403: Author’s Creed ................................................................................................ 437
LEARNING TOOLS .......................................................................................... 438
BU-1501: Battery History .................................................................................................439
BU-1502: Basics about Batteries ..................................................................................... 440
BU-1503: How to Maintain Batteries ............................................................................... 442
BU-1504: Battery Test & Analyzing Devices ...................................................................444
BU-1505: Short History of Cadex .................................................................................... 446
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR THE BATTERY PROBLEM ON THE BOEING
787 ............................................................................................................ 447

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 Table of Figures
Figure 1 - Parthian Battery ........................................................................ 20
Figure 2 - Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery .................. 21
Figure 3 - Volta’s experiments with the electric battery in 1796 ............ 22
Figure 4 - Volta’s experimentations at the Institute of France ............... 23
Figure 5 - Cruickshank and the first flooded battery .............................. 24
Figure 6 - Nikola Tesla (1856–1943).......................................................... 25
Figure 7 - 250,000 light bulbs illuminate the Chicago World Fair in
1893, also known as Chicago's World Columbian
Exposition ............................................................................... 26
Figure 8 - Revenue contributions by different battery chemistries ....... 29
Figure 9 - Specific energy and specific power of rechargeable
batteries .................................................................................. 30
Figure 10 - Lemon battery ........................................................................ 33
Figure 11 - Analogy of a bicycle rider ...................................................... 34
Figure 12 - Battery symbol ....................................................................... 37
Figure 13 - Octagon battery ..................................................................... 39
Figure 14 - Relationship between specific energy and specific power . 42
Figure 15 - Relationship of battery state-of-health and state of charge. 43
Figure 16 - Specific energy comparison of secondary and primary
batteries .................................................................................. 44
Figure 17 - Energy comparison underload.............................................. 45
Figure 18 - Number of shots a digital camera can take with alkaline
NiMH and lithium ................................................................... 47
Figure 19 - Ragone chart illustrates battery performance with various
load conditions ....................................................................... 47
Figure 20 - Voltage and internal resistance of alkaline on discharge .... 50
Figure 21 - Voltage and internal resistance of lithium on discharge ..... 50
Figure 22 - Starter battery ........................................................................ 58
Figure 23 - Deep-cycle battery ................................................................ 58
Figure 24 - The classic lead acid develops into an advanced lead-
carbon battery ........................................................................ 65
Figure 25 - Ion flow in lithium-ion battery............................................... 73
Figure 26 - Voltage discharge curve of lithium-ion ................................ 73
Figure 27 - Li-cobalt structure................................................................. 75
Figure 28 - Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt battery ............................ 76
Figure 29 - Li-manganese structure ........................................................ 77
Figure 30 - Snapshot of a pure Li-manganese battery ........................... 77
Figure 31 - Snapshot of NMC ................................................................... 79
Figure 32 - Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate battery ......................... 80
Figure 33 - Snapshot of NCA .................................................................... 81
Figure 34 - Snapshot of Li-titanate .......................................................... 82
Figure 35 - Typical specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based
batteries .................................................................................. 83
Figure 36 - Ragone plot reflects Li-ion 18650 cells ................................. 85
Figure 37 - Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh) .................. 87
Figure 38 - Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh) ..... 88
Figure 39 - Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh) .................................... 88
Figure 40 - Cycle characteristics of IHR18650C by E-One Moli (3.6V,
2,000mA) ................................................................................ 89
Figure 41 - Charge profile of a supercapacitor ......................................... 91
Figure 42 - Discharge profile of a supercapacitor .................................. 92
Figure 43 - Concept of a fuel cell ............................................................. 95
Figure 44 - Micro fuel cell ........................................................................ 97
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 Figure 45 - Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge ............................. 97
Figure 46 - Portable fuel cell for consumer market ................................ 98
Figure 47 - Power band of a portable fuel cell ........................................ 99
Figure 48 - Flow Battery .......................................................................... 102
Figure 49 - Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh) ................. 109
Figure 50 - Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh) ..... 110
Figure 51 - Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh) .................................... 110
Figure 52 - Cycle characteristics of IHR18650C by E-One Moli (3.6V,
2,000mA) ................................................................................ 111
Figure 53 - Comparing a battery with a chain........................................ 129
Figure 54 - Series connection of four cells (4s) ..................................... 130
Figure 55 - Series connection with a faulty cell ..................................... 130
Figure 56 - Parallel connection of four cells (4p) .................................... 131
Figure 57 - Parallel/connection with one faulty cell ............................... 131
Figure 58 - Series/ parallel connection of four cells (2s2p)................... 132
Figure 59 - Li-ion battery suspected to have destroyed the laptop...... 139
Figure 60 - Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) shows an image of
grapheme .............................................................................. 156
Figure 61 - Typical discharge curves of lead acid as a function of C-
rate .......................................................................................... 171
Figure 62 - Overview of Qi wireless charging system ......................... 202
Figure 63 - Pros and cons of wireless charging ................................... 203
Figure 64 - Discharge Curve of Battery, Exponential Discharge
Provides Steady Power to the end....................................... 213
Figure 65 - Discharge Curve of Super Capacitor. Linear Discharge
Prevents the Full Use of Energy. .......................................... 213
Figure 66 - Discharge Curve of Compressed Air. Inverse. Best
Performance at Beginning .................................................... 213
Figure 67 - Discharge characteristics of NCR18650B Energy Cell by
Panasonic .............................................................................. 215
Figure 68 - Discharge characteristics of UR18650RX Power Cell by
Panasonic .............................................................................. 216
Figure 69 - GSM discharge pulses of a cellular phone ......................... 217
Figure 70 - Cycle life of NiMH under different load conditions ............ 217
Figure 71 - Cycle life of Li-ion Energy Cell at varying discharge levels 218
Figure 72 - Available capacity of a lead acid battery at Peukert
numbers of 1.08–1.50............................................................ 220
Figure 73 - Ragone plot reflects Li-ion 18650 cells ................................ 221
Figure 74 - Calculating spare battery capacity ..................................... 223
Figure 75 - Principle of a fuel gauge based on coulomb counting ...... 227
Figure 76 - Single-wire system of a “smart” battery ............................ 227
Figure 77 - Two-wire SMBus system .................................................... 228
Figure 78 - 35 and 202 series batteries featuring SMBus .................... 228
Figure 79 - State-of-charge readout of a “smart” battery .................... 230
Figure 80 - Tri-state fuel gauge............................................................... 231
Figure 81 - Tracking of Electrochemical and digital battery as a
function of time .................................................................... 232
Figure 82 - Full-discharge and full-charge flags ................................... 233
Figure 83 - Universal screenshot of SMBus battery............................. 234
Figure 84 - The Fishbowl icon display .................................................. 235
Figure 85 - Soldier carries rocks instead of batteries ........................... 236
Figure 86 - Lifespan of Lead Acid .......................................................... 238
Figure 87 - Voltage behavior when applying a load to a passivated
battery ................................................................................... 240
Figure 88 - Caution Label ....................................................................... 259

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 Figure 89 - Over packing Label .............................................................. 260
Figure 90 – Cadex Lithium Battery Handling Label .............................. 260
Figure 91 - Class 9 Label .......................................................................... 261
Figure 92 - Power needs of past, present and future ............................ 271
Figure 93 - The “ready” light lies ........................................................... 273
Figure 94 - Aging battery ....................................................................... 274
Figure 95 - Effects of internal battery resistance .................................. 276
Figure 96 - GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-
time ....................................................................................... 277
Figure 97 - GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-
time ....................................................................................... 278
Figure 98 - GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-
time ....................................................................................... 278
Figure 99 - Effects of high self-discharge ............................................. 279
Figure 100 - Self-discharge as a function of time ................................. 279
Figure 101 - Self-discharge of new and stressed Li-ion cells................. 281
Figure 102 - Self-discharge of lead acid as a function of temperature . 281
Figure 103 - Illustration of equipment with high cut-off voltage .......... 282
Figure 104 - Sweet zone of a Lithium-ion battery to extend life .......... 283
Figure 105 - Date stamp ......................................................................... 285
Figure 106 - Cycling performance as a function of cell match ............. 288
Figure 107 - New nickel-cadmium cell .................................................. 304
Figure 108 - Cell with crystalline formation ........................................... 304
Figure 109 - Restored cell ....................................................................... 304
Figure 110 - Randles Model .................................................................... 342
Figure 111 - Thomas Edison with a 1914 Detroit Electric, model 47...... 385
Figure 112 - Typical battery wattages in vehicles.................................. 386
Figure 113 - End-of-life battery capacity of HEVs .................................. 388
Figure 114 - Volkswagen’s 1-Liter Car .................................................... 390
Figure 115 - Battery in a Tesla S Model chassis .................................... 394
Figure 116 - Driving range as a function of battery performance......... 395
Figure 117 - Japanese CHAdeMO DC Fast Charge plug developed in
2008 ...................................................................................... 398
Figure 118 - SAE J1772 Combo Charging System (CCS) ...................... 398
Figure 119 - Driving range as a function of energy storage ................... 401
Figure 120 - Global electricity generation by fuel (IEA 2014) ................ 407
Figure 121 - Net calorific values ............................................................. 408
Figure 122 - 11-22: 1958 Citroen 2CV ....................................................... 410
Figure 123 - Cadex headquarters in Richmond, BC, Canada ............... 436
Figure 124 - Damage in aft electronics bay caused by a burning
battery in a Boeing 787 ........................................................ 447
Figure 125 - JAL Event Battery............................................................... 448
Figure 126 - Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt battery ......................... 449
Figure 127 - Snapshot of a typical Li-manganese battery .................... 449
Figure 128 - Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate battery ...................... 450
Figure 129 - Snapshot of NMC ............................................................... 450

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 Table of Tables
Table 1 - Composition of lead acid .......................................................... 37
Table 2 - Composition of NiMH and NiCd............................................... 37
Table 3 - Composition of Li-ion ............................................................... 38
Table 4 - Composition of primary alkaline battery ................................. 38
Table 5 - Alkaline specifications .............................................................. 46
Table 6 - Summary of batteries available in AA and AAA format ......... 46
Table 7- Characteristics of commonly used rechargeable batteries ..... 53
Table 8 - Cycle performance of starter and deep-cycle batteries ......... 58
Table 9 - Advantages and limitations of lead acid batteries .................. 59
Table 10 - Advantages and limitations of AGM ....................................... 61
Table 11 - Advantages and limitations of the gel battery........................ 64
Table 12 - Advantages and limitations of NiCd batteries ....................... 68
Table 13 - Comparison of alkaline, reusable alkaline, Eneloop and
NiMH ....................................................................................... 69
Table 14 - Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries ...................... 70
Table 15 - Advantages and limitations of Li‑ion batteries...................... 74
Table 16 - Characteristics of lithium cobalt oxide ................................... 76
Table 17 - Characteristics of Lithium Manganese Oxide ........................ 78
Table 18 - Characteristics of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
(NMC) ...................................................................................... 79
Table 19 - Characteristics of lithium iron phosphate ............................... 81
Table 20 - Characteristics of Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide .. 82
Table 21 - Characteristics of lithium titanate ........................................... 83
Table 22 - Performance comparison between supercapacitor and Li-
ion ........................................................................................... 92
Table 23 - Advantages and limitations of super capacitors ................... 94
Table 24 - Advantages and limitations of various fuel cell systems ..... 98
Table 25 - Summary of most lead acid batteries.................................... 112
Table 26 - Summary of most common nickel-based batteries ............. 114
Table 27 - Summary of most common lithium-ion based batteries ..... 115
Table 28 - Summary of most common alternative batteries and
equivalent ............................................................................... 116
Table 29 - Summary of most batteries that deviate from the electro-
chemical concept of a battery ............................................... 117
Table 30 - Summary of most common future batteries ........................ 118
Table 31 - Common old and new battery norms ................................... 120
Table 32 - Voltages of cobalt-based Li-ion batteries ............................. 135
Table 33 - Price comparison of EV batteries.......................................... 147
Table 34 - C-rate and service times when charging and discharging
batteries of 1Ah (1,000mAh) .................................................. 170
Table 35 - Recommended voltage limits ............................................... 194
Table 36 - Recognized standards for wireless charging ...................... 200
Table 37 - Best charging methods ......................................................... 210
Table 38 - Nominal and recommended end-of-discharge voltages
under normal and heavy load .............................................. 214
Table 39 - Advantages and limitations of the smart battery ................ 229
Table 40 - Battery Material Cost per Ton .............................................. 265
Table 41 - Metals in commonly recycled batteries as a percentage of
the overall content ............................................................... 266
Table 42 - Do’s and don’ts summary of how to use, maintain and
dispose of batteries.............................................................. 267
Table 43 - Percentage of self-discharge in years and months............. 280

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 Table 44 - Self-discharge per month of Li-ion at various temperatures
and state-of-charge .............................................................. 280
Table 45 - Cycle life as a function of...................................................... 308
Table 46 - Estimated recoverable capacity when storing Li-ion for
one year at various temperatures ....................................... 308
Table 47 - Discharge cycles and capacity as a function of charge
voltage limit .......................................................................... 309
Table 48 - Battery sizes of wheeled mobility ........................................ 387
Table 49 - Electric vehicles with battery type, range and charge time 392
Table 50 - Estimated energy consumption and cost per km/mile of
common EVs ........................................................................ 393
Table 51 - Estimated charging times on Electric Vehicle Service
Equipment (EVSE) ................................................................ 399
Table 52 - Ancient and modern power sources ................................... 403
Table 53 - Capacity and cost comparison of primary alkaline cells .... 404
Table 54 - Energy and cost comparison of rechargeable batteries .... 404
Table 55 - Cost of generating 1kW of energy ........................................ 404
Table 56 - Relationship of calorie to watt-hours................................... 405
Table 57 - Power needs of different transportation modes ................. 405
Table 58 - Energy densities of fossil fuel and batteries........................ 408
Table 59 - Characteristics of the four most commonly used lithium-
ion batteries .......................................................................... 448
Table 60 - Estimated recoverable capacity when storing a battery for
one year ................................................................................ 452

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CHANGE LOG, 4TH EDITION
The 4th edition of Batteries in a Portable World contains large volumes of firsthand information that is not
available in the 3rd edition of the book with same title. The 4th edition would have grown beyond 360
pages had the layout not been tightened and some text removed and condensed. To examine topics of
interest, the author checked traffic on BatteryUniversity.com and found constructive pointers. The most
visited webpages are [1] How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries, [2] Charging Lithium-ion, [3] Charging
Lead Acid, [4] Serial and Parallel Configurations, and [5] Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM).
Chapters 1 – Crash Course on Batteries
Page Title Content
27 Battery Breakthroughs: Myth or Fact? Keeping media and battery hype at bay
28 Getting to Know the Battery Basic battery elements; explaining W and Wh
29 The Octagon Battery What makes a battery a battery
33 Battery Building Blocks Why is the battery anode negative? Building blocks
41 Choices of Primary Batteries Applications, limitations and caution

Chapters 2 – Battery Types

Page Title Content
52 Advanced Lead-carbon What makes this innovative battery so unique?
57 Nickel-iron, Nickel-zinc, Nickel-hydrogen A summary of classic nickel-based batteries
62 63 Lithium Cobalt Oxide Explaining the different lithium-ion systems in terms of
65 Lithium Manganese Oxide capacity, charge and discharge voltages,
66 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide recommended loading, cycle life, safety and typical
68 Lithium Iron Phosphate applications
69 Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide
Lithium Titanate
78 Supercapacitor applications Supercapacitor vs. flywheel to bridge power gaps
86 Flow Battery Description, function and applications
91 Solid-state Lithium Advantages, potential and further areas of
development
92 Sodium-ion (Na-ion) Advantages and limitations

Chapters 3 – Packaging and Safety

Page Title Content
106 Intrinsically Safe Batteries Description, hazard levels and standards
108 What to Do when a Battery Overheats Extinguishing a lithium fire; what not to do
112 Meeting Safety Approvals Test procedures for Li-ion approval and norms
114 Battery Separator Separator types; fuse action on Li-ion battery
116 Electrolyte Catalyst that activates batteries
122 Battery Raw Materials Lithium, graphite, graphene, cobalt and 17 more

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Chapter 4 – Charge Methods
Page Title Content
129 Ultra-fast Charging Limitations when cold and aged
152 Charging from a USB Port Power delivery, USB 3.1, Type-C, future direction
154 Charging Without Wires Types of wireless charging, advancements,
limitations
160 How to Store Renewable Energy in a Use of battery types, economics, system aging
Battery
Chapter 5 – Discharge Methods

Page Title Content

165 Basics About Discharging Comparing a battery, supercapacitor and
compressed air
168 Discharge Characteristics of Li-ion Performance characteristics of Energy and Power
Cells
172 Ragone Plot Energy, power and time comparison
174 How to Verify Sufficient Battery Worst-case scenario in capacity reserve and
Capacity battery fade
Chapter 6 – Smart Battery

Page Title Content

182 Calibration Explaining “max error” and how to correct it
185 Processing Data from a Smart Battery State-of-function at a glance with the Fishbowl
icon
Chapter 7 – From Birth to Retirement

Page Title Content

191 Priming lead acid, nickel-based, Formatting lead acid, priming NiCd and NiMH;
lithium-ion and non-rechargeable removing passivation layer of lithium batteries
lithium batteries
196 How to Store Batteries How to do it right; checking voltage references
198 Health concerns with lead, sulfuric Caution when handling open or damaged
acid, cadmium and other ingredients batteries
204 Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Packaging instructions 965, 966, 967, 968, 969
Air and 970
209 How to recycle lead acid, NiCd, NiMH, User obligations and exceptions with small
primary lithium and alkaline batteries quantities
212 Battery Recycling as a Business Yields and limitations of different battery systems

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Chapter 8 – How to Extend Battery Life

Page Title Content

224 Elevated Self-discharge Parallel of battery damage and elevated self-
discharge
228 Restoring batteries for portable, Methods and yields; knowing how to sort
wheeled mobility, starter and good and bad packs to make it worth while
stationary uses
249 What Causes Lithium-ion to Age? Checking cycle count, temperature and voltage
levels
253 How to Awaken an Over-discharged Li- When to boost and when to avoid it for safety
ion reasons
255 Coulombic Efficiency Shorten longevity tests from years to weeks
Chapter 9 – Testing and Monitoring

Page Title Content

261 Fundamentals of Battery Testing Observing capacity, resistance and self-discharge
268 How to Measure CCA Standards and rest results of good and bad
batteries
281 Testing Lithium-based Batteries Frequency and Nyquist scan of good and bad
packs
283 Battery Management System Adding capacity estimation to voltage and current
sense

Chapter 10 – Amazing Value of a Battery

Page Title Content
304 Grid Storage Cost comparison also with flywheel, underwater
balloon
305 Electric Powertrain Battery performance in HEV, PHEV and EV
316 Charging an Electric Vehicle Level 1, 2 and 3 charging, standards, voltages,
times
328 Working Towards Sustainability Private transportation, then, today and in the
future

All chapters were updated and the number of tables and figures was increased from 173 in the previous
version to 248. The 3rd edition has 318 pages; the 4th edition is at 360. The table below lists the “must
have” content that is relevant today and is not present in the 3rd edition. Chapters 4 - 10 can be found here.

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INTRODUCTION

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BU-001: Sharing Battery Knowledge
Battery research is advancing at a rapid pace, which is a clear indication that the Super Battery has not yet
been found, but might be just around the corner. While today’s batteries satisfy most portable applications,
improvements are needed if this power source is to become a serious contender for the electric vehicle.
With so much hype about batteries, people want unbiased information and Battery University promises to
provide this. The website went live in 2003 and quickly gained popularity. Besides being a teaching tool, it
has become a social media network to exchange valued information about your battery experience. Users'
input, in my opinion, is as important as reams of laboratory test data. The critical mass speaks louder than
promises made by device manufacturers that cannot always be met.
The website is continuously being upgraded and much of the information comes from the best-seller
Batteries in a Portable World: A Handbook on Rechargeable Batteries for Non-engineers. The book will
soon be in its fourth edition.
The first edition of Batteries in a Portable World went into print in 1997 and the handy little book sold out
quickly. The larger second edition was published in 2001 and served public safety, healthcare and defense
industries, as well as the esteemed hobbyists and everyday battery users. The expanded third edition was
released in 2011 before low stock prompted me to write the up-and-coming new edition.
There are no black and whites in the battery world, only shades of gray. The battery is a black box with a
mind of its own; mystical and unexplainable. For some, the battery causes no problems whatsoever; for
others it’s nothing but a headache.
Much effort is devoted to battery care, and it appears as if battery diagnostics are stuck in medieval times.
Let’s not blame our scientists for this; the technology is complex. Also good care alone does not always
show the expected results. The often asked question, “How many cycles can I get out of my battery if I do
this?” has no quantitative answer. The reasons for the eventual demise are multifold and have similarities
with our own human frailty. We suffer health issues even if we try to keep fit and eat our vegetables.
Battery University is for the professional needing a basic understanding of how a battery behaves, a
student completing an essay, and a user wanting to get the most out of a battery. The information comes
from my battle-tested experience working with batteries in the Cadex laboratories, as well as other research
organizations and the input from battery users. I appreciate these contributions and I add citations where
appropriate.
There is no perfect battery and each pack is tailored for a given use. Batteries in consumer products are
optimized for long runtime, small size and low cost; longevity is less important. Industrial batteries may
have high load capabilities and improved reliability, but the pack gets bulkier. A third variety offers long
service life and these packs are expensive.
All batteries have one thing in common: they run for a while, need recharging and require an eventual
replacement as the capacity fades. Battery replacement comes often before retiring the host. The idea of an
uninterrupted energy source is still a pipedream.
Last updated 2016-08-04

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BU-002: Introduction
Team up with Battery University to learn about batteries and conquer its shortcomings
The word “battery” comes from the Old French word baterie, meaning “action of beating,” relating to a
group of cannons in battle. In the endeavor to find an energy storage device, scientists in the 1700s adopted
the term “battery” to represent multiple electrochemical cells connected together.
The battery consists of two electrodes that are isolated by a separator and soaked in electrolyte to promote
the movement of ions. New active materials are being tried, each offering unique attributes but none
delivering an ultimate solution.
Improvements have been slow. Whereas Moore’s Law* doubled the number of transistors in an integrated
circuit every two years, capacity gain of lithium-ion (Li-ion) has been about 8 percent per year in the last
two decades. Theoretical battery models reveal specific energy levels that are ten times higher than the
commercial equivalent. They remain theoretical, and these lofty goals may never be achieved in real life.
The battery is a feeble vessel that is slow to fill, holds limited energy, runs for a time like a wind-up toy,
fades and eventually becomes a nuisance. It exhibits human qualities in that it needs recuperation from the
daily travails by applying a long and restful charge. It then delivers for a time and quits on its own terms.
Some batteries need as much charging time as they deliver, and there is a resemblance to growing
teenagers. (I raised five)
The lithium-ion family receives the most attention and is gradually replacing the nickel-based predecessors
that dominated the battery world until the 1990s. Lead acid with its many warts and blemishes holds a solid
position for starter and standby batteries. No other system can meet its price and robustness for now.
Li-ion is expensive but when calculating the price-per-cycle, it wins over lead acid when repeat cycling is
required. Basing calculations on cost per kilowatt hour (kWh) no longer holds; operational costs must be
considered. A battery expert said that the switch from lead acid to Li-ion will be faster than the
advancement of the Internet.
We want to learn as much about batteries as possible, but this book addresses only the most commonly
used battery systems. My background is in electrical, and I tackle batteries from the electrical side rather
than studying chemical reactions. I avoid formulas, and I back my material with practical and hands-on field
data.
* In 1965, Gordon Moore said that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit would double every
two years. The prediction became true and is being carried into the 21st century. Applied to a battery,
Moore’s Law would shrink a starter battery in a car to the size of a coin.
Last updated 2016-04-11

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BU-003: Dedication
The information in this book is provided for the benefit of all battery users. Batteries have become our
steady travel companion. They help us reach a friend, allow us to work outside the confines of four walls,
offer entertainment when time permits and enable personal transportation. But most importantly, batteries
connect humanity and support missions that help people in need.
I dedicate this book to my five children and many grandchildren, who have a keen interest in batteries. They
understand the importance of clean power to maintain freedom of mobility while protecting our
environment and reducing the dependence on fossil fuel. They also want to pass our wonderful world to
future generations as God’s gift to us, well-sustained and unspoiled by mankind.
With Special Thanks
The author of BatteryUniversity.com, Isidor Buchmann, thanks Cadex Electronics for sponsoring this
website. The Cadex staff has been most supportive in providing discoveries from their laboratories and
sharing material that is of interest to battery users. Special attention goes to advancements in battery
management and diagnostic technologies, as well as developments in rapid-testing.
Jeff Dahn | Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Dalhousie University
DAHN is recognized worldwide as a distinguished scientist in the field of advanced lithium batteries. He
is one of the pioneering developers of the lithium-ion battery, has authored 610 refereed journal papers
and has issued or filed 65 patented inventions. According to the Electrochemical Society Interface,
Dahn is one of the most prolific authors in the Journal of the Electrochemical Society and has one of the
most-cited papers in the journal.
Dahn obtained his B.Sc. in physics from Dalhousie University (1978) and earned his Ph.D. from the
University of British Columbia in 1982. He then worked at the National Research Council (NRC) of
Canada (1982–85) and at Moli Energy Limited (1985–1990) before taking up a faculty position in the
Physics Department at Simon Fraser University in 1990. He joined Dalhousie University in 1996 as the
NSERC/3M Canada Industrial Research Chair in Materials for Advanced Batteries and was appointed
Canada Research Chair in 2003.
Dahn has received numerous national and international awards, including the Herzberg Medal,
Canadian Association of Physicists; Battery Division Research Award of the Electrochemical Society
(1996) and the Battery Division Technology Award (2011); NSERC University/Industry Synergy Award for
collaborative efforts with 3M Canada (2003) and the Medal for Excellence in Teaching from the
Canadian Association of Physicists. In 2015, Dahn entered an exclusive agreement with Tesla Motors for
a five-year partnership beginning in June 2016.
Paul Craig | Director of Technology at E-One Moli Energy (Canada) Ltd.
CRAIG began his battery career in 1986 in the R&D department at Moli Energy, where he designed
equipment for manufacturing and testing of rechargeable lithium batteries. As Senior Applications
Engineer, he developed fuel gauges for smart batteries and was responsible for specifying and
approving batteries for military, medical and commercial use. In his position as Director of Technology
he is a key interface between the battery industry and the R&D department. Craig travels the world and
devotes equal time to batteries for portable applications and the electric vehicle. He provided invaluable
resources for this book, especially on manganese-based chemistries and user applications.
Jörn Tinnemeyer | Senior Director Energy Storage Systems, Teco Group
TINNEMEYER has contributed to this book on the electrical, chemical and implicational side of the
battery. He has won many prestigious awards, honors and international research scholarships, but his
main achievements are battery rapid-test technologies to estimate state-of-health that secured five
patents. Today, these innovations are in commercial use and are known as Spectro™ and QuickSort™.
Tinnemeyer holds a degree from the University of Toronto in mathematics and applied physics,
completed graduate work in high-energy physics at Simon Fraser University and earned a master’s
degree in astronautics and space engineering at Cranfield University in the UK.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 17 of 453

Tina Shoa | Ph.D., Senior Research Engineer, Cadex Electronics Inc.
SHOA received her Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of British Columbia (UBC) in the
field of modeling and characterization of electrochemical systems. She contributed to multi-
dimensional modeling for energy storage systems including batteries, fuel cells and polymer actuators
and sensors. She has won prestigious awards in the area of applied electrochemical systems, received
the NSREC industrial postdoctoral fellowship and completed the postdoctoral program at Automotive
Fuel Cell Cooperation (AFCC) as a research scientist. Shoa has authored a book chapter and 15 peer-
reviewed articles in the areas of electro-chemical devices, served on the Graduate Advisory Board at
UBC and supervised graduate students in conducting research in energy storage systems. With her
research team, Shoa is studying new products in battery management and diagnostics, including
battery rapid-testing.
David Conn | Professor Emeritus of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster
University.
CONN received his Ph.D. degree from Queen’s University (1970) in the field of Microwave Device
Modelling where he introduced the concepts of State-Space-Analysis to the microwave community.
This technique allows the combination of circuit and device modeling into one unified method of
studying microwave systems.
He conducted research and development in academia and played a significant role in developing
microwave solid state circuits while working in the digital radio department of Bell-Northern Research.
His research spanned the areas from circuit applications to opto-electronic measurement systems. He
was later appointed an NSERC Research Chair at McMaster University where he became Chair of the
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department and an Associate Member of the Engineering Physics
Department.
Acknowledgements
The author also thanks Bill Campbell, John Bradshaw, David Conn and Deborah Hutton for their
dedicated editing and proofreading efforts. Special thanks go to Ljuba Levstek for the line drawings in
Chapter 1. No one is able to complete an informational website single-handedly. In the end, it’s the
teamwork that adds quality and provides completeness.
Last updated 2016-04-11

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CRASH COURSE ON BATTERIES

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BU-101: When Was the Battery Invented?
Explore the earliest forms of batteries and the arrival of electricity.
One of the most remarkable and novel discoveries in the last 400 years was electricity. We might ask, “Has
electricity been around that long?” The answer is yes, and perhaps much longer. Its practical use has only
been at our disposal since the mid to late 1800s, and in a limited way at first. Some of the earliest public
works gaining attention were streets lights in Berlin in 1882, lighting up the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893
with 250,000 light bulbs, and illuminating a bridge over the river Seine during the Paris 1900 World Fair.
The use of electricity may go back further. While constructing a railway in 1936 near Baghdad, workers
uncovered what appeared to be a prehistoric battery, also known as the Parthian Battery. The object dates
back to the Parthian empire and is believed to be 2,000 years old. The battery consisted of a clay jar that
was filled with a vinegar solution into which an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder was inserted. This
device produced 1.1 to 2.0 volts of electricity. Figure 1 illustrates the Parthian Battery.

Figure 1 - Parthian Battery

A clay jar of a prehistoric battery holds an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder. When filled with
vinegar or electrolytic solution, the jar produces 1.1 to 2 volts.
Not all scientists accept the Parthian Battery as a source of energy. It is possible that the device was used
for electroplating, adding a layer of gold or other precious metals to a surface. The Egyptians are said to
have electroplated antimony onto copper over 4,300 years ago. Archeological evidence suggests the
Babylonians were the first to discover and employ a galvanic technique in the manufacturing of jewelry by
using an electrolyte based on grape juice to gold-plate stoneware. The Parthians, who ruled Baghdad (ca.
250 BC), may have used batteries to electroplate silver.
One of the earliest methods to generate electricity in modern times was by creating a static charge. In 1660,
Otto von Guericke constructed an electrical machine using a large sulfur globe which, when rubbed and
turned, attracted feathers and small pieces of paper. Guericke was able to prove that the sparks generated
were electrical in nature.
In 1744, Ewald Georg von Kleist developed the Leyden jar that stored static charge in a glass jar that was
lined with metallic foil on the inside and outside of the container. Many scientists, including Peter van
Musschenbroek, professor at Leiden, the Netherlands, thought that electricity resembled a fluid that could
be captured in a bottle. They did not know that the two metallic foils formed a capacitor. When charged up
with high voltage, the Leyden jar gave the gentlemen an unexplainable hefty shock when they touched the
metallic foil.

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The first practical use of static electricity was the “electric pistol” that Alessandro Volta (1745–1827)
invented. He thought of providing long-distance communications, albeit only one Boolean bit. An iron wire
supported by wooden poles was to be strung from Como to Milan, Italy. At the receiving end, the wire
would terminate in a jar filled with methane gas. To signal a coded event, an electrical spark would be sent
by wire to detonate the jar. This communications link was never built. Figure 2 and Figure 3 shows a pencil
rendering of Alessandro Volta.

Figure 2 - Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery

Volta’s discovery of the decomposition of water by an electrical current laid the foundation of
electrochemistry.
In 1791, while working at Bologna University, Luigi Galvani discovered that the muscle of a frog would
contract when touched by a metallic object. This phenomenon became known as animal electricity.
Prompted by these experiments, Volta initiated a series of experiments using zinc, lead, tin and iron as
positive plates (cathode); and copper, silver, gold and graphite as negative plates (anode). The interest in
galvanic electricity soon became widespread.
Early Batteries
Volta discovered in 1800 that certain fluids would generate a continuous flow of electrical power when used
as a conductor. This discovery led to the invention of the first voltaic cell, more commonly known as
battery. Volta learned further that the voltage would increase when voltaic cells were stacked on top of
each other. Figure 3 illustrates such a series connection.

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 Silver (A) and zinc (Z) metals are immersed in cups
filled with electrolyte and connected in series

Silver and zinc electrodes are connected in series,

separated by paper soaked with electrolyte
Figure 3 - Volta’s experiments with the electric battery in 1796

Metals in a battery have different electron affinities. Volta noticed that the voltage potential of dissimilar
metals became stronger the farther apart the affinity numbers moved.
The first number in the metals listed below demonstrates the affinity to attract electrons; the second is the
oxidation state.
Zinc = 1.6 / -0.76 V
Lead = 1.9 / -0.13 V
Tin = 1.8 / -1.07 V
Iron = 1.8 / -0.04 V
Copper = 1.9 / 0.159 V
Silver = 1.9 / 1.98 V
Gold = 2.4 / 1.83 V
Carbon = 2.5 / 0.13 V
The metals determine the battery voltage; they were separated with moist paper soaked in salt water.
In the same year, Volta released his discovery of a continuous source of electricity to the Royal Society of
London. No longer were experiments limited to a brief display of sparks that lasted a fraction of a second;
an endless stream of electric current now seemed possible.
France was one of the first nations to officially recognize Volta’s discoveries. This was during a time when
France was approaching the height of scientific advancements. New ideas were welcomed with open arms
as they helped to support of the country’s political agenda. In a series of lectures, Volta addressed the
Institute of France. Napoleon Bonaparte participated in the experiments, drawing sparks from the battery,
melting a steel wire, discharging an electric pistol and decomposing water into its elements (see Figure 4).

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 Figure 4 - Volta’s experimentations at the Institute of France

Volta’s discoveries so impressed the world that in November 1800 the Institute of France invited him to
lecture at events in which Napoleon Bonaparte participated. Napoleon helped with the experiments,
drawing sparks from the battery, melting a steel wire, discharging an electric pistol and decomposing water
into its elements.
In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, inventor of the miner’s safety lamp, began testing the chemical effects of
electricity and found out that decomposition occurred when passing electrical current through substances.
This process was later called electrolysis.
He made new discoveries by installing the world’s largest and most powerful electric battery in the vaults of
the Royal Institution of London, connecting the battery to charcoal electrodes produced the first electric
light. Witnesses reported that his voltaic arc lamp produced “the most brilliant ascending arch of light ever
seen.”
In 1802, William Cruickshank designed the first electric battery for mass production. He arranged square
sheets of copper with equal-sized sheets of zinc placed into a long rectangular wooden box and soldered
together. Grooves in the box held the metal plates in position. The sealed box was then filled with an
electrolyte of brine, or watered-down acid. This resembled the flooded battery that is still with us today.
Figure 5 illustrates his battery workshop.

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 Figure 5 - Cruickshank and the first flooded battery

William Cruickshank, an English chemist, built a battery of electric cells by joining zinc and copper plates in
a wooden box filled with an electrolyte solution. This flooded design had the advantage of not drying out
with use and provided more energy than Volta’s disc arrangement.
Invention of the Rechargeable Battery
In 1836, John F. Daniell, an English chemist, developed an improved battery that produced a steadier
current than earlier attempts to store electrical energy. In 1859, the French physician Gaston Planté invented
the first rechargeable battery based on lead acid, a system that is still used today. Until then, all batteries
were primary, meaning they could not be recharged.
In 1899, Waldmar Jungner from Sweden invented the nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery that used nickel as the
positive electrode (cathode) and cadmium as the negative (anode). High material costs compared to lead
limited its use. Two years later, Thomas Edison replaced cadmium with iron, and this battery was called
nickel-iron (NiFe). Low specific energy, poor performance at low temperature and high self-discharge
limited the success of the nickel-iron battery. It was not until 1932 that Schlecht and Ackermann achieved
higher load currents and improved the longevity of NiCd by inventing the sintered pole plate. In 1947,
Georg Neumann succeeded in sealing the cell.
For many years, NiCd was the only rechargeable battery for portable applications. In the 1990s,
environmentalists in Europe became concerned about the harm incurred when NiCd is carelessly disposed.
The Battery Directive 2006/66/EC now restricts the sale of NiCd batteries in the European Union except for
specialty industrial use for which no replacement is suitable. The alternative is nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH),
a more environmentally friendly battery that is similar to NiCd.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 24 of 453
Most research activities today revolve around improving lithium-based systems, first commercialized by
Sony in 1991. Besides powering cellular phones, laptops, digital cameras, power tools and medical devices,
Li-ion is also used for electric vehicles and satellites. The battery has a number of benefits, most notably its
high specific energy, simple charging, low maintenance and being environmentally benign.
Electricity Through Magnetism
Generating electricity through magnetism came relatively late. In 1820, André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836)
noticed that wires carrying an electric current were at times attracted to, and at other times repelled from,
one another. In 1831, Michael Faraday (1791–1867) demonstrated how a copper disc provided a constant
flow of electricity while revolving in a strong magnetic field. Faraday, assisting Humphry Davy and his
research team, succeeded in generating an endless electrical force as long as the movement between a coil
and magnet continued. This led to the invention of the electric generator, as well as the electric motor by
reversing the process.
Shortly thereafter, transformers were developed that converted alternating current (AC) to any desired
voltage. In 1833, Faraday established the foundation of electrochemistry on which Faraday’s law is based. It
relates to electromagnetism found in transformers, inductors and many types of electrical motors and
generators. Once the relationship with magnetism was understood, large generators were built to produce
a steady flow of electricity. Motors followed that enabled mechanical movement and Thomas Edison’s light
bulb appeared to conquer darkness.
Early electrical plants produced direct current (DC), with distribution limitations from the plant of no more
than 3km (~2 miles) in distance. In around 1886, the Niagara Falls Power Company offered $100,000 for a
method to transmit electricity over a long distance. When no one responded, the world’s brightest minds
met in London, England. The prize was eventually given to Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), a Serbian immigrant
who created the AC transmission system.

Figure 6 - Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)

Serbian-American physicist, inventor and engineer best known for alternating current supply systems and
rotating magnetic fields.
DC systems run on low voltage and require heavy wires; AC could be transformed to higher voltages for
transmission over light wires and then reduced for use. Older folks supported DC while younger geniuses
gravitated towards AC. Thomas Edison was dead set against AC, giving danger by electrocution as a
reason.
The disagreement continued, but AC became the accepted norm that was also supported by Europe.
George Westinghouse, an American inventor and manufacturer, began developing the Tesla system to the
displeasure of Thomas Edison.

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In 1883, Westinghouse created a lighting system for Niagara Falls using AC current and to everyone’s
amazement lit up the Chicago World Fair in 1893 (Figure 7). Westinghouse then built three large generators
to transform energy from the Niagara Falls to electricity. Three-phase AC technology developed by Tesla
enabled the transmission of electric power over great distances cheaply. Electricity was thus made widely
available to humanity to improve the quality of life.

Figure 7 - 250,000 light bulbs illuminate the Chicago World Fair in 1893, also known as Chicago's World Columbian Exposition

The success of the electric light led to building three large hydro generators at Niagara Falls.
Telecommunications by wire that was strung along railways operated mostly by primary batteries that
needed frequent replacement. Telex, an early means to transmit data, was digital in that the batteries
activated a series of relays. The price to send a message was based on the number of relay clicks required.
In the mid-1800s, telegraphy opened new careers for bright young men. Staff operating these devices
moved into the growing middle class, far removed from mills and mines burdened with labor, dirt and
danger. Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie recalled his early days as a telegraphy messenger: Alfred
Hitchcock started his career as an estimator before becoming an illustrator.
The invention of the electronic vacuum tube in the early 1900s formed the significant next step towards
high technology. It enabled frequency oscillators, signal amplifications and digital switching. This led to
radio broadcasting in the 1920s and the first digital computer, called ENIAC, in 1946. The invention of the
transistor in 1947 paved the way for the arrival of the integrated circuit 10 years later, and the
microprocessor that ushered in the Information Age. This forever changed the way we live and work.
Humanity has become dependent on electricity and with increased mobility, people gravitate towards
portable power involving the battery. As the battery improves further, more tasks will be made possible
with this portable power source.
Last Updated 2017-04-09

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BU-102: Early Innovators
Find out about battery development from the 1700s to today, and who is behind the inventions.
Inventions are well documented and credit goes to the dignified inventors. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
invented the Franklin stove, bifocal eyeglasses and the lightning rod. He was unequaled in American
history as an inventor until Thomas Edison emerged.
Edison was a good businessman who may have taken credit for earlier discoveries others had made.
Contrary to popular belief, Edison did not invent the light bulb; he improved on a 50-year-old idea by using
a small, carbonized filament lit up in a better vacuum. In the end, it was Edison who gained financial reward
by making the concept commercially viable.
The phonograph is another invention for which Edison is credited, rightly or wrongly. The cylinder
phonograph introduced in 1877 recorded and played back sound. He envisioned this invention becoming a
business machine, eventually eliminating the written letter, but the public wanted to play music. Making
multiple copies for sale from a cylinder posed a problem as a tenor needed to sing into 10 flaring horns to
produce simultaneous recording.
It was Emile Berliner who initiated the transition from cylinders to discs to enable mass production — and
the gramophone was born. Master recordings were made on zinc plates that were electroplated, and a
negative image was prepared to stamp multiple discs. Berliner records were 7 inches (177mm) in diameter
and played for 2 minutes per side, running at 60–70 rpm.
The gramophones of 1896 were made by Philadelphia machinist Eldridge Johnson, who added a spring
motor to drive the previously hand-rotated turntable. Berliner discs produced a louder sound than the
Edison cylinders and the popularity of the gramophone grew. Berliner transferred his patents to Johnson,
and the Victor Talking Machine Company was formed, also known as His Master’s Voice. Much to Edison’s
surprise and annoyance, gramophone records became a hot consumer item as folks wanted to “own”
recorded music from famous artists such as tenor Caruso. (Phonograph refers to “word”; gramophone is a
trademark for a record player)
Thomas Edison may be the best remembered inventor in the USA, but he lost out to Tesla’s AC over DC as
the electric power source, the Berliner gramophone disc over the cylindrical recording system, and lead
acid over his much promoted nickel-iron battery for the electric vehicle. Nevertheless, Edison grew wealthy
and lived in a mansion while Tesla struggled financially. None of the companies that Tesla started survived,
while Edison’s businesses amalgamated into the mighty General Electric in 1892. Edison was also
connected with other well-known people in the industry, such as George Eastman, the founder of Kodak.
This may be the reason for the many high-quality photos of these two fine gentlemen.
Countries often credit their own citizens for having made important inventions, whether deserved or not.
When visiting museums in Europe, the USA and Japan, one sees such bestowment. The work to develop
the car, x-ray machines, telephones, broadcast radio, TV and computers might have been done in parallel,
not knowing of others’ advancements at that time, and the rightful inventor is often not clearly known or
identified.

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Similar uncertainties exist with the invention of new battery systems, and we give respect to research
teams and organizations rather than individuals. Table 1 summarizes battery advancements and lists
inventors when available.
Year Inventor Activity
1600 William Gilbert (UK) Establishment of electrochemistry study
1745 Ewald Georg von Kleist (NL) Invention of Leyden jar. Stores static electricity
1791 Luigi Galvani (Italy) Discovery of “animal electricity”
1800 Alessandro Volta (Italy) Invention of the voltaic cell (zinc, copper disks)
1802 William Cruickshank (UK) First electric battery capable of mass production
1820 André-Marie Ampère (France) Electricity through magnetism
1833 Michael Faraday (UK) Announcement of Faraday’s law
1836 John F. Daniell (UK) Invention of the Daniell cell
1839 William Robert Grove (UK) Invention of the fuel cell (H2/O2)
1859 Gaston Planté (France) Invention of the lead acid battery
1868 Georges Leclanché (France) Invention of the Leclanché cell (carbon-zinc)
1881 Camile Alphonse Faure (France) Invention of lead grid lattice (current system)
1899 Waldemar Jungner (Sweden) Invention of the nickel-cadmium battery
1901 Thomas A. Edison (USA) Invention of the nickel-iron battery
1932 Schlecht & Ackermann (Germany) Invention of the sintered pole plate
1947 Georg Neumann (Germany) Successfully sealing the nickel-cadmium battery
1949 Lewis Urry, Eveready Battery Invention of the alkaline-manganese battery
1970s Group effort Development of valve-regulated lead acid battery
1990 Group effort Commercialization of nickel-metal-hydride battery
1991 Sony (Japan) Commercialization of lithium-ion battery
1994 Bellcore (USA) Commercialization of lithium-ion polymer
1995 Group effort Introduction of pouch cell using Li-polymer
1995 Duracell and Intel Proposal of industry standard for SMBus
1996 Moli Energy (Canada) Introduction of Li-ion with manganese cathode
1996 University of Texas (USA) Identification of Li-phosphate (LiFePO4)
University of Montreal, Quebec Improvement of Li-phosphate, nanotechnology,
2002
Hydro, MIT, others commercialization
2002 Group effort Various patents filed on nano-materials for batteries

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BU-103: Global Battery Markets
Learn about different battery systems, explore future trends and discover which chemistries are most
promising.
According to The Freedonia Group, a Cleveland-based industry research firm, the world demand for
primary and secondary batteries is forecasted to grow by 7.7 percent annually, amounting to US$120 billion
in 2019. The real growth lies in secondary (rechargeable) batteries and according to Frost & Sullivan,
secondary batteries account for 76.4 percent of the global market, a number that is expected to increase to
82.6 percent in 2015. The demand is driven by mobile phones and tablets. Earlier estimations over-
estimated the demand for electric vehicles and the figures have since been adjusted downwards.
In 2009, primary batteries made up 23.6 percent of the global market and Frost & Sullivan predicted a 7.4
percent decline by 2015. Non-rechargeable batteries are used in watches, electronic keys, remote controls,
toys, flashlights, beacons, and military devices in combat.
An Overview of Battery Types
Batteries are classified by chemistry, and the most common are lithium-, lead-, and nickel-based systems.
Figure 8 illustrates the distribution of these chemistries. At a 37 percent revenue share, Li-ion is the battery
of choice for portable devices and the electric powertrain. There are no other systems that threaten its
dominance today.

Figure 8 - Revenue contributions by different battery chemistries

37% Lithium-ion
20% Lead acid, starter battery
15% Alkaline, primary
8% Lead acid, stationary
6% Zinc-carbon, primary
5% Lead acid, deep-cycle
3% Nickel-metal-hydride
3% Lithium, primary
2% Nickel-cadmium
1% Other
Source: Frost & Sullivan (2009)
Lead acid stands its ground as being a robust and economical power source for bulk use. Even though Li-
ion is making inroads into the lead acid market, the demand for lead acid batteries is still growing. The
applications are divided into starter batteries for automotive, also known as SLI (20%), stationary batteries
for power backup (8%), and deep-cycle batteries for wheeled mobility (5%) such as golf cars, wheelchairs
and scissor lifts.

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High specific energy and long storage have made alkaline more popular than the old carbon-zinc, which
Georges Leclanché invented in 1868. Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) continues to hold an important role as it
replaces applications previously served by nickel-cadmium (NiCd). However, at a 3 percent market share
and declining, NiMH is becoming a minor player.
An emerging battery usage is the electric powertrain for personal transportation. Battery cost, longevity
and environmental issues dictate how quickly the automotive sector will adopt this new propulsion system.
Fossil fuel is cheap, convenient and readily available; alternative modes face stiff opposition, especially in
North America. Government incentives may be needed, but such intervention distorts the true energy cost,
shields underlying problems with fossil fuel and serves select lobby groups with short-term solutions. (See
BU-1002: Electric Powertrain, HEV, PEV.)
New markets that further boost battery growth are the electric bicycle and storage systems for renewable
energy, from which homeowners, businesses and developing nations are benefiting. Large grid storage
batteries collect surplus energy during high activity and bridge the gap when the input is low or when user
demand is heavy. (See BU-1001: Batteries in the Industrial Market)
Advancements in Batteries
Batteries are advancing on two fronts, reflecting in increased specific energy for longer runtimes and
improved specific power for high-current load requirements. Improving one characteristic of a battery may
not automatically strengthen the other and there is often a compromise. Figure 8 illustrates the relationship
between specific energy in Wh/kg and specific power in W/kg.

Figure 9 - Specific energy and specific power of rechargeable batteries

Specific energy is the capacity a battery can hold in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg); specific power is the
battery’s ability to deliver power in watts per kilogram (W/kg).
The best performing battery in terms of specific energy and specific power is the secondary lithium-metal
(Li-metal). An early version was introduced in the 1980s by then Moli Energy, but instability with metallic
lithium on the anode prompted a recall in 1991. Solid lithium tends to form metal filaments, or dendrites,
that cause short circuits. Further attempts to solve this problem by other companies ended in discontinuing
the developments.

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The unique qualities of Li-metal are prompting manufacturers to revisit this powerful chemistry. Taming the
dendrites and achieving the desired safety standard may be achieved by mixing metallic lithium with tin
and silicon. Graphene is also being tried as part of an improved separator. Graphene is a thin layer of pure
carbon with a thickness of one atom bonded together in a hexagonal honeycomb. (See BU-309: How does
Graphite Work in Li-ion?) Multi-layers separators that prevent the penetration of dendrite have also been
tried. New experimental Li-metal batteries achieve 300Wh/kg and the potential is much higher. This is of
special interest for the electric vehicle. (See BU-212: Experimental Rechargeable Batteries)

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BU-103a: Battery Breakthroughs: Myth or Fact?
Ignoring hype and learn what makes a battery a battery
The battery is increasingly promoted as a green energy solution to liberate society from the dependency of
fossil fuel. While this crusade is noble and right, the battery has not yet matured to assume this vital task.
Pushing the boundaries of the battery reminds us of the many limitations by being an electrochemical
power source that is slow to fill, holds limited energy, runs for a time like a wind-up toy, and has a short life
span of only a few hundred cycles before it becomes a nuisance.
In an age where surprise developments flash before our eyes almost daily, the battery seems slow in
maturing. Improvements achieved since the commercialization of lithium-ion in 1991 by Sony pale
compared to the vast advancements made in microelectronics. Compared to Moore’s Law, where the
number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years, Li-ion only gained 8 percent capacity
per year during the last two decades. This has slowed to 5 percent, but the good news is a cost reduction of
8 percent per year.
Progress is being made but not without roadblocks. Lithium-air, proposed in the 1970s with a theoretical
specific energy resembling gasoline, has been delayed due to stability and air-purity issues as the battery
“breathes” oxygen from the air. The promising lithium-metal introduced in the 1980s still grows dendrites,
leading to possible violent events if an electrical short develops. Lithium sulfur may be close to
commercialization, but scientists must still resolve the short cycle life. The redox-flow battery promises to
be an alternative for large battery systems by pumping fluids from external tanks through a membrane that
resembles a battery, but the system suffers from corrosion.
There is a glimmer of hope to increase the energy density of Li-ion by coating the anode with graphene, a
layer that is only one atom thick. This is said to quadruple the energy. Emerging battery technologies take
four years to commercialize, and there are no heavy lifters, or a homerun.
The Joint Centre for Energy Storage Research (JCESR) is more optimistic; they gathered the brightest
minds from US national laboratories, universities and private enterprises to improve the battery. With a
grant of $120 million from the US Department of Energy, JCESR wants to develop a battery that is “five
times more powerful and five times cheaper in five years.” They call this the 5-5-5 Plan, which should get a
boost by throwing a ton of money at it.
Toyota is also in the race for a new battery, calling it the “Sakichi battery” after Sakichi Toyoda, the inventor
of Japan’s power loom. (The surname Toyoda is spelled with a d) Sakichi Toyoda is often called the father
of the Japanese industrial revolution, and it is said that in 1925 he promised a yet-to-be-claimed prize of 1
million yen for a storage battery that produces more energy than gasoline. To qualify, the Sakichi battery
must also be durable and quick to charge. The prize has not yet been claimed.
Consumers are generally satisfied with battery performance in portable devices, but the electric vehicle
(EV) has a higher demand; cost and endurance will determine the long-term success. It’s as if the EV sets
the threshold for how far the battery can go.
It makes little sense to use batteries to propel trains, ocean-going ships and large airplanes. Batteries are
simply too heavy. If all engines and the fuel in an aircraft were to be replaced with batteries, the flight would
last under 10 minutes before the fuel would be exhausted. Competing against fossil fuel with a net calorific
value that is 100 times higher than the battery is a challenge. (See BU-1007: Net Calorific Value) Conversely,
petroleum cannot match the battery, which is clean, quiet, small, and has an immediate start-up with the
flick of a switch.
Last updated 2016-04-11

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BU-104: Getting to Know the Battery
Recognize the strength of the battery and learn how to live with its weakness.
Nature offers many ways to produce power. Most result through combustion, mechanical movement and
photosynthesis, as in a solar cell. Electrical energy generation of the battery develops by an
electrochemical reaction between two metals of different affinities. When exposed to acids, a voltage
develops between the metals as part of ion transfer; closing the circuit induces a current. In 1800, inventor
Alessandro Volta discovered that the voltage potential became stronger the farther apart the affinity
numbers moved.
The simplest manifestation of a battery is a lemon. Driving a zinc-plated nail and a copper coin into a lemon
creates a voltage, but this quasi battery does not deliver much power. The current delivery system is weak
and any electrical load causes the voltage to collapse. The energy does not come from the lemon itself but
from the chemical change in dissolving zinc into the acid or lemon juice. Figure 10 illustrates the lemon
battery.

Figure 10 - Lemon battery

The experiment is often used for educational purposes. The electrodes are zinc in the form of a galvanized
nail and copper in a coin. The lemon juice acts as electrolyte to induce a chemical reaction.
Standard potentialof zinc = –0.76
Standard potentialof copper = 0.34
Cell potential with conducting path = 1.10V
Elements with the greatest negative electrode potential serve as cathodes; those with the highest positive
potential assist as anodes. The difference between the electrodes provides the terminal voltage. For a
rechargeable battery to be practical, the chemical reactions between the elements must be reversible. To
complicate matters further, chemical reactions between compounds cannot consume the active chemicals,
and this limits the pool of suitable electrodes.
Multiplying the voltage by the current provides power. Power is measured in watts in honor of James Watt,
the 18th-century developer of the steam engine. The amount of energy a battery can store is expressed in
watt-hours (Wh).
All energy sources have limitations, and power must be harnessed carefully so as not to cause an overload.
An analogy is a bicycle rider (Figure 11) who chooses the best gear ratio to transfer power into propulsion.
On a flat road, a high gear provides high speed with moderate pedal torque simulating high voltage.
Climbing a hill, the pedal torque increases while the speed decreases. This, in our analogy, results in a
lower voltage and higher current. The pedal force the rider exerts relates to torque in newton meter (Nm);
the endurance before exhaustion defines energy in watt-hours (Wh).

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 Figure 11 - Analogy of a bicycle rider

Energy is the product of power and time, measured in watt-hours (Wh); power is the flow of energy at any
one time, measured in watts.
A battery is rated in ampere-hours (Ah). This specifies how much charge a pack can hold. Like fluid in a
container, the energy can be dispensed slowly over a long period of time or rapidly in a short time. The
amount of liquid a container holds is analogous to the energy in a battery; how quickly the liquid is
dispensed is analogous to power.
The physical dimensions are specified by volume in liters (l) and kilograms (kg). Adding dimension and
weight provides specific energy in Wh/kg, power density in W/l and specific power in W/kg. Most batteries
are rated in Wh/kg, revealing how much energy a given weight can generate. Wh/l denotes watt-hours per
liter. (See BU-105: Battery Definition)
Batteries are custom-fit for a specific use, and manufacturers are well in tune with customer needs. Mobile
phone and EV markets are examples of clever adaptations at opposite extremes. While batteries for
consumer products emphasize small size, high specific energy and low cost, industrial batteries strive for
reliable performance and long life. Safety in all applications is of utmost importance.
Last updated 2017-04-09

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BU-104a: Comparing the Battery with Other Power Sources
Discover how the battery surpasses other power sources on readiness and efficiency but lacks on longevity
and cost.
One hears of wonderful improvements in battery technologies, each offering distinct benefits, but none
providing a fully satisfactory solution to all of today’s energy needs. Though the battery has many
advantages over other energy sources, it also has major limitations that need addressing.
Energy storage
Batteries store energy reasonably well and for a long time. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable) hold more
energy than secondary (rechargeable) the self-discharge is lower. Lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries
need periodic recharges to compensate for lost energy. (See BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge
do?)
Specific energy (capacity)
Compared to fossil fuel, the energy storage capability of the battery is less impressive. The energy by mass
of gasoline is over 12,000Wh/kg. In contrast, a modern Li-ion battery only carries about 200Wh/kg; however
the battery has the advantage of delivering energy more effectively than a thermal engine. (See BU-1007:
Net Calorific Value)
Responsiveness
Batteries have a large advantage over other power sources by being ready to deliver on short notice – think
of the quick action of the camera flash! There is no warm-up, as is the case with the internal combustion
engine (ICE); battery power flows within a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine takes several
seconds to rev up, a fuel cell requires a few minutes to gain power, and the cold steam engine of a
locomotive needs hours to build up steam.
Power bandwidth
Most rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, meaning that they can effectively handle small
and large loads, a quality that is shared with the diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell
is narrow and works best within a specific load. So does the jet engine, which operates most efficiently at a
defined revolution-per-minute (RPM).
Environment
The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Most sealed cells have no vents, run quietly and do not
vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the ICE and large fuel cells that require compressors and cooling fans.
The ICE also needs air intake and provision to exhaust toxic gases.
Efficiency
The battery is highly efficient. Li-ion has 99 percent charge efficiency, and the discharge loss is small. In
comparison, the energy efficiency of the fuel cell is 20 to 60 percent, and the ICE is 25 to 30 percent. At
optimal air intake speed and temperature, the GE90-115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner achieves an efficiency of
37 percent. The charge efficiency of a battery is connected with the ability to accept charge. (See BU-808b:
What causes Li-ion to die? under Coulombinc Efficiency.)
Installation
The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration tolerance. Most ICEs must
be positioned in the upright position and mounted on shock-absorbing dampers to reduce vibration.
Thermal engines also need an air intake manifold and an exhaust muffler.

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Operating cost
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead acid batteries are economical
for wheeled mobility and stationary applications. Price and weight make batteries impractical for the
electric powertrain in larger vehicles. The cost of drawing energy from a battery is about three times higher
than getting it off the AC grid. The calculation includes the cost of the battery, charging it from the grid and
budgeting for an eventual replacement. (See BU-1006: Cost of Mobile Power)
Maintenance
With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and exercising NiCds to prevent “memory,”
rechargeable batteries are low maintenance. Service includes cleaning the corrosion buildup on the outside
terminals and applying periodic performance checks.
Service life
The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not in use. The 3- to 5-year
lifespan is satisfactory for consumer products, but this is not acceptable for larger batteries. Hybrid and
electric vehicle batteries are guaranteed for 8–10 years; the fuel cell delivers 2,000–5,000 hours of service,
and depending on temperature, large stationary batteries are good for 5–20 years.
Temperature extremes
Like molasses, cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries do not perform well
below freezing. The fuel cell shares the same problem, but the internal combustion engine does well once
warmed up. Fast charging must always be done above freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a
performance boost, but this causes rapid aging due to added stress. (See BU-502, Discharging at High and
Low Temperatures)
Charge time
Here, the battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium- and nickel-based systems take 1–3 hours to
charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In comparison, filling up a vehicle with fuel takes only a few
minutes. Although some electric vehicles can be charged to 80 percent in less than one hour on a high-
power outlet, Li-ion batteries get stressed on ultra-fast charges. (See BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers)
Disposal
Nickel-cadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot be disposed of in landfills.
Nickel-metal-hydrride and lithium systems are environmentally friendly and can in small quantities be
included with regular household items, but authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled. (See BU-
705: How to Recycle Batteries)
Last Updated 2016-07-07

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BU-104b: Battery Building Blocks
Learn about the composition of the three most common batteries and how they serve our society.
An electrochemical battery consists of a cathode, an anode and electrolyte that acts as a catalyst. When
charging, a buildup of positive ions forms at cathode/electrolyte interface. This leads electrons moving
towards the cathode, creating a voltage potential between the cathode and the anode. Release is by a
passing current from the positive cathode through an external load and back to the negative anode. On
charge, the current flows in the other direction.
A battery has two separate pathways; one is the electric circuit through which electrons flow, feeding the
load, and the other is the path where ions move between the electrodes though the separator that acts as
an insulator for electrons. Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons and have become electrically
charged. The separator electrically isolates the electrodes but allows the movement of ions.
Anode and Cathode
The electrode of a battery that releases electrons during discharge is called the anode; the electrode that
absorbs the electrons is the cathode.
In a discharging battery, the anode is always negative and the cathode is positive. A vacuum tube, diode or
a battery on charge anode is the positive electrode; however, taking power away from a battery on
discharge turns the anode into negative. Since the battery is an electric storage device providing energy,
the designation does not change between charging and discharging. The battery anode in discharging
mode is always negative.

Figure 12 - Battery symbol

The cathode of a battery is positive; the anode is negative.

Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4 summarize the composition of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based
secondary batteries, including primary alkaline.
Table 1 - Composition of lead acid

Lead acid Cathode (positive) Anode (negative) Electrolyte

Material Lead dioxide (chocolate brown) Gray lead, (spongy when Sulfuric acid
formed)
Full charge Lead oxide (PbO2), electrons added Lead (Pb), electrons Strong sulfuric acid
to positive plate removed from plate
Discharged Lead turns into lead sulfate at the negative electrode, electrons Weak sulfuric acid
driven from positive plate to negative plate (water-like)
Table 2 - Composition of NiMH and NiCd
NiMH, NiCd Cathode (positive) Anode (negative) Electrolyte
Material Nickel oxyhydroxide NiMH: hydrogen-absorbing alloy NiCd: Potassium hydroxide
Cadmium

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 Table 3 - Composition of Li-ion
Lithium-ion Cathode (positive) on copper foil Anode (negative) Electrolyte

Material Metal oxides derived from cobalt, Carbon based on aluminum foil Lithium salt in an
nickel, manganese, iron, aluminum organic solvent
Full charge Metal oxide with intercalation Lithium ions migrated to anode.
structure
Discharged Lithium ions move back to the Mainly carbon
positive electrode
Table 4 - Composition of primary alkaline battery

Alkaline Cathode (positive) Anode (negative) Electrolyte

Material Manganese dioxide Zinc Aqueous alkaline

Electrolyte and Separator

Ion flow is made possible with an activator called the electrolyte. In a flooded battery system, the
electrolyte moves freely between the inserted electrodes; in a sealed cell, the electrolyte is normally added
to the separator in a moistened form. The separator segregates the anode from the cathode, forming an
isolator for electrons but allowing ions to pass through. (See BU-306: Separator and BU-307: Electrolyte)
Last Updated 2017-07-31

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BU-104c: The Octagon Battery – What makes a Battery a Battery
Finding characteristics that best cover your job.
A battery has some of the most stringent requirements and is on par with complex pharmaceutical
products for which one change can have multiple side effects. To make a battery viable as an electric
storage device, eight basic requirements must be met and a battery is fittingly called the octagon battery
(Figure 13). The eight key elements to a working battery are as follows.

Figure 13 - Octagon battery

Octagon battery, so-called because of the eight critical requirements needed to achieve basic function.
Many new arrivals claim to meet or exceed some prerequisites but fail in others, limiting market
acceptance.
High specific energy
A key feature in consumer products is long runtime and device manufacturers achieve this by building
batteries with high ampere-hour (Ah). The term lithium-ion is synonymous with a high specific energy. This
does not mean that all Li-ion batteries have high Ah ratings. While the Energy Cell in an 18650 package can
have 250Ah/kg, the same chemistry in a Power Cell is 150Ah/kg or less, and a long-life Li-ion for the
powertrain is as low as 60Ah/kg. Furthermore, consumer NiMH has about 90Ah/kg compared to a 45Ah/kg
for long-life units in the electric powertrain, 45Ah/kg being almost par with lead acid.
High specific power
Batteries made for power tools and electric powertrains provide high load capabilities but the specific
energy is low.
Affordable price
Materials, refining processes, manufacturing, quality control and cell matching add cost for battery
manufacturing; volume production only assists in part to reduce costs. Single cell use in mobile phones
when no cell matching is required also lowers costs.
Long life
Nowhere is longevity more important than in large, expensive battery packs. If the battery life of the electric
car could be extended from the anticipated 8–10 years to 20 years, driving an EV could be justified even if
the initial investment is high. Longevity does not depend on battery design alone but also on how the
battery is used. Adverse temperature, fast charge times and harsh discharge conditions stress the battery.
Safety
Lithium-based batteries can be built with high specific energy, but these systems are often reactive and
unstable. Nickel-based Li-ion is such an example, so is metallic lithium. Most manufacturers stopped
production of these systems because of safety issues. When used correctly, brand-name Li-ion is very safe.

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Wide operating range
Batteries perform best at room temperature as cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction of all
batteries. Li-ion cannot be charged below freezing, and heating blankets are often added to facilitate
charging. High heat shortens battery life and compromises safety.
Toxicity
Cadmium- and mercury-based batteries have been replaced with alternative metals for environmental
reasons. Authorities in Europe are attempting to ban lead acid, but no economical replacement of similar
performance is available. Nickel- and lithium-based batteries contain little toxic material, but they still pose
a hazard if disposed carelessly.
Fast charging
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries should be charged at 1C or slower (See What Is C-Rate) At 1C, a nickel-
based battery fully charges in about 90 minutes and Li-ion in 2–3 hours. Lead acid cannot be fast charged
and the charge time is 8–16 hours. Fast charge times are possible for nickel and lithium, but the batteries
must be built for it, be in good condition and be charged at room temperature. Aged and mismatched cells
do not lend themselves to fast charging. Any charge above 1C causes undue stress, especially on the
Energy Cell, and this should be avoided. (See BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers) NiCd is the only
battery that accepts ultra-fast charge with minimal stress.
In addition to the eight basic requirements of the octagon battery, a battery must have low self-discharge to
allow long storage and provide an instant start-up when needed. All batteries have self-discharge, and the
loss increases with temperature and age. Secondary batteries have a higher self-discharge rate than the
primary equivalent. A further requirement is a long shelf-life with little performance degradation. A battery
is perishable, and like a food product, it is only good for a time. While alkaline batteries can be stored for 10
years and still provide 70 percent of their original energy, secondary batteries permanently lose capacity
with age, even if not used. (See How to store Batteries)
Last Updated 2017-04-09

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BU-105: Battery Definitions and what they mean
Understand the differences in chemistries and ratings and how they apply.
Batteries are specified by three main characteristics: chemistry, voltage and specific energy (capacity). A
starter battery also provides cold cranking amps (CCA), which relates to the ability to provide high current
at cold temperatures.
Chemistry
The most common battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium, and each system needs a designated
charger. Charging a battery on a charger designed for a different chemistry may appear to work at first but
might fail to terminate the charge correctly. Observe the chemistry when shipping and disposing of
batteries as each chemistry has a different regulatory requirement.
Voltage
Batteries are marked with nominal voltage; however, the open circuit voltage (OCV) on a fully charged
battery is 5–7 percent higher. Chemistry and the number of cells connected in series provide the OCV. The
closed circuit voltage (CCV) is the operating voltage. Always check for the correct nominal voltage before
connecting a battery.
Capacity
Capacity represents specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the discharge current a battery can deliver
over time. You can install a battery with a higher Ah than specified and get a longer runtime; you can also
use a slightly smaller pack and expect a shorter runtime. Chargers have some tolerance as to Ah rating
(with same voltage and chemistry); a larger battery will simply take longer to charge than a smaller pack,
but the Ah discrepancy should not exceed 25 percent. European starter batteries are marked in Ah; North
America uses Reserve Capacity (RC). RC reflects the discharge time in minutes at a 25A discharge. (See BU-
904: How to Measure Capacity)
Cold cranking amps (CCA)
Starter batteries, also known as SLI (starter light ignition) are marked with CCA. The number indicates the
current in ampere that the battery can deliver at –18°C (0°F). American and European norms differ slightly.
(See BU:902a: How to measure CCA; see BU:1102: Abbreviation under CCA)
Specific energy, energy density
Specific energy, or gravimetric energy density, defines battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density,
or volumetric energy density, reflects volume in liters (Wh/l). Products requiring long runtimes at moderate
load are optimized for high specific energy; the ability to deliver high current loads can be ignored.
Specific power
Specific power, or gravimetric power density, indicates loading capability. Batteries for power tools are
made for high specific power and come with reduced specific energy (capacity). Figure 14 illustrates the
relationship between specific energy (water in bottle) and specific power (spout opening).

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 Figure 14 - Relationship between specific energy and specific power

The water in the bottle represents specific energy (capacity); the spout pouring the water govern specific
power (loading).
AA battery can have high specific energy but poor specific power as is the case with the alkaline battery, or
low specific energy but high specific power as with the supercapacitor.
C-rates
The C-rate specifies the speed a battery is charged or discharged. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges
at a current that is on par with the marked Ah rating. At 0.5C, the current is half and the time is doubled, and
at 0.1C the current is one-tenth and the time is 10-fold. ( See BU-402, What is C-rate?)
Load
A load defines the current that is drawn from the battery. Internal battery resistance and depleting state-of-
charge (SoC) cause the voltage to drop under load, triggering end of discharge. Power relates to current
delivery measured in watts (W); energy is the physical work over time measured in watt-hours (Wh).
Watts and Volt-amps (VA)
Watt is real power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that is affected by a reactive load. On a
purely resistive load, watt and VA readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive motor or
fluorescent light causes a phase shift between voltage and current that lowers the power factor (pf) from
the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. The sizing of electrical wiring and the circuit breakers must be based on VA
power. (See also BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance).
State-of-health (SoH)
The three main state-of-health indicators of a battery are:
1. Capacity, the ability to store energy
2. Internal resistance, the capability to deliver current, and
3. Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-related conditions
Li-ion reveals SoH in capacity. Internals resistance and self-discharge stay low under normal
circumstances. SoH is commonly hidden form the user in consumer products; only state-of-charge (SoC) is
provided. (See BU-901: Fundamentals in Battery Testing)
SoH is sometimes divided into:
 Absolute state-of-health (ASoH), the ability to store the specified energy when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoH), available storage capability when battery is broken in
Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoH refers to SoH.
State-of-charge (SoC)
SoC reflects the battery charge level; a reading battery user is most familiar with. The SoC fuel gauge can
create a false sense of security as a good and faded battery show 100 percent when fully charged.

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SoC is sometimes divided into:
 Absolute state-of-charge (ASoC), the ability to take the specified charge when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoC), available charge level taking capacity fade into account.
Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoC refers to SoC.
State-of-function (SoF)
SoF reflects battery readiness in terms of usable energy by observing state-of-charge in relation to the
available capacity. This can be shown with the tri-state fuel gauge in which the usable capacity is reflected
as stored energy in the form of charge (RSoH); the part that can be filled as empty and the unusable part
that cannot be restored as dud. SoF can also be presented with the fishbowl icon for a battery evaluation at
a glance. Tri-state fuel gauges are seldom used in fear of elevated warranty claims. Some devices offer an
access code for service personnel to read SoF.
Figure 15 summarizes battery state-of-health and state-of-charger graphically.

Figure 15 - Relationship of battery state-of-health and state of charge

Definition:
SoH State-of-health. Generic term for battery health. Capacity is leading health indicator.
ASoH Absolute state-of-health of a new battery.
RSoH Relative state-of-health relating to available capacity
SoC State-of-charge. Generic term for charge level.
ASoC Absolute state-of-charge of a new battery
RSoC Relative state-of-charge; charge level with capacity fade.
Last Updated 2017-11-23

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BU-106: Advantages of Primary Batteries
Appreciate the importance of non-rechargeable (primary) batteries.
Primary batteries, also known as non-rechargeable batteries, tend to get overshadowed by the media
attention secondary or rechargeable batteries receive. Heavy focus on one product over another may
convince folks that primary batteries are old technology on the way out. Not so.
Primaries play an important role, especially when charging is impractical or impossible, such as in military
combat, rescue missions and forest-fire services. Regulated under IEC 60086, primary batteries also service
pacemakers in heart patients, tire pressure gauges in vehicles, smart meters, intelligent drill bits in mining,
animal-tracking, remote light beacons, as well as wristwatches, remote controls, electric keys and
children’s toys.
Most implantable pacemaker batteries are lithium-based, draw only 10–20 microamperes (µA) and last 5–10
years. Many hearing aid batteries are also primary with a capacity from 70–600mAh, good for 5–14 days
before a replacement is needed. The rechargeable version offers less capacity per size and lasts for about
20 hours. Cost-saving is the major advantage.
High specific energy, long storage times and instant readiness give primary batteries a unique advantage
over other power sources. They can be carried to remote locations and used instantly, even after long
storage; they are also readily available and environmentally friendly when disposed.
The most popular primary battery is alkaline. It has a high specific energy and is cost effective,
environmentally friendly and leak-proof even when fully discharged. Alkaline can
be stored for up to 10 years, has a good safety record and can be carried on an aircraft without being
subject to UN Transport and other regulations. The negative is low load currents, limiting its use to light
loads such as remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices.
Moving into higher capacities and better loading leads to lithium-metal batteries. These have very strict air
shipping guidelines and are subject to Dangerous Good Regulations involving Class 9 hazardous material.
(See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air). Figure 16 compares the specific energy of lead
acid, NiMH and Li-ion as secondary, as well as alkaline and lithium-metal as primary batteries.

Figure 16 - Specific energy comparison of secondary and primary batteries

Secondary batteries are typically rated at 1C; alkaline uses much lower discharge currents.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 44 of 453
Specific energy only indicates the capacity a battery can hold and does not include power delivery, a
weakness with most primary batteries. Manufacturers of primary batteries publish specify specific energy;
specific power is seldom published. While most secondary batteries are rated at a 1C discharge current, the
capacity on consumer-grade primary batteries is measured with a very low current of 25mA. In addition,
the batteries are allowed to discharge from the nominal 1.5V for alkaline to 0.8V before deemed fully
discharged. This provides impressive readings on paper, but the results are less flattering when applying
loads that draw higher currents.
Figure 17 compares the performance of primary and secondary batteries as “Rated” and “Actual.” Rated
refers to the specific energy when discharging at a very low current; Actual discharges at 1C, the way most
secondary batteries are rated. The figure clearly demonstrates that the primary alkaline performs well with
light load typical to entertainment devices, while the secondary batteries represented by lead acid, NiMH
and Li-ion have a lower rated capacity (Rated) but are better when being loaded with a 1C discharge
(Actual).

Figure 17 - Energy comparison underload

”Rated” refers to a mild discharge; “Actual” is a load at 1C. High internal resistance limits alkaline battery to
light loads.
One of the reasons for low performance under load conditions is the high internal resistance of primary
batteries, which causes the voltage to collapse. Resistance determines how well electrical current flows
through a material or device and is measured in ohms (Ω). As the battery depletes on discharge, the
already elevated resistance increases further. Digital cameras with primary batteries are borderline cases —
a power tool on alkaline would be impractical. A spent alkaline in a digital camera often leaves enough
energy to run the kitchen clock for two years.
Table 5 illustrates the capacity of standard alkaline batteries with loads that run typical personal
entertainment devices or small flashlights.

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 Table 5 - Alkaline specifications

The discharge resembles entertainment devices with low loads.

Source: Panasonic
Note: Resistance can also be measured in siemens (s) units, which is equal to reciprocal ohm.
AA and AAA are the most common cell formats for primary batteries. Known as penlight batteries for
pocket lights, the AA became available to the public in 1915 and was used as a spy tool during World War I;
the American National Standards Institute standardized the format in 1947. The AAA was developed in 1954
to reduce the size of the Kodak and Polaroid cameras and shrink other portable devices. In the 1990s, an
offshoot of the 9V battery produced the AAAA for laser pointers, LED penlights, computer styli and
headphone amplifiers. (The 9V uses six AAAA in series.). Table 6 compares common primary batteries.
(See BU-301: A look at Old and New Battery Packaging)
Table 6 - Summary of batteries available in AA and AAA format

The AA cell contains roughly twice the capacity of the smaller AAA at a similar price. This doubles the
energy cost of the AAA over the AA. Energy cost often takes second stage in preference to downsizing.
This is the case with bicycle lights where the AA format would only increase the size of the light slightly but
could deliver twice the runtime for the same cost.
To cut cost, cities often consolidate purchases and this includes bulk acquisitions of alkaline batteries. A
city the size of Vancouver, Canada, with about 600,000 citizens would buy roughly 33,000 AA, 16,000 AAA,
4,500 C and 5,600 D-size alkaline cells for general use.
Retail prices of the alkaline AA vary, so does performance. Exponent Inc. a US engineering firm, checked
the capacity of eight brand-name alkaline batteries in AA packages and discovered an 800 percent
discrepancy between the highest and lowest performers. The test standard was based on counting the
shots of a digital camera until the batteries were depleted, a test that considered capacity and loading
capability of a battery.

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Figure 18 illustrates the number of shots a digital camera can take with discharge pulses of 1.3W using
alkaline, NiMH and Lithium Li-FeS2 in an AA format. (With two cells in series at 3V, 1.3W draws 433mA.) The
clear winner was Li-FeS2 (Lithium AA) with 690 pulses; the second was NiMH with 520 pulses, and the
distant third was standard alkaline, producing only 85 pulses. Internal resistance rather than capacity
governs the shot count. (See BU-801a: How to Rate Battery Runtime)

Figure 18 - Number of shots a digital camera can take with alkaline NiMH and lithium

Li-FeS2, NiMH and Alkaline have similar capacities; the internal resistance governs the shot count on a
digital camera. Li-FeS2, 3Ah, 690 pulses NiMH, 2.5Ah, 520 pulses Alkaline, 3Ah, 85 pulses. Test: ANSI C18.1
Source: Exponent
The relationship between battery capacity and current delivery is best illustrated with the Ragone Chart.
Named after David V. Ragone, the Ragone chart evaluates an energy storage device on energy and power.
Energy in Ah presents the available storage capacity of a battery that is responsible for the runtime; power
in watts governs the load current.
Figure 19 illustrates the Ragone chart with the 1.3W load of a digital camera (indicated by the red arrow and
dotted line) using lithium (Li-FeS2), NiMH and alkaline. The horizontal axis displays energy in Wh and the
vertical axis provides power in watts. The scale is logarithmic to allow a wide selection of battery sizes.

Figure 19 - Ragone chart illustrates battery performance with various load conditions

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Digital camera loads NiMH, Li-FeS2 and alkaline with 1.3W pulses according to ANSI C18.1 (dotted line). The
results are:
 Li- FeS2 690 pluses
 NiMH 520 pulses
 Alkaline 85 pulses
Energy = Capacity x V
Power = Current x V
Source: Quinn Horn, Exponent Inc.
The performance of the battery chemistries varies according to the position of the Ragone line. NiMH
delivers the highest power and works well at high loads but it has the lowest specific energy. Lithium Li-
FeS2 has the highest specific energy and satisfies moderate loading conditions, and alkaline offers an
economic solution for lower current drains.
Summary
Primary batteries are practical for applications that draw occasional power, but they can get expensive
when in continuous use. Price is a further issue when the packs are replaced after each mission, regardless
of length of use. Discarding partially used batteries is common, especially in fleet applications and critical
missions as it is convenient to simply issue fresh packs with each assignment rather than estimating the
usage. At a battery conference a US Army general said that half of the batteries discarded still have 50
percent energy left.
The state-of-charge of primary batteries can be estimated by measuring the internal resistance. Each
battery type needs its own look-up table as the resistive characteristics may differ. A more accurate method
is coulomb counting that observes out-flowing energy, but this requires a more expensive circuit and is
seldom done. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge – Coulomb Counting). This requires a more
expensive circuit and is seldom done.
Reference
Presentation by Dan Durbin, Energizer Applications support, Medical Device & Manufacturing (MD&M)
West, Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Presentation by Quinn Horn, Ph.D., P.E. Exponent, Inc. Medical Device & Manufacturing (MD&M) West,
Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Last Updated 2017-04-09

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BU-106a: Choices of Primary Batteries
Knowing the difference in run-time performance
Zinc-carbon, also known as carbon-zinc or the Leclanché battery, is one of the earliest and least expensive
primary batteries. It delivers 1.5V and often come with consumer devices. The first zinc-carbon invented by
Georges Leclanché in 1859 was wet.
Alkaline. Alkaline-manganese, also known as alkaline, is an improved version of the zinc-carbon battery and
delivers 1.5V. Lewis Urry (1927–2004) invented alkaline in 1949 while working with the Eveready Battery
Company laboratory in, Ohio, USA.
Alkaline delivers more energy at higher load currents than zinc-carbon. Furthermore, a regular household
alkaline provides about 40 percent more energy than the average Li-ion but alkaline is not as strong as Li-
ion on loading. Alkaline has very low self-discharge and does not leak electrolyte when depleted as the old
zinc-carbon does, but it is not totally leak-proof.
All primary batteries produce a small amount of hydroxide gas on discharge and battery-powered devices
must make provision for venting. Pressure buildup in the cell can rupture the seal and cause corrosion. This
is visible in form of a feathery crystalline structure that can develop and spread to neighboring parts in the
device and cause damage.
Lithium iron disulfide (Li-FeS2) is a newcomer to the primary battery family and offers improved
performance compared to alkaline. Lithium batteries normally deliver 3 volts and higher, but Li-FeS2 has 1.5
volts to be compatible with the AA and AAA formats. It has a higher capacity and a lower internal resistance
than alkaline. This enables moderate to heavy loads and is ideal for digital cameras. Further advantages are
improved low temperature performance, superior leakage resistance and low self-discharge, allowing 15
years of storage at ambient temperatures.
The disadvantages of the Li-FeS2 are a higher price and transportation issues due to the lithium metal
content in the anode. In 2004, the US DOT and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) banned bulk
shipments of primary lithium batteries on passenger flights, but airline passengers can still carry them on
board if the allotted lithium content is not exceeded. Each AA-sized Li-FeS2 contains 0.98 grams of lithium;
the air limitation of primary lithium batteries is 2 grams (8 grams for rechargeable Li-ion). This restricts each
passenger to two cells, but exceptions have been made in which 12 sample batteries can be carried. (See
BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by air.)
The Li-FeS2 includes safety devices in the form of a positive thermal coefficient (PTC) that limits the current
at high temperature and resets when normal. The Li-FeS2 cell cannot be recharged as is possible with
NiMH in the AA and AAA formats. Recharging, putting a cell in backwadrs, mixing in a depleted cell or
adding a foreign cell could cause a leak or explosion. (See BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion.)
Figure 20 and Figure 21 compare the discharge voltage and internal resistance of alkaline and Li-FeS2 at a
50mA pulsed load. Of interest is the flat voltage curve and the low internal resistance of lithium; alkaline
shows a rapid voltage drop and a permanent increase in resistance with use. This shortens the runtime,
especially at an elevated load.

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 Figure 20 - Voltage and internal resistance of alkaline on discharge

The internal resistance rises, causing the voltage to drop (Source: Energizer)

Figure 21 - Voltage and internal resistance of lithium on discharge

The internal resistance remains low and the voltage stays flat (Source: Energizer)
Lithium-thionyl chloride (LiSOCI2 or LTC)
Lithium-thionyl chloride is one of the most rugged lithium-metal batteries. The ability to withstand high heat
and strong vibration enables horizontal drilling, also known as fracking. Some LTC are said to operate from
0°C to 200°C (32°F to 392°F). Other uses are in medical and sensor applications.
With a specific energy of over 500Wh/kg, LTC offers twice the capacity of the best Li-ion. The nominal
voltage is 3.60V/cell; the end-of-discharge cut-off voltage is 3.00V. The runtime is not based on capacity
alone; thermal conditions and load pattern also have an effect. Constant current is more enduring than
pulsed load; a phenomenon that applies to most batteries.

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Like alkaline, lithium-thionyl chloride has a relatively high resistance and can only be used for moderate
discharge loads. If stored for a time, a passivation layer forms between the lithium anode and the carbon-
based cathode that dissipates when applying a load. This layer protects the battery by granting low self-
discharge and a long shelf life. (See BU-701: How to Prime Batteries)
LTC is one of the most powerful and potent battery chemistries and should only be used by trained
workers. For safety reasons, this battery is not used in consumer devices.
Lithium manganese dioxide (MnO2 or Li-M)
Lithium manganese dioxide is similar to LTC but has a lower specific capacity and is safe for public use. The
voltage is 3.0–3.30V and the specific energy is about 280Wh/kg. Li-M is economically priced, has a long life
and allows moderate loads but can deliver high pulse currents. Operational temperature ranges from -30°C
to 60°C (-22°F to 140°F). Typical uses are meter sensing, medical devices, road toll sensors and cameras.
Lithium sulfur dioxide (LiSo2) is a primary battery with a voltage of 2.8V and an energy density up to
330Wh/kg. It offers a wide temperature range of --54°C to 71°C (-65°F to 160°F) with a projected shelf life of
5–10 years at room temperature. LiSo2 is inexpensive to make and is commonly used by the military. The
Iraqi war used tons of these batteries, but it is giving way to the more superior Li-M.
Note: Primary lithium batteries are also known as lithium-metal. The cathode is carbon and the anode holds
the active material, the reverse of Li-ion, which features a carbon anode.
CAUTION: LTC and Li-M are safe but workers handling these batteries must be familiar with safety
precautions, transportation and disposal. Protect the batteries from heat, short circuit, and physical or
electrical abuses.
Last Updated 2017-05-16

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BU-107: Comparison Table of Secondary Batteries
Select between maximum runtime, long service life, small size and low cost.
Rechargeable batteries play an important role in our lives and many daily chores would be unthinkable
without the ability to recharge. The most common rechargeable batteries are lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-
ion. Here is a brief summary of their characteristics.
Lead Acid - This is the oldest rechargeable battery system. Lead acid is rugged, forgiving if abused and is
economically priced, but it has a low specific energy and limited cycle count. Lead acid is used for
wheelchairs, golf cars, personnel carriers, emergency lighting and uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
Lead is toxic and cannot be disposed in landfills.
Nickel-cadmium - Mature and well understood, NiCd is used where long service life, high discharge
current and extreme temperatures are required. NiCd is one of the most rugged and enduring batteries; it is
the only chemistry that allows ultra-fast charging with minimal stress. Main applications are power tools,
medical devices, aviation and UPS. Due to environmental concerns, NiCd is being replaced with other
chemistries, but it retains its status in aircraft due to its good safety record.
Nickel-metal-hydride - Serves as a replacement for NiCd as it has only mild toxic metals and provides
higher specific energy. NiMH is used for medical instruments, hybrid cars and industrial applications. NiMH
is also available in AA and AAA cells for consumer use.
Lithium-ion is replacing many applications that were previously served by lead and nickel-based batteries.
Due to safety concerns, Li-ion needs a protection circuit. It is more expensive than most other batteries, but
high cycle count and low maintenance reduce the cost per cycle over many other chemistries.
Table 7 compares the characteristics of the four commonly used rechargeable battery systems, showing
average performance ratings at time of publication. Li-ion is divided into different types, named by their
active materials, which are cobalt, manganese, phosphate and titanate. (See BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion).
Missing from in the list is the popular lithium-ion-polymer that gets its name from the unique separator and
electrolyte system. Most are a hybrid version that shares performance with other Li-ion. Also missing is the
rechargeable lithium-metal, a battery that, once the safety issues are resolved, has the potential of
becoming a battery choice with extraordinarily high specific energy and good specific power. The table
only addresses portable batteries and excludes large systems that resemble a refinery.

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 Table 7- Characteristics of commonly used rechargeable batteries

The figures are based on average ratings of commercial batteries at time of publication. Specialty batteries
with above-average ratings are excluded.
1. Combining cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum raises energy density up to 250Wh/kg.
2. Cycle life is based on the depth of discharge (DoD). Shallow DoD prolongs cycle life.
3. Cycle life is based on battery receiving regular maintenance to prevent memory.
4. Ultra-fast charge batteries are made for a special pupose. (See BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast
Chargers)
5. Self-discharge is highest immediately after charge. NiCd loses 10% in the first 24 hours, then
declines to 10% every 30 days. High temperature and age increase self-discharge.
6. 1.25V is traditional; 1.20V is more common. (See BU-303: Confusion with Voltages).

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 7. Manufacturers may rate voltage higher because of low internal resistance (marketing).
8. Capable of high current pulses; needs time to recuperate.
9. Do not charge Li-ion below freezing. (See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures)
10. Maintenance may be in the form of equalizing or topping charge* to prevent sulfation.
11. Protection circuit cuts off below about 2.20V and above 4.30V on most Li-ion; different voltage
settings apply for lithium-iron-phosphate.
12. Coulombic efficiently is higher with quicker charge (in part due to self-discharge error).
13. Li-ion may have lower cost-per-cycle than lead acid.
* Topping charge is applied on a battery that is in service or storage to maintain full charge and to prevent
sulfation on lead acid batteries.

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BATTERY TYPES

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BU-201: How does the Lead Acid Battery Work?
Learn about the differences within the lead acid family and find out what the cons and pros are.
Invented by the French physician Gaston Planté in 1859, lead acid was the first rechargeable battery for
commercial use. Despite its advanced age, the lead chemistry continues to be in wide use today. There are
good reasons for its popularity; lead acid is dependable and inexpensive on a cost-per-watt base. There are
few other batteries that deliver bulk power as cheaply as lead acid, and this makes the battery cost-effective
for automobiles, golf cars, forklifts, marine and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
The grid structure of the lead acid battery is made from a lead alloy. Pure lead is too soft and would not
support itself, so small quantities of other metals are added to get the mechanical strength and improve
electrical properties. The most common additives are antimony, calcium, tin and selenium. These batteries
are often known as “lead-antimony” and “lead­calcium.”
Adding antimony and tin improves deep cycling but this increases water consumption and escalates the
need to equalize. Calcium reduces self-discharge, but the positive lead-calcium plate has the side effect of
growing due to grid oxidation when being over-charged. Modern lead acid batteries also make use of
doping agents such as selenium, cadmium, tin and arsenic to lower the antimony and calcium content.
Lead acid is heavy and is less durable than nickel- and lithium-based systems when deep cycled. A full
discharge causes strain and each discharge/charge cycle permanently robs the battery of a small amount of
capacity. This loss is small while the battery is in good operating condition, but the fading increases once
the performance drops to half the nominal capacity. This wear-down characteristic applies to all batteries in
various degrees.
Depending on the depth of discharge, lead acid for deep-cycle applications provides 200 to 300
discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for its relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion on the
positive electrode, depletion of the active material and expansion of the positive plates. This aging
phenomenon is accelerated at elevated operating temperatures and when drawing high discharge currents.
(See BU-804:How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries)
Charging a lead acid battery is simple, but the correct voltage limits must be observed. Choosing a low
voltage limit shelters the battery, but this produces poor performance and causes a buildup of sulfation on
the negative plate. A high voltage limit improves performance but forms grid corrosion on the positive
plate. While sulfation can be reversed if serviced in time, corrosion is permanent. (See BU-403: Charging
Lead Acid)
Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and with most types, a full charge takes 14–16 hours. The
battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Low charge causes sulfation, a condition that robs the
battery of performance. Adding carbon on the negative electrode reduces this problem but this lowers the
specific energy. ( See BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems)
Lead acid has a moderate life span, but it is not subject to memory as nickel-based systems are, and the
charge retention is best among rechargeable batteries. While NiCd loses approximately 40 percent of their
stored energy in three months, lead acid self-discharges the same amount in one year. The lead acid
battery works well at cold temperatures and is superior to lithium-ion when operating in subzero
conditions.
Sealed Lead Acid
The first sealed, or maintenance-free, lead acid emerged in the mid-1970s. Engineers argued that the term
“sealed lead acid” was a misnomer because no lead acid battery can be totally sealed. To control venting
during stressful charge and rapid discharge, valves have been added that release gases if pressure builds
up. Rather than submerging the plates in a liquid, the electrolyte is impregnated into a moistened separator,
a design that resembles nickel- and lithium-based systems. This enables operating the battery in any
physical orientation without leakage.

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The sealed battery contains less electrolyte than the flooded type, hence the term “acid-starved.” Perhaps
the most significant advantage of sealed lead acid is the ability to combine oxygen and hydrogen to create
water and prevent dry out during cycling. The recombination occurs at a moderate pressure of 0.14 bar
(2psi). The valve serves as a safety vent if the gas buildup rises. Repeated venting should be avoided as this
will lead to an eventual dry-out.
Several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and the most common are gel, also known as valve-
regulated lead acid (VRLA), and absorbent glass mat (AGM). The gel cell contains a silica type gel that
suspends the electrolyte in a paste. Smaller packs with capacities of up to 30Ah are often called SLA
(sealed lead acid). Packaged in a plastic container, these batteries are used for small UPS, emergency
lighting and wheelchairs. Because of low price, dependable service and low maintenance, the SLA remains
the preferred choice for healthcare in hospitals and retirement homes. The larger VRLA is used as power
backup for cellular repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals, airports and more.
The AGM suspends the electrolyte in a specially designed glass mat. This offers several advantages to lead
acid systems, including faster charging and instant high load currents on demand. AGM works best as a
mid-range battery with capacities of 30 to 100Ah and is less suited for large systems, such as UPS. Typical
uses are starter batteries for motorcycles, start-stop function for micro-hybrid cars, as well as marine and
RV that need some cycling.
With cycling and age, the capacity of AGM fades gradually; gel, on the other hand, has a dome shaped
performance curve and stays in the high performance range longer but then drops suddenly towards the
end of life. AGM is more expensive than flooded, but is cheaper than gel. (Gel would be too expensive for
start/stop use in cars.)
Unlike the flooded, the sealed lead acid battery is designed with a low over-voltage potential to prohibit the
battery from reaching its gas-generating potential during charge. Excess charging causes gassing, venting
and subsequent water depletion and dry-out. Consequently, gel, and in part also AGM, cannot be charged
to their full potential and the charge voltage limit must be set lower than that of a flooded. This also applies
to the float charge on full charge. In respect to charging, the gel and AGM are no direct replacements for
the flooded type. If no designated charger is available for AGM with lower voltage settings, disconnect the
charger after 24 hours of charge. This prevents gassing due to a float voltage that is set too high. ( See BU-
403: Charging Lead Acid )
The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25°C (77°F); every 8°C (15°F) rise above this
temperature threshold cuts battery life in half. (See BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life)
Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and 20-hour (0.05C) discharge rate. The battery performs
best when discharged slowly; the capacity readings are substantially higher at a slower discharge than at
the 1C-rate. Lead acid can, however, deliver high pulse currents of several C if done for only a few seconds.
This makes the lead acid well suited as a starter battery, also known as starter-light-ignition (SLI). The high
lead content and the sulfuric acid make lead acid environmentally unfriendly.
Lead acid batteries are commonly classified into three usages: Automotive (starter or SLI), motive power
(traction or deep cycle) and stationary (UPS).
Starter and Deep-cycle Batteries
The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high-power load lasting a second or
so. For its size, the battery is able to deliver high current but it cannot be deep-cycled. Starter batteries are
rated with Ah or RS (reserve capacity) to indicate energy storage capability, as well as CCA (cold cranking
amps) to signify the current a battery can deliver at cold temperature. SAE J537 specifies 30 seconds of
discharge at –18°C (0°F) at the rated CCA ampere without the battery voltage dropping below 7.2 volts. RC
reflects the runtime in minutes at a steady discharge of 25. (SAE stands for Society of Automotive
Engineers.) See also BU-902a: How to Measure CCA.
Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance that is achieved by adding extra plates for maximum
surface area (Figure 22). The plates are thin and the lead is applied in a sponge-like form that has the
appearance of fine foam, expanding the surface area further. Plate thickness, which is important for a deep-
cycle battery is less important because the discharge is short and the battery is recharged while driving; the
emphasis is on power rather than capacity.
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 Figure 22 - Starter battery

The starter battery has many thin plates in parallel to achieve low resistance with high surface area. The
starter battery does not allow deep cycling.
Deep-cycle Battery
The deep-cycle battery is built to provide continuous power for wheelchairs, golf cars, forklifts and more.
This battery is built for maximum capacity and a reasonably high cycle count. This is achieved by making
the lead plates thick (Figure 23). Although the battery is designed for cycling, full discharges still induce
stress and the cycle count relates to the depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-cycle batteries are marked in Ah
or minutes of runtime. The capacity is typically rated as a 5-hour and 20-hour discharge.

Figure 23 - Deep-cycle battery

The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle battery generally
allows about 300 cycles.
A starter battery cannot be swapped with a deep-cycle battery or vice versa. While an inventive senior may
be tempted to install a starter battery instead of the more expensive deep-cycle on his wheelchair to save
money, the starter battery would not last because the thin sponge-like plates would quickly dissolve with
repeated deep cycling.
There are combination starter/deep-cycle batteries available for trucks, buses, public safety and military
vehicles, but these units are big and heavy. As a simple guideline, the heavier the battery is, the more lead
it contains, and the longer it will last. Table 8 compares the typical life of starter and deep-cycle batteries
when deep cycled.
Table 8 - Cycle performance of starter and deep-cycle batteries

Depth of discharge Starter battery Deep-cycle battery

100% 12–15 cycles 150–200 cycles
50% 100–120 cycles 400–500 cycles
30% 130–150 cycles 1,000 and more cycles
A discharge of 100% refers to a full discharge; 50% is half and 30% is a moderate discharge with 70%
remaining.

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Lead is toxic and environmentalists would like to replace the lead acid battery with an alternative chemistry.
Europe succeeded in keeping NiCd out of consumer products, and similar efforts are being made with the
starter battery. The choices are NiMH and Li-ion, but the price is too high and low temperature performance
is poor. With a 99 percent recycling rate, the lead acid battery poses little environmental hazard and will
likely continue to be the battery of choice.
Table 9 lists advantages and limitations of common lead acid batteries in use today. The table does not
include the new lead acid chemistries. (See also BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems.)
Table 9 - Advantages and limitations of lead acid batteries

Inexpensive and simple to manufacture; low cost per watt-hour

Low self-discharge; lowest among rechargeable batteries
Advantages
High specific power, capable of high discharge currents
Good low and high temperature performance
Low specific energy; poor weight-to-energy ratio
Slow charge; fully saturated charge takes 14-16 hours
Must be stored in charged condition to prevent sulfation
Limitations Limited cycle life; repeated deep-cycling reduces battery life
Flooded version requires watering
Transportation restrictions on the flooded type
Not environmentally friendly

Dry systems have advantages over flooded but are less rugged.
Last updated 2016-04-15

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 59 of 453

BU-201a: Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
Learn what differentiate AGM from other lead acid battery types
AGM technology became popular in the early 1980s as a sealed lead acid battery for military aircraft,
vehicles and UPS to reduce weight and improve reliability. The sulfuric acid is absorbed by a very fine
fiberglass mat, making the battery spill-proof. This enables shipment without hazardous material
restrictions. The plates can be made flat to resemble a standard flooded lead acid pack in a rectangular
case; they can also be wound into a cylindrical cell.
AGM has very low internal resistance, is capable to deliver high currents on demand and offers a relatively
long service life, even when deep cycled. AGM is maintenance free, provides good electrical reliability and
is lighter than the flooded lead acid type. While regular lead acid batteries need a topping charge every six
months to prevent the buildup of sulfating, AGM batteries are less prone to sulfation and can sit in storage
for longer before a charge becomes necessary. The battery stands up well to low temperatures and has a
low self-discharge.
The leading advantages of AGM are a charge that is up to five times faster than the flooded version, and the
ability to deep cycle. AGM offers a depth-of-discharge of 80 percent; the flooded, on the other hand, is
specified at 50 percent DoD to attain the same cycle life. The negatives are slightly lower specific energy
and higher manufacturing costs than the flooded, but cheaper than the gel battery.
Most AGM batteries are mid-sized and range from 30 to 100Ah. They can also be found in UPS, big and
small for stationary and deep cycle use. They are commonly built to size and are found in high-end vehicles
to run power-hungry accessories such as heated seats, steering wheels, mirrors and windshields. NASCAR
and other auto racing leagues choose AGM products because they are vibration resistant.
AGM is the preferred battery for upscale motorcycles. Being sealed, AGM reduces acid spilling in an
accident, lowers the weight for the same performance and allows installation at odd angles. Because of
good performance at cold temperatures, AGM batteries are also used for marine, motor home and robotic
applications.
AGM is making inroads into the start-stop function of cars. The classic flooded type is simply not robust
enough and repeated cycling causes a sharp capacity fade after only two years of use. (See BU-806a: Heat,
Loading and Battery Life)
As with all gelled and sealed units, AGM batteries are sensitive to overcharging. A charge to 2.40V/cell (and
higher) is fine; however, the float charge should be reduced to between 2.25 and 2.30V/cell (summer
temperatures may require lower voltages). Automotive charging systems for flooded lead acid often have a
fixed float voltage setting of 14.40V (2.40V/cell); a direct replacement with a sealed unit could overcharge
the battery on a long drive. (See BU-403: Charging Lead Acid.)
AGM and other sealed batteries do not like heat and should be installed away from the engine
compartment. Manufacturers recommend halting charge if the battery core reaches 49°C (120°F). Table 1
spells out the advantages and limitations of AGM.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 60 of 453

 Table 10 - Advantages and limitations of AGM

Spill-proof through acid encapsulation in matting technology

High specific power, low internal resistance, responsive to load
Up to 5 times faster charge than with flooded technology
Better cycle life than with flooded systems
Advantages Water retention (oxygen and hydrogen combine to produce water)
Vibration resistance due to sandwich construction
Stands up well to cold temperature
Less prone to sulfation if not regularly topping charged
Has less electrolyte and lead than the flooded version
Higher manufacturing cost than flooded
Sensitive to overcharging (AGM has tighter tolerances than gel)
Limitations Capacity has gradual decline (gel has a performance dome)
Low specific energy
Must be stored in charged condition (less critical than flooded)

Last updated 2017-10-11

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 61 of 453

BU-201b: Gel Lead Acid Battery
Learn the unique advantages of lead acid batteries
The early gelled lead acid battery developed in the 1950s by Sonnenschein (Germany) became popular in
the 1970s. Mixing sulfuric acid with a silica-gelling agent converts liquid electrolyte into a semi-stiff paste to
make the gel maintenance free. The AGM that arrived in the early 1980s offers similar performance to gel
but each system offers slightly different characteristics to fill unique market needs. Gel batteries are
commonly used in UPS, big and small, while AGM has carved out a market with starter and deep-cycle
applications. Gel and AGM batteries are part of the valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) family to make the
traditional flooded lead acid maintenance free.
Energy storage systems (ESS) deployed for frequency regulation and energy buffering use lithium-ion
batteries. Unlike lead acid, Li-ion can be rapid charged when excess energy is available. While UPS
normally dwells at full-charge and is only discharged occasionally, Li-ion in an ESS can operate at mid-
state-of-charge of 40 to 60 percent without inducing sulfation. UPS for standby applications continue to be
served by lead acid batteries because of economical cost, ruggedness and superior safety, Li-ion is making
inroads into applications that need cycling by delivering the best price per cycle.
A gel battery generally lasts longer than AGM; improved heat transfer to the outside is one reason. (The gel
separator moves heat whereas the absorbent glass mat of the AGM acts as insulator.) A further advantage
of gel is the dome shaped performance curve that allows the battery to stay in the high performance range
during most of its service life before dropping rapidly towards the end of life; AGM, in comparison, fades
gradually.
Gel is known for good performance at high ambient temperatures, is less prone to sulfation than other
systems, but it needs the correct charge and float voltages. In comparison, AGM is superior at low
temperatures with better current delivery because of low internal resistance. The cycle count on gel is said
to be larger than AGM and the secret lies in holding more acid due to its design. Because of higher internals
resistance, gel batteries are not used for high current applications.
One of the secrets of building a good gel battery lies in the valve construction. Small and economical gel
batteries use a valve consisting of EPDM-rubber (EPDM stands for ethylene propylene diene monomer).
High quality large gel batteries for use in high and low temperatures use a more elaborate valve design to
improve moisture retention.
In terms of suitability and cost, the flooded lead acid is most durable when used in standby operation, but it is also the
most expensive and requires maintenance by replenishing water. Gel is cheaper than flooded and is the preferred
battery for the UPS installations in communications. AGM comes at a lower cost and is also superior in load capabilities
to gel. Both systems have a promising future and will continue to serve for standby applications that require limited
deep cycling.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 62 of 453

Table 11 illustrates the advantages and disadvantages of the gel battery over other lead acid systems.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 63 of 453

 Table 11 - Advantages and limitations of the gel battery

Maintenance free; can be mounted sideways; low self-discharge

Long lasting due to its ability to transfer heat to the outside
Performance stays high until the end of life, then drops rapidly
Advantages Produces water by combining oxygen and hydrogen
Safe operation and forgiving if abused; less dry-out than AGM
High cycle count, tolerance to abuse and heat
Large variety of battery sizes available
Higher manufacturing cost than AGM
Sensitive to overcharging (gel is more tolerant than AGM)
Limitations Moderate specific energy and load current
Subject to release gases. Ventilation needed
Must be stored in charged condition (less critical than flooded)

Last updated 2017-10-11

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 64 of 453

BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems
Discover advancements made in lead acid batteries and how they benefit industry.
Most battery systems allow reasonably fast charging of one hour or so. The energy can also be withdrawn
in about the same time, meaning that the charge and discharge times can be made similar. Lead acid is
unique in that the battery can be discharged at a very high rate but requires more than 14 hours to fully
charge. Lead acid also needs periodic equalization to de-sulfate the plates and correct other ills.
The answer to the inherent low charge acceptance relates to the formation and dissolution of lead sulfate
on the negative electrode, which is pure lead. On discharge, lead sulfate adheres to the surface and
dissolves again on charge. The process is sluggish and when trying to hasten the charge, excess electrons
have nowhere to go; this leads to hydrogen generation and water loss. With age, the lead sulfate crystals
engrain, which reduces the charge acceptance even further.
The positive electrode also contains lead sulfate, but it supports a high charge rate. It is clear that the
negative electrode is the problem with lead acid batteries. New lead acid systems try to solve this problem
by adding carbon to this electrode with promising results.
Advanced Lead-carbon
Scientists have known for years that sulfate accumulation prevents the classic lead acid from delivering
sustained performance; partial charge and aging are the main culprits because the negative lead plate is
not sufficiently scrubbed. The advanced lead-carbon (ALC) solves this by adding carbon to the negative
plate (cathode). This turns the battery into a quasi-asymmetric supercapacitor to improve charge and
discharge performance.
Figure 24 illustrates the classic lead acid cell with the lead negative plate being replaced with a carbon
electrode to benefit from the qualities of a supercapacitor.

Figure 24 - The classic lead acid develops into an advanced lead-carbon battery

The negative plate is replaced with a carbon electrode that shares the qualities of a supercapacitor.
The ALC is being tested as a replacement for the classic starter battery in start-stop applications and in 48V
micro and mild hybrid systems. Rapid charging on regenerative breaking is a decisive advantage with these
batteries, a task that is difficult to achieve with regular lead acid. Although larger and heavier than Li-ion,
the ALC is low-cost, operates at subfreezing temperatures and does not need active cooling — advantages
Li-ion cannot claim. Unlike regular lead acid, lead carbon can operate between 30 and 70 percent state-of-
charge without fear of becoming sulfated. The ALC is said to outlive the regular lead acid battery, but the
negative is a rapid voltage drop on discharge, resembling that of a supercapacitor.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 65 of 453

Firefly Energy
The composite plate material of the Firefly Energy battery is based on a lead-acid variant, and the maker
claims that the battery is lighter, longer living and offers a higher active material utilization than current lead
acid systems. It is also one of the few lead acid batteries that can operate for extended time in partial-states-
of-charge. The battery includes carbon-foam electrodes for the negative plates, which gives it a
performance that is comparable to NiMH but at lower manufacturing costs. Firefly Energy was a spin-off of
Caterpillar, and in 2010 it went into bankruptcy. The company was later revived under separate ownership.
Today, Firefly International Energy manufactures the Oasis line of batteries in limited quantities in the US.
Altraverda Bipolar
Similar to the Firefly Energy battery, the Altraverda battery is based on lead. It uses a proprietary titanium
sub-oxide ceramic structure called Ebonex® for the grid and an AGM separator. The un-pasted plate
contains Ebonex® particles in a polymer matrix that holds a thin lead alloy foil on the external surfaces. At a
specific energy of 50–60Wh/kg, the battery is comparable with NiCd and is said to be well suited for high
voltage applications. Based in the UK, Altraverda works with East Penn in the USA.
Axion Power
The Axion Power e3 Supercell is a hybrid battery/supercapacitor in which the positive electrode is made of
standard lead dioxide and the negative electrode is activated carbon. The assembly process is similar to
lead acid. The Axion Power battery offers faster recharge times and longer cycle life on repeated deep
discharges than what is possible with regular lead acid systems, opening the door for the start-stop
application in micro-hybrid cars. The lead-carbon combination lowers the lead content on the negative
plate, which results in a weight reduction of 30 percent compared to a regular lead acid. This, however, also
decreases the specific energy to 15–25Wh/kg instead of the 30–50Wh/kg with a regular lead acid. Another
negative is a steep voltage decline on discharge that shares similarities with the supercapacitor.
CSIRO Ultrabattery
The Ultrabattery by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) of Australia
combines the asymmetric ultracapacitor with the lead acid battery, sharing similarities with the advanced
lead-carbon described above. The capacitor enhances the power and lifetime of the battery by acting as a
buffer during charging and discharging. This is said to prolong battery lifetime by a factor of four over
regular lead acid systems while boosting the power by 50 percent. The manufacturer further claims a 70
percent cost reduction over current batteries in hybrid electric vehicles. CSIRO batteries were tested in a
Honda Insight HEV, and the results were said to be positive. The battery is also being tested for start-stop
applications in micro-hybrid cars. Unlike other advanced lead acid, the ability to rapid-charge is a decisive
advantage over the regular lead acid. Furukawa Battery in Japan licensed the technology and also makes
the battery.
EEStor
This is the mystery battery/supercapacitor combination that has received much media attention. The
battery is based on a modified barium titanate ceramic powder and claims a specific energy of up to
280Wh/kg, higher than lithium-ion. The company is very secretive about their invention and releases only
limited information. Some of their astonishing claims include: One-tenth of the weight of a NiMH battery in
a hybrid application; no deep-cycle wear-down, 3–6 minute charge time; no hazardous material; similar
manufacturing costs to lead acid; and a self-discharge of only 0.02 percent per month, a fraction of that of
lead acid and Li-ion. Tests conducted in 2013 did not find meaningful levels of energy because of high
resistance between the layers. Research is continuing.
Enhanced Flooded Battery (EFB)
Car manufacturers are aware of the added stress when a regular starter battery is in start-stop mode. AGM
(absorbent glass mat) batteries can withstand the repeat start function, but car manufacturers looking for a
lower cost solution came up with the enhanced flooded battery (EFB). Tests reveal that the EFB performs
better than the regular flooded version, but it is not as good as AGM. Performance appears to be directly
related with battery cost.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 66 of 453
Summary
Battery experts believe that the core limitation of the lead acid battery is the utilization of lead. Lead-based
technology has significant unused performance potential. Improving the active material is said to unlock
such prospect by attaining a deeper understanding and getting access the analytical tools to investigate the
phenomenon. Adding carbon-based material to the negative electrode lowers sulfation, improves
conductivity and increases charge acceptance.
Last Updated 2017-05-19

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 67 of 453

BU-203: Nickel-based Batteries
Learn about the differences in nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal-hydride.
For 50 years, portable devices relied almost exclusively on nickel-cadmium (NiCd). This generated a large
amount of data, but in the 1990s, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) took over the reign to solve the toxicity
problem of the otherwise robust NiCd. Many of the characteristics of NiCd were transferred to the NiMH
camp, offering a quasi-replacement as these two systems are similar. Because of environmental
regulations, NiCd is limited to specialty applications today.
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
Invented by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, the nickel-cadmium battery offered several advantages over lead
acid, then the only other rechargeable battery; however, the materials for NiCd were expensive.
Developments were slow, but in 1932, advancements were made to deposit the active materials inside a
porous nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements occurred in 1947 by absorbing the gases generated
during charge, which led to the modern sealed NiCd battery.
For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios, emergency medical equipment,
professional video cameras and power tools. In the late 1980s, the ultra-high capacity NiCd rocked the
world with capacities that were up to 60 percent higher than the standard NiCd. Packing more active
material into the cell achieved this, but the gain was shadowed by higher internal resistance and reduced
cycle count.
The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries, and the airline industry stays
true to this system, but it needs proper care to attain longevity. NiCd, and in part also NiMH, have memory
effect that causes a loss of capacity if not given a periodic full discharge cycle. The battery appears to
remember the previous energy delivered and once a routine has been established, it does not want to give
more. (See BU-807: How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries) Table 12 lists the advantages and limitations of
the standard NiCd.
Table 12 - Advantages and limitations of NiCd batteries

Rugged, high cycle count with proper maintenance

Only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with little stress
Good load performance; forgiving if abused
Long shelf life; can be stored in a discharged state, needs priming before
Advantages use
Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control
Good low-temperature performance
Economically priced; NiCd is the lowest in terms of cost per cycle
Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options
Relatively low specific energy compared with newer systems
Memory effect; needs periodic full discharges and can be rejuvenated
Limitations Cadmium is a toxic metal. Cannot be disposed of in landfills
High self-discharge; needs recharging after storage
Low cell voltage of 1.20V requires many cells to achieve high voltage

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research on nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the metal-hydride led to the
development of the nickel-hydrogen (NiH) instead. New hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s eventually
improved the stability issues and today NiMH provides 40 percent higher specific energy than the standard
NiCd.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 68 of 453

Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. The battery is more delicate and trickier to charge than
NiCd. With 20 percent self-discharge in the first 24 hours after charge and 10 percent per month thereafter,
NiMH ranks among the highest in the class. Modifying the hydride materials lowers the self-discharge and
reduces corrosion of the alloy, but this decreases the specific energy. Batteries for the electric powertrain
make use of this modification to achieve the needed robustness and long life span.
Consumer Applications
NiMH has become one of the most readily available rechargeable batteries for consumer use. Battery
manufacturers, such as Panasonic, Energizer, Duracell and Rayovac, have recognized the need for a
durable and low-cost rechargeable battery and offer NiMH in AA, AAA and other sizes. The battery
manufacturers want to lure buyers away from disposable alkaline to rechargeable batteries.
The NiMH battery for the consumer market is an alternative for the failed reusable alkaline that appeared in
the 1990s. Limited cycle life and poor loading characteristics hindered its success.
Table 13 compares the specific energy, voltage, self-discharge and runtime of over-the-counter batteries.
Available in AA, AAA and other sizes, these cells can be used in portable devices designed for these norms.
Even though the cell voltages may vary, the end-of-discharge voltages are common, which is typically
1V/cell. Portable devices have some flexibility in terms of voltage range. It is important not to mix cells and
to always use the same type of batteries in the holder. Safety concerns and voltage incompatibility prevent
the sale of most lithium-ion batteries in AA and AAA formats.
Table 13 - Comparison of alkaline, reusable alkaline, Eneloop and NiMH

Self-
Runtime
discharge
Estimated
Battery Capacity
Capacity AA cell Voltage photos on
type after 1
digital
year
camera
storage
NiMH 2,700mAh, rechargeable 1.2V 50% 600 shots

Eneloop* 2,500mAh, rechargeable 1.2V 85% 500 shots

2,800mAh; 95%
Regular
1.5V 10 year 100 shots
alkaline non-rechargeable
shelf life
Reusable 2,000mAh; lower on
1.4V 95% 100 shots
alkaline subsequent recharge
Lithium 2,500–3,400mAh Very low
1.5V 10 year 690 shots
(Li-FeS2) (non-rechargeable)
shelf life
* Eneloop is a Panasonic (2013) trademark, based on NiMH.
High self-discharge is of ongoing concern to consumers using rechargeable batteries, and NiMH behaves
like a leaky basketball or bicycle tire. A flashlight or portable entertainment device with a NiMH battery gets
“flat” when put away for only a few weeks. Having to recharge the device before each use does not sit well
with many consumers especially for flashlights that sit on standby for the occasional power-outage;
alkaline keeps the charge for 10 years.
The Eneloop NiMH by Panasonic and Sanyo has reduced the self-discharge by a factor of six. This means
you can store the charged battery six times longer than a regular NiMH before a recharge becomes
necessary. The drawback of the Eneloop to regular NiMH is a slightly lower specific energy.
Table 14 summarizes the advantages and limitations of industrial-grade NiMH. The table does not include
the Eneloop and other consumer brands.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 69 of 453

 Table 14 - Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries

30–40 percent higher capacity than a standard NiCd

Less prone to memory than NiCd, can be rejuvenated
Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control
Advantages
Environmentally friendly; contains only mild toxins
Nickel content makes recycling profitable
Wide temperature range
Limited service life; deep discharge reduces service life
Requires complex charge algorithm. Sensitive to overcharge
Does not absorb overcharge well; trickle charge must be kept low
Limitations
Generates heat during fast charge and high-load discharge
High self-discharge
Coulombic efficiency only about 65% (99% with Li-ion)

Nickel-iron (NiFe)
After inventing nickel-cadmium in 1899, Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner tried to substitute iron for cadmium
to save money; however, poor charge efficiency and gassing (hydrogen formation) prompted him to
abandon the development without securing a patent.
In 1901, Thomas Edison continued the development of the nickel-iron battery as a substitute to lead acid for
electric vehicles. He claimed that nickel-iron was “far superior to batteries using lead plates and acid” and
counted on the emerging electric vehicle market. He lost out when gasoline-powered cars took over and
was deeply disappointed when the auto industry did not adopt nickel-iron as the starter, lighting and
ignition battery (SLI) for cars. (See BU-1002: Electric Powertrain, HEV, PHEV.)
The nickel-iron battery (NiFe) uses an oxide-hydroxide cathode and an iron anode with potassium
hydroxide electrolyte that produces a nominal cell voltage of 1.20V. NiFe is resilient to overcharge and over-
discharge and can last for more than 20 years in standby applications. Resistance to vibrations and high
temperatures made NiFe the preferred battery for mining in Europe; during World War II the battery
powered German V-1 flying bombs and the V-2 rockets. Other uses are railroad signaling, forklifts and
stationary applications.
NiFe has a low specific energy of about 50Wh/kg, has poor low-temperature performance and exhibits high
self-discharge of 20–40 percent a month. This, together with high manufacturing cost, prompted the
industry to stay faithful to lead acid.
Improvements are being made, and NiFe is becoming a viable alternative to lead acid in off-grid power
systems. Pocket plate technology lowered the self-discharge; the battery is virtually immune to over- and
under-charging and should last for over 50 years. This compares to less than 12 years with deep cycle lead
acids in cycling mode. NiFe costs about four times as much as lead acid and is comparable with Li-ion in
purchase price.
Nickel-iron batteries use a taper charge similar to NiCd and NiMH. Do not use constant voltage charge as
with lead acid and lithium-ion batteries, but allow the voltage to float freely. Similar to nickel-based
batteries, the cell voltage begins to drop at full charge as the internal gas builds up and the temperature
rises. Avoid overcharging as this causes water evaporation and dry-out.
Low capacity can often be improved by applying a high discharge current of up to three times the C-rate for
periods of 30 minutes. Assure that the temperature of the electrolyte does not exceed 46˚C (115˚F).

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 70 of 453

Nickel-zinc (NiZn)
Nickel-zinc is similar to nickel-cadmium in that it uses an alkaline electrolyte and a nickel electrode, but it
differs in voltage; NiZn provides 1.65V/cell rather than 1.20V, which NiCd and NiMH deliver. NiZn charges at
a constant current to 1.9V/cell and cannot take trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. The
specific energy is 100Wh/kg and can be cycled 200–300 times. NiZn has no heavy toxic materials and can
easily be recycled. Some packaging is available in the AA cell format.
In 1901, Thomas Edison was awarded the U.S. patent for a rechargeable nickel–zinc battery system that was
installed in rail cars between 1932 and 1948. NiZn suffered from high self-discharge and short cycle life
caused by dendrite growth, which often led to an electrical short. Improvements in the electrolyte have
reduced this problem, and NiZn is being considered again for commercial uses. Low cost, high power
output and good temperature operating range make this chemistry attractive.
Nickel-hydrogen (NiH)
When research for nickel-metal-hydride began in 1967, problems with metal instabilities caused a shift
towards the development of the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH). NiH uses a steel canister to store hydrogen
at a pressure of 8,270kPa (1,200psi). The cell includes solid nickel electrodes, hydrogen electrodes, gas
screens and electrolyte that are encapsulated in the pressurized vessel.
NiH has a nominal cell voltage of 1.25V and the specific energy is 40–75Wh/kg. The advantages are long
service life, even with full discharge cycles, good calendar life due to low corrosion, minimal self-discharge,
and a remarkable temperature performance of –28°C to 54°C (–20°F to 130°F). These attributes make NiH
ideal for satellite use. Scientists tried to develop NiH batteries for terrestrial use, but low specific energy and
high cost worked against this endeavor. A single cell for a satellite application costs thousands of dollars.
As NiH replaced NiCd in satellites, there is a move towards long-life Li-ion. (See BU-211: Alternate Battery
Systems)
Last updated 2017-04-20

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 71 of 453

BU-204: How do Lithium Batteries Work?
Discover why lithium-ion is a superior battery system.
Pioneering work of the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis, but it was not until the early 1970s
that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became commercially available. Attempts to develop
rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the 1980s but failed because of instabilities in the metallic lithium
used as anode material. (The metal-lithium battery uses lithium as anode; Li-ion uses graphite as anode and
active materials in the cathode)
Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential and provides the largest
specific energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal on the anode could provide
extraordinarily high energy densities; however, it was discovered in the mid-1980s that cycling produced
unwanted dendrites on the anode. These growth particles penetrate the separator and cause an electrical
short. The cell temperature would rise quickly and approach the melting point of lithium, causing thermal
runaway, also known as “venting with flame.” A large number of rechargeable metallic lithium batteries
sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery in a mobile phone released flaming gases and inflicted
burns to a man’s face.
The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted research to a non-metallic
solution using lithium ions. In 1991, Sony commercialized the first Li ion, and today this chemistry has
become the most promising and fastest growing battery on the market. Although lower in specific energy
than lithium-metal, Li ion is safe, provided the voltage and currents limits are being respected. (See BU-
304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion)
Credit for inventing the lithium-cobalt-oxide battery should go to John B. Goodenough (1922). It is said that
during the developments, a graduate student employed by Nippon Telephone & Telegraph (NTT) worked
with Goodenough in the USA. Shortly after the breakthrough, the student traveled back to Japan, taking the
discovery with him. Then in 1991, Sony announced an international patent on a lithium-cobalt-oxide
cathode. Years of litigation ensued, but Sony was able to keep the patent and Goodenough received
nothing for his efforts. In recognition of the contributions made in Li-ion developments, the U.S. National
Academy of Engineering awarded Goodenough and other contributors the Charles Stark Draper Prize in
2014. In 2015, Israel awarded Goodenough a $1 million prize, which he will donate to the Texas Materials
Institute to assist in materials research.
The key to the superior specific energy is the high cell voltage of 3.60V. Improvements in the active
materials and electrolytes have the potential to further boost the energy density. Load characteristics are
good and the flat discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored energy in a desirable and flat
voltage spectrum of 3.70–2.80V/cell.
In 1994, the cost to manufacture Li-ion in the 18650 cylindrical cell was over US$10 and the capacity was
1,100mAh. In 2001, the price dropped to below $3 while the capacity rose to 1,900mAh. Today, high energy-
dense 18650 cells deliver over 3,000mAh and the costs are dropping. Cost reduction, increased specific
energy and the absence of toxic material paved the road to make Li-ion the universally accepted battery for
portable applications, heavy industries, electric powertrains and satellites. The 18650 measures 18mm in
diameter and 65mm in length. (See BU-301: A look at Old and New Battery Packaging)
Li-ion is a low-maintenance battery, an advantage that most other chemistries cannot claim. The battery
has no memory and does not need exercising (deliberate full discharge) to keep it in good shape. Self-
discharge is less than half that of nickel-based systems and this helps the fuel gauge applications. The
nominal cell voltage of 3.60V can directly power mobile phones, tablets and digital cameras, offering
simplifications and cost reductions over multi-cell designs. The drawbacks are the need for protection
circuits to prevent abuse, as well as high price.
Types of Lithium-ion Batteries
Lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor.
The cathode is metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from
the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses the direction and the ions
flow from the cathode to the anode. Figure 25 illustrates the process.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 72 of 453
 Figure 25 - Ion flow in lithium-ion battery

When the cell charges and discharges, ions shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and anode
(negative electrode). On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or loss of electrons, and the cathode
sees a reduction, or a gain of electrons. Charge reverses the movement.
Li ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common – the “lithium-ion” catchword.
Although strikingly similar at first glance, these batteries vary in performance and the choice of active
materials gives them unique personalities. (See BU-205: Types of Li-ion-ion)
Sony’s original lithium-ion battery used coke as the anode (coal product). Since 1997, most Li ion
manufacturers, including Sony, shifted to graphite to attain a flatter discharge curve. Graphite is a form of
carbon that has long-term cycle stability and is used in lead pencils. It is the most common carbon material,
followed by hard and soft carbons. Nanotube carbons have not yet found commercial use in Li-ion as they
tend to entangle and affect performance. A future material that promises to enhance the performance of Li-
ion is graphene.
Figure 26 illustrates the voltage discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with graphite anode and the early coke
version.

Figure 26 - Voltage discharge curve of lithium-ion

A battery should have a flat voltage curve in the usable discharge range. The modern graphite anode does
this better than the early coke version.

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Several additives have been tried, including silicon-based alloys, to enhance the performance of the
graphite anode. It takes six carbon (graphite) atoms to bind to a single lithium ion; a single silicon atom can
bind to four lithium ions. This means that the silicon anode could theoretically store over 10 times the
energy of graphite, but expansion of the anode during charge is a problem. Pure silicone anodes are
therefore not practical and only 3–5 percent of silicon is typically added to the anode of a silicon-based to
achieve good cycle life.
Using nano-structured lithium-titanate as an anode additive shows promising cycle life, good load
capabilities, excellent low-temperature performance and superior safety, but the specific energy is low and
the cost is high.
Experimenting with cathode and anode material allows manufacturers to strengthen intrinsic qualities, but
one enhancement may compromise another. The so-called “Energy Cell” optimizes the specific energy
(capacity) to achieve long runtimes but at lower specific power; the “Power Cell” offers exceptional specific
power but at lower capacity. The “Hybrid Cell” is a compromise and offers a little bit of both. (More on BU-
501: Basics About Discharging)
Manufacturers can attain a high specific energy and low cost relatively easily by adding nickel in lieu of the
more expensive cobalt, but this makes the cell less stable. While a start-up company may focus on high
specific energy and low price to gain quick market acceptance, safety and durability cannot be
compromised. Reputable manufacturers place high integrity on safety and longevity. Table 3 summarizes
the advantages and limitations of Li-ion.
The current Li-ion market is dominated by a similar design. Most consist of a negative electrode (anode)
made from carbon/graphite that is coated on a copper current collector, a metal oxide positive electrode
(cathode) coated onto an aluminum current collector, a separator and electrolyte made of lithium salt in an
organic solvent. Table 3 summarizes the advantages and limitations of Li-ion.
Table 15 - Advantages and limitations of Li‑ion batteries

High specific energy and high load capabilities with Power Cells
Long cycle and extend shelf-life; maintenance-free
Advantages High capacity, low internal resistance, good coulombic efficiency
Simple charge algorithm and reasonably short charge times
Low self-discharge (less than half that of NiCd and NiMH)
Requires protection circuit to prevent thermal runaway if stressed
Degrades at high temperature and when stored at high voltage
Limitations
No rapid charge possible at freezing temperatures (<0°C, <32°F)
Transportation regulations required when shipping in larger quantities

Last Updated 2017-07-31

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BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion
Become familiar with the many different types of lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium-ion is named for its active materials; the words are either written in full or shortened by their
chemical symbols. A series of letters and numbers strung together can be hard to remember and even
harder to pronounce, and battery chemistries are also identified in abbreviated letters.
For example, lithium cobalt oxide, one of the most common Li-ions, has the chemical symbols LiCoO2 and
the abbreviation LCO. For reasons of simplicity, the short form Li-cobalt can also be used for this battery.
Cobalt is the main active material that gives this battery character. Other Li-ion chemistries are given similar
short-form names. This section lists six of the most common Li-ions. All readings are average estimates at
time of writing.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO2)
Its high specific energy makes Li-cobalt the popular choice for mobile phones, laptops and digital cameras.
The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite carbon anode. The cathode has a layered
structure and during discharge, lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode. The flow reverses on
charge. The drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span, low thermal stability and limited load
capabilities (specific power). Figure 27 illustrates the structure.

Figure 27 - Li-cobalt structure

The cathode has a layered structure. During discharge the lithium ions move from the anode to the
cathode; on charge the flow is from cathode to anode.
The drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span, low thermal stability and limited load capabilities
(specific power). Like other cobalt-blended Li-ion, Li-cobalt has a graphite anode that limits the cycle life by
a changing solid electrolyte interface (SEI), thickening on the anode and lithium plating while fast charging
and charging at low temperature. Newer systems include nickel, manganese and/or aluminum to improve
longevity, loading capabilities and cost.
Li-cobalt should not be charged and discharged at a current higher than its C-rating. This means that an
18650 cell with 2,400mAh can only be charged and discharged at 2,400mA. Forcing a fast charge or
applying a load higher than 2,400mA causes overheating and undue stress. For optimal fast charge, the
manufacturer recommends a C-rate of 0.8C or about 2,000mA. (See BU-402: What is C-rate). The
mandatory battery protection circuit limits the charge and discharge rate to a safe level of about 1C for the
Energy Cell.
The hexagonal spider graphic (Figure 28) summarizes the performance of Li-cobalt in terms of specific
energy or capacity that relates to runtime; specific power or the ability to deliver high current; safety;
performance at hot and cold temperatures; life span reflecting cycle life and longevity; and cost. Other
characteristics of interest not shown in the spider webs are toxicity, fast-charge capabilities, self-discharge
and shelf life. (See BU-104c: The Octagon Battery – What makes a Battery a Battery).

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The Li-cobalt is losing favor to Li-manganese, but especially NMC and NCA because of the high cost of
cobalt and improved performance by blending with other active cathode materials. (See description of the
NMC and NCA below.)

Figure 28 - Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt battery

Li-cobalt excels on high specific energy but offers only moderate performance specific power, safety and
life span.
Summary Table
Table 16 - Characteristics of lithium cobalt oxide

Lithium Cobalt Oxide: LiCoO2 cathode (~60% Co), graphite anode

Short form: LCO or Li-cobalt. Since 1991

Voltages 3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 150–200Wh/kg. Specialty cells provide up to 240Wh/kg.

0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V (most cells); 3h charge typical. Charge

Charge (C-rate)
current above 1C shortens battery life.

Discharge (C-rate) 1C; 2.50V cut off. Discharge current above 1C shortens battery life.

Cycle life 500–1000, related to depth of discharge, load, temperature

Thermal runaway 150°C (302°F). Full charge promotes thermal runaway

Applications Mobile phones, tablets, laptops, cameras

Very high specific energy, limited specific power. Cobalt is

Comments
expensive. Serves as Energy Cell. Market share has stabilized.

Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4)

Li-ion with manganese spinel was first published in the Materials Research Bulletin in 1983. In 1996, Moli
Energy commercialized a Li-ion cell with lithium manganese oxide as cathode material. The architecture
forms a three-dimensional spinel structure that improves ion flow on the electrode, which results in lower
internal resistance and improved current handling. A further advantage of spinel is high thermal stability
and enhanced safety, but the cycle and calendar life are limited.

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Low internal cell resistance enables fast charging and high-current discharging. In an 18650 package, Li-
manganese can be discharged at currents of 20–30A with moderate heat buildup. It is also possible to apply
one-second load pulses of up to 50A. A continuous high load at this current would cause heat buildup and
the cell temperature cannot exceed 80°C (176°F). Li-manganese is used for power tools, medical
instruments, as well as hybrid and electric vehicles.
Figure 29 illustrates the formation of a three-dimensional crystalline framework on the cathode of a Li-
manganese battery. This spinel structure, which is usually composed of diamond shapes connected into a
lattice, appears after initial formation.

Figure 29 - Li-manganese structure

The cathode crystalline formation of lithium manganese oxide has a three-dimensional framework structure
that appears after initial formation. Spinel provides low resistance but has a more moderate specific energy
than cobalt.
Li-manganese has a capacity that is roughly one-third lower than Li-cobalt. Design flexibility allows
engineers to maximize the battery for either optimal longevity (life span), maximum load current (specific
power) or high capacity (specific energy). For example, the long-life version in the 18650 cell has a
moderate capacity of only 1,100mAh; the high-capacity version is 1,500mAh.
Figure 30 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery. The characteristics appear marginal but
newer designs have improved in terms of specific power, safety and life span. Pure Li-manganese batteries
are no longer common today; they may only be used for special applications.

Figure 30 - Snapshot of a pure Li-manganese battery

Although moderate in overall performance, newer designs of Li-manganese offer improvements in specific
power, safety and life span (Source: Boston Consulting Group)

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Most Li-manganese batteries blend with lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) to improve the
specific energy and prolong the life span. This combination brings out the best in each system, and the
LMO (NMC) is chosen for most electric vehicles, such as the Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and BMW i3. The LMO
part of the battery, which can be about 30 percent, provides high current boost on acceleration; the NMC
part gives the long driving range.
Li-ion research gravitates heavily towards combining Li-manganese with cobalt, nickel, manganese and/or
aluminum as active cathode material. In some architecture, a small amount of silicon is added to the anode.
This provides a 25 percent capacity boost; however, the gain is commonly connected with a shorter cycle
life as silicon grows and shrinks with charge and discharge, causing mechanical stress.
These three active metals, as well as the silicon enhancement can conveniently be chosen to enhance the
specific energy (capacity), specific power (load capability) or longevity. While consumer batteries go for
high capacity, industrial applications require battery systems that have good loading capabilities, deliver a
long life and provide safe and dependable service.
Table 17 - Characteristics of Lithium Manganese Oxide

Lithium Manganese Oxide: LiMn2O4 cathode. graphite anode

Short form: LMO or Li-manganese (spinel structure) Since 1996

Voltages 3.70V (3.80V) nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 100–150Wh/kg
Charge (C-rate) 0.7–1C typical, 3C maximum, charges to 4.20V (most cells)
Discharge (C-rate) 1C; 10C possible with some cells, 30C pulse (5s), 2.50V cut-off
Cycle life 300–700 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway 250°C (482°F) typical. High charge promotes thermal runaway
Applications Power tools, medical devices, electric powertrains
High power but less capacity; safer than Li-cobalt; commonly
Comments mixed with NMC to improve performance.

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC)

One of the most successful Li-ion systems is a cathode combination of nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC).
Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can be tailored to serve as Energy Cells or Power Cells. For
example, NMC in an 18650 cell for moderate load condition has a capacity of about 2,800mAh and can
deliver 4A to 5A; NMC in the same cell optimized for specific power has a capacity of only about 2,000mAh
but delivers a continuous discharge current of 20A. A silicon-based anode will go to 4,000mAh and higher
but at reduced loading capability and shorter cycle life. Silicon added to graphite has the drawback that the
anode grows and shrinks with charge and discharge, making the cell mechanically unstable.
The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. An analogy of this is table salt in which the
main ingredients, sodium and chloride, are toxic on their own but mixing them serves as seasoning salt
and food preserver. Nickel is known for its high specific energy but poor stability; manganese has the
benefit of forming a spinel structure to achieve low internal resistance but offers a low specific energy.
Combining the metals enhances each other strengths.
NMC is the battery of choice for power tools, e-bikes and other electric powertrains. The cathode
combination is typically one-third nickel, one-third manganese and one-third cobalt, also known as 1-1-1.
This offers a unique blend that also lowers the raw material cost due to reduced cobalt content. Another
successful combination is NCM with 5 parts nickel, 3 parts cobalt and 2 parts manganese (5-3-2). Other
combinations using various amounts of cathode materials are possible.
Battery manufacturers move away from cobalt systems toward nickel cathodes because of the high cost of
cobalt. Nickel-based systems have higher energy density, lower cost, and longer cycle life than the cobalt-
based cells but they have a slightly lower voltage.

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New electrolytes and additives enable charging to 4.4V/cell and higher to boost capacity. Figure 31
emonstrates the characteristics of the NMC.

Figure 31 - Snapshot of NMC

NMC has good overall performance and excels on specific energy. This battery is the preferred candidate
for the electric vehicle and has the lowest self-heating rate (Source: Boston Consulting Group)
There is a move towards NMC-blended Li-ion as the system can be built economically and it achieves a
good performance. The three active materials of nickel, manganese and cobalt can easily be blended to suit
a wide range of applications for automotive and energy storage systems (EES) that need frequent cycling.
The NMC family is growing in its diversity.
Table 18 - Characteristics of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC)
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide: LiNiMnCoO2. cathode, graphite anode
Short form: NMC (NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC, MCN similar with different metal combinations) Since
2008
3.60V, 3.70V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell, or
Voltages
higher
Specific energy (capacity) 150–220Wh/kg
0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V, some go to 4.30V; 3h charge typical.
Charge (C-rate)
Charge current above 1C shortens battery life.
Discharge (C-rate) 1C; 2C possible on some cells; 2.50V cut-off
Cycle life 1000–2000 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway 210°C (410°F) typical. High charge promotes thermal runaway
Applications E-bikes, medical devices, EVs, industrial
Provides high capacity and high power. Serves as Hybrid Cell.
Comments Favorite chemistry for many uses; market share is increasing.

Lithium Iron Phosphate(LiFePO4)

In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate as cathode material for
rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good electrochemical performance with low resistance.
This is made possible with nano-scale phosphate cathode material. The key benefits are high current rating
and long cycle life, besides good thermal stability, enhanced safety and tolerance if abused.

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Li-phosphate is more tolerant to full charge conditions and is less stressed than other lithium-ion systems if
kept at high voltage for a prolonged time. (See BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries). As a
trade-off, its lower nominal voltage of 3.2V/cell reduces the specific energy below that of cobalt-blended
lithium-ion. With most batteries, cold temperature reduces performance and elevated storage temperature
shortens the service life, and Li-phosphate is no exception. Li-phosphate has a higher self-discharge than
other Li-ion batteries, which can cause balancing issues with aging. This can be mitigated by buying high
quality cells and/or using sophisticated control electronics, both of which increase the cost of the pack.
Cleanliness in manufacturing is of importance for longevity. There is no tolerance for moisture, lest the
battery will only deliver 50 cycles. Figure 32 summarizes the attributes of Li-phosphate.
Li-phosphate is often used to replace the lead acid starter battery. Four cells in series produce 12.80V, a
similar voltage to six 2V lead acid cells in series. Vehicles charge lead acid to 14.40V (2.40V/cell) and
maintain a topping charge. Topping charge is applied to maintain full charge level and prevent sulfation on
lead acid batteries.
With four Li-phosphate cells in series, each cell tops at 3.60V, which is the correct full-charge voltage. At
this point, the charge should be disconnected but the topping charge continues while driving. Li-phosphate
is tolerant to some overcharge; however, keeping the voltage at 14.40V for a prolonged time, as most
vehicles do on a long road trip, could stress Li-phosphate. Time will tell how durable Li-Phosphate will be
as a lead acid replacement with a regular vehicle charging system. Cold temperature also reduces
performance of Li-ion and this could affect the cranking ability in extreme cases.

Figure 32 - Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate battery

Li-phosphate has excellent safety and long life span but moderate specific energy and elevated self-
discharge.
Summary Table

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 Table 19 - Characteristics of lithium iron phosphate

Lithium Iron Phosphate: LiFePO4 cathode, graphite anode

Short form: LFP or Li-phosphate Since 1996

Voltages 3.20, 3.30V nominal; typical operating range 2.5–3.65V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 90–120Wh/kg
Charge (C-rate) 1C typical, charges to 3.65V; 3h charge time typical
1C, 25C on some cells; 40A pulse (2s); 2.50V cut-off (lower that 2V
Discharge (C-rate)
causes damage)
Cycle life 1000–2000 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway 270°C (518°F) Very safe battery even if fully charged
Applications Portable and stationary needing high load currents and endurance
Very flat voltage discharge curve but low capacity. One of the
Comments safest Li-ions. Used for special markets. Elevated self-discharge.

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2)

Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide battery, or NCA, has been around since 1999 for special applications.
It shares similarities with NMC by offering high specific energy, reasonably good specific power and a long
life span. Less flattering are safety and cost. Figure 33 summarizes the six key characteristics. NCA is a
further development of lithium nickel oxide; adding aluminum gives the chemistry greater stability.

Figure 33 - Snapshot of NCA

High energy and power densities, as well as good life span, make NCA a candidate for EV powertrains. High
cost and marginal safety are negatives.

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Summary Table
Table 20 - Characteristics of Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide: LiNiCoAlO2 cathode (~9% Co), graphite anode
Short form: NCA or Li-aluminum
Since 1999
Voltages 3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell
Specific energy (capacity) 200-260Wh/kg; 300Wh/kg predictable
0.7C, charges to 4.20V (most cells), 3h charge typical, fast charge
Charge (C-rate)
possible with some cells
Discharge (C-rate) 1C typical; 3.00V cut-off; high discharge rate shortens battery life
Cycle life 500 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway 150°C (302°F) typical, High charge promotes thermal runaway
Applications Medical devices, industrial, electric powertrain (Tesla)

Comments Shares similarities with Li-cobalt. Serves as Energy Cell.

Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12)

Batteries with lithium titanate anodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-titanate replaces the graphite in
the anode of a typical lithium-ion battery and the material forms into a spinel structure. The cathode can be
lithium manganese oxide or NMC. Li-titanate has a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V, can be fast charged and
delivers a high discharge current of 10C, or 10 times the rated capacity. The cycle count is said to be higher
than that of a regular Li-ion. Li-titanate is safe, has excellent low-temperature discharge characteristics and
obtains a capacity of 80 percent at –30°C (–22°F).
LTO (commonly Li4Ti5O12) has advantages over the conventional cobalt-blended Li-ion with graphite anode
by attaining zero-strain property, no SEI film formation and no lithium plating when fast charging and
charging at low temperature. Thermal stability under high temperature is also better than other Li-ion
systems; however, the battery is expensive. At only 65Wh/kg, the specific energy is low, rivalling that of
NiCd. Li-titanate charges to 2.80V/cell, and the end of discharge is 1.80V/cell. Figure 34 illustrates the
characteristics of the Li-titanate battery. Typical uses are electric powertrains, UPS and solar-powered
street lighting.

Figure 34 - Snapshot of Li-titanate

Li-titanate excels in safety, low-temperature performance and life span. Efforts are being made to improve
the specific energy and lower cost (Source: Boston Consulting Group)

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 Table 21 - Characteristics of lithium titanate
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide: LiNiCoAlO2 cathode (~9% Co), graphite anode
Short form: NCA or Li-aluminum
Since 1999
Voltages 3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell
Specific energy (capacity) 200-260Wh/kg; 300Wh/kg predictable
0.7C, charges to 4.20V (most cells), 3h charge typical, fast charge
Charge (C-rate)
possible with some cells
Discharge (C-rate) 1C typical; 3.00V cut-off; high discharge rate shortens battery life
Cycle life 500 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway 150°C (302°F) typical, High charge promotes thermal runaway
Applications Medical devices, industrial, electric powertrain (Tesla)

Comments Shares similarities with Li-cobalt. Serves as Energy Cell.

Figure 35 compares the specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based systems. While Li-aluminum
(NCA) is the clear winner by storing more capacity than other systems, this only applies to specific energy.
In terms of specific power and thermal stability, Li-manganese (LMO) and Li-phosphate (LFP) are superior.
Li-titanate (LTO) may have low capacity but this chemistry outlives most other batteries in terms of life span
and also has the best cold temperature performance. Moving towards the electric powertrain, safety and
cycle life will gain dominance over capacity. (LCO stands for Li-cobalt, the original Li-ion.)

Figure 35 - Typical specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries

NCA enjoys the highest specific energy; however, manganese and phosphate are superior in terms of
specific power and thermal stability. Li-titanate has the best life span.
Last updated: 2017-11-15

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BU-206: Lithium-polymer: Substance or Hype?
Find out why lithium-polymer is so popular.
The term polymer is commonly used to describe certain type of lithium-based battery that may or may not
be polymer based. These typically include pouch and prismatic cells. While the word “polymer” is
perceived as a plastic, polymers range from synthetic plastics to natural biopolymers and proteins that
form fundamental biological structures.
Lithium-polymer differs from other battery systems in the type of electrolyte used. The original polymer
design dating back to the 1970s used a solid (dry) polymer electrolyte that resembles a plastic-like film. This
insulator allows the exchange of ions (electrically charged atoms) and replaces the traditional porous
separator that is soaked with electrolyte.
A solid polymer has poor conductivity at room temperature, and the battery must be heated to 60°C (140°F)
and higher to enable current flow. Large polymer batteries for stationary applications were installed that
needed heating, but these have since disappeared. The much anticipated hype of the “true plastic battery”
promised in the early 2000s did not materialize as conductivity could not be attained at ambient
temperature.
To make the modern Li-polymer battery conductive at room temperature, gelled electrolyte has been
added. Most Li-ion polymer cells today incorporate a micro porous separator with some moisture. Li-
polymer can be built on many systems, the likes of Li-cobalt, NMC, Li-phosphate and Li-manganese, and is
not considered a unique battery chemistry. The majority of Li-polymer packs are cobalt based; other active
material may also be added.
With gelled electrolyte added, what is the difference between a normal Li ion and Li ion polymer? As far as
the user is concerned, lithium polymer is essentially the same as lithium-ion. Both systems use identical
cathode and anode material and contain a similar amount of electrolyte.
Li-polymer is unique in that a micro porous electrolyte replaces the traditional porous separator. Li-polymer
offers slightly higher specific energy and can be made thinner than conventional Li-ion, but the
manufacturing cost is said to be higher than cylindrical design. For the purpose of discussion, pouch cells
are often identified as being Li-polymer.
Li-polymer cells also come in a flexible foil-type case that resembles a food package. While a standard Li-
ion needs a rigid case to press the electrodes together, Li-polymer uses laminated sheets that do not need
compression. A foil-type enclosure reduces the weight by more than 20 percent over the classic hard shell.
Thin film technology liberates the design as the battery can be made into any shape, fitting neatly into
stylish mobile phones and tablet. Li-polymer can also be made very slim to resemble a credit card (See
Pouch Cell) Light weight and high specific power make Li-polymer the preferred choice for hobbyists.
Charge and discharge characteristics of Li-polymer are identical to other Li-ion systems and do not require
a dedicated charger. Safety issues are also similar in that protection circuits are needed. Gas buildup during
charge can cause some prismatic and pouch cells to swell, and equipment manufacturers must make
allowances for expansion. Li-polymer in a foil package may be less durable than Li-ion in the cylindrical
package.
Last Updated 2017-07-31

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BU-206a: Finding the Optimal Runtime and Power Ratio of Li-ion
Optimizing the selection of a Li-ion system that includes specific energy, specific power and runtime.
Batteries can be made to perform as an Energy Cell that stores a large amount of energy, or a Power Cell
that is capable to deliver high load currents. An analogy is a water flask that is designed to hold a large
volume of liquid while offering a wide opening to permit quick pouring.
The physical dimensions of a battery are specified by volume in liter (l) and kilogram (kg). Adding
dimension and weight provides specific energy in Wh/kg, power density in Wh/l and specific power in
W/kg. Most batteries are rated in Wh/kg, revealing how much energy a given weight can generate. Wh/l
denotes watt/hours per liter. See Battery Definition and what they mean.)
The relationship between energy and power of a battery can best be represented in a Ragone plot. This plot
places energy in Wh on the horizontal x-axis and power in W on the vertical y-axis. The diagonal lines
across the field disclose the time the battery cells can deliver energy at various loading conditions. The
derived power curve provides a clear demarcation line of what level of power a battery can deliver. The
Ragone plot is logarithmic to display performance profiles of very high and low values.
Figure 36 illustrates the Ragone plot reflecting the discharge energy and power of four classic lithium-ion
systems packaged in 18650 cells. The battery chemistries featured are the most common power-based
lithium-ion systems, which include lithium-iron phosphate (LFP), lithium-manganese oxide (LMO), and
nickel manganese cobalt (NMC).

Figure 36 - Ragone plot reflects Li-ion 18650 cells

Four Li-ion systems are compared for discharge power and energy as a function of time.
Legend: The A123 APR18650M1 is a lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) with 1,100mAh and a continuous
discharge current of 30A. The Sony US18650VT and Sanyo UR18650W are manganese–based Li-ion cells of
1500mAh each with a continuous discharge current of 20A. The Sanyo UR18650F is a 2,600mAh cell for a
moderate 5A.discharge. This cell provides the highest discharge energy but has the lowest discharge
power.

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The Sanyo UR18650F [4] has the highest specific energy and can power a laptop or e-bike for many hours at
a moderate load. The Sanyo UR18650W [3], in comparison, has a lower specific energy but can supply a
current of 20A. The A123 [1] has the lowest specific energy but offers the highest power capability by
delivering 30A of continuous current.
The Ragone plot helps choosing the best Li-ion system to satisfy optimal discharge power and energy as a
function of discharge time. If an application calls for very high discharge current, the 3.3 minute diagonal
line on the chart points to the A123 (Battery 1) as a good pick; it can deliver up to 40 Watts of power for 3.3
minutes. The Sanyo F (Battery 4) is slightly lower and delivers about 36 Watts. Focusing on discharge time
and following the 33 minute discharge line further down, Battery 1 (A123) only delivers 5.8 Watts for 33
minutes before the energy is depleted whereas the higher capacity Battery 4 (Sanyo F) can provide roughly
17 Watts for the same time; its limitation is lower power.
For best results, battery manufacturers take the Ragone snapshot on new cells, a condition that is only valid
for a short time. When calculating power and energy thresholds, design engineers must include battery
fade that will develop as part of cycling and aging. A battery operated systems should still provide full
function with a battery that has faded to 70 or 80 percent. A further consideration is temperature as a
battery loses power when cold. The Ragone plot does not include these discrepancies.
It should be noted that loading a battery to its full power capability increases stress and shortens life. When
a high current draw is needed continuously, the battery pack should be made larger. Tesla does this with
their Model S cars by doubling and tripling the battery. An analogy is a heavy truck fitted with a large diesel
engine that provides long and durable service as opposed to installing a souped-up engine of sports car
with similar horsepower.
The Ragone plot also calculates power requirements of other energy sources and storage devices, such as
capacitors, flywheels, flow batteries and fuel cells. As fuel cells and internal combustion engines draw fuel
from a tank, a conflict develops because energy-delivery can be made continuous. The Ragone plot may
also be deployed to establish the optimal energy/power ratio and loading condition of a renewable power
source, such as solar cells and wind turbines.
Last Updated 2016-04-01

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BU-208: Cycling Performance
Find out how NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion perform when put to the test.
To compare older and newer battery systems, Cadex tested a large volume of nickel-cadmium, nickel-
metal-hydride and lithium ion batteries used in portable communication devices. Preparations included an
initial charge, followed by a regime of full discharge/charge cycles at a 1C rate. The following tables show
the capacity in percent, DC resistance measurement and self-discharge obtained from time to time by
reading the capacity loss incurred during a 48-hour rest period. The tests were carried out on the Cadex
7000 Series battery analyzers with a 1C charge and discharge and a 100 percent depth-of-discharge (DoD).
Nickel-cadmium
In terms of life cycling, NiCd is the most enduring battery. Figure 37 illustrates capacity, internal resistance
and self-discharge of a 7.2V, 900mA pack with standard NiCd cell. The internal resistance stayed low at
75mΩ and the self-discharge was stable. Due to time constraints, the test was terminated after 2,300 cycles.
This battery receives a grade “A” rating for almost perfect performance in terms of minimal capacity loss
when cycling with a 100 percent DoD and rock-solid internal resistance over the entire test. NiCd is the only
chemistry that can be ultra-fast charged with little stress. Due to its safe operation, NiCd remains the
preferred choice of battery on board aircrafts.

Figure 37 - Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh)

This battery receives an “A” rating for stable capacity, low internal resistance and moderate self-discharge
over many cycles.
The ultra-high-capacity nickel-cadmium offers up to 60 percent higher specific energy compared to the
standard version, however, this comes at the expense of reduced cycle life. In Figure 38 we observe a
steady drop of capacity during 2,000 cycles, a slight increase in internal resistance and a rise in self-
discharge after 1,000 cycles.

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 Figure 38 - Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh)

This battery offers higher specific energy than the standard version at the expense of reduced cycle life.
Nickel-metal-hydride
Figure 39 examines NiMH, a battery that offers high specific energy but loses capacity after the 300-cycle
mark. There is also a rapid increase in internal resistance after a cycle count of 700 and a rise in self-
discharge after 1000 cycles. The test was done on an older generation NiMH.

Figure 39 - Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh)

This battery offers good performance at first but past 300 cycles, the capacity, internal resistance and self-
discharge start to increase rapidly.

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Lithium-ion
Figure 40 examines the capacity fade of a modern Li-ion Power Cell at a 2A, 10A, 15A and 20A discharge.
Stresses increase with higher load currents, and this also applies to fast charging. (See BU-401a: Ultra-fast
charging of Li-ion.)
Li-ion manufacturers seldom specify the rise of internal resistance and self-discharge as a function of
cycling. Advancements have been made with electrolyte additives that keep the resistance low through
most of the battery life. The self-discharge of Li-ion is normally low but it can increase if misused or if
exposed to deep discharges

Figure 40 - Cycle characteristics of IHR18650C by E-One Moli (3.6V, 2,000mA)

18650 Power Cell was charged with 2A and discharged at 2, 10, 15 and 20A. The internal resistance and self-
discharge are N/A.
Batteries tested in a laboratory tend to provide better results than in the field. Elements of stress in
everyday use do not always transfer well into a test laboratory. Aging plays a negligible role in a lab
because the batteries are cycled over a period of a few months rather than the expected service life of
several years. The temperature is often moderate and the batteries are charged under controlled charging
condition and with approved chargers.
The load signature also plays a role as all batteries were discharged with a DC load. Batteries tend to have a
lower cycle life if discharged with pulses. (See BU-501: Basics About Discharging.) Do not overstress a
battery as this will shorten the life. If a battery must repeatedly be loaded at peak currents, choose a pack
with increased Ah rating.
Last Updated 2016-05-03

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BU-209: How does a Supercapacitor Work?
Discover how the super capacitor can enhance the battery.
The super capacitor, also known as ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor, differs from a regular capacitor
in that it has very high capacitance. A capacitor stores energy by means of a static charge as opposed to an
electrochemical reaction. Applying a voltage differential on the positive and negative plates charges the
capacitor. This is similar to the buildup of electrical charge when walking on a carpet. Touching an object
releases the energy through the finger.
There are three types of capacitors and the most basic is the electrostatic capacitor with a dry separator.
This classic capacitor has very low capacitance and is mainly used to tune radio frequencies and filtering.
The size ranges from a few pico-farads (pf) to low microfarad (μF).
The electrolytic capacitor provides higher capacitance than the electrostatic capacitor and is rated in
microfarads (μF), which is a million times larger than a pico-farad. These capacitors deploy a moist
separator and are used for filtering, buffering and signal coupling. Similar to a battery, the electrostatic
capacity has a positive and negative that must be observed.
The third type is the super capacitor, rated in farads, which is thousands of times higher than the
electrolytic capacitor. The super capacitor is used for energy storage undergoing frequent charge and
discharge cycles at high current and short duration.
Farad is a unit of capacitance named after the English physicist Michael Faraday (1791–1867). One farad
stores one coulomb of electrical charge when applying one volt. One microfarad is one million times
smaller than a farad, and one pico-farad is again one million times smaller than the microfarad.
Engineers at General Electric first experimented with an early version of super capacitor in 1957, but there
were no known commercial applications. In 1966, Standard Oil rediscovered the effect of the double-layer
capacitor by accident while working on experimental fuel cell designs. The double-layer greatly improved
the ability to store energy. The company did not commercialize the invention and licensed it to NEC, who in
1978 marketed the technology as “super capacitor” for computer memory backup. It was not until the 1990s
that advances in materials and manufacturing methods led to improved performance and lower cost.
The super capacitor has evolved and crosses into battery technology by using special electrodes and
electrolyte. While the basic Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) depends on electrostatic
action, the Asymmetric Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor (AEDLC) uses battery-like electrodes to
gain higher energy density, but this has a shorter cycle life and other burdens that are shared with the
battery. Graphene electrodes promise improvements to super capacitors and batteries but such
developments are 15 years away.
Several types of electrodes have been tried and the most common systems today are built on the
electrochemical double-layer capacitor that is carbon-based, has an organic electrolyte and is easy to
manufacture.
All capacitors have voltage limits. While the electrostatic capacitor can be made to withstand high volts, the
super capacitor is confined to 2.5–2.7V. Voltages of 2.8V and higher are possible, but at a reduce service
life. To get higher voltages, several super capacitors are connected in series. Serial connection reduces the
total capacitance and increases the internal resistance. Strings of more than three capacitors require
voltage balancing to prevent any cell from going into over-voltage. Lithium-ion batteries share a similar
protection circuit.
The specific energy of the super capacitor ranges from 1Wh/kg to 30Wh/kg, 10–50 times less than Li-ion.
The discharge curve is another disadvantage. Whereas the electrochemical battery delivers a steady
voltage in the usable power band, the voltage of the super capacitor decreases on a linear scale, reducing
the usable power spectrum. (See BU-501: Basics About Discharging)

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Take a 6V power source that is allowed to discharge to 4.5V before the equipment cuts off. By the time the
super capacitor reaches this voltage threshold, a linear discharge only delivers 44% of the energy; the
remaining 56% is reserved. An optional DC-DC converter helps to recover the energy dwelling in the low
voltage band, but this adds costs and introduces loss. A battery with a flat discharge curve, in comparison,
delivers 90 to 95 percent of its energy reserve before reaching the voltage threshold.
Figure 41 and Figure 42 demonstrate voltage and current characteristics on charge and discharge of a super
capacitor. On charge, the voltage increases linearly and the current drops by default when the capacitor is
full without the need of a full-charge detection circuit. On discharge, the voltage drops linearly. To maintain
a steady wattage level as the voltage drops, the DC-DC converter begins drawing more and more current.
The end of discharge is reached when the load requirements can no longer be met.

Figure 41 - Charge profile of a supercapacitor

The voltage increases linearly during a constant current charge. When the capacitor is full, the current
drops by default.

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 Figure 42 - Discharge profile of a supercapacitor

The voltage drops linearly on discharge. The optional DC-DC convertor maintains the wattage level by
drawing higher current with dropping voltage (Source: PPM Power)
The charge time of a supercapacitor is 1–10 seconds. The charge characteristic is similar to an
electrochemical battery and the charge current is, to a large extent, limited by the charger’s current
handling capability. The initial charge can be made very fast, and the topping charge will take extra time.
Provision must be made to limit the inrush current when charging an empty supercapacitor as it will suck
up all it can. The supercapacitor is not subject to overcharge and does not require full-charge detection; the
current simply stops flowing when full.
Table 22 compares the supercapacitor with a typical Li-ion.
Table 22 - Performance comparison between supercapacitor and Li-ion

Function Supercapacitor Lithium-ion (general)

Charge time 1–10 seconds 10–60 minutes

Cycle life 1 million or 30,000h 500 and higher

Cell voltage 2.3 to 2.75V 3.6V nominal

Specific energy (Wh/kg) 5 (typical) 120–240

Specific power (W/kg) Up to 10,000 1,000–3,000

Cost per kWh $10,000 (typical) $250–$1,000 (large system)

Service life (industrial) 10-15 years 5 to 10 years

Charge temperature –40 to 65°C (–40 to 149°F) 0 to 45°C (32°to 113°F)

Discharge temperature –40 to 65°C (–40 to 149°F) –20 to 60°C (–4 to 140°F)

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The supercapacitor can be charged and discharged a virtually unlimited number of times. Unlike the
electrochemical battery, which has a defined cycle life, there is little wear and tear by cycling a
supercapacitor. Age is also kinder to the supercapacitor than a battery. Under normal conditions, a
supercapacitor fades from the original 100 percent capacity to 80 percent in 10 years. Applying higher
voltages than specified shortens the life. The supercapacitor is forgiving in hot and cold temperatures, an
advantage that batteries cannot meet equally well.
The self-discharge of a supercapacitor is substantially higher than that of an electrostatic capacitor and
somewhat higher than an electrochemical battery; the organic electrolyte contributes to this. The
supercapacitor discharges from 100 to 50 percent in 30 to 40 days. Lead and lithium-based batteries, in
comparison, self-discharge about 5 percent per month.
Applications
The supercapacitor is often misunderstood; it is not a battery replacement to store long-term energy. If, for
example, the charge and discharge times are more than 60 seconds, use a battery; if shorter, then the
supercapacitor becomes economical.
Super capacitors are ideal when a quick charge is needed to fill a short-term power need; whereas batteries
are chosen to provide long-term energy. Combining the two into a hybrid battery satisfies both needs and
reduces battery stress, which reflects in a longer service life. Such batteries are being made available today
in the acid lead family.
Super capacitors are most effective to bridge power gaps lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes and
can be recharged quickly. A flywheel offers similar qualities, and an application where the supercapacitor
competes against the flywheel is the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) trial in New York. LIRR is one of the
busiest railroads in North America.
To prevent voltage sag during acceleration of a train and to reduce peak power usage, a 2MW
supercapacitor bank is being tested in New York against flywheels that deliver 2.5MW of power. Both
systems must provide continuous power for 30 seconds at their respective megawatt capacity and fully
recharge in the same time. The goal is to achieve a regulation that is within 10 percent of the nominal
voltage; both systems must have low maintenance and last for 20 years. (Authorities believe that flywheels
are more rugged and energy efficient for this application than batteries. Time will tell.)
Japan also employs large super capacitors. The 4MW systems are installed in commercial buildings to
reduce grid consumption at peak demand times and ease loading. Other applications are to start backup
generators during power outages and provide power until the switch-over is stabilized.
Super capacitors have also made critical inroads into electric powertrains. The virtue of ultra-rapid charging
during regenerative braking and delivery of high current on acceleration makes the supercapacitor ideal as
a peak-load enhancer for hybrid vehicles as well as for fuel cell applications. Its broad temperature range
and long life offers an advantage over the battery.
Super capacitors have low specific energy and are expensive in terms of cost per watt. Some design
engineers argue that the money for the supercapacitor would be spent better on a larger battery. Table 22
summarizes the advantages and limitations of the supercapacitor.

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 Table 23 - Advantages and limitations of super capacitors

Virtually unlimited cycle life; can be cycled millions of time

High specific power; low resistance enables high load currents
Charges in seconds; no end-of-charge termination required
Advantages
Simple charging; draws only what it needs; not subject to overcharge
Safe; forgiving if abused
Excellent low-temperature charge and discharge performance
Low specific energy; holds a fraction of a regular battery
Linear discharge voltage prevents using the full energy spectrum
Limitations High self-discharge; higher than most batteries
Low cell voltage; requires series connections with voltage balancing
High cost per watt

Last updated 2017-04-21

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BU-210: How does the Fuel Cell Work?
Explore the development of the fuel cell and study the different systems.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel with oxygen to produce electricity,
heat and water. The fuel cell is similar to a battery in that an electrochemical reaction occurs as long as fuel
is available. Hydrogen is stored in a pressurized container and oxygen is taken from the air. Because of the
absence of combustion, there are no harmful emissions, and the only by-product is pure water. So pure is
the water emitted from the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) that visitors to Vancouver’s
Ballard Power Systems were served hot tea made from this clean water.
Fundamentally, a fuel cell is electrolysis in reverse, using two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. The
anode (negative electrode) receives hydrogen and the cathode (positive electrode) collects oxygen. A
catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen into positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons. The oxygen
is ionized and migrates across the electrolyte to the anodic compartment, where it combines with
hydrogen. A single fuel cell produces 0.6–0.8V under load. To obtain higher voltages, several cells are
connected in series. Figure 43 illustrates the concept of a fuel cell.

Figure 43 - Concept of a fuel cell

The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen and the cathode (positive electrode) collects the
oxygen (Source: US Department of Energy, office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
Fuel cell technology is twice as efficient as combustion in turning carbon fuel to energy. Hydrogen, the
simplest chemical element (one proton and one electron), is plentiful and exceptionally clean as a fuel.
Hydrogen makes up 90 percent of the universe and is the third most abundant element on the earth’s
surface. Such a wealth of fuel would provide an almost unlimited pool of clean energy at relatively low cost.
But there is a hitch.
With most fuels, hydrogen is bonded to other substances and “unleashing” the gas takes energy. In terms
of net calorific value (NCV), hydrogen is more costly to produce than gasoline. Some say that hydrogen is
nearly energy neutral, meaning that it takes as much energy to produce as it delivers at the end destination.
(See BU-1007: Net Calorific Value)
Storage of hydrogen poses a further disadvantage. Pressurized hydrogen requires heavy steel tanks, and
the NCV by volume is about 24 times lower than a liquid petroleum product. In liquid form, which is much
denser, hydrogen needs extensive insulation for cold storage.

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Hydrogen can also be produced with a reformer by means of extraction from an existing fuel, such as
methanol, propane, butane or natural gas. Converting fossil fuel into pure hydrogen releases some leftover
carbon, but this is 90 percent less harmful than what comes from the tailpipe of a car. Carrying a reformer
would add weight to the vehicle and increase its cost; reformers are also sluggish. The net benefit of
hydrogen conversion is in question because it does not solve the energy problem.
Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist, developed the fuel cell concept in 1839, but the
invention never took off. This was during the development of the internal combustion engine (ICE) that
showed promising results. It was not until the 1960s that the fuel cell was put to practical use during the
Gemini space program. NASA preferred this clean power source to nuclear or solar power. The alkaline fuel
cell system that was chosen generated electricity and produced drinking water for the astronauts.
High material costs made the fuel cell prohibitive for commercial use. The fuel cell core (stack) is expensive
and has a limited life span. Burning fossil fuel in a combustion engine is the simplest and most effective
means to harness energy, but it pollutes.
High cost did not discourage the late Karl Kordesch, the co-inventor of the alkaline battery, from converting
his car to an alkaline fuel cell in the early 1970s. He mounted the hydrogen tank on the roof and placed the
fuel cell and backup batteries in the trunk. According to Kordesch, there was enough room for four people
and a dog. He drove his car for many years in Ohio, USA, but the only problem, Kordesch told me in
person, was that the car did not pass inspections because it had not tail pipe.
Here are the most common fuel cell concepts.
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
The proton exchange membrane, also known as PEM, uses a polymer electrolyte. PEM is one of the
furthest developed and most commonly used fuel cell systems; it powers cars, serves as a portable power
source and provides backup power in lieu of stationary batteries in offices. The PEM system allows
compact design and achieves a high energy-to-weight ratio. Another advantage is a relatively quick start-up
when applying hydrogen. The stack runs at a moderate temperature of 80°C (176°F) and is 50 percent
efficient. (The ICE is 25–30 percent efficient.)
On the negative, the PEM fuel cell has high manufacturing costs and a complex water management system.
The stack contains hydrogen, oxygen and water, and if dry, water must be added to get the system started;
too much water causes flooding. The stack requires chemical grade hydrogen; lower fuel grades can cause
decomposition and clogging of the membrane. Testing and repairing a stack is difficult, given that a 150V
stack requires 250 cells.
Freezing water can damage the stack and heating elements may be added to prevent ice formation. Start-
up is slow when cold and the performance is poor at first. Excessive heat can also cause damage.
Controlling temperatures and supplying oxygen requires compressors, pumps and other accessories that
consume about 30 percent of the energy generated.
Operating a PEM fuel cell in a vehicle, the PEMFC stack has an estimated service life of 2,000–4,000 hours.
Wetting and drying caused by short distance driving contributes to membrane stress. Running
continuously, the stationary stack is good for about 40,000 hours. The stack does not die suddenly but
fades similar to a battery. Stack replacement is a major expense.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
The alkaline fuel cell has become the preferred technology for aerospace, including the space shuttle.
Manufacturing and operating costs are low, especially for the stack. While the separator for the PEM costs
between $800 and $1,100 per square meter, the same material for the alkaline system is almost negligible.
(The separator for a lead acid battery costs $5 per square meter.) Water management is simple and does
not need compressors and other peripherals; efficiency is in the 60 percent range. A negative is that the
AFC is larger in physical size than the PEM and needs pure oxygen and hydrogen as fuels. The amount of
carbon dioxide present in a polluted city can poison the stack and this limits the AFC to specialized
applications.

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Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Electric utilities use three types of fuel cells, which are molten carbonate, phosphoric acid and solid oxide
fuel cells. Among these choices, the solid oxide (SOFC) is the least developed, but it has received renewed
attention because of breakthroughs in cell material and stack design. Rather than operating at the very high
operating temperature of 800–1,000°C (1,472–1,832°F), a new generation of ceramic material has brought the
core down to a more manageable 500–600°C (932–1,112°F). This allows the use of conventional stainless
steel rather than expensive ceramics for auxiliary parts.
High temperature allows direct extraction of hydrogen from natural gas through a catalytic reforming
process. Carbon monoxide, a contaminant for the PEM, is a fuel for the SOFC. Being able to accept carbon-
based fuels without a designated reformer and delivering high efficiency poses significant advantages for
this type of fuel cell. Cogeneration by running steam generators from the heat by-product raises the SOFC
to 60 percent efficiency, one of the highest among fuel cells. As a negative, high stack temperature requires
exotic materials for the core that adds to manufacturing costs and reduces longevity.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
Portable fuel cells have gained attention and the most promising development is the direct methanol fuel
cell. This small unit is inexpensive to manufacture, convenient to use and does not require pressurized
hydrogen gas. The DMFC has good electrochemical performance and refilling is done by squirting in liquid
or replacing the cartridge. This enables continued operation without downtime.
Manufactures admit that a direct battery replacement by the fuel cell is years away. To bridge the gap, the
micro fuel cell serves as a charger to provide continuous operation for the onboard battery. Furthermore,
methanol is toxic and flammable, and there are limitations to how much fuel passengers can carry on an
aircraft. In 2008 the Department of Transportation issued a ruling to permit passengers and crew to carry an
approved fuel cell with an installed methanol cartridge and up to two additional spare cartridges of 200 ml
(6.76 fl oz). This provision does not yet extend to bottled hydrogen.
Figure 44 shows a micro fuel cell by Toshiba and Figure 45 demonstrates refueling with methanol that is
99.5 percent pure.

Figure 44 - Micro fuel cell

This prototype micro fuel cell is capable of providing 300mW of continuous power (Courtesy of Toshiba)

Figure 45 - Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge

The fuel in a 10ml tank is 99.5 percent pure methanol (Courtesy of Toshiba)

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Improvements are being made, and Toshiba unveiled prototype fuel cells for laptops and other applications
generating 20 to 100 watts. The units are compact and the specific energy is comparable with that of a NiCd
battery. Meanwhile, Panasonic claims to have doubled the power output with a similar size, specifying a
calendar life of 5,000 hours if the fuel cell is used intermittently for 8 hours per day. The low longevity of
these fuel cells has been an issue to be reckoned with.
Attempts are being made with small fuel cells running on stored hydrogen. Increased efficiency and smaller
size are the advantages of pure hydrogen over methanol. These miniature systems have no pumps and
fans and are totally silent. A 21cc cartridge is said to provide the equivalent energy of about 10 AA alkaline
batteries with a runtime between refueling of 20 hours. This lends itself to portable computing, wireless
communications and flashlights for the bicycle lone rider.
Military and recreational users are also experimenting with the miniature fuel cell. Figure 46 illustrates a
portable fuel cell made by SFC Smart Fuel Cell. The EFOY fuel cell comes in different capacities that ranges
from 600 to 2,160 watt-hours per day.

Figure 46 - Portable fuel cell for consumer market

The fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen to electricity and clean water is the only by-product. Fuel cells
can be used indoors as an electricity generator (Courtesy of SFC Smart Fuel Cell AG, 2010)
Table 24 describes the applications and summarizes the advantages and limitations of common fuel cells.
The table also includes the Molten Carbonate (MCFC) and Phosphoric Acid (PAFC), classic fuel cell systems
that have been around for a while and have unique advantages.
Table 24 - Advantages and limitations of various fuel cell systems

Type of fuel Core temp.

Applications Advantages Limitations
cell efficiency

Expensive catalyst; needs

Proton Exchange 50–100°C; Compact design, long
Portable, stationary chemical grade fuel;
Membrane 80°C typical; operating life, quick start-
and automotive complex heat and water
(PEMFC) 35–60% efficient up, well developed
control

Space, Low parts and, operation Large size; sensitive to

Alkaline 90–100°C;
military, submarines, costs; no compressor; fast hydrogen and oxygen
(AFC) 60% efficient
transport cathode kinetics impurities

Molten High heat causes

Large power 600–700°C; High efficiency, flexible to
Carbonate corrosion, long startup,
generation 45–50% efficient fuel, co-generation
(MCFC) short life

Low efficiency; limited

Phosphoric Acid Medium to large 150–200°C; Good tolerance to fuel
service life; expensive
(PAFC) power generation 40% efficient impurities; co-generation
catalyst

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 High heat causes
Solid Oxide Medium to large 700–1000°C; Lenient to fuels; can use
corrosion, long startup,
(SOFC) power generation 60% efficient natural gas, high efficient
short life

Complex stack; slow

Direct Methanol Portable, mobile and 40–60°C; Compact; feeds on
response;
(DMFC) stationary use 20% efficient methanol; no compressor
low efficiency

Fuel cell developments have been gradual; the specific power is low and a direct battery replacement may
never be feasible.
Developments
Limitations involve slow start-up times, low power output, sluggish response on power demand, poor
loading capabilities, narrow power bandwidth, short service life and high cost. Similar to batteries, the
performance of all fuel cells degrades with age, and the stack gradually loses efficiency. Such performance
losses are much less apparent with the ICE.
Fuel cells below 1kW are normally non-pressurized and only use a fan to aid in oxygen supply; fuel cells
above 1kW are pressurized and include a compressor that lowers efficiency and the system can get rather
noisy. The relatively high internal resistance of fuel cells poses a further challenge. Each cell of a stack
produces about 1 volt in open circuit; a heavy load causes a notable voltage drop. Similar to the battery, the
power bandwidth decreases with age. Individual cells in the stack are also known to cause failures and
contaminants are large contributors. Figure 6 illustrates the voltage and power bandwidth as a function of
load.

Figure 47 - Power band of a portable fuel cell

High internal resistance causes the cell voltage to drop rapidly with load. The power band is limited to
between 300 and 800mA (Courtesy of Cadex)
Fuel cells operate best at a 30 percent load factor; higher loads reduce efficiency. This and poor throttle
response place the fuel cell into a support mode or a charger to keep batteries charged. A stand-alone
power source, as the developers had hoped, has not materialized.
Paradox of the fuel cell
The fuel cell enjoyed the height of popularity in the 1990s, when scientists and stock promoters envisioned
a world running on a clean and inexhaustible resource — hydrogen. They predicted that cars would run on
fuel cells, and that household electricity would also be generated by fuel cells. The stock prices skyrocketed
but marginal performance, high manufacturing costs and limited service life moderated the hydrogen
dream.

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It was said that the fuel cell would transform the world as the microprocessor did in the 1970s. A clean and
inexhaustible source of energy would become available that would solve the environmental concerns of
burning fossil fuel. From 1999 through 2001, more than 2,000 organizations got actively involved in fuel cell
development, and four of the largest public fuel cell companies in North America raised over a billion US
dollars in public stock offerings. What went wrong?
Hydrogen is not a source of energy per se but a medium to transport and store energy similar to electricity
that charges a battery. To envision “burning an endless supply of hydrogen,” the fuel must first be
produced, because hydrogen cannot be pumped from the earth as is possible with oil. While fossil fuel
lends itself well to producing hydrogen, taking this valuable fuel to unleash hydrogen makes little sense
when it costs as much or more for extraction as burning it directly. The only benefit is reduced greenhouse
gases.
Just as the attempt to fly airplanes on steam failed in the mid-1800s, it is conceivable that the fuel cell will
never be the powerhouse scientists had hoped for. But there is renewed interest in the automotive field in
Japan. Fuel cells are replacing battery banks and diesel generators in office buildings as they can be
installed in tight storage places with minimal maintenance and without the need for exhaust. Fuel cells
allow continuous and pollution-free operation of forklifts in warehouses, whereas 40M fuel cells generate
clean electricity in remote locations. The ultimate dream is propelling vehicles with the clean fuel cell.
Fuel cells may one day taxi airplanes with electric wheel hub motors. This would lower pollution and save
up to 4 percent fuel by not running the jet engines. Water produced from the fuel cell while charging the
batteries could serve as on-board drinking water; regenerative braking could further assist in charging the
batteries and super capacitors for fast charge acceptance. The ultimate dream is propelling airplanes and
vehicles with the clean fuel cell.
Last updated 2017-01-17

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BU-210a: Why does Sodium-sulfur need to be heated
Learn about the battery that only operates when heated
Sodium batteries, also known as molten salt or thermal batteries, come in primary and secondary versions.
The battery uses molten salts as an electrolyte and gains conductivity by heating the stack to a temperature
of 400–700°C (752–1,292°F). Newer designs run at a lower 245–350°C (473–662°F) temperature.
Conceived by the Germans during World War II and used in their V-2 rockets, the electrolyte of the molten
salt battery is inactive when cold and has a long storage of more than 50 years in that state. Once activated
with a heat source, the battery can provide a high power burst for a fraction of a second or deliver energy
over several hours. High power is made possible by the good ionic conductivity of the molten salt. Primary
sodium batteries are almost exclusively used for the military as a “one-shot” engagement in guided
missiles, but the interest lies in the rechargeable version.
The rechargeable sodium-sulfur (NaS) gained worldwide attention during the 1970s and 1980s, but short
service life and high cost dampened the enthusiasm. The sodium-nickel-chloride battery, also known as
ZEBRA, came to the rescue, and today this battery is successfully being deployed in many applications.
(ZEBRA stands for Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project.)
ZEBRA has a nominal cell voltage of 2.58 volts and a specific energy of 90–120Wh/kg, a level comparable
with Li-manganese and Li-phosphate. The service life is about 8 years and delivers about 3,000 cycles. It
can be fast charged, is non-toxic and the raw materials are abundant and low-cost. ZEBRA batteries come
in sizes of 10kWh or higher; typical applications are forklifts, railways, ships, submarines and electric cars.
The Think City, an electric car, offered purchasers the choice of a ZEBRA or a Li-ion battery. ZEBRA had
advantages over regular batteries when operating in a hot climate and when the battery is in continuous
use, such as in taxis and delivery vans. A growing market for sodium-based batteries is load leveling, also
known as grid storage.
The ZEBRA battery must be heated to 270–350°C (518–662°F), a temperature that is lower than the original
sodium-sulfur battery. Even with special insulation that minimizes heat loss, heating consumes 14 percent
of the battery’s energy per day. Since the energy to keep the battery hot is taken from the battery, the
resulting parasitic load amounts to 18 percent. This can be compared with the high self-discharge of a
battery. A cool down takes 3 to 4 days; depending on SoC, reheating is about 2 days.
The modern sodium-nickel-chloride battery is said to have an operating temperature from -40ºC to 65ºC (-
40ºF to 149ºF) with a cycle life of 3,500 at 80 percent depth-of-discharge. General Electric is a manufacturer
of this battery.
Common failures are electrical shorts due to corrosion of the insulators, which then become conductive, as
well as growth of dendrites, which increases self-discharge. ZEBRA batteries are safer than sodium-sulfur,
and an electrical short does not cause a complete failure of the battery.
Last updated 2017-06-09

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BU-210b: How does the Flow Battery Work?
Discover what’s new in immerging storage batteries

A flow battery is an electrical storage device that is a cross between a conventional battery and a fuel cell.
(See BU-210: How does the Fuel Cell Work?) Liquid electrolyte of metallic salts is pumped through a core
that consists of a positive and negative electrode, separated by a membrane. The ion exchange that occurs
between the cathode and anode generates electricity.
Most commercial flow batteries use acid sulfur with vanadium salt as electrolyte; the electrodes are made
of graphite bipolar plates. Vanadium is one of few available active materials that keeps corrosion under
control. Flow batteries have been tried that contain precious metal, such as platinum, which is also used in
fuels cells. Research is continuing to find materials that are low cost and readily available.
Activated by pumps, flow batteries perform best at a size above 20kWh. They are said to deliver more than
10,000 full cycles and are good for about 20 years. Each cell produces 1.15–1.55 volts; they are connected in
series to achieve the desired voltage levels. The battery has a specific energy of about 40Wh/kg, which
resembles lead acid. Similar to the fuel cell, the power density and ramp-up speed is moderate. This makes
the battery best suited for bulk energy storage; less for electric powertrains and load leveling that requires
quick action.
The electrolyte is stored in tanks. To increase the energy density, the tank sizes can be doubled using
ready-made storage tanks at an estimated cost increase of only 50 percent compared to a new system.
When replacing the battery, the electrolyte can be reused, further saving cost. Problem areas are the
membranes that tend to corrode and are expensive; additives are said to solve this issue. Figure 48
illustrates the flow battery concept.

Figure 48 - Flow Battery

Electrolyte is stored in tanks and pumped through the core to generate electricity; charging is the process
in reverse. The volume of electrolyte governs battery capacity.
Vanadium is the 23rd element on the periodic table and is mined in China, Russia and South Africa. Sun-
backed central Nevada may soon become a contributor in the form of heavily oxidized crumbled rock.
Currently, 90 percent of lower grade vanadium is used as an additive to strengthen steel. Battery scientists,
mining companies and politicians are excited about vanadium becoming a strategic metal for “green
energy.” As of now, the cost of the flow battery is similar to that of lithium-ion at about $500/kWh; a future
cost of US$250/kWh seems feasible.

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For a more precise cost estimation, the flow battery is divided into power cost and energy cost. The power
cost can go above $1,500/kW and consists of stacks, pumps, pipes and power electronics. The energy cost
consisting of tanks and electrolyte comes in at a bit more than $300/kWh.
Large scale flow batteries exceeding 100kWh have been in use in Japan since 1996. Some of the biggest
current installations boast a capability of several megawatts and a flow battery for frequency regulation is
being installed in Japan that will deliver a whooping 60MWh.
There is a move towards cost and size reduction. Rather than building a monster battery resembling a
chemical plant, newer systems come in container-sizes of typically 250kWh that can be stacked. Modern
flow batteries are also becoming common in Europe.
The first patent for a titanium chloride flow battery was granted in July 1954. The present day vanadium
redox battery was patented in 1986 by the University of New South Wales in Australia. The term “redox”
comes from “electron transfer” of reduction and oxidation.
Last updated 2016-06-15

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BU-211: Alternate Battery Systems
Analyze the pros and cons of other battery systems and learn what the potentials are.
The media promotes wonderful new batteries that promise long runtimes, charge in minutes, are paper-
thin and will one day power the electric car. While these experimental batteries produce a voltage, the
downsides are seldom mentioned. The typical shortcomings are low load capacity and short cycle life. (See
BU-104c: The Octagon Battery.)
As a lemon can be made into a battery, so also has seawater been tried as electrolyte, but the retrieved
energy is only good to light an incandescent flashlight for a short time before corrosion buildup renders the
battery unusable. Many chemical processes are being tried to generate electricity from diverse metals but
only a few promise to surpass today’s lead, nickel and lithium systems.
There is much media hype, and this may be done in part to attract venture capitalists to fund research
projects. Few products have incubation periods that are as long as a battery. Although glamorous and
promising at first, especially if the battery promises to power the electric vehicle, investment firms are
beginning to realize the high development costs, uncertainties and long gestation periods before a return
can be realized. Meanwhile, universities continue publishing papers about battery breakthroughs to keep
receiving government funding while private companies throw in a paper or two to appease investors and
boost their own stock value.
Zinc-air (Primary & Secondary)
Zinc-air batteries generate electrical power by an oxidation process of zinc and oxygen from the air. The
cell can produce 1.65V; however, cells with 1.4V and lower voltages achieve a longer lifetime. To activate
the battery, the user removes a sealing tab that enables airflow. The battery reaches full operating voltage
within 5 seconds. Airflow can control the rate of the reaction somewhat and once turned on, the battery
cannot be reverted back to standby mode. Adding a tape to stop the airflow only slows the chemical
activity and battery will soon dry out.
The Zinc-air battery shares similarities with the fuel cell (PEMFC) by using oxygen from the air to fuel the
positive electrode. It is considered a primary battery and recharging versions for high-power applications
have been tried. Recharging occurs by replacing the spent zinc electrodes, which can be in the form of a
zinc electrolyte paste. Other zinc-air batteries use zinc pellets.
At 300–400Wh/kg, zinc-air has a high specific energy but the specific power is low. Manufacturing cost is
low and in a sealed state, zinc-air has a 2 percent self-discharge per year. The battery is sensitive to hot and
cold temperatures and high humidity. Pollution also affects performance; high carbon dioxide content
reduces the performance by increasing the internal resistance. Typical applications are hearing aids while
large systems operate remote railway signaling and safety lamps at construction sites.
Silver-zinc (Primary & Secondary)
The small silver-based batteries in button cells are typically called silver-oxide and are non-rechargeable;
the higher capacity rechargeable versions are referred to as silver-zinc. Both have an open circuit voltage of
1.60 volts. Because of the high cost of silver, these batteries come in either very small sizes where the
amount of silver does not contribute significantly to the overall product cost, or they are available in larger
sizes for critical applications where the superior performance outweighs any cost considerations.
The primary cells are used for watches, hearing aids and memory backup; the larger rechargeable version
is found in submarines, missiles and aerospace applications. Silver-zinc also powers TV cameras needing
extra runtime. High cost and short service life locked the silver-zinc out of the commercial market, but it is
on the verge of a rebirth with improvements.
The primary cause of failure in the original design was the decaying of the zinc electrode and separator.
Cycling developed zinc dendrites that pierced through the separator, causing electrical shorts. In addition,
the separator degraded by sitting in the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This limited the calendar life to
about 2 years.

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Improvements in the zinc electrode and separator promise a longer service life and a 40 percent higher
specific energy than Li-ion. Silver-zinc is safe, has no toxic metals and can be recycled, but the use of silver
makes the battery expensive to manufacture.
Reusable Alkaline
The reusable alkaline served as an alternative to disposable batteries. Although fabrication costs were said
to be similar to regular alkaline, the consumer did not accept the product.
Recharging alkaline batteries is not new. Ordinary alkaline batteries have been recharged in households for
many years. Recharging is most effective if alkaline is discharged to less than 50 percent before recharging.
The number of recharges depends on the depth of discharge and is limited to just a few cycles. Battery
makers do not endorse this practice for safety reasons; charging ordinary alkaline batteries may generate
hydrogen gas that can lead to an explosion.
The reusable alkaline overcomes some of these deficiencies, but a limited cycle count and low capacity on
repeat charge are major drawbacks. Longevity is also in direct relationship to the depth of discharge. At a
50 percent depth of discharge, the battery may deliver 50 cycles, but most users run a battery empty before
recharging and the manufacturer, including the inventor Karl Kordesch, overestimated the eagerness of the
user wanting to recharge early. An additional limitation is its low load current of 400mA, which is only
sufficient for flashlights and personal entertainment devices. NiMH in AA and AAA cells has mostly
replaced the reusable alkaline.
Last updated 2016-02-21

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BU-212: Future Batteries
Learn about up-and-coming batteries and what keeps them in laboratories for now.
Experimental batteries live mostly in sheltered laboratories and communicate to the outside world with
promising reports, often to entice investors. Some designs show unrealistic results with anticipated release
dates that move with time. Most concepts disappear from the battery scene and die gracefully in the lab
without anyone hearing of their passing.
Few other products have similar stringent requirements as the battery, and the complexity puzzles venture
capitalists who did well during the dot-com era and expect similar generous returns of their investment in
only 3 years; battery development typically takes 10 years. Most venture capitalists don’t have the patience
to wait and they pull back the money, leaving the developer in deep water. Raising capital is time
consuming and many startups devote as much time and energy for this task as to doing research. (See BU-
104: Getting to Know the Battery.)
Most experimental batteries in the lithium family have one thing in common; they use a metallic lithium
anode to achieve a higher specific energy than what is possible with the oxidized cathode in lithium-ion, the
battery that is in common use today.
Moli Energy was first to mass-produce a rechargeable Li-metal battery in the 1980s, but it posed a serious
safety risk as the growth of lithium dendrites caused electric shorts leading to thermal runaway conditions.
The local fire department knew exactly where to go on a fire alarm at the Moli plant; it was the battery
warehouse. After a venting event injured a battery user, all lithium-metal packs were recalled in 1989. NEC
and Tadiran tried to improve the design with limited success. Very few companies make rechargeable
lithium-metal batteries and most offer the primary versions only. Research continues and a possible
solution with new materials as part of the solid-state lithium could be on hand. This design is described
further in this section.
Researchers have also developed an anode structure for Li-ion batteries that is based on silicon-carbon
nanocomposite materials. A silicon anode could theoretically store 10 times the energy of a graphite anode,
but expansions and shrinkage during charge and discharge make the system unstable. Adding graphite to
the anode is said to achieve a theoretical capacity that is five times that of regular Li-ion with stable
performance, however, the cycle life would be limited due to structural problems when inserting and
extracting lithium-ion at high volume.
Meeting the eight basic requirements of the octagon battery is a challenge. Commercialization appears to
dwell on a moving target that is always a decade ahead, but scientists are not giving up. Here are some of
the most promising experimental batteries.
Lithium-air (Li-air)
Lithium-air provides an exciting new frontier because this battery promises to store far more energy than is
possible with current lithium-ion technologies. Scientists borrow the idea from zinc-air and the fuel cell in
making the battery “breathe” air. The battery uses a catalytic air cathode that supplies oxygen, an
electrolyte and a lithium anode.
The theoretical specific energy of lithium-air is 13kWh/kg. Aluminum-air is also being tried, and it is a bit
lower at 8kWh/kg. If these energies could indeed be delivered, metal-air, as the battery is also known,
would be on par with gasoline at roughly 13kWh/kg. But even if the end product were only one quarter of
the theoretical energy density, the electric motor with its better than 90 percent efficiency would make up
for its lower capacity against the ICE with a thermal efficiency of only 25–30 percent.
Li-air was proposed in the 1970s and gained renewed interest in the late 2000s, in part because of
advancements in material science and the endeavor to find a better battery for the electric powertrain.
Depending on the materials used, lithium-air produces voltages of between 1.7 and 3.2V/cell. IBM, MIT, the
University of California and other research centers are developing the technology.

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As with other air-breathing batteries, the specific power may be low, especially at cold temperatures. Air
purity is also said to be a challenge as the air we breathe in our cities is not clean enough for lithium-air and
would need to be filtered. For all we know, the battery may end up with compressors, pumps and filters
resembling a fuel cell, consuming 30 percent of its produced energy for auxiliary support to stay alive.
Another problem is the sudden death syndrome. Lithium and oxygen form lithium peroxide films that
produce a barrier, which prevents electron movement and results in an abrupt reduction in the battery's
storage capacity. Scientists are experimenting with additives to prevent the film formation. The cycle life
will also need to improve; lab tests currently produce only 50 cycles.
Lithium-metal (Li-metal)
Lithium-metal has long been seen as the future rechargeable battery because of its high specific energy
and good loading capability. However, uncontrolled lithium deposition causes dendrite growth that induces
safety hazards by penetrating the separator and producing an electrical short.
After several failed attempts to commercialize rechargeable lithium-metal batteries, research and limited
manufacturing of this battery continues. In 2010, a trial lithium-metal with a capacity of 300Wh/kg was
installed in an experimental electric vehicle. DBM Energy, the German manufacturer of this battery, claims
2,500 cycles, short charge times and competitive pricing if the battery were mass-produced.
An Audi A2 with these batteries drove over 450km (284mi) from Munich to Berlin on a single charge. There
is a rumor that the car destroyed itself by a fire while on a laboratory test. Although the lithium-metal
batteries passed the stringent approval tests, long-term safety remains an issue because metal filaments
can form that might cause an electric short.
At 300Wh/kg, lithium-metal has one of the highest specific energies of lithium-based rechargeable
batteries. NCA in the Tesla S 85 comes in at 250Wh/kg, LMO in the BMW i3 has 120Wh/kg and a similar
chemistry in the Nissan Leaf has 80Wh/kg. The BMW i3 and Leaf batteries are made for high durability;
Tesla achieves this by over-sizing.
A solution to inhibit the growth of dendrite may be imminent. To produce dendrite-free deposits on Li-
metal batteries, tests are being conducted by adding nanodiamonds as an electrolyte additive. This works
on the principle that lithium prefers to absorb onto the surface of a diamond, leading a uniform deposit and
enhanced cycling performance. Tests have shown stable cycling for 200 hours, but this would not provide
sufficient guarantee for consumer applications, such as mobile phones and laptops. In conjunction with the
research work, Li-metal batteries may need other precautions including non-flammable electrolytes, safer
electrode materials and stronger separators.
Solid-state Lithium
The current Li-ion uses a graphite anode and this reduces the specific energy. Solid-state technology
replaces graphite with pure lithium and substitutes the liquid electrolyte soaked in a porous separator with
a solid polymer or a ceramic separator. This resembles the 1970 lithium-polymer that was discontinued due
to safety and performance reasons. (See BU-206: Li-polymer: Substance of Hype.)
The solid-state battery shares similarity with lithium-metal and scientists are trying to overcome the
problem of metallic filament formation with the use of dry polymer and ceramic separators. Additional
challenges are achieving sufficient conductivity at cool temperatures and the need to improve the cycle
count. Solid-state prototypes are said to only reach 100 cycles.
Solid-state batteries promise to store twice the energy compared to regular Li-ion, but the loading
capabilities might be low, making them less suited for electric powertrains and applications requiring high
currents. Targeted applications are load leveling for renewable energy source as well as EVs by cashing in
on the short charge times that this battery allows. Research laboratories, including Bosch, predict that the
solid-state battery might become commercially available by 2020 and be implemented in cars in 2025.

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Lithium-sulfur (Li-S)
By virtue of the low atomic weight of lithium and the moderate weight of sulfur, lithium-sulfur batteries offer
a very high specific energy of 550Wh/kg, about three times that of Li-ion. Li-S also has a respectable
specific power of 2,500W/kg. During discharge, lithium dissolves from the anode surface and reverses itself
when charging by plating itself back onto the anode. Li-S has a cell voltage of 2.10V, offers good cold
temperature discharge characteristics and can be recharged at –60°C (–76°F). The battery is
environmentally friendly; sulfur, the main ingredient, is abundantly available. A price of US$250 per kWh is
said to be possible.
A typical Li-ion has a graphite anode that hosts lithium-ions much like a hotel books guests. On discharge,
the battery releases the ions to the cathode, replicating guests checking out in the morning. In Li-S, graphite
is replaced by lithium metal, a catalyst that provides double duty as electrode and supplier of lithium ions.
The Li-S battery gets rid of “dead weight” by replacing the metal oxide cathode used in a Li-ion with
cheaper and lighter sulfur. Sulfur has the added advantage of double-booking lithium atoms, something Li-
ion cannot do.
A challenge with lithium-sulfur is the limited cycle life of only 40–50 charges/discharges as sulfur is lost
during cycling by shuttling away from the cathode and reacting with the lithium anode. Other problems are
poor conductivity, a degradation of the sulfur cathode with time and poor stability at higher temperatures.
Since 2007, Stanford engineers have experimented with nanowire. Trials with graphene are also being
done with promising results.
Sodium-ion (Na-ion)
Sodium-ion represents a possible lower-cost alternative to Li-ion as sodium is inexpensive and readily
available. Put aside in the late 1980s in favor of lithium, Na-ion has the advantage that it can be completely
discharged without encountering stresses that are common with other battery systems. The battery can
also be shipped without having to adhere to Dangerous Goods Regulations. Some cells have 3.6V, and the
specific energy is about 90Wh/kg with a cost per kWh that is similar to the lead acid battery. Further
development will be needed to improve the cycle count and solve the large volumetric expansion when the
battery is fully charged.
Last updated 2017-08-29

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BU-213: Cycle Performance of NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion
Find out how NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion perform when put to the test.
To compare older and newer battery systems, Cadex tested a large volume of nickel-cadmium, nickel-
metal-hydride and lithium ion batteries used in portable for communication devices. Preparations included
an initial charge, followed by a regime of full discharge/charge cycles at a 1C rate. The following tables
show the capacity in percent, DC resistance measurement and self-discharge obtained from time to time by
reading the capacity loss incurred during a 48-hour rest period. The tests were carried out on the Cadex
7000 Series battery analyzers.Nickel-cadmium
Nickel-cadmium
In terms of life cycling, NiCd is the most enduring battery. Figure 1 illustrates capacity, internal resistance
and self-discharge of a 7.2V, 900mA pack with standard NiCd cell. The internal resistance stayed low at
75mΩ and the self-discharge was stable. Due to time constraints, the test was terminated after 2,300 cycles.
This battery receives a grade “A” rating for almost perfect performance in terms of minimal capacity loss
when cycling with a 100 percent DoC and rock-solid internal resistance over the entire test. NiCd is the only
chemistry that can be ultra-fast charged with little stress. Due to its safe operation, NiCd remains the
preferred choice of battery onboard aircrafts.

Figure 49 - Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh)

This battery receives an “A” rating for stable capacity; low internal resistance and moderate self-discharge
over many cycles (Courtesy of Cadex)
The ultra-high-capacity nickel-cadmium offers up to 60 percent higher specific energy compared to the
standard version, but this comes at the expense of reduced cycle life. Figure 2 observes a steady drop of
capacity during 2,000 cycles, a slight increase in internal resistance and a notable rise in self-discharge after
1,000 cycles.

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 Figure 50 - Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh)

This battery offers higher specific energy than the standard version at the expense of reduced cycle life
(Courtesy of Cadex)
Nickel-metal-hydride
Figure 3 examines NiMH, a battery that offers high specific energy but loses capacity after the 300-cycle
mark. There is also a rapid increase in internal resistance after a cycle count of 700 and a rise in self-
discharge after 1000 cycles. The test was done on an older generation NiMH.This battery offers higher
specific energy than the standard version at the expense of reduced cycle life.

Figure 51 - Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh)

This battery offers good performance at first but past 300 cycles, the capacity, internal resistance and self-
discharge start to increase rapidly.

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Lithium-ion
Figure 40 examines the capacity fade of a modern Li-ion Power Cell at a 2A, 10A, 15A and 20A discharge.
Stresses increase with higher load currents, and this also applies to fast charging. (See BU-401a: Ultra-fast
charging of Li-ion.)
Li-ion manufacturers often do not specify the rise of internal resistance and self-discharge as a function of
cycling. Advancements have been made with electrolyte additives to keep the resistance low through most
of the battery life. The self-discharge of Li-ion is normally low but it can increase if misused or if exposed to
deep discharges. (See BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge do?).

Figure 52 - Cycle characteristics of IHR18650C by E-One Moli (3.6V, 2,000mA)

18650 Power Cell was charged with 2A and discharged at 2, 10, 15 and 20A. The internal resistance and self-
discharge are N/A (Courtesy of E-One Moli Energy)
Batteries tested in a laboratory tend to provide better results than in the field. Elements of stress in
everyday use do not always transfer well into test laboratory. Aging plays a minimal role in a lab because
the batteries are cycled over a period of a few months rather than the expected service life of several years.
The temperature is often moderate and the batteries are charged under controlled charging condition and
with approved chargers.
The load signature also plays a role as all batteries were discharged with a DC load. Batteries tend to have a
lower cycle life if discharged with pulses. (See BU-501: Basics About Discharging.) Do not overstress a
battery as this will shorten the life. If a battery must repeatedly be loaded at peak currents, choose a pack
with increased Ah rating.
Last updated 2016-04-01

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BU-214: Summary Table of Lead-based Batteries
The lead acid battery maintains a strong foothold as being rugged and reliable at a cost that is lower than
most other chemistries. The global market of lead acid is still growing but other systems are making
inroads. Lead acid works best for standby applications that require few deep-discharge cycles and the
starter battery fits this duty well. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of lead acid systems.
Table 25 - Summary of most lead acid batteries

Starter (SLI) Deep-cycle AGM Gel Advanced Lead

Chemistry
VRLA* Carbon (ALC)
Flooded, Flooded, VRLA*
sealed sealed
Type Many thin plates Fewer thick Sulfuric acid is Electrolyte is suspended in Carbon anode
increase the plates give high absorbed by a fine silica type gel; spill-proof improves charge and
surface for high capacity and fiberglass mat; spill- discharge performance
current delivery, durability, not proof
not spill-proof spill-roof

Nominal voltage 2.00V 2.00V

Full charge 2.45V at ambient, lower when hot 2.40V, or more 2.40V, or less 2.45V

Float charge 2.30V at ambient, lower when hot 2.25–2.30V, sensitive to overcharge 2.30V

Full discharge 1.75V, must be recharged to prevent sulfation 1.75V

Specific Energy 30–50Wh/kg 20–30Wh/kg; some are

higher

Charge rate 0.1–0.05C (16h charge time to get for full saturation) 2–4 times faster

Discharge rate High momentary Continuous Moderate to high current High current
current moderate
current

Cycle life 12–15 150–200, longer if not discharged lower 5–10 years for UPS Better than regular lead
(full DoD) than 60% SoC acid

Maintenance Flooded needs water;16 hour Maintenance-free; less prone to sulfation, no water can be Less prone to
charge every 6 months to prevent added sulfation
sulfation

Failure modes Sulfation, shedding, depletion of active material, corrosion, mechanical Unknown

Packaging Standards to fit Standards and 30–100Ah typical; also Small and large sizes Standards to fit
vehicle mount unique sizes unique sizes vehicles, others

Environment Lead is toxic, electrolyte is caustic AGM, gel has less lead, electrolyte; avoid heat, use special Toxic
charger

History Oldest rechargeable battery in 1859 Gates Energy, USA, in Sonnenschein, Germany, New technology,
by Gaston Planté; coating of lead early 1970s patent mid-1950s experimentation,
sheet with lead oxides in 1880 customization

Applications SLI (starter, light, UPS, wheeled Military, aircraft, start- UPS, wheeled mobility, Vehicles, military,
ignition) for mobility stop, racing, NASCAR, busses, trucks, industry energy storage
vehicles marine

Comments Well-suited for Ideal for UPS Big seller, cost effective, High ambient rating, high cycle Better charge
SLI. Low price; that needs few fast charging, high count, less prone to sulfation, acceptance for
large cycling power but does not needs correct charge; costly. regenerative breaking;
temperature transfer heat as well as Tolerant at warm longer lasting
range gel. Performs well when temperatures; low self-
cold. discharge.

All readings are estimated averages at time of publication. More detail can be seen on:
BU-201: How does the Lead Acid Battery Work?
BU-201a: Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems.
* AGM and Gel are VRLA (valve regulated lead acid) batteries. The electrolyte has been immobilized.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 112 of 453
Last updated 2017-07-13

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BU-215: Summary Table of Nickel-based Batteries
Nickel-based batteries dwell between lead acid and Li-ion. They are safe, economical and long-living but
are increasingly being assigned to niche markets. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of present, past
and future nickel-based batteries.
Table 26 - Summary of most common nickel-based batteries

Chemistry Nickel- Nickel-metal-hydride Nickel-iron Nickel-zinc Nickel-

cadmium hydrogen
Abbreviation NiCd NiMH NiFe NiZn NiH

Type Nickel cathode; Nickel cathode; Oxide-hydroxide Similar to NiCd; uses Nickel electrodes,
cadmium anode hydrogen-absorbing anode cathode; iron anode alkaline electrolyte hydrogen
with potassium and nickel electrode electrodes, in
hydroxide pressurized vessel
electrolyte

Nominal voltage 1.20V/cell (1.25) 1.20V 1.65V 1.25V

Charge Taper charger. Constant current; floating voltage Taper charger, Taper charger, Not defined
similar to NiCd similar to NiCd

Full charge Observing voltage drop; plateau voltage as override 1.9V Not defined

Trickle charge 0.1C 0.05C Not defined No trickle charge Not defined

Specific Energy 45–80Wh/kg 60–120Wh/kg 50Wh/kg 100Wh/kg 40–75Wh/kg

Charge rate Can be above 1C 0.5–1C Not defined Regular charge Not defined

Discharge rate Can be above 1C 1C Moderate Relative high power Not defined

Cycle life 1,000 300–500 20 years in UPS 200–300 Very long cycle
(full DoD) life (>70,000
partial)

Maintenance Full discharge Full discharge every 6 months Not defined Not defined Maintenance
every 3 months free; low self-
(memory) discharge

Failure modes Memory reduces Memory (less affected than Overcharge causes Short cycle life due Minimal corrosion
capacity, NiCd) dry-out to dendrite growth
reversible

Packaging A, AA, C, also in A, AA, AAA, C, prismatic Not defined AA and others Custom made;
fractional sizes each cell costs
>$1,000

Environment Broad Considered non-toxic Poor performance Good temperature Operates at

temperature when cold range –28°C to 54°C
range. Toxic

History 1899, sealed Research started in 1967, In 1901,Thomas In 1901, Thomas Problems with
version made commercial in the 1980s; Edison patented and Edison was instabilities in 1967
commercial in derived from nickel-hydrogen promoted NiFe in lieu awarded the U.S. caused a shift
1947 of lead acid; failed to patent for the NiZn from NiMH to NiH
catch on for ICE, EV battery

Applications Main battery in Hybrid cars, consumer, UPS German V-1 flying Renewed interest to Exclusively
aircraft (flooded), bombs, V-2 rockets; commercial market satellites; too
wide temperature railroad signaling, with Improvements expensive for
range UPS, mining terrestrial use

Comments Robust, forgiving, More delicate than NiCd; has In 1990, Cd was High power, good Uses a steel
high maintenance. higher capacity; less substituted with Fe temperature range, canister to store
Only battery that maintenance to save money. High low cost but high hydrogen at
can be ultrafast self-discharge and self-discharge and 8,270kPa
charged with little high fabrication short service life (1,200psi)
stress costs

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BU-216: Summary Table of Lithium-based Batteries
Learn the key feature of each Li-ion in a summary table.
The term lithium-ion points to a family of batteries that shares similarities, but the chemistries can vary
greatly. Li-cobalt, Li-manganese, NMC and Li-aluminum are similar in that they deliver high capacity and are
used in portable applications. Li-phosphate and Li-titanate have lower voltages and have less capacity, but
are very durable. These batteries are mainly found in wheeled and stationary uses. Table 1 summarizes the
characteristics of major Li-ion batteries.
Table 27 - Summary of most common lithium-ion based batteries

Lithium Lithium Lithium Lithium Iron Lithium Lithium

Chemistry
Cobalt Manganese Nickel Phosphate Nickel Titanate
Oxide Oxide Manganese Cobalt
Aluminum
Oxide
Short form Li-cobalt Li-manganese NMC Li-phosphate Li-aluminum Li-titanate

Abbreviation LiCoC2 LiMn2O4 LiNiMnCoO2 LiFePo4 LiNiCoAlO2 Li2TiO3

(LCO) (LMO) (NMC) (LFP) (NCA) (LTO)

Nominal voltage 3.60V 3.70V (3.80V) 3.60V (3.70V) 3.20, 3.30V 3.60V 2.40V

Full charge 4.20V 4.20V 4.20V (or higher) 3.65V 4.20V 2.85V

Full discharge 3.00V 3.00V 3.00V 2.50V 3.00V 1.80V

Minimal voltage 2.50V 2.50V 2.50V 2.00V 2.50V 1.50V (est.)

Specific Energy 150–200Wh/kg 100–150Wh/kg 150–220Wh/kg 90–120Wh/kg 200-260Wh/kg 70–80Wh/kg

Charge rate 0.7–1C (3h) 0.7–1C (3h) 0.7–1C (3h) 1C (3h) 1C 1C (5C max)

Discharge rate 1C (1h) 1C, 10C possible 1–2C 1C (25C pule) 1C 10C possible

Cycle life (ideal) 500–1000 300–700 1000–2000 1000–2000 500 3,000–7,000

Thermal runaway 150°C (higher 250°C (higher 210°C(higher 270°C (safe at 150°C (higher One of safest
when empty) when empty) when empty) full charge) when empty) Li-ion batteries

Maintenance Keep cool; store partially charged; prevent full charge cycles, use moderate charge and discharge currents

Packaging 18650, prismatic 18650, prismatic 26650, 18650 prismatic

(typical) prismatic and and pouch cell prismatic
pouch cell

History 1991 (Sony) 1996 2008 1996 1999 2008

Applications Mobile Power tools, E-bikes, medical Stationary with Medical, UPS, EV, solar
phones, medical devices, devices, EVs, high currents industrial, street lighting
tablets, powertrains industrial and endurance EV (Tesla)
laptops,
cameras

Comments High energy, High power, less High capacity Flat discharge Highest Long life, fast
limited power. capacity; safer and high power. voltage, high capacity with charge, wide
Market share than Li-cobalt; Market share is power low moderate temperature
has stabilized. often mixed with increasing. Also capacity, very power. Similar range and safe.
NMC to improve NCM, CMN, safe; elevated to Li-cobalt. Low capacity,
performance. MNC, MCN self-discharge. expensive.

Experimental and less common lithium-based batteries are not listed. Readings are estimated averages at
time of publication. Detailed information on BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion.
Last updated 2016-07-21

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BU-217: Summary Table of Alternate Batteries
Our lexicons list weird and wonderful batteries, but as with animal species, not all become house pets. A
battery has stringent requirements. No less than eight requirements must be met to call a battery a battery.
(See BU-104c: The Octagon Battery.) Table 1 summarizes the less common batteries that serve various
niche markets.
Table 28 - Summary of most common alternative batteries and equivalent

istry Sodium-sulfur; Sodium- Zinc-air Silver-zinc; Reusable Alkaline

nickel-chloride (ZEBRA)
(Primary and secondary) Silver-oxide

Type Molten-salt (Na) and sulfur Mainly primary; shares Silver-zinc is rechargeable; Disposable alkaline made
(S). Economical with larger similarity with fuel cell silver-oxide is primary reusable at a similar cost to
sizes, (Symbol NaS) regular types
Voltage per cell 2.58V 1.40–1.65V 1.60V 1.50V
Specific Energy 90–120Wh/kg 300–400Wh/kg 250Wh/kg 200Wh/kg, less with each
subsequent recharge
Activation Operate at Removal of seal enables Instant Instant
270–350C airflow

Charging Overnight charge Charging by replacement Similar to Li-ion Voltage limiting

of zinc electrodes (1.60–1.70V)
Discharging High power burst Low load Similar to Li-ion Low load (200–400mA)
Cycle life 3,000 cycles; Once activated, battery is Short cycle life; 50, depending on DoD.
8 years being consumed 2 year life span Recharge often

Maintenance Keep battery hot Only activate when needed Keep inventory low Do not discharge too low
Failure modes Electrical shorts due to Sensitive to cold heat, Zinc electrode and separator 50% capacity drop with 2nd
corrosion humidity and air pollution decay; cycling causes dendrite charge; rising internal
formation resistance
Packaging Large systems of 10kWh and Mostly small sizes Button cells (silver-zinc) AA, AAA, C, D, 9V
higher
History Conceived by Germans in “Breathing” discovered by Spacecraft use because of Introduced in 1992, alternate to
World War II; NaS gained Leclanché in 1878, offered high capacity. (Now disposables. Leak-proof
new interest in 1970s to buyers in 1932 replaced by Li-ion)
Applications Primary: One-shot missiles; Hearing aids; large units Primary: Watches, memory Flashlights, toys, entertainment
Secondary: UPS, load- for railway signaling, mines backup; Secondary: devices
leveling, EV (Think City), safety lamps Aerospace, missiles, military,
delivery vans TV cameras
Comments Heating consumes 14% of High capacity, low cost New designs show capacity Regular alkaline should not
battery energy per day but only one-time use gain over Li-ion: expensive be charged; danger of
raw material leakage, gas, explosion

Detailed information is on BU-211: Alternate Battery Systems. All readings are estimated and may vary with
different versions and newer developments.
Table 2 touches on semi-batteries. They are listed because of similarities with the electrochemical reaction
of a real battery. What was once a unique device standing on its own is now merging with the battery, and
the supercapacitor is such an example. The fuel cell has similarities also in that it is a battery in reverse.
Overcharging a battery turns water into hydrogens and oxygen (gassing); the fuel cell produces electricity
and water by combining hydrogens and oxygen.

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 Table 29 - Summary of most batteries that deviate from the electro-chemical concept of a battery

Chemistry Supercapacitor Flow Battery Fuel Cell

Type Double-layer capacitor. Stores energy by static Rechargeable; pump operated, Combining hydrogen and oxygen
charge as opposed to electrochemical reaction electrolyte stored in tank produces electricity
Voltage per cell Limited at 2.30–2.75V 1.15–1.55V 0.6–0.8V
Specific Energy 5Wh/kg (typical) 40Wh/kg 40Wh/kg
Activation Instant sluggish ramp-up sluggish ramp-up
Charging 1–10s; simple charging, current stops when full Overnight charge Hydrogen feed through tank
Discharging Very high power Low load current Low load current
Cycle life 1 million; 10–15 years 10,000 cycles; 20 years. 2,000–4,000h; stationary up to
40,000 hours
Maintenance Low maintenance High High
Failure modes Exceeding voltage limits lowers service life High corrosion. Vanadium keeps Stack damages by freezing and
corrosion under control heat; capacity fade by cycling.
Packaging Mostly in cylindrical formats Large systems; 20kWh and up Large, also portable
Environment Broad temperature range. Non-toxic. Functions more like a refinery than a Must have correct moisture
battery content. Cannot freeze.
History GE experimented in 1956; Standard Oil First patent in 1954. Current types William Grove, developed in 1839;
discovered double layer in 1966; NEC patented in 1986 space program 1960s
commercialized it in 1978
Applications Memory backup, generator start, large MW Large energy storage system; Forklift, EV, UPS, portable usage
systems. In competition with flywheel economical with large size in military
Comments Expensive per Wh. Some argue to spend the Capacity set by tank size; can be Clean but expensive; poor power
money on a larger battery enlarged if so needed band

Readings are estimated and may vary with different versions and newer developments. All readings are
estimated average at time of publication. Detailed information is on:
BU-209: How does a Supercapacitor Work?
BU-210b: How does the Flow Battery work?
BU-210: How does the Fuel Cell Work?
Last updated 2016-07-19

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BU-218: Summary Table of Future Batteries
Most future batteries function wonderfully in a theoretical world, but many fail to meet the eight basic
requirement of the so-called Octagon Battery. Short cycle life and limited load currents often prevent
commercialization of the breakthroughs. While futuristic batteries may find a niche market, many never
step outside the lab and see the light of day, not to mention advance to power the electric powertrain. This
touches with emotions and is as far as the battery can go.
Table 30 - Summary of most common future batteries

Chemistry Lithium-air Lithium-metal Solid-state Lithium Lithium-sulfur Sodium-iron

Li-S Na-ion
Type Air cathode with lithium Lithium anode; graphite Lithium anode; polymer Lithium anode; sulfur Carbon anode; diverse
anode cathode separator cathode cathodes
Voltage per cell 1.70–3.20V 3.60V 3.60V 2.10V 3.6V
Specific Energy 13kWh/kg theoretical) 300Wh/kg 300Wh/kg (est.) 500Wh/kg or less 90Wh/kg
Charging Unknown Rapid charge Rapid charge 0.2C (5h) Unknown
Discharging Low power; inferior when High power band Poor conductivity when High power Unknown
cold cold (2,500W/kg)
Cycle life 50 cycles in labs 2,500 100, prototypes 50, disputed 50 typical
Packaging Not defined Not defined Prismatic Not defined Not defined
Safety Unknown Needs improvement Needs improvement Protection circuit Safe; shipment by air
required possible
History Started in 1970s; Produced in the 1980s by Similar to Li-polymer that New technology; Ignored in the 1980s in
renewed interest in the Moli Energy; caused started in 1970 R&D by Oxis Energy, favor of lithium; has
2000s. R&D by IBM MIT, safety recall Bosch and others. renewed interest
UC, etc.
Failure modes Lithium peroxide film Dendrite growth causes Dendrite growth causes Sulfur degrades with Little research in this
stops electron movement electric short with usage electric short; poor low cycling; unstable area
with use. Air impurity temperature. performance when hot, poor
causes damage. conductivity
Applications Not defined; potential for EV, industrial and EES, wheeled mobility; Solar-powered Energy storage
EV portable uses also talk about EV airplane flight in
August 2008
Comments Borrowed from Good capacity, fast Similar to lithium-metal; May succeed Li-ion Low cost in par with
“breathing” zinc-air and charge and high power may be ready by 2020; due to lower cost and lead acid. Can be fully
fuel cell concept keep interest high EVs in 2025 higher capacity discharged

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PACKAGING AND SAFETY

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BU-301: A look at Old and New Battery Packaging
Discover familiar battery formats, some of which going back to the late 1800s.
Early batteries of the 1700s and 1800s developed in Europe were mostly encased in glass jars. As batteries
grew in size, jars shifted to sealed wooden containers and composite materials. In the 1890s, battery
manufacturing spread from Europe to the United States and in 1896 the National Carbon Company
successfully produced a standard cell for widespread consumer use. It was the zinc-carbon Columbia Dry
Cell Battery producing 1.5 volts and measuring 6 inches in length.
With the move to portability, sealed cylindrical cells emerged that led to standards sizes. The International
Electrochemical Commission (IEC), a non-governmental standards organization founded in 1906, developed
standards for most rechargeable batteries. In around 1917, the National Institute of Standards and
Technology formalized the alphabet nomenclature that is still used today. Table 1 summarizes these historic
and current battery sizes.
Table 31 - Common old and new battery norms
Size Dimensions History
F cell 33 x 91 mm Introduced in 1896 for lanterns; later used for radios; only available in nickel-cadmium today.
E cell N/A Introduced ca. 1905 to power box lanterns and hobby applications. Discontinued ca. 1980.
D cell 34.2 x 61.5mm Introduced in 1898 for flashlights and radios; still current.

C cell 25.5 x 50mm Introduced ca. 1900 to attain smaller form factor.

22.2 x 42.9mm
Sub-C Cordless tool battery. Other sizes are ½, 4/5 and 5/4 sub-C lengths. Mostly NiCd.
16.1mL
Introduced in 1900 for portable lighting, including bicycle lights in Europe; discontinued in in
B cell 20.1 x 56.8mm
North America in 2001.
Only available as a NiCd or NiMH cell; also available in 2/3 and 4/5 size. Popular in old laptops
A cell 17 x 50mm
and hobby batteries.
Introduced in 1907 as penlight battery for pocket lights and spy tool in WWI; added to ANSI
AA cell 14.5 x 50mm
standard in 1947.
Developed in 1954 to reduce size for Kodak and Polaroid cameras. Added to ANSI standard in
AAA cell 10.5 x 44.5mm
1959.
Offshoot of 9V, since 1990s; used for laser pointers, LED penlights, computer styli, headphone
AAAA cell 8.3 x 42.5mm
amplifiers.
67 x 62
Three cells form a flat pack; short terminal strip is positive, long strip is negative; common in
4.5V battery
Europe, Russia.
x 22mm
48.5 x 26.5
Introduced in 1956 for transistor radios; contains six prismatic or AAAA cells. Added to ANSI
9V battery
standard in 1959.
x 17.5mm
18 x 65mm
Developed in the mid-1990s for lithium-ion; commonly used in laptops, e-bikes, including Tesla
18650
EV cars.
16.5mL
26 x 65mm
Larger Li-ion. Some measure 26x70mm sold as 26700. Common chemistry is LiFeO4 for UPS,
26650
hobby, automotive.
34.5mL
Li-ion, similar size to AA. (Observe voltage incompatibility: NiCd/NiMH = 1.2V, alkaline = 1.5V,
14500 14x 50mm
Li-ion = 3.6V)

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 2170 New (2016), used for the Tesla Model 3 and other applications, made by Panasonic, Samsung,
21 x 70mm
(or 21700) Molicel, etc.
32650 32 x 65mm Primarily in LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate)

Standardization included primary cells, mostly in zinc-carbon; alkaline emerged only in the early 1960s.
With the growing popularity of the sealed nickel-cadmium in the 1950s and 1960s, new sizes appeared,
many of which were derived from the “A” and “C” sizes. Beginning in the 1990s, makers of Li-ion departed
from conventional sizes and invented their own standards.
A successful standard is the 18650 cylindrical cell. Developed in the early 1990s for lithium-ion, these cells
are used in laptops, electric bicycles and even electric vehicles (Tesla). The first two digits of 18650
designate the diameter in millimeters; the next three digits are the length in tenths of millimeters. The 18650
cell is 18mm in diameter and 65.0mm in length.
Other sizes are identified with a similar numbering scheme. For example, a prismatic cell carries the
number 564656P. It is 5.6mm thick, 46mm wide and 56mm long. P stands for prismatic. Because of the
large variety of chemistries and their diversity within, battery cells do not show the chemistry.
Few popular new standards have immerged since the 18650 appeared in ca. 1991. Several battery
manufacturers started experimenting using slightly larger diameters with sizes of 20x70mm, 21x70mm and
22x70mm. Panasonic and Tesla decided on the 21x70, so has Samsung, and other manufacturers followed.
The “2170” is only slightly larger than the 18650 it but has 35% more energy (by volume). This new cell is
used in the Tesla Model 3 while Samsung is looking at new applications in laptops, power tools, e-bikes
and more. It is said that the best diameters in terms of manufacturability is between 18mm and 26mm and
the 2170 sits in between. (The 2170 is also known as the 21700.) The 26650 introduced earlier never became
a best-seller.
The 32650 is primarily available in LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate) with a nominal voltage of 3.2V/cell and
a typical capacity of 5,000mAh. The dimensions are 32x65mm; true sizes may be slightly larger to allow for
insulation and labels.
On the prismatic and pouch cell front, new cells are being developed for the electric vehicle (EV) and
energy storage systems (ESS). Some of these formats may one day also become readily available similar to
the 18650, made in high energy and high power versions, sourced by several manufacturers and sold at a
competitive prices. Prismatic and pouch cells currently carry a higher price tag per Wh than the 18650.
The EV and ESS markets advance with two distinct philosophies: The use of a large number of small cells
produced by an automated process as low cost, as done by Tesla, versus larger cells in the prismatic and
pouch formats at a higher price per Wh for now, as done by other EV manufacturers. We have not seen
clear winners of either format; time will tell.
Looking at the batteries in mobile phones and laptops, one sees a departure from established standards.
This is due in part to the manufacturers’ inability to agree on a standard, meaning that most consumer
devices come with custom-made cells or battery packs. Compact design and market demand are swaying
manufacturers to go their own way. High volume with planned obsolescence allows the production of
unique sizes in consumer products.
In the early days, a battery was perceived “big” by nature, and this is reflected in the sizing convention.
While the “F” nomenclature may have been seen as mid-sized in the late 1800s, our forefathers did not
anticipate that a battery resembling a credit card could power computers, phones and cameras. Running
out of letters towards the smaller sizes led to the awkward numbering of AA, AAA and AAAA.
Since the introduction of the 9V battery in 1956, no new formats have emerged. Meanwhile portable
devices lowered the operating voltages to between 3V and 5V. Switching six cells (6S) in series to attain 9V
is expensive to manufacture, and a 3.6V alternative would serve better. This imaginary new pack would
have a coding system to prevent charging primaries and select the correct charge algorithm for secondary
chemistries.

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Starter batteries for vehicles also follow battery norms that are based on the North American BCI, the
European DIN and the Japanese JIS standards. These batteries are similar in footprint to allow swapping.
Deep-cycle and stationary batteries follow no standardized norms and the replacement packs must be
sourced from the original maker. The attempt to standardize electric vehicle batteries may not work and
might follow the failed attempt to standardize laptop batteries in the 1990s.
Future Cell Formats
Standardization for Li-ion cell formats is diverse, especially for the electric vehicle. Research teams,
including Fraunhofer,* examine and evaluate various formats and the most promising cell types until 2025
will be the pouch and the 21700 cylindrical formats. Looking further, experts predict the large-size prismatic
Li-ion cell to domineer in the EV battery market. Meanwhile, Samsung and others bet on the prismatic cell,
LG gravitates towards the pouch format and Panasonic is most comfortable with the 18650 and 21700
cylindrical cells.
Large battery systems for ESS, UPS, marine vessels and traction use mostly large format pouch cells
stacked with light pressure to prolong longevity and prevent delamination. Thermal management is often
done by plates drawing the heat between layers to the outside and liquid cooling.
* Fraunhofer is Europe's largest research organization focusing on health, security, communication, energy
and the environment.
Last updated 2018-01-17

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BU-301a: Types of Battery Cells
Compare the pros and cons of the cylindrical cell, button cell, prismatic cell and pouch
As batteries were beginning to be mass-produced, the jar design changed to the cylindrical format. The
large F cell for lanterns was introduced in 1896 and the D cell followed in 1898. With the need for smaller
cells, the C cell followed in 1900, and the popular AA was introduced in 1907. See BU-301: Standardizing
Batteries into Norms.
Cylindrical Cell
The cylindrical cell continues to be one of the most widely used packaging styles for primary and
secondary batteries. The advantages are ease of manufacture and good mechanical stability. The tubular
cylinder can withstand high internal pressures without deforming.
Many lithium and nickel-based cylindrical cells include a positive thermal coefficient (PTC) switch. When
exposed to excessive current, the normally conductive polymer heats up and becomes resistive, stopping
current flow and acting as short circuit protection. Once the short is removed, the PTC cools down and
returns to the conductive state.
Most cylindrical cells also feature a pressure relief mechanism, and the simplest design utilizes a
membrane seal that ruptures under high pressure. Leakage and dry-out may occur after the membrane
breaks. Re-sealable vents with a spring-loaded valve are the preferred design. Some consumer Li-ion cells
include the Charge Interrupt Device (CID) that physically and irreversibly disconnect the cell when activated
to an unsafe pressure builds up. Figure 1 shows a cross section of a cylindrical cell.

The cylindrical cell design has good cycling ability, offers a long calendar life and is economical, but is
heavy and has low packaging density due to space cavities (Source: Sanyo)
Typical applications for the cylindrical cell are power tools, medical instruments, laptops and e-bikes. To
allow variations within a given size, manufacturers use partial cell lengths, such as half and three-quarter
formats, and nickel-cadmium provides the largest variety of cell choices. Some spilled over to nickel-metal-
hydride, but not to lithium-ion as this chemistry established its own formats. The 18650 illustrated in Figure
2 remains one of the most popular cell packages. Typical applications for the 18650 Li-ion are power tools,
medical devices, laptops and e-bikes.

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The metallic cylinder measure 18mm in diameter and 65mm the length. The larger 26650 cell measures
26mm in diameter (Courtesy of Cadex)
In 2013, 2.55 billion 18650 cells were produced. Early Energy Cells had 2.2Ah; this was replaced with the
2.8Ah cell. The new cells are now 3.1Ah with an increase to 3.4Ah by 2017. Cell manufacturers are preparing
for the 3.9Ah 18650.
The 18650 could well be the most optimized cell; it offers one of the lowest costs per Wh and has good
reliability records. As consumers move to the flat designs in smart phones and tablets, the demand for the
18650 is fading and Figure 3 shows the over-supply that is being corrected thanks to the demand of the
Tesla electric vehicles that also uses this cell format for now. As of end of 2016, the battery industry fears
battery shortages to meet the growing demand for electric vehicles.

The demand for the 18650 would have peaked in 2011 had it not been for new demands in military, medical
and drones, including the Tesla electric car. The switch to a flat-design in consumer products and larger
format for the electric powertrain will eventually saturate the 18650. A new entry is the 21700 (Source:
Avicenne Energy)
There are other cylindrical Li-ion formats with dimensions of 20700, 21700 and 22700. Meanwhile, Tesla,
Panasonic and Samsung have decided on the 21700 for easy of manufacturing, optimal capacity and other
benefits. While the 18650 has a volume of 66cm3 with a capacity of around 3000mAh, the 97cm3 volume of
the 21700 is said to produce a capacity of up to 6000mAh, essentially doubling the capacity with a 50%
increase in volume. Tesla Motor refers to their company’s new 21700 as the “highest energy density cell
that is also the cheapest.” (The 2170 nomenclature Tesla advocates is not totally correct; the last zero of the
21700 model describes a cylindrical cell harmonizing with the IEC standard.)

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The larger 26650 cell with a diameter of 26mm does not enjoy the same popularity as the 18650. The 26650
is commonly used in load-leveling systems. A thicker cell is said to be harder to build than a thinner one.
Making the cell longer is preferred. There is also a 26700 made by E-One Moli Energy.
Some lead acid systems also borrow the cylindrical design. Known as the Hawker Cyclone, this cell offers
improved cell stability, higher discharge currents and better temperature stability compared to the
conventional prismatic design. The Hawker Cyclone has its own format.
Even though the cylindrical cell does not fully utilize the space by creating air cavities on side-by-side
placement, the 18650 has a higher energy density than a prismatic/pouch Li-ion cell. The 3Ah 18650 delivers
248Ah/kg, whereas a modern pouch cell has about 140Ah/kg. The higher energy density of the cylindrical
cell compensates for its less ideal stacking abilities and the empty space can always be used for cooling to
improve thermal management.
Cell disintegration cannot always be prevented but propagation can. Cylindrical cells are often spaced apart
to stop propagation should one cell take off. Spacing also helps in the thermal management. In addition, a
cylindrical design does not change size. In comparison, a 5mm prismatic cell can expand to 8mm with use
and allowances must be made.
Button Cell
The button cell, also known as coin cell, enabled compact design in portable devices of the 1980s. Higher
voltages were achieved by stacking the cells into a tube. Cordless telephones, medical devices and security
wands at airports used these batteries.
Although small and inexpensive to build, the stacked button cell fell out of favor and gave way to more
conventional battery formats. A drawback of the button cell is swelling if charged too rapidly. Button cells
have no safety vent and can only be charged at a 10- to 16-hour charge; however, newer designs claim
rapid charge capability.
Most button cells in use today are non-rechargeable and are found in medical implants, watches, hearing
aids, car keys and memory backup. Figure 4 illustrates the button cells with a cross section.
Keep button cells to out of reach of children. Swallowing a cell can cause
CAUTION
serious health problems. See BU-703 Health Concerns with Batteries.

Prismatic Cell
Introduced in the early 1990s, the modern prismatic cell satisfies the demand for thinner sizes. Wrapped in
elegant packages resembling a box of chewing gum or a small chocolate bar, prismatic cells make optimal
use of space by using the layered approach. Other designs are wound and flattened into a pseudo-
prismatic jelly roll. These cells are predominantly found in mobile phones, tablets and low-profile laptops
ranging from 800mAh to 4,000mAh. No universal format exists and each manufacturer designs its own.
Prismatic cells are also available in large formats. Packaged in welded aluminum housings, the cells deliver
capacities of 20–50Ah and are primarily used for electric powertrains in hybrid and electric vehicles. Figure
5 shows the prismatic cell.

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The prismatic cell improves space utilization and allows flexible design but it can be more expensive to
manufacture, less efficient in thermal management and have a shorter cycle life than the cylindrical design.
Allow for some swelling (Source: Polystor Energy Corporation)
The prismatic cell requires a firm enclosure to achieve compression. Some swelling due to gas buildup is
normal, and growth allowance must be made; a 5mm (0.2”) cell can grow to 8mm (0.3”) after 500 cycles.
Discontinue using the battery if the distortion presses against the battery compartment. Bulging batteries
can damage equipment and compromise safety.
Pouch Cell
In 1995, the pouch cell surprised the battery world with a radical new design. Rather than using a metallic
cylinder and glass-to-metal electrical feed-through, conductive foil-tabs were welded to the electrodes and
brought to the outside in a fully sealed way. Figure 6 illustrates a pouch cell.

The pouch cell offers a simple, flexible and lightweight solution to battery design. Some stack pressure is
recommended but allowance for swelling must be made. The pouch cells can deliver high load currents but
it performs best under light loading conditions and with moderate charging (Source: A123)
The pouch cell makes most efficient use of space and achieves 90–95 percent packaging efficiency, the
highest among battery packs. Eliminating the metal enclosure reduces weight, but the cell needs support
and allowance to expand in the battery compartment. The pouch packs are used in consumer, military and
automotive applications. No standardized pouch cells exist; each manufacturer designs its own.

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Pouch packs are commonly Li-polymer. Small cells are popular for portable applications requiring high load
currents, such as drones and hobby gadgets. The larger cells in the 40Ah range serve in energy storage
systems (ESS) because fewer cells simplify the battery design.
Although easily stackable, provision must be made for swelling. While smaller pouch packs can grow 8–10
percent over 500 cycles, large cells may expand to that size in 5,000 cycles. It is best not to stack pouch
cells on top of each other but to lay them flat, side by side or allow extra space in between them. Avoid
sharp edges that can stress the pouch cells as they expand.
Extreme swelling is a concern. Users of pouch packs have reported up to 3 percent swelling incidents on a
poor batch run. The pressure created can crack the battery cover, and in some cases, break the display and
electronic circuit boards. Discontinue using an inflated battery and do not puncture the bloating cell in close
proximity to heat or fire. The escaping gases can ignite. Figure 7 shows a swollen pouch cell.

Swelling can occur due to gassing. Improvements are being made with newer designs. Large pouch cells
designs experience less swelling. The gases contain mainly CO2 (carbon dioxide) and CO (carbon
monoxide) (Courtesy of Cadex)
Pouch cells are manufactured by adding a temporary “gasbag” on the side. Gases escape into the gasbag
while forming the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) during the first charge. The gasbag is cut off and the pack
is resealed as part of the finishing process. Forming a solid SEI is key to good formatting practices.
Subsequent charges should produce minimal gases, however, gas generation, also known as gassing,
cannot be fully avoided. It is caused by electrolyte decomposition as part of usage and aging. Stresses,
such as overcharging and overheating promote gassing. Ballooning with normal use often hints to a flawed
batch.
The technology has matured and prismatic and pouch cells have the potential for greater capacity than the
cylindrical format. Large flat packs serve electric powertrains and Energy Storage System (ESS) with good
results. The cost per kWh in the prismatic/pouch cell is still higher than with the 18650 cell but this is
changing. Figure 8 compares the price of the cylindrical, prismatic and pouch cells, also known as
laminated. Flat-cell designs are getting price competitive and battery experts predict a shift towards these
cell formats, especially if the same performance criteria of the cylindrical cell can be met.

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Historically, manufacturing costs of prismatic and pouch formats (laminate) were higher, but they are
converging with cellular design. Pricing involves the manufacturing of the bare cells only (Source:
Avicenne Energy)
Summary
With the pouch cell, the manufacturer is attempting to simplify cell manufacturing by replicating the
packaging of food. Each format has pros and cons as summarized below.
Cylindrical cell has high specific energy, good mechanical stability and lends itself to automated
manufacturing. Cell design allows added safety features that are not possible with other formats (see BU-
304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe); it cycles well, offers a long calendar life and is low cost, but it has less than
ideal packaging density. The cylindrical cell is commonly used for portable applications.
Prismatic cell are encased in aluminum or steel for stability. Jelly-rolled or stacked, the cell is space-
efficient but can be costlier to manufacture than the cylindrical cell. Modern prismatic cells are used in the
electric powertrain and energy storage systems.
Pouch cell uses laminated architecture in a bag. It is light and cost-effective but exposure to humidity and
high temperature can shorten life. Adding a light stack pressure prolongs longevity by preventing
delamination. Swelling of 8–10 percent over 500 cycles must be considered with some cell designs. Large
cells work best with light loading and moderate charge times. The pouch cell is growing in popularity and
serves similar applications to the prismatic cell.
Last Updated 2017-07-31

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BU-302: Series and Parallel Battery Configurations
Learn how to arrange batteries to increase voltage or gain higher capacity.
Batteries achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells in series; each cell adds its
voltage potential to derive at the total terminal voltage. Parallel connection attains higher capacity by
adding up the total ampere-hour (Ah).
Some packs may consist of a combination of series and parallel connections. Laptop batteries commonly
have four 3.6V Li-ion cells in series to achieve a nominal voltage 14.4V and two in parallel to boost the
capacity from 2,400mAh to 4,800mAh. Such a configuration is called 4s2p, meaning four cells in series and
two in parallel. Insulating foil between the cells prevents the conductive metallic skin from causing an
electrical short.
Most battery chemistries lend themselves to series and parallel connection. It is important to use the same
battery type with equal voltage and capacity (Ah) and never to mix different makes and sizes. A weaker cell
would cause an imbalance. This is especially critical in a series configuration because a battery is only as
strong as the weakest link in the chain. An analogy is a chain in which the links represent the cells of a
battery connected in series (Figure 1).

Figure 53 - Comparing a battery with a chain

Chain links represent cells in series to increase voltage, doubling a link denotes parallel connection to boost
current loading.
A weak cell may not fail immediately but will get exhausted more quickly than the strong ones when on a
load. On charge, the low cell fills up before the strong ones because there is less to fill and it remains in
over-charge longer than the others. On discharge, the weak cell empties first and gets hammered by the
stronger brothers. Cells in multi-packs must be matched, especially when used under heavy loads. (See
BU-803a: Cell Mismatch, Balancing).
Single Cell Applications
The single-cell configuration is the simplest battery pack; the cell does not need matching and the
protection circuit on a small Li-ion cell can be kept simple. Typical examples are mobile phones and tablets
with one 3.60V Li-ion cell. Other uses of a single cell are wall clocks, which typically use a 1.5V alkaline cell,
wristwatches and memory backup, most of which are very low power applications.
The nominal cell voltage for a nickel-based battery is 1.2V, alkaline is 1.5V; silver-oxide is 1.6V and lead acid
is 2.0V. Primary lithium batteries range between 3.0V and 3.9V. Li-ion is 3.6V; Li-phosphate is 3.2V and Li-
titanate is 2.4V.
Li-manganese and other lithium-based systems often use cell voltages of 3.7V and higher. This has less to
do with chemistry than promoting a higher watt-hour (Wh), which is made possible with a higher voltage.
The argument goes that a low internal cell resistance keeps the voltage high under load. For operational
purposes these cells go as 3.6V candidates. (See BU-303 Confusion with Voltages) (Series Connection)
Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more cells connected in series.
Figure 2 shows a battery pack with four 3.6V Li-ion cells in series, also known as 4S, to produce 14.4V
nominal. In comparison, a six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will generate 12V, and four alkaline with
1.5V/cell will give 6V.

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 Figure 54 - Series connection of four cells (4s)

Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the capacity remains the same (Courtesy of Cadex)
If you need an odd voltage of, say, 9.50 volts, connect five lead acid, eight NiMH or NiCd, or three Li-ion in
series. The end battery voltage does not need to be exact as long as it is higher than what the device
specifies. A 12V supply might work in lieu of 9.50V. Most battery-operated devices can tolerate some over-
voltage; the end-of-discharge voltage must be respected, however.
High voltage batteries keep the conductor size small. Cordless power tools run on 12V and 18V batteries;
high-end models use 24V and 36V. Most e-bikes come with 36V Li-ion, some are 48V. The car industry
wanted to increase the starter battery from 12V (14V) to 36V, better known as 42V, by placing 18 lead acid
cells in series. Logistics of changing the electrical components and arcing problems on mechanical
switches derailed the move.
Some mild hybrid cars run on 48V Li-ion and use DC-DC conversion to 12V for the electrical system.
Starting the engine is often done by a separate 12V lead acid battery. Early hybrid cars ran on a 148V
battery; electric vehicles are typically 450–500V. Such a battery needs more than 100 Li-ion cells connected
in series.
High-voltage batteries require careful cell matching, especially when drawing heavy loads or when
operating at cold temperatures. With multiple cells connected in a string, the possibility of one cell failing is
real and this would cause a failure. To prevent this from happening, a solid state switch in some large packs
bypasses the failing cell to allow continued current flow, albeit at a lower string voltage.
Cell matching is a challenge when replacing a faulty cell in an aging pack. A new cell has a higher capacity
than the others, causing an imbalance. Welded construction adds to the complexity of the repair, and this is
why battery packs are commonly replaced as a unit.
High-voltage batteries in electric vehicles, in which a full replacement would be prohibitive, divide the pack
into modules, each consisting of a specific number of cells. If one cell fails, only the affected module is
replaced. A slight imbalance might occur if the new module is fitted with new cells. (See BU-910: How to
Repair a Battery Pack.)
Figure 3 illustrates a battery pack in which “cell 3” produces only 2.8V instead of the full nominal 3.6V. With
depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-of-discharge point sooner than a normal pack.
The voltage collapses and the device turns off with a “Low Battery” message.

Figure 55 - Series connection with a faulty cell

Faulty cell 3 lowers the voltage and cuts the equipment off prematurely (Courtesy of Cadex)
Batteries in drones and remote controls for hobbyist requiring high load current often exhibit an
unexpected voltage drop if one cell in a string is weak. Drawing maximum current stresses frail cells,
leading to a possible crash. Reading the voltage after a charge does not identify this anomaly; examining
the cell-balance or checking the capacity with a battery analyzer will.

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Parallel Connection
If higher currents are needed and larger cells are not available or do not fit the design constraint, one or
more cells can be connected in parallel. Most battery chemistries allow parallel configurations with little
side effect. Figure 4 illustrates four cells connected in parallel in a P4 arrangement. The nominal voltage of
the illustrated pack remains at 3.60V, but the capacity (Ah) and runtime are increased fourfold.

Figure 56 - Parallel connection of four cells (4p)

With parallel cells, capacity in Ah and runtime increases while the voltage stays the same (Courtesy of
Cadex)
A cell that develops high resistance or opens is less critical in a parallel circuit than in a series configuration,
but a failing cell will reduce the total load capability. It’s like an engine only firing on three cylinders instead
of on all four. An electrical short, on the other hand, is more serious as the faulty cell drains energy from the
other cells, causing a fire hazard. Most so-called electrical shorts are mild and manifest themselves as
elevated self-discharge.
A total short can occur through reverse polarization or dendrite growth. Large packs often include a fuse
that disconnects the failing cell from the parallel circuit if it were to short. Figure 5 illustrates a parallel
configuration with one faulty cell.

Figure 57 - Parallel/connection with one faulty cell

A weak cell will not affect the voltage but provide a low runtime due to reduced capacity. A shorted cell
could cause excessive heat and become a fire hazard. On larger packs a fuse prevents high current by
isolating the cell (Courtesy of Cadex)
Series/parallel Connection
The series/parallel configuration shown in Figure 6 enables design flexibility and achieves the desired
voltage and current ratings with a standard cell size. The total power is the product of voltage-times-
current; four 3.6V (nominal) cells multiplied by 3,400mAh produce 12.24Wh. Four 18650 Energy Cells of
3,400mAh each can be connected in series and parallel as shown to get 7.2V nominal and 12.24Wh. The
slim cell allows flexible pack design but a protection circuit is needed.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 131 of 453
 Figure 58 - Series/ parallel connection of four cells (2s2p)

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility. Paralleling the cells helps in voltage management
(Courtesy of Cadex)
Li-ion lends itself well to series/parallel configurations but the cells need monitoring to stay within voltage
and current limits. Integrated circuits (ICs) for various cell combinations are available to supervise up to 13
Li-ion cells. Larger packs need custom circuits, and this applies to e-bike batteries, hybrid cars and the Tesla
Model 85 that devours over 7000 18650 cells to make up the 90kWh pack.
Terminology to describe Series and Parallel Connection
The battery industry specifies the number of sells in series first, followed by the cells placed in parallel. An
example is 2s2p. With Li-ion, the parallel strings are always made first; the completed parallel units are then
placed in series. Li-ion is a voltage based system that lends itself well for parallel formation. Combining
several cells into a parallel and then adding the units serially reduces complexity in terms of voltages
control for pack protection.
Building series strings first and then placing them in in parallel may be more common with NiCd packs to
satisfy the chemical shuttle mechanism that balances charge at the top of charge. “2s2p” is common; white
papers have been issued that refer to 2p2s when a serial string is paralleled.
Safety devices in Series and Parallel Connection
Positive Temperature Coefficient Switches (PTC) and Charge Interrupt Devices (CID) protect the battery
from overcurrent and excessive pressure. While recommended for safety in a smaller 2- or 3-cell pack with
serial and parallel configuration, these protection devices are often being omitted in larger multi-cell
batteries, such as those for power tool. The PTC and CID work as expected to switch of the cell on
excessive current and internal cell pressure; however the shutdown occurs in cascade format. While some
cells may go offline early, the load current causes excess current on the remaining cells. Such overload
condition could lead to a thermal runaway before the remaining safety devices activate.
Some cells have built-in PCT and CID; these protection devices can also be added retroactively. The design
engineer must be aware than any safety device is subject to failure. In addition, the PTC induces a small
internal resistance that reduces the load current. (See also BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe)
Simple Guidelines for Using Household Primary Batteries
Keep the battery contacts clean. A four-cell configuration has eight contacts and each contact adds
resistance (cell to holder and holder to next cell).
Never mix batteries; replace all cells when weak. The overall performance is only as good as the weakest
link in the chain.
Observe polarity. A reversed cell subtracts rather than adds to the cell voltage.
Remove batteries from the equipment when no longer in use to prevent leakage and corrosion. This is
especially important with zinc-carbon primary cells.
Do not store loose cells in a metal box. Place individual cells in small plastic bags to prevent an electrical
short. Do not carry loose cells in your pockets.

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 Keep batteries away from small children. In addition to being a choking hazard, the current-flow of the
battery can ulcerate the stomach wall if swallowed. The battery can also rupture and cause poisoning. (See
BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries.)
Do not recharge non-rechargeable batteries; hydrogen buildup can lead to an explosion. Perform
experimental charging only under supervision.
Simple Guidelines for Using Secondary Batteries
Observe polarity when charging a secondary cell. Reversed polarity can cause an electrical short, leading
to a hazardous condition.
Remove fully charged batteries from the charger. A consumer charger may not apply the correct trickle
charge when fully charged and the cell can overheat.
Charge only at room temperature.
Last updated 2017-07-31

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BU-303: Confusion with Voltages
Explore why some battery packs pose odd voltages and how this affects the user.
A battery is an electrochemical device that produces a voltage potential when placing metals of different
affinities into an acid solution (electrolyte). The open circuit voltage (OCV) that develops as part of an
electrochemical reaction varies with the metals and electrolyte used.
Applying a charge or discharge places the battery into the closed circuit voltage (CCV) condition. Charging
raises the voltage and discharging lowers it, simulating a rubber band effect. The voltage behavior under a
load and charge is governed by the current flow and the internal battery resistance. A low resistance
produces low fluctuation under load or charge; a high resistance causes the voltage to swing excessively.
Charging and discharging agitates the battery; full voltage stabilization takes up to 24 hours. Temperature
also plays a role; a cold temperature lowers the voltage and heat raises it.
Manufacturers rate a battery by assigning a nominal voltage, and with a few exceptions, these voltages
follow an agreed convention. Here are the nominal voltages of the most common batteries in brief.
Lead Acid
The nominal voltage of lead acid is 2 volts per cell, however when measuring the open circuit voltage, the
OCV of a charged and rested battery should be 2.1V/cell. Keeping lead acid much below 2.1V/cell will cause
the buildup of sulfation. While on float charge, lead acid measures about 2.25V/cell, higher during normal
charge.
Nickel-based
In consumer applications, NiCd and NiMH are rated at 1.20V/cell; industrial, aviation and military batteries
adhere to the original 1.25V. There is no difference between the 1.20V and 1.25V cell; the marking is simply
preference.
Lithium-ion
The nominal voltage of lithium-ion is 3.60V/cell. Some cell manufacturers mark their Li-ion as 3.70V/cell or
higher. This offers a marketing advantage because the higher voltage boosts the watt-hours on paper
(voltage multiplied by current equals watts). The 3.70V/cell rating also creates unfamiliar references of 11.1V
and 14.8V when connecting three and four cells in series rather than the more familiar 10.80V and 14.40V
respectively. Equipment manufacturers adhere to the nominal cell voltage of 3.60V for most Li-ion systems
as a power source.
How did this higher voltage creep in? The nominal voltage is a function of anode and cathode materials, as
well as impedance. Voltage calculations include measuring the mid-way point from a full-charge of
4.20V/cell to the 3.0V/cell cutoff with a 0.5C load. For Li-cobalt the mid-way point is about 3.60V. The same
scan done on Li-manganese with a lower internal resistance gives an average voltage of about 3.70V. It
should be noted that the higher voltage is often set arbitrarily and does not affect the operation of portable
devices or the setting of the chargers. But there are exceptions.
Some Li-ion batteries with LCO architecture feature a surface coating and electrolyte additives that increase
the nominal cell voltage and permit higher charge voltages. To get the full capacity, the charge cut-off
voltage for these batteries must be set accordingly. Figure 1 shows typical voltage settings.

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 Table 32 - Voltages of cobalt-based Li-ion batteries

Nominal Typical Max

cell end-of- charge Notes
voltage discharge voltage

3.6V 2.8–3.0V 4.2V Classic nominal voltage of cobalt-based Li-ion battery

3.7V 2.8–3.0V 4.2V Marketing advantage. Achieved by low internal resistance

Surface coating and electrolyte additives. Charger must have

3.8V 2.8–3.0V 4.35V
correct full-charge voltage for added capacity

Surface coating and electrolyte additives. Charger must have

3.85V 2.8–3.0V 4.4V
correct full-charge voltage for added capacity

End-of-charge voltage must be set correctly to achieve the capacity gain.

Battery users want to know if Li-ion cells with higher charge voltages compromise longevity and safety.
There is limited information available but what is known is that, yes, these batteries have a shorter cycle life
than a regular Li-ion; the calendar life can also be less. Since these batteries are mostly used in consumer
products, the longevity can be harmonized with obsolescence, making a shorter battery life acceptable. The
benefit is longer a runtime because of the gained Wh (Ah x V). All cells must meet regulatory standards and
are safe.
The phosphate-based lithium-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.20V and 3.30V; lithium-titanate is 2.40V.
This voltage difference makes these chemistries incompatible with regular Li-ion in terms of cell count and
charging algorithm.
Last Updated 2017-05-09

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BU-304: Why are Protection Circuits Needed?
Learn how to make batteries safe with built-in protection circuits.
Batteries can release high energies and the safety requirements for nickel- and lithium-based batteries and
cells for portable applications are harmonized under IEC 62133. The standard came into effect in 2012 to
reduce the global risk in transporting, storing and operating batteries.
The most basic safety device in a battery is a fuse that opens on high current. Some fuses open
permanently and render the battery useless; others are more forgiving and reset. The positive thermal
coefficient (PTC) is such a re-settable device that creates high resistance on excess current and reverts back
to the low ON position when the condition normalizes.
Further layers of safeguards are solid-state switches that measure the current and voltage and disconnect
the circuit if the values are too high. The protection circuits of Li-ion work on this on/off basis. (See BU-
304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe.) All switching devices have a residual resistance that causes a slight
increase in overall battery resistance and a subsequent voltage drop.
Intrinsically Safe Batteries
Safety is vitally important when using electronic devices in hazardous areas. Intrinsic safety (IS) ensures
harmless operation in areas where an electric spark could ignite flammable gas or dust. Hazardous areas
include oil refineries, chemical plants, grain elevators and textile mills.
All electronic devices entering a hazardous area must be intrinsically safe. This includes two-way radios,
mobile phones, laptops, cameras, flashlights, gas detectors, test devices and medical instruments, even
when powered with primary AA and AAA cells. Intrinsically safe devices and batteries contain protection
circuits that prevent excessive currents that could lead to high heat, sparks and explosion. The hazard
levels are subdivided into these four disciplines.
1. Types of Hazardous Materials present
Class I Flammable gases, vapors or liquids in petroleum refineries, utility gas plants
Class II Combustible dust in grain elevators, coal preparations plants
Class III Ignitable fibers and flyings in textile mills, wood processing creating sawdust, etc.
2. Likelihood of Hazardous Materials present
Division I Hazardous materials can exist in ignitable concentrations
Division II Hazardous materials will not likely exist in ignitable concentrations
3. Potency of Hazardous Material (Groups from A to G)
A hazardous material is given a designation of: Acetylene (A), hydrogen (B), ethylene (C), propane,
gasoline, etc. (D), metal dust (E), coal dust (F) and grain dust (G).
4. Temperature Codes (from T1 to T6)
The explosion danger of gases or combustible dust is affected by surface temperature. T1 is a hot 450ºC
(842ºF); T6 is a moderate 85ºC (185ºF). All other temperatures fall in between.
Intrinsic safety requirements vary from country to country. North America has the Factory Mutual Research
Corporation, Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and Canadian Standards Association (CSA); Europe has the
ATEX directive; while other countries follow the IECEx standards. Many countries recognize harmonized
IEC 60079.
Last Updated 2016-02-21

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BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion
Learn what causes Li-ion to fail and what to do in case of fire.
Safety of lithium-based batteries has attracted much media and legal attention. Any energy storage device
carries a risk, as demonstrated in the 1800s when steam engines exploded and people got hurt. Carrying
highly flammable gasoline in cars was a hot topic in the early 1900s. All batteries carry a safety risk, and
battery makers are obligated to meet safety requirements; less reputable firms are knowns to make
shortcuts and it’s “buyer beware!”
Lithium-ion is safe but with millions of consumers using batteries, failures are bound to happen. In 2006, a
one-in-200,000 breakdown triggered a recall of almost six million lithium-ion packs. Sony, the maker of the
lithium-ion cells in question, points out that on rare occasion microscopic metal particles may come into
contact with other parts of the battery cell, leading to a short circuit within the cell.
Battery manufacturers strive to minimize the presence of metallic particles. The semiconductor industry
has spent billions of dollars to find ways in reducing particles that reduce the yield in wafers. Advanced
cleanrooms are Class 10 in which 10,000 particles larger than 0.1µm per cubic meter are present (ISO 4
under ISO 14644 and ISO 14698). In spite of this high cleanliness, particle defects still occur in
semiconductor wafers. Class 10 reduces the particles count but does not fully eliminate them.
Battery manufacturers may use less stringently controlled cleanrooms than the semiconductor industry.
While a non-functioning semiconductor simply ends up in the garbage bin, a compromised Li-ion can make
its way into the workforce undetected and deteriorate without knowing. Resulting failures are especially
critical with the thinning of the separators to increase the specific energy.
Cells with ultra-thin separators of 24µm or less (24-thousandth of an mm) are more susceptible to
impurities than the older designs with lower Ah ratings. Whereas the 1,350mAh cell in the 18650 package
could tolerate a nail penetration test, the high-density 3,400mAh can ignite when performing the same test.
(See BU-306: What is the Function of the Separator?) New safety standards direct how batteries are used,
and the UL1642 Underwriters Laboratories (UL) test no longer mandates nail penetration for safety
acceptance of lithium-based batteries.
Li-ion using conventional metal oxides is nearing its theoretical limit on specific energy. Rather than
optimizing capacity, battery makers are improving manufacturing methods to enhance safety and increase
calendar life. The real problem lies when on rare occasions an electrical short develops inside the cell. The
external protection peripherals are ineffective to stop a thermal runaway once in progress. The batteries
recalled in 2006 had passed the UL safety requirements — yet they failed under normal use with
appropriate protection circuits.
There are two basic types of battery failures. One occurs at a predictable interval-per-million and is
connected with a design flaw involving the electrode, separator, electrolyte or processes. These defects
often involve a recall to correct a discovered flaw. The more difficult failures are random events that do not
point to a design flaw. It may be a stress event like charging at sub-freezing temperature, vibration, or a
fluke incident that is comparable to being hit by a meteor.
Let’s examine the inner workings of the cell more closely. A mild short will only cause elevated self-
discharge and the heat buildup is minimal because the discharging power is very low. If enough
microscopic metallic particles converge on one spot, a sizable current begins to flow between the
electrodes of the cell, and the spot heats up and weakens. As a small water leak in a faulty hydro dam can
develop into a torrent and take a structure down, so too can heat buildup damage the insulation layer in a
cell and cause an electrical short. The temperature can quic
catches fire or it explodes. This thermal runaway that occurs is known as “venting with flame.” “Rapid
disassembly” is the preferred term by the battery industry.
Uneven separators can also trigger cell failure. Poor conductivity due to dry areas increases the resistance,
which can generate local heat spots that weaken the integrity of the separator. Heat is always an enemy of
the battery.

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Most major Li-ion cell manufacturer x-ray every single cell as part of automated quality control. Software
examines anomalies such as bent tabs or crushed jelly rolls. This is the reason why Li-ion batteries are so
safe today, but such careful manufacturing practices may only be offered with recognized brands.
Why Batteries Fail
Quality lithium-ion batteries are safe if used as intended. However, a high number of heat and fire failures
had been reported in consumer products that use non-certified batteries, and the hoverboard is an
example. This may have been solved with the use of certified Li-ion on most current models. A UL official at
a meeting in the Washington, D.C. area said that no new incident of overheating or fire had been reported
since Li-ion in hoverboards was certified. Fires originating in the Samsung Galaxy Note 7 were due to a
manufacturing defect that had been solved. The main-ship battery in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner also had
defects that were resolved.
Incorrect uses of all batteries are excessive vibration, elevated heat and charging Li-ion below freezing.
(See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperature.) Li-ion and lead acid batteries cannot be fully
discharged and must be stored with a remaining charge. While nickel-based batteries can be stored in a
fully discharged state with no apparent side effect, Li-ion must not dip below 2V/cell for any length of time.
Copper shunts form inside the cells that can lead to elevated self-discharge or a partial electrical short. If
recharged, the cells might become unstable, causing excessive heat or showing other anomalies.
Heat combined with a full charge is said to induce more stress to Li-ion than regular cycling. Keep the
battery and a device away from sun exposure and store in a cool place at a partial charge. Exceeding the
recommended charge current by ultra-fast changing also harms Li-ion. Nickel-cadmium is the only
chemistry that accepts ultra-fast charging with minimal stress. (See BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers.)
Li-ion batteries that have been exposed to stresses may function normally but they become more sensitive
to mechanical abuse. The liability for a failed battery goes to the manufacturer even if the fault may have
been caused by improper use and handling. This worries the battery manufacturers and they go the extra
mile to make their products safe. Treat the battery as if it were a living organism by preventing excess
stress.
With more than a billion mobile phones and computers used in the world every day, the number of
accidents is small. By comparison, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration say that your
chance of being struck by lightning in the course of a lifetime is about 1 in 13,000. Lithium-ion batteries have
a failure rate that is less than one in a million. The failure rate of a quality Li-ion cell is better than 1 in 10
million.
Industrial batteries, such as those used for power tools, are generally more rugged than those in consumer
products. Besides solid construction, power tool batteries are maximized for power delivery and less on
energy for long runtimes. Power Cells have a lower Ah rating than Energy Cells and are in general more
tolerant and safer if abused.
What to Do When a Battery Overheats
If a Li-ion battery overheats, hisses or bulges, immediately move the device away from flammable materials
and place it on a non-combustible surface. If at all possible, remove the battery and put it outdoors to burn
out.
A small Li-ion fire can be handled like any other combustible fire. For best result use a foam extinguisher,
CO2, ABC dry chemical, powdered graphite, copper powder or soda (sodium carbonate). If the fire occurs
in an airplane cabin, the FAA instructs flight attendants to use water or soda pop. Water-based products are
most readily available and are appropriate since Li-ion contains very little lithium metal that reacts with
water. Water also cools the adjacent area and prevents the fire from spreading. Research laboratories and
factories also use water to extinguish Li-ion battery fires. Halon is also used as fire suppressant, but this
agent may not be sufficient to extinguish a large Li-ion fire in the cargo bay of an aircraft.
A large Li-ion fire, such as in an EV, may need to burn out as water is ineffective. Water with copper
material can be used, but this may not be available and is costly for fire halls.

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When encountering a fire with a lithium-metal battery, only use a Class D fire extinguisher. Lithium-metal
contains plenty of lithium that reacts with water and makes the fire worse. As the number of EVs grows, so
must the methods to extinguish such fires.
Do not use a Class D fire extinguisher to put out other types of fires;
CAUTION make certain regular extinguishers are also available. With all battery
fires, allow ample ventilation while the battery burns itself out.

During a thermal runaway, the high heat of the failing cell inside a battery pack may propagate to the next
cells, causing them to become thermally unstable also. A chain reaction can occur in which each cell
disintegrates on its own timetable. A pack can thus be destroyed in a few seconds or over several hours as
each cell is being consumed. To increase safety, packs should include dividers to protect the failing cell
from spreading to the neighboring one. Figure 1 shows a laptop that was damaged by a faulty Li-ion
battery.

Figure 59 - Li-ion battery suspected to have destroyed the laptop

The owner says the laptop popped, hissed, sizzled and began filling the room with smoke (Source: Shmuel
De-Leon)
The gas released by a venting Li-ion cell is mainly carbon dioxide (CO2). Other gases that form through
heating are vaporized electrolyte consisting of ethylene and/or propylene. Burning gases also include
combustion products of organic solvents.
While lithium-based batteries are heavily studied for safety, nickel- and lead-based batteries also cause fires
and are being recalled. The reasons are faulty separators resulting from aging, rough handling, excessive
vibration and high-temperature. Lithium-ion batteries have become very safe and heat-related failures
occur rarely when used correctly.
Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries
Lithium-ion batteries contain little lithium metal and in case of a fire they can be dowsed with water. Only
lithium-metal batteries require a Class D fire extinguisher.
Water interacts with lithium. If a Class D extinguisher is not available to douse a lithium-metal fire, only
pour water to prevent the fire from spreading.
For best results dowsing a Li-ion fire, use a foam extinguisher, CO2, ABC dry chemical, powdered
graphite, copper powder or soda (sodium carbonate) as you would extinguish other combustible fires.
Reserve the Class D extinguishers for lithium-metal fires only.
If the fire of a burning lithium-ion battery cannot be extinguished, allow the pack to burn in a controlled
and safe way

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 Be aware of cell propagation as each cell might be consumed on its own time table when hot. Place a
seemingly burned-out pack outside for a time.
Last Updated 2018-01-04

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BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe
Learn all sides to make lithium-ion safe
Battery packs using Li-ion require a mandatory protection circuit to assure safety under (almost) all
circumstances. Governed by IEC 62133, the safety of Li-ion cell or packs begins by including some or all of
the following safeguards.
Built-in PTC (positive temperature coefficient) protects against current surges.
CID (circuit interrupt device) opens the circuit at a cell pressure of 1,000kPa (145psi).
Safety vent releases gases on excessive pressure buildup at 3,000kPa (450psi).
Separator inhibits ion-flow by melting process when exceeding a certain temperature threshold.
(See BU-306: What is the Function of the Separator?)
The PTC and CID work well in a smaller 2- or 3-cell pack with serial and parallel configuration, however,
these safety devices are often omitted in larger multi-cell batteries, such as those for power tools, because
the shutdown can occur in a cascade format. (See BU-302: Series and Parallel Battery Configurations)
While some cells may go offline early, the load current causes excess current on the remaining cells. Such
overload condition could lead to a thermal runaway before the remaining safety devices activate.
In addition to internal cell safeguards, an external electronic protection circuit prevents any cell from
exceeding 4.30V on charge. In addition, a fuse cuts the current if the skin temperature of any cell
approaches 90°C (194°F). To prevent the battery from over-discharging, a control circuit cuts off the current
path at about 2.20V/cell.
Each cell in a string needs independent voltage monitoring. The higher the cell count, the more complex
the protection circuit becomes. Four cells in series had been the practical limit for consumer applications.
Today, off-the-shelf chips also accommodate 5–7, 7–10 and 13 cells in series. For specialty applications,
such as the hybrid or electric vehicle delivering several hundred volts, specialty protection circuits are
made. Monitoring two or more cells in parallel to get higher current is less critical than controlling the
voltage in a string configuration.
Protection circuits can only shield abuse from the outside, such as an electrical short or faulty charger. If,
however, a defect occurs within the cell, such as a contamination of microscopic metal particles, the
external protection circuit has little effect and cannot arrest the reaction. Reinforced and self-healing
separators are being developed for cells used in electric powertrains, but this makes the batteries large and
expensive.
Li-ion commonly discharges to 3.0V/cell. The lowest permitted “low-voltage” power cut-off is 2.5V/cell. It is
not advised to keep the battery at that level as self-discharge could bring the cell to its cut-off voltage,
causing the battery to go into sleep mode. Most chargers ignore Li-ion packs that have gone to sleep and a
charge is no longer possible. (See BU-808a: How to Awaken Sleeping Li-ion.)
In the ON position, the internal protection circuit has a resistance of 50–100mOhm, lower on power packs.
The circuit typically consists of two switches connected in series; one is responsible for the high cut-off,
and the other for the low cut-off. Larger packs need a more careful design than a smaller battery, and single
cell packs for mobile phones and tablets get away with a voltage and current limit in addition to some
intrinsic cell protection. (See BU-802a: How does Rising Internal Resistance affect Performance?)
Some low-cost consumer chargers may rely solely on the battery’s protection circuit to terminate the
charge. Redundancy is paramount for safety, and unknowingly to the buyer, low-cost consumer chargers
may be offered that do not have properly functioning charge algorithms. This could be a vehicular charger
for a mobile phone or an e-cigarette.

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A further concern arises if static electricity has destroyed the battery’s protection circuit. A shorted solid-
state switch is permanently fused in the ON position without the user knowing. A battery with a faulty
protection circuit functions normally but it fails to provide protection. The cell voltage could rise above a
safe level and overcharge the battery. Heat buildup and bulging are early signs of malfunction, but some
batteries explode without warning.
Low prices make products from Asia attractive, but safety standards my not be equal to those in branded
products. A wise shopper spends a little more money and buys recognized brands. (See BU-809a: What
Everyone Should Know about Aftermarket Batteries.)
Figure 1 shows batteries in equipment that disintegrated in a passenger aircraft before takeoff.

Mishap by air traveler who checked in Li-ion batteries undeclared that exploded before take-off. Shipping of
lithium-based batteries is regulated under UN 38.3 (Source: The Daily Telegraph; Sydney 23C-34C)
Manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries do not mention the word “explosion” but refer to “venting with
flame” or “rapid disassembly.” Although seen as a slower and more controlled process than explosion,
venting with flame or rapid disassembly can nevertheless be violent and inflict injury to those in close
proximity.
Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries
Exercise caution when handling and testing lithium-ion batteries.
Do not short-circuit, overcharge, crush, drop, mutilate, penetrate with foreign objects, apply reverse
polarity, expose to high temperature or disassemble packs and cells.
Use only lithium-ion cells with a designated protection circuit and approved charger.
Discontinue using the battery and/or charger if the pack temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) on a
regular charge.
The electrolyte is highly flammable and battery rupture can cause physical injury.
Use a foam extinguisher, CO2, dry chemical, powdered graphite, copper powder or soda (sodium
carbonate) to extinguish a lithium-ion fire. Only pour water to prevent the fire from spreading.
If the fire of a burning lithium-ion battery cannot be extinguished, allow the pack to burn out on its own in
a controlled and safe manner.
Last Updated 2017-08-10

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BU-304c: Battery Safety in Public
Battery must be taken seriously, even if small. This applies especially to Li-ion.
The interest in batteries is growing, but stored energy must be respected. Children and adults alike are
often unaware of the potential safety hazards when experimenting with batteries by heating cells, crushing
them or applying an electrical short. Some batteries disintegrate with such a force they can cause serious
harm, such as the loss of an arm or death. The damage inflicted depends on the chemistry and lithium-
based cells are the most potent. Pay special attention to lithium-metal, the most energy-dense cell that is
also the most powerful when stressed beyond its limits.
Folks are familiar with the alkaline, but this is the pussycat of batteries. Other systems are less forgiving and
this article looks at common battery systems in the hands of the consumer. We learn how to care for
batteries, what to watch for when traveling and how to stay out of trouble with correct handling.
Alkaline
Alkaline is the most common household battery. It provides longer runtime and is slightly more expensive
than the zinc-carbon that it replaced. Lewis Urry (1927–2004) invented the alkaline in 1949 while working
with the Eveready Battery Company laboratory in Ohio, USA.
A household alkaline has about 40 percent more energy than the average Li-ion. Alkaline is environmentally
friendly and does not leak when depleted, as the old zinc-carbon did that came on the market in 1868.
Alkaline has a very low self-discharge and can be stored for up to 10 years. It has a good safety record and
can be carried on an aircraft without subject to UN Transport and other regulations.

The negative of alkaline is high internal resistance that limits current loading to light loads only, such as
remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices. This has an advantage in that alkaline can
safely be carried in our jeans. An electrical short with keys or coins will cause the cell the heat up but there
is no danger of fire. In spite of being forgiving, never mix batteries metallic objects.
Alkaline batteries cannot be charged, or at least they should not. This does not stop individuals from trying
to get some energy back into the cell. Ordinary alkaline batteries have been recharged in households for
many years. Recharging is most effective if the cell is not discharged beyond 50 percent. Depth of
discharge governs the number of recharges and is limited to just a few. Battery makers do not endorse this
practice for safety reasons; charging ordinary alkaline batteries may generate hydrogen gas that can lead to
an explosion. (See BU-211: Alternate Battery Systems; go to Reusable Alkaline).
Button cells
The button cell, also known as a coin cell, is used in toys, watches, hearing aids and medical devices.
Children like to play with button cells, putting them in their mouth and possibly swallowing them. In the
United States alone, each year more than 2,800 children are treated in emergency rooms for swallowing
button batteries. According to a 2015 report, injuries and deaths from swallowing batteries has increased
nine-fold in the last decade. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries)
If swallowed, the battery often gets stuck in the esophagus (the tube that passes food). Water or saliva
creates a conduit for electrical current that triggers a chemical reaction producing hydroxide, a caustic ion
that can cause serious burns to the surrounding tissue. Doctors often misdiagnose the revealing symptoms
revealing as fever, vomiting, poor appetite and weariness. Batteries that make it through the esophagus
often move through the digestive tract with little or no lasting damage, although they can ulcerate the
stomach wall.

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The advice to parents is to choose safe toys and to keep small batteries away from young children. Similar
to pharmaceutical products, keep small batteries locked away from small children.

Lead acid
Lead acid produces high load current for a few seconds, causes sparks and melts metals but the battery
soon gets exhausted. An analogy is a drying felt pen that works for short markings on paper and then
needs resting to replenish the ink. While recovery is fast, charging is notoriously slow and gets worse with
age. An electrical short can cause a spill and create exhaust gases. Do not try to short lead acid.
Lead is a toxic metal that can enter the body by inhalation of lead dust or ingestion when touching the
mouth with lead-contaminated hands. Children and fetuses of pregnant women are most vulnerable to lead
poisoning. Excessive levels of lead may affect a child’s growth, cause brain damage, harm kidneys, impair
hearing and induce behavioral problems. In adults, lead can cause memory loss and lower the ability to
concentrate, as well as harm the reproductive system. Lead is also known to induce high blood pressure,
nerve disorders, and muscle and joint pain. Researchers think that Ludwig van Beethoven became ill and
died because of lead poisoning.

Do not store starter batteries where children play as the terminals of a starter battery are made of lead. Lead
acid also has one of the most corrosive electrolytes of all batteries that must be safeguarded.
Lithium-ion
The damage a lithium-ion cell can inflict by an accidental short comes at a surprise to most. Packaged in an
18650 cell (pictured) Li-ion looks like a harmless AA alkaline cell. Not so. When shorted, Li-ion delivers
persistent current without abiding. This often leads to venting with flame, a violent self-destruction alike a
rocket. Embedded safety components offer protection, but not all cells have such safeguards.
Many 18650 cells are carried as spares for vaping devices. E-cigarettes require high current to activate the
heat element and only Li-ion has such a load capability. When carrying a spare, wrap battery in a plastic
bag to prevent electrical short.
Because of potential danger, lithium batteries can no longer be placed in checked baggage, but must be
carried onboard an aircraft. Quick access to a fire extinguisher enables putting out a fire in the cabin. Each
passenger can take two spares Li-ion that do not exceed 160Wh each; 320Wh total. An 18650 rated at
3,300mAh has about 12Wh. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air).
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 144 of 453
From 1991-2016, 138 airport and flight incidents involving lithium batteries occurred. These include 13 E-
cigarettes, 7 mobile phones/tablets, 7 spare batteries and 4 laptops. E-cigarette incidents increased the
most.
According to published reports, 68 percent of battery failure in transit is caused by short circuit, and poor
packaging is much to blame. Do not store and transport bare batteries in a metal box; do not mix batteries
with coins, house keys in your jeans. Always put cells and batteries in clear plastic bags.

The photo shows a pair of burned jeans in which a Li-ion cell came in contact with loose coins in the
pocket. It inflicted third degree burns on the man’s leg. Little can be done to stop the flaming event once it
has begun.
Lithium Batteries
While Li-ion is rechargeable, there are non-rechargeable lithium batteries that exceed Li-ion in capacity.
They contain a metallic anode and are often called lithium-metal. This increases volatility and these
batteries are subject to tighter shipping regulations than the more benign lithium-ion. Primary lithium
batteries come in many varieties and are mainly used for industrial uses. (See BU-106a: Choices of Primary
Batteries.)
Lithium iron disulfide (LiFeS2) is a replacement of the regular household alkaline with longer runtimes and
better loading capabilities. Lithium batteries normally deliver 3 volts and higher, LiFeS2 is 1.5 volts, making
it compatible with the AA and AAA formats. They cost slightly more than alkaline and must follow
transportation rules.
Lithium thionyl chloride (LiSOCI2 or LTC) can withstand high heat and strong vibration. Thanks to the wide
temperature operating range, LTC batteries are mainly used for horizontal drilling, also known as fracking
that reaches head temperatures of 125°C (257°F). With a specific energy of over 500Wh/kg, they offer twice
the capacity of the best Li-ion. Even though rugged and seemingly indestructible, this battery is one of the
most potent if abused. Because of the potential danger, LTC is not permitted in consumer products; it also
requires training for handling.

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Lithium manganese dioxide (LiMnO2 or Li-M) is another common metallic lithium battery that is more
benign than LTC. It comes with a lower capacity and is safe for public use. Typical uses are meter sensing,
medical devices, road toll sensors and cameras.
LTC and Li-M are safe but workers handling these batteries must be familiar
CAUTION with safety precautions, transportation and disposal. Protect the batteries
from heat, short circuit, and physical or electrical abuses.

Effect of Aging
Li-ion batteries are safe but what may not be fully understood with a growing battery population is aging.
Users ask: “Will my battery die quietly or depart with a bang?” Typical usage patterns that stress a Li-ion
battery are excessive loading, rapid-charging and charging below freezing. Furthermore, storing Li-ion at a
voltage below 2 volts per cell leads to dendrite growth that can damage the separator and cause a mild
electrical short that can progress into a full electrical short, even if kept in storage. A small water leak in a
faulty hydro dam can advance to a torrent and take a structure down, so also can separator damage lead to
venting with flame. The temperature rises to 500°C (932°F), at which point the cell catches fire or explodes.
If a Li-ion battery overheats, hisses, or bulges, immediately move the device with battery away from
flammable materials and place it on a non-combustible surface. If at all possible, remove the battery from
the device and put it outdoors to burn out.
A small Li-ion fire can be handled like any other combustible fire. For best result use a foam extinguisher,
CO2, ABC dry chemical, powdered graphite, copper powder or soda (sodium carbonate). If the fire occurs
in an airplane cabin, the FAA instructs flight attendants to use water or soda pop. Water-based products are
most readily available and are appropriate since Li-ion contains very little lithium metal that could react with
water. Water also cools the adjacent area and prevents the fire from spreading. (See BU-304a: Safety
Concerns with Li-ion).
A large Li-ion fire, such as in an EV, may need to burn out as water is ineffective. When encountering a fire
with a lithium-metal battery, only use a Class D fire extinguisher. Lithium-metal contains of lithium that
reacts with water and makes the fire worse. Do not use the Class D fire extinguisher for regular fires.
Last updated 2017-08-21

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BU-305: Building a Lithium-ion Pack
Examine the requirements for agency approval when building a Li-ion pack.
Building a Li-ion battery pack begins by satisfying voltage and runtime requirements, and then taking
loading, environmental, size and weight limitations into account. Portable designs for consumer products
want a slim profile and the choice is a prismatic or pouch cell. If space allows, a cylindrical cell such as the
18650 often provides the lowest cost and best performance in terms of specific energy, safety and
durability. (See BU-301a: Types of Battery Cells.)
Most battery packs for medical devices, power tools, e-bikes and even powertrains for electric cars (EV) are
based on the 18650. This appears impractical but the small cell works well because it is one of the most
mature Li-ion formats available, is produced in high volume and enjoys a low cost per Wh.
The cylindrical cell is not ideal as it leaves empty spaces in a multi-cell configuration. This disadvantage
turns into an advantage when considering flexibility and cooling. The Tesla S85 EV uses over 7,000 cells,
switched in parallel to boost the current and in series to increase the voltage. Should one cell in series
open, the total power loss is minimal; if one in parallel shorts, fuse protection removes this cell from the
circuit. Failing cells can thus be eliminated without bringing the battery down.
EV manufacturers are not united on the choice of cell, but there is a trend towards larger formats to reduce
supportive electronics that adds 20–25 percent to the finished pack. With a larger cell, however, the
electronic components get dearer because of higher current handling. According to 2015 reports, the Tesla
S 85 has the lowest cost per kWh using the 18650. Other EVs have larger prismatic cells at higher kWh
costs. Table 1 compares the kWh cost.
Table 33 - Price comparison of EV batteries
Make and model Cell type Cost per kWh Specific energy
Tesla S 85, 90kWh (2015)* 18650 $260/kWh 250Wh/kg
Tesla 48kWh Gen III 18650 $260/kWh 250Wh/kg
Best practices DoE/AABC) pouch/prismatic $350/kWh 150–180Wh/kg
Nissan Leaf, 30kWh (2016)* pouch/prismatic $455/kWh 80–96Wh/kg
BMW i3 pouch/prismatic N/A 120Wh/kg

Mass production allows a low price using the 18650 cell.

* In 2015/16 Tesla S 85 increased the battery from 85kWh to 90kWh; Nissan Leaf from 25kWh to 30kWh.
Batteries should be designed to permit failure without a catastrophic event. All energy sources will fail
eventually and the battery is no exception. After an unwanted event, the FAA mandated to place the Li-ion
ship-battery of the Boeing Dreamliner 787 into a metal container with venting to the outside. Tesla
reinforced the EV battery by adding a heavy-gauge steel plate on the bottom that provides extra protection
against projectiles from the road.
Large batteries for power applications are cooled. Some use a rod system to bring the heat to the outside,
others deploy forced air or use liquid cooling. Liquid cooling is superior and although more expensive, EV
batteries gravitate towards this form of cooling.
Meeting Safety Approvals
Reputable battery manufacturers do not supply Li-ion cells to uncertified battery assemblers. This
precaution is understandable, considering that Li-ion cells could be charged and discharged beyond safe
limits with inadequate protection circuits.
Authorizing a battery pack for the commercial market and for air transport can cost $10,000 to $20,000.
Such a high price is troubling, knowing that cell manufacturers discontinue older cells in favor of higher
capacity replacements. A pack with the new cell, even if specified as a direct replacement, requires new
certifications.

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The common question asked is, “Why are additional tests needed when the cells are already approved?”
The simple answer is that cell approvals cannot be transferred to the pack because regulatory authorities
place the safety confirmation on a finished product and not the components. The completed battery must
be tested and registered to assure correct assembly and compliance with safety standards.
As part of the test requirements, the finished battery must undergo electrical and mechanical assessment
to meet the Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods on lithium-ion batteries for air
shipment, rules set by the United Nations (UN). The UN Transportation Testing (UN/DOT 38.3) works in
conjunction with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the US Department of Transport (US DOT) and
the International Air Transport Association (IATA)*. The certification applies to primary and secondary
lithium-based cells.
The UN 38.3 test includes:
T1 – Altitude Simulation: Low pressure simulates unpressurized cargo hold at 15,000 meters.
T2 – Thermal Test: Temperature extreme by keeping batteries for 6h at -40°C and then +75°C.
T3 – Vibration: Simulates vibration during transportation at 7Hz to 200Hz for up to 3 hours.
T4 – Shock: Simulates vibration during transportation at given G-forces relating to battery size.
T5 – External Short Circuit: Short circuit with <0.1Ω at 50°C. Case cannot exceed 170°C.
T6 – Impact: >20mm cylindrical cells are impact tested; <20mm cell types are crush tested.
T7 – Overcharge: Charge at twice the recommended current for 24 hours (secondary batteries only)
T8 – Forced Discharge: Same as T7, forced discharge with primary and secondary cells.
The test batteries must pass the tests without causing harm, but the packs do not need to function
thereafter. The test is strictly for safety and not consumer endurance. The authorized laboratory needs 24
battery samples consisting of 12 new packs and 12 specimens that have been cycled 50 times. IATA wants
to ensure that the batteries in question are airworthy and have field integrity; cycling the packs 50 times
before the test satisfies this requirement.
The high certification cost discourages small manufacturers from using Li-ion for low-volume products and
entrepreneurs may choose nickel-based systems instead. These batteries do not need to be tested to the
level of lithium-based products for air transport. While reputable companies follow the instructions, rules
are being broken and the penalties are stiff. ( See BU-704: How to Transport Batteries)
Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries
Exercise caution when handling and testing lithium-ion batteries.
Do not short-circuit, overcharge, crush, drop, mutilate, penetrate with foreign objects, apply reverse
polarity, expose to high temperature or disassemble packs and cells.
Use only lithium-ion batteries with a designated protection circuit and approved charger.
Discontinue using a battery and/or charger if the pack temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) on a
regular charge.
The electrolyte is highly flammable and battery rupture can cause physical injury.
* IATA (International Air Transport Association) works with airlines and the air transport industry to
promote safe, reliable, secure and economical air travel.
Last Updated 2017-08-03

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BU-306: What is the Function of the Separator?
The building blocks of a battery are the cathode and anode, and these two electrodes are isolated by a
separator. The separator is moistened with electrolyte and forms a catalyst that promotes the movement of
ions from cathode to anode on charge and in reverse on discharge. Ions are atoms that have lost or gained
electrons and have become electrically charged. Although ions pass freely between the electrodes, the
separator is an isolator with no electrical conductivity.
The small amount of current that may pass through the separator is self-discharge and this is present in all
batteries to varying degrees. Self-discharge eventually depletes the charge of a battery during prolonged
storage. Figure 1 illustrates the building block of a lithium-ion cell with the separator and ion flow between
the electrodes.

Battery separators provide a barrier between the anode (negative) and the cathode (positive) while enabling
the exchange of lithium ions from one side to the other (Source: CELGARD, LLC)
Early batteries were flooded, including lead acid and nickel-cadmium. With the development of the sealed
nickel-cadmium in 1947 and the maintenance-free lead acid in the 1970s, the electrolyte is absorbed into a
porous separator that is compressed against the electrodes to achieve chemical reaction. The tightly
wound or stacked separator/electrode arrangement forms a solid mechanical unit that offers similar
performance to the flooded type but is smaller and can be installed in any orientation without leakage. The
gases created during charge are absorbed and there is no water loss if venting can be prevented.
Early separators were made of rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose and polyethylene plastic. Wood was the
original choice but it deteriorated in the electrolyte. Nickel-based batteries use separators of porous
polyolefin films, nylon or cellophane. The absorbed glass mat (AGM) in the sealed lead acid version uses a
glass fiber mat as a separator that is soaked in sulfuric acid.
The earlier gelled lead acid developed in the 1970s converts the liquid electrolyte into a semi-stiff paste by
mixing the sulfuric acid with a silica-gelling agent. Gel and AGM batteries have slight differences in
performance; gel batteries are commonly used in UPS and AGM in starter and deep-cycle applications.
(See BU-201: How does the Lead Acid Battery Work?)
Commercially available Li-ion cells use polyolefin as a separator. This material has excellent mechanical
properties, good chemical stability and is low-cost. A polyolefin is a class of polymer that is produced from
olefin by polymerizing olefin ethylene. Ethylene comes from a petrochemical source; polyolefin is made
from polyethylene, polypropylene or laminates of both materials.
The Li-ion separator must be permeable and the pore size ranges from 30 to 100nm. (Nm stands for nano-
meter, which is one millionth of a millimeter or about 10 atoms thick.) The recommended porosity is 30–50
percent. This holds enough liquid electrolyte and enables the pores to close should the cell overheat.

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Separator serves as fuse in Li-ion
On excessive heat, a shut-down occurs by closing the pores of the Li-ion separator through a melting
process. The polyethylene (PE) separator melts when the core reaches 130°C (266°F). This stops the
transport of ions, effectively shutting the cell down. Without this provision, heat in the failing cell could rise
to the thermal runaway threshold and vent with flame. This internal safety fuse also helps pass the stringent
UN Transportation Testing for Lithium Batteries that includes altitude simulation, as well as thermal,
vibration, shock, external short circuit, impact, overcharge and forced discharge tests. (See BU-304a:
Safety Concerns with Li-ion.)
Most batteries for mobile phones and tablets have a single polyethylene separator. Since ca. 2000, larger
industrial batteries deploy a trilayered separator that provides enhanced fuse protection on thermal
extremes and on multi-cell configurations. Figure 2 illustrates the PP/PE/PP trilayer separator consisting of
polyethylene in the middle that is sandwiched by outer polypropylene (PP) layers. While the inner PE layer
shuts down at 130°C by closing the pores, the outer PP layers stay solid and do not melt until reaching 155°C
(311°F).

Combining separator material with different melting properties adds to safety. PE melts before PP to close
the pores and stop current flow (Source: Dalhousie, Handbook of Batteries).
In ca. 2008, further improvements were made by adding a ceramic-coated separator. Ceramic particles do
not melt and this addition provides a further safety level. Ceramic coating is also used on lithium cobalt
oxide (LCO) cells that charge up to 4.40V/cell instead of the traditional 4.20V/cell. The ceramic coating
works in tandem with the PE and PP layers and is placed next to the positive side to prevent electrical
contact.
The separator should be as thin as possible so as to not add dead volume and still provide sufficient tensile
strength to prevent stretching during the winding process and offer good stability throughout life. The
pores must be uniformly spread on the sheet to ensure even distribution throughout the entire separator
area. Furthermore, the separator must be compatible with the electrolyte and allow easy wetting. Dry areas
can create hot spots through elevated resistance, leading to cell failure.
Separators are getting thinner. A thickness of 25.4μm (1.0 mil) is common but some go down to 20μm,
16μm and now even 12μm without significantly compromising the properties of the cell. (One micron, also
known as µm, is one millionth of a meter.) The separator with electrolyte in modern Li-ion only makes up 3
percent of the cell content.
Ultrathin separators raise safety concerns. The massive Sony call-back comes to mind in which a one-in-
200,000 cell-breakdown triggered an almost six million recall of Li-ion packs. On rare occasions,
microscopic metal particles came into contact with other parts of the battery cell, which led to an electrical
short circuit. The Sony cells in question had a separator thickness of between 20µm and 25µm. (A
micrometer (µm) is one-thousands of a millimeter.) Some separators are as thin as 10µm. Micro-shorts on
separators examined in forensic labs measure about a millimetre in diameter. A well-designed separator
melts at the point of shorting and provides a local shutdown.
Last updated 2017-07-31

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BU-307: How does Electrolyte Work?
Learn more about the catalyst that straddles the electrodes of a battery and makes electricity flow
Electrolyte serves as catalyst to make a battery conductive by promoting the movement of ions from the
cathode to the anode on charge and in reverse on discharge. Ions are electrically charged atoms that have
lost or gained electrons. The electrolyte of a battery consists of soluble salts, acids or other bases in liquid,
gelled and dry formats. Electrolyte also comes in a polymer, as used in the solid-state battery, solid
ceramic and molten salts, as in the sodium-sulfur battery.
Lead Acid
Lead acid uses sulfuric acid. When charging, the acid becomes denser as lead oxide (PbO2) forms on the
positive plate, and then turns to almost water when fully discharged. The specific gravity of the sulfuric acid
is measured with a hydrometer. (See also BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge). Lead acid batteries
come in flooded and sealed formats also known as valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) or maintenance-free.
Sulfuric acid is colorless with a slight yellow-green tint, soluble in water and is highly corrosive.
Discoloration to a brownish tint may be caused by rusting from anodic corrosion or from water entering in
the battery pack.
Lead acid batteries come with different specific gravities (SG). Deep-cycle batteries use a dense electrolyte
with an SG of up to 1.330 to achieve high specific energy, starter batteries contain an average SG of about
1.265 and stationary batteries come with a low SG of roughly 1.225 to moderate corrosion and promote
longevity. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge.).
Sulfuric acid serves a wide range of applications and is also found in drain cleaners and various cleaning
agents. It further serves in mineral processing mineral processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining,
wastewater processing and chemical synthesis.
Sulfuric acid can cause serious damage on skin contact and can lead to
CAUTION: permanent blindness if splashed in eyes. Swallowing sulfuric acid causes
irreversible damage.

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
The electrolyte in NiCd is an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). Most NiCd batteries are cylindrical
in which several layers of positive and negative materials are wound into a jelly-roll. The flooded version of
NiCd is used as the ship-battery in commercial aircrafts and in UPS systems operating in hot and cold
climates requiring frequent cycling. NiCd is more expensive than lead acid but lasts longer.
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
NiMH uses the same or similar electrolyte as NiCd, which is usually potassium hydroxide. The NiMH
electrodes are unique and consist of nickel, cobalt, manganese, aluminum and rare earth metals, which are
also used in Li-ion. NiMH is available in sealed versions only.
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, commonly called caustic potash.
The electrolyte is colorless and has many industrial applications, such as the ingredient in most soft and
liquid soaps. KOH is harmful if indigested.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
Li-ion uses liquid, gel or dry polymer electrolyte. The liquid version is a flammable organic rather than
aqueous type, a solution of lithium salts with organic solvents similar to ethylene carbonate. Mixing the
solutions with diverse carbonates provides higher conductivity and expands the temperature range. Other
salts may be added to reduce gassing and improve high temperature cycling.

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Li-ion with gelled electrolytes receives many additives to increase conductivity, so does the lithium-
polymer battery. The true dry polymer only becomes conductive at elevated temperatures, and this battery
is no longer in commercial use. Additives are also administered to achieve longevity and unique
characteristics. The recipe is classified and each manufacturer has its own secret sauce. (See also BU-808b:
What causes Li-ion to die?)
The electrolyte should be stable, but this is not the case with Li-ion. A passivation film forms on the anode
that is called solid electrolyte interface (SEI). This layer separates the anode from the cathode but allows
ions to pass through much like a separator. In essence, the SEI layer must form to enable the battery to
work. The film stabilizes the system and gives the Li-ion a long life but this causes a capacity reduction.
Electrolyte oxidation also occurs on the cathode that permanently lowers the capacity. (See also BU-701:
How to Prime Batteries)
To prevent the films from becoming too restrictive, additives are mixed with the electrolyte that is
consumed during the formation of the SEI layer. It is difficult, if impossible, to trace their presence when
doing a forensic evaluation. This keeps proprietary additives a trade secret, both their composition and the
amount used.
A well-known additive is vinylene carbonate (VC). This chemical improves the cycle life of Li-ion, especially
at higher temperatures, and keeps the internal resistance low with use and age. VC also maintains a stable
SEI film on the anode with no adverse side effects of the electrolyte oxidation on the cathode (Aurbach et
al). It is said that academic and research communities are lagging behind cell manufacturers in knowledge
and choice of additives, hence the great secret. (See also “Additives and the Effects on Coulombinc
Efficiency” as part of BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to die?
For most commercial Li-ion, the SEI layer will break down at a cell temperature of 75–90°C (167–194°F). The
type of cell and state-of-charge (SoC) affects the breakdown at elevated temperature. A self-heating
behavior may occur that can lead to a thermal runaway if not properly cooled. Lab tests done on 18650 cells
have shown that such a thermal event can take two days to develop.
The flammability of the Li-ion electrolyte is a further concern and experiments are done to produce non-
flammable or reduced flammable electrolytes by additives or developing non-organic ionic liquids.
Research is also conducted to operate Li-ion at low temperatures. At time of writing, none of these
electrolytes are in wide commercial use.
Drying up or slowly turning the liquid electrolyte into a solid form is one more aging event that lowers the
performance of Li-ion. “When the liquid is gone, the batteries are dead,” says Jeff Dahn, specialist in Li-ion
batteries and Professor of Physics. Liquidity of the electrolyte is one more state-of-health indicator that
relates to all battery chemistries.
Last Updated 2017-10-06

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BU-308: Availability of Lithium
Discover what is hype and reality, and what counts most.
Over the last two decades, the lithium-ion battery has caused a transformation in the consumption of
metals and minerals. The landscape is expected to change further as the Li-ion battery evolves from
portable applications, such as the mobile phone with a small 10 watt-hours (Wh) pack, to the electric vehicle
with a battery capacity of 50–100kWh, and to the monster Electronic Storage System (ESS) with up to
10MWh battery banks. At the start of the millennium, only a small percentage of cobalt and lithium went
into batteries, but by 2015 46 percent of cobalt and 32 percent of lithium went into Li-ion production.
Graphite, nickel manganese, copper and aluminum have not been affected in the same way.
Finding sufficient supply of lithium in raw material is gearing up mining industries for higher production. A
compact EV battery (Nissan Leaf) uses about 4kg (9 lb) of lithium, and if every man, woman and teenager
were to drive an electric car in the future, a lithium shortage could develop. Rumor of such a shortage
developing has been spreading, perhaps prematurely, although the price of lithium will fluctuate according
to supply and demand.
About 70 percent of the world’s lithium comes from brine (salt lakes); the remainder is derived from hard
rock. Research institutions are developing technology to draw lithium from seawater. China is the largest
consumer of lithium, and hoarding is suspected. The Chinese believe that future cars will run on Li-ion
batteries and an unbridled supply of lithium is important to them.
In 2009, the total demand for lithium reached almost 92,000 metric tons, of which batteries consume 26
percent. Figure 1 illustrates typical uses of lithium, which include lubricants, glass, ceramics,
pharmaceuticals and refrigeration.

Batteries consume the largest share of lithium. With the advent of the electric vehicle, the demand could
skyrocket but for now the world has enough proven lithium reserves (Source: Global Lithium LLC 2016)
Most of the known supply of lithium is in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Australia and China. The supply is ample
and concerns of global shortages are speculative. To attain one ton of lithium, Latin America uses 750 tons
of brine, the base material for lithium, and adds 24 months of preparation. Lithium can also be recycled an
unlimited number of times, but no recycling technology exists today that is capable of producing pure
enough lithium for a second use in batteries. It is said that 20 tons of spent Li-ion batteries yield one ton of
lithium. This will help the supply, but recycling can be more expensive than harvesting a new supply
through mining.

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Lithium is commonly sourced from brine, a water and energy intensive process. According to
www.foeeurope.org, 0.05-1 mg of lithium requires 1 liter of brine/mineral water. Areas rich in lithium are
often arid, increasing the cost of mining. Dry and salty conditions can also take a toll on human health.
Seawater extraction is a more expensive way to mine lithium.
Lithium is named after the Greek word “lithos” meaning “stone.” The soft, silver-white metal belongs to the
alkali metal group of chemical elements and is marked with the symbol Li. It is the lightest of all metals.
Most Li-ion batteries do not contain lithium in metallic form but only in metal oxide. When exposed to
oxygen, lithium forms an oxide layer similar to rust on iron that changes the appearance. When exposed to
water, lithium heats up, changes water into hydrogen and oxygen and burns violently. The creation of
hydrogen and oxygen raise the possibility of a spontaneous ignition.
The lithium raw material in a Li-ion battery is only a fraction of one cent per watt, or less than 1 percent of
the battery cost. A $10,000 battery for a plug-in hybrid contains less than $100 worth of lithium. Shortages
when producing millions of large batteries for vehicles and stationary applications could increase the price,
but for now this is not the case.
Rather than worrying about a lack of lithium, there could be shortages of rare earth materials, should the EV
replace the conventional car. One such material is the permanent magnet for the electric motors.
Permanent magnets make one of the most energy-efficient motors. China controls about 95 percent of the
global market for rare earth metals and expects to use most of these resources for its own production.
Export of rare earth materials is tightly controlled.
Last Updated 2017-09-22

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BU-309: How does Graphite Work in Li-ion?
Understanding the key raw materials of Li-ion
In 2015, the media predicted heavy demand for graphite to satisfy the growth of Li-ion batteries used in
electric vehicles. Speculation arose that graphite could be in short supply because a large EV battery
requires about 25kg (55 lb) of graphite for the Li-ion anode. Although price and consumption has been
lackluster, there are indications that the demand is tightening.
Producing anode-grade graphite with 99.99 percent purity is expensive and the process creates waste. The
end-cost is not so much the material but the purification process. Recycling old Li-ion to retrieve graphite
will not solve this because of the tedious purification process.
Carbon and graphite are related substances. Graphite is an allotrope of carbon, a structural modification
that occurs by bonding the elements together in a different manner. Graphite is the most stable form of
carbon. The diamond, a metastable allotrope of carbon known for its excellent physical qualities, is less
stable than graphite; yet graphite is soft and malleable.
Graphite comes from the Greek word “graphein.” It is heat-resistant, electrically and thermally conductive,
chemically passive (corrosion-resistant) and lighter than aluminum. Beside Li-ion anodes, high-grade
graphite is also used in fuel cells, solar cells, semiconductors, LEDs, and nuclear reactors.
A carbon fiber is a long, thin strand of about 5–10µm in diameter, one-tenth the thickness of a human hair.
The carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals and are extremely strong. They are woven
in a textile fashion and mixed with a polymer matrix, which is a hardened form of carbon fiber that is as
strong as steel but lighter. These materials are used in golf clubs and bicycle frames, as well as body parts
for cars and airplanes to replace aluminum. The Boeing 787 and Airbus 350X make extensive use of carbon
fiber. Graphite for batteries currently accounts to only 5 percent of the global demand.
Graphite comes in two forms: natural graphite from mines and synthetic graphite from petroleum coke.
Both types are used for Li-ion anode material with 55 percent gravitating towards synthetic and the balance
to natural graphite.
Manufacturers preferred synthetic graphite because of its superior consistency and purity to natural
graphite. This is changing and with modern chemical purification processes and thermal treatment, natural
graphite achieves a purity of 99.9 percent compared to 99.0 percent for the synthetic equivalent.
Purified natural flake graphite has a higher crystalline structure and offers better electrical and thermal
conductivity than synthetic material. Switching to natural graphite will lower production cost with same or
better Li-ion performance. Synthetic graphite for Li-ion sells for around US $10,000 per ton whereas
spherical graphite made from natural flake sells for US $7,000 (2015 prices).
Unprocessed natural graphite is much cheaper, and besides cost, natural graphite is more environmentally
friendly than synthetic graphite; it also forms the base for graphene, a scientist’s dream. At the end of 2016,
natural graphite accounts for 60-65% of the market share; synthetic is around 30% and alternatives such as
lithium titanate, silicon and tin is around 5%.
Graphene
Graphene is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice. Presented in a sheet
of pure carbon, graphene is only one atom thick. It is flexible, transparent, impermeable to moisture,
stronger than diamonds and more conductive than gold. Experts hint to graphene as a miracle material that
will improve many products, including the battery.
Graphene anodes are said to hold energy better than graphite anodes and promise a charge time that is ten
times faster than what is currently possible with Li-ion. Load capabilities should also improve; better
longevity is another item on the wish-list that needs to be proven.
With traditional graphite anodes, lithium ions accumulate around the outer surface of the anode. Graphene
has a more elegant solution by enabling lithium ions to pass through the tiny holes of the graphene sheets
measuring 10–20nm. This promises optimal storage area and easy extraction. Once available, such a
battery is estimated to store ten times more energy than Li-ion featuring regular graphite anodes.
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Further improvements with graphene are achieved by adding vanadium oxide to the cathode. Experimental
batteries with such an enhancement are said to recharge in 20 seconds and retain 90 percent capacity after
1,000 cycles. Graphene is also being tested in super capacitors to improve the specific energy density, as
well as in solar cells. Figure 60 illustrates the unique lattice of graphene made visible with scanning probe
microscopy (SPM).

Figure 60 - Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) shows an image of grapheme

Graphene is a sheet of pure carbon that is one atom thick. It is flexible, transparent, impermeable to
moisture, stronger than diamonds and more conductive than gold. Each carbon atom possesses three
electrons that bind with the nearest neighbor atom electron, creating a chemical bond (Source: U.S. Army
Materiel Command)
Scientists have theorized about the wonders of graphene for decades, but no commercial products exist
that makes exclusive use of this apparent miracle material. It is likely that the marvel of graphene has been
utilized unknowingly for centuries in pencils and other products. A better understanding of its mechanism
will eventually lead to improved products.
Meanwhile we take the many wonderful breakthroughs published by academia and stock promoters with a
grain of salt. We will embrace the super battery when it arrives but pledge to honor what we currently have
by taking better care of it in the workforce. (See BU-104c: The Octagon Battery.)
Last updated 2017-05-02

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BU-310: How does Cobalt Work in Li-ion?
Understanding why cobalt Li-ion is being substituted
Cobalt was discovered by Swedish chemist Georg Brandt in 1739. It is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal
that is extracted as a by-product when mining nickel and copper. Besides serving as a cathode material of
many Li-ion batteries, cobalt is also used to make powerful magnets, high-speed cutting tools, and high-
strength alloys for jet engines and gas turbines. Cobalt compounds have been employed for centuries to
color porcelain, glass, pottery, tile and enamel; it is also important in human nutrition as part of vitamin B12.
Figure 1 illustrates the breakdown of cobalt uses.

Cobalt is mostly retrieved as a byproduct from copper and nickel production. High cost entices battery
manufacturers to seek alternatives, but cobalt cannot be entirely eliminated (Source: CDI, Roskill, MMTA,
Industry Sources)
Being mostly a byproduct in the production of copper and nickel, the pricing follows the demand of these
primary metals. This can lead to an over-supply of cobalt, as was the case in 2015. Cobalt prices were
higher in 2010 and they are expected to pick up as the demand for large Li-ion batteries increases. Even at
reduced prices, a ton of high grade cobalt runs at about US $28,000. This compares to US $6,000 for a ton
of lithium carbonate (estimated 2015 prices). Lithium carbonate is a crystalline salt that is also used in glass
and ceramic industries, as well as in medicine.
According to the British Geological Survey (2014), the Democratic Republic of Congo has a 50 percent
share of worldwide cobalt production; China, Canada, Australia and Russia are also major contributors.
Cobalt in developing countries is often mined under life threating working conditions by adults and children
with low pay.
Cobalt is an essential element for good health but too has a poisoning effect that can reflect in heart
problems, damaged vision and cancer. Contact with cobalt can occur by indigestion, breathing cobalt
contaminated air, or by constant skin contact. Cobalt poisoning has also been reported from the wear and
tear of some cobalt/chromium metal-on-metal hip implants
The reuse of cobalt by recycling Li-ion batteries is only partially successful because of the refinements
needed to bring the material back to battery-grade. (See also BU-705: How to Recycle Batteries) There
should be no shortage of cobalt as the world has ample reserves.

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Cobalt was the first cathode material for commercial Li-ion batteries, but a high price entices manufacturers
to substitute the material. Cobalt blended with nickel, manganese and aluminum creates powerful cathode
materials that are more economical and offer enhanced performance to pure cobalt. (See also BU-205:
Types of Lithium-ion)
Last updated 2017-09-22

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BU-311: Battery Raw Materials
Batteries use diverse elements, which are harvested from the earth’s crust. It is thought provoking that
most of these materials are also shared by plants and living beings. We are made from stardust and
anything that grows and moves comes from these resources. As with all living organisms, the substances
for batteries are chosen carefully and in the right amount to achieve a harmonious interaction. Too much of
one part could spoil a fine balance.
Aluminum Aluminum is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic metal with symbol Al. Derived from
bauxite, it is the third most abundant element in the earth's crust after oxygen and silicon.
When exposed to air, aluminum forms a passivation layer that protects the metal from
corrosion. Aluminum is used as cathode material in some lithium-ion batteries.
Antimony Antimony is a brittle lustrous white metallic element with symbol Sb. It was discovered in
3000 BC and mistaken as for lead. The main producer is China and the metal is used in
lead acid batteries to reinforce the lead plates, reduce maintenance and enhance
performance. Other applications are flame-proofing materials, producing low friction
applications, improving material characteristics by mixing Sb with other alloys and
building semiconductors.
Cadmium Cadmium is a soft bluish-white metal with symbol Cd. Discovered in 1817 in Germany,
cadmium is a by-product of zinc production and was used as a pigment and and plating
on steel to resist corrosion. Cadmium is used as the anode material for the nickel-
cadmium batteries but the Restrictions of Hazardous Substances Directives banned the
batteries for commercial use.
Calcium Calcium is a soft gray alkaline metal with symbol Ca that was discovered by Humphry
Davy (1778–1829). It is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth's crust and
plays an essential role for living organisms to build bone, teeth and shells. Calcium
improves the mechanical strength of lead plates in lead acid batteries and enhances
performance.
Chloride Chloride is a negatively charged ion that forms when chlorine gains an electron or when
hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water or in other solvents. Chloride salts, such as
sodium chloride, are used as table salt and to preserve food. Chloride is also present in
body fluids as well as in the electrolyte of batteries.
Iron Iron is the most common element on earth by mass. The symbol Fe comes from Latin
“ferrum.” Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys with
lower melting temperatures came before iron. Pure iron is relatively soft and it can be
hardened with carbon. Iron compounds play an important role in biology and are also
used in the lithium-iron-phosphate-oxide battery.
Lead Lead is a soft, malleable heavy metal in the carbon group with symbol Pb. It is used in
lead acid batteries, bullets and weights and as a radiation shield. Lead has the highest
atomic number of all stable elements and is toxic if ingested; it damages the nervous
system and causes brain disorders.. Lead poisoning has been documented from ancient
Rome, Greece and China. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries.)
Manganese Manganese with symbol Mn is produced by mining iron and other minerals. The metal is
a relatively abundant and is mined worldwide except in North America. Steel
manufacturing uses roughly 90 percent of manganese production; the remaining 10% is
used in specialty chemical and agricultural. High grade, high purity manganese is in
growing demand for Li-ion batteries. Manganese is named after the region of “Magnesia”
in Greece where the black mineral was found. Manganese is used to prevent steel
corrosion and serves as cathode material in Li-ion, zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries.
Nickel Nickel with symbol Ni is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. It can be
traced back to 3500 BC. Nickel is mostly confined to larger nickel–iron meteorites; on
earth it is found in combination with iron. Mythology links the name nickel to Old Nick, a
mischievous gnome who argued that copper-nickel ores resisted refinement into copper.
Nickel is well suited for battery electrodes.
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Silver Silver (Ag) is a soft, white, lustrous metal that has the highest electrical and thermal
conductivity of any metals. It occurs naturally but most of it is produced as a by-product
of copper, gold, lead and zinc refining. Silver was used for monetary coins together with
the more valuable gold. In industry, silver is used in solar panels and water filtration, as
well as jewelry and high-value silverware. Other uses are electrical contacts and
conductors, mirrors, window coatings, photographic film and X-rays. In medicine, silver
compounds serve as disinfectants that are added to bandages and wound-dressings.
Silver is also found in the Silver-zinc battery.
Sodium Sodium, with symbol Na, is a soft, silver-white, highly reactive metal that belongs to the
six elements in the periodic table with a single electron in its outer shell. By donating the
electron, the atom becomes positively charged. Sodium is the sixth most abundant
element in the earth's crust but is derived from minerals. It was first isolated by Humphry
Davy in 1807 by electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Sodium compounds are used for soap-
making and de-icing agent, and, not to forget, edible salt on our dining room tables. It is
an essential element for living beings and plants; it is also used in Sodium-sulfur and
Lithium-sulfur batteries.
Spinel Spinel is a hard glassy mineral consisting of an oxide of magnesium and aluminum that
forms a three-dimensional chemical structure. Spinels were known as rubies, and now
belong to the most famous gemstones in shades of red, blue, green, yellow, brown and
black. Manganese-based Li ion batteries consist of a spinel structure in which the cathode
forms a three-dimensional framework that appears after initial formation. Spinel batteries
are known for their low resistance.
Sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur) is a bright yellow, non-metal chemical element with symbol S. It
occurs naturally and is sought after by mineral collectors for its distinct colors and
shapes. Sulfur was known in ancient India, Greece, China and Egypt; the Bible refers to it
as brimstone, meaning burning stone. Sulfur has the odor of rotting eggs; fumes from
burning sulfur were used in fumigating and as a healing agent. Sulfur made the best
gunpowder and is also used in matches, insecticides and fungicides. The largest
industrial use is fertilizer because it is an essential element for all life. Extracted from salt
domes in the past, almost all sulfur is now a by-product of gas and petroleum production.
Sulfur compounds are also used in the Sodium-sulfur battery.
Tin Tin (Sn) is a silvery, malleable metal that does not oxidize easily in the air. Appearing after
bronze in ancient times, the first pure metallic tin was produced in 600 BC. Today, it is
combined with many alloys, most notably tin/lead solder and corrosion-resistant tin
plating of steel. Low toxicity makes tin-plated metal suitable for food packaging. Tin is
also found in batteries.
Titanate Titanate usually refers to inorganic compounds composed of titanium oxides. The
materials are white and have a high melting point, making them suitable for furnaces.
Titanate is also used for anode material of some lithium-based batteries.
Vanadium Vanadium is a hard, silvery gray metal with symbol V. Discovered in 1801 in Mexico,
vanadium is found in about 65 minerals, and the metal forms a stable oxide layer once
isolated. Vanadium also occurs naturally in fossil fuel deposits and is produced in China
and Russia from steel smelter slag and other by-products, including uranium mining.
Vanadium is used for specialty steel alloys such as high-speed tools, including the Flow
Battery.
Zinc Zinc (Zn) is chemically similar to magnesium; combining zinc with copper turns into
brass, an alloy that has been used since the 10th century BC in Judea and the 7th century
BC in Greece. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India
and the late 1500s in Europe. By 1800, Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the
electrochemical properties of zinc for batteries. Other uses are corrosion-resistant zinc
plating of iron and light metal castings. It is also an ingredient in anti-dandruff shampoos.
Zinc is an essential mineral for our physical development and well-being. Zinc deficiency
affects about two billion people in the developing world. The symptoms are retardation in

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 growth, delayed sexual maturity, vulnerable to infection and diarrhea. Excess zinc can
lead to lethargy and copper deficiency.
Oxide Definition
Oxides form when oxygen bonds with elements. Exceptions are noble metals such as gold and platinum.
Oxide A chemical compound with at least one oxygen atom and another element
Monoxide Any oxide that contains one oxygen atom
Dioxide An oxide containing two oxygen atoms in its molecule or empirical formula
Trioxide An oxide containing three atoms of oxygen in its molecule or empirical formula
Hydroxide An inorganic chemical compound with one hydrogen and one oxygen atom
Solid oxide Elements that are being oxidized by oxygen in air or in water
Peroxide Compound containing an oxygen–oxygen single bond
Oxyhydroxide Mixed oxide and hydroxide
Last updated 2018-01-10

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CHANGE METHODS

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BU-401: How do Battery Chargers Work?
Discover which charger is best for your application
A good battery charger provides the base for batteries that are durable and perform well. In a price-
sensitive market, chargers often receive low priority and get the “after-thought” status. Battery and charger
must go together like a horse and carriage. Prudent planning gives the power source top priority by placing
it at the beginning of the project rather than after the hardware is completed, as is a common practice.
Engineers are often unaware of the complexity involving the power source, especially when charging
under adverse conditions.

One does not deliver without the other.

Chargers are commonly identified by their charging speed. Consumer products come with a low-cost
personal charger that performs well when used as directed. The industrial charger is often made by a third
party and includes special features, such as charging at adverse temperatures. Although batteries operate
below freezing, not all chemistries can be charged when cold and most Li-ions fall into this category. Lead-
and nickel-based batteries accept charge when cold but at a lower rate. (See BU-410: Charging at High and
Low Temperature)
Some Li-ion chargers (Cadex) include a wake-up feature, or “boost,” to allow recharging if a Li-ion battery
has fallen asleep due to over-discharge. A sleep condition can occur when storing the battery in a
discharged state in which self-discharge brings the voltage to the cut-off point. A regular charger treats
such a battery as unserviceable and the pack is often discarded. Boost applies a small charge current to
raise the voltage to between 2.2V/cell and 2.9V/cell to activate the protection circuit, at which point a
normal charge commences. Caution is required if a Li-ion has dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a week or longer.
Dendrites may have developed that could compromise safety. (See BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-
discharge Do? in which Figures 5 examines the elevated self-discharge after a Li-ion cell had been exposed
to deep discharge. See also BU-808a: How to Awaken Sleeping Li-ion.)
Lead- and lithium-based chargers operate on constant current constant voltage (CC/CV). The charge
current is constant and the voltage is capped when it reaches a set limit. Reaching the voltage limit, the
battery saturates; the current drops until the battery can no longer accept further charge and the fast
charge terminates. Each battery has its own low-current threshold.
Nickel-based batteries charge with constant current and the voltage is allowed to rise freely. This can be
compared to lifting a weight with a rubber band where the hand advances higher than the load. Full charge
detection occurs when observing a slight voltage drop after a steady rise. To safeguard against anomalies,
such as shorted or mismatched cells, the charger should include a plateau timer to assure a safe charge
termination if no voltage delta is detected. Temperature sensing should also be added that measures
temperature rise over time. Such a method is known as delta temperature over delta time, or dT/dt, and
works well with rapid and fast charge.
A temperature rise is normal with nickel-based batteries, especially when reaching the 70 percent charge
level. A decrease in charge efficiency causes this, and the charge current should be lowered to limit stress.
When “ready,” the charger switches to trickle charge and the battery must cool down. If the temperature
stays above ambient, then the charger is not performing correctly and the battery should be removed
because the trickle charge could be too high.

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NiCd and NiMH should not be left in the charger unattended for weeks and months. Until required, store the
batteries in a cool place and apply a charge before use.
Lithium-based batteries should always stay cool on charge. Discontinue the use of a battery or charger if
the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) above ambient under a normal charge. Li ion cannot absorb
over-charge and does not receive trickle charge when full. It is not necessary to remove Li-ion from the
charger; however, if not used for a week or more, it is best to place the pack in a cool place and recharge
before use.
Types of Chargers
The most basic charger was the overnight charger, also known as a slow charger. This goes back to the old
nickel-cadmium days where a simple charger applied a fixed charge of about 0.1C (one-tenth of the rated
capacity) as long as the battery was connected. Slow chargers have no full-charge detection; the charge
stays engaged and a full charge of an empty battery takes 14–16 hours. When fully charged, the slow
charger keeps NiCd lukewarm to the touch. Because of its reduced ability to absorb over-charge, NiMH
should not be charged on a slow charger. Low-cost consumer chargers charging AAA, AA and C cells often
deploy this charge method, so do some children’s toys. Remove the batteries when warm.
The rapid charger falls between the slow and fast charger and is used in consumer products. The charge
time of an empty pack is 3–6 hours. When full, the charger switches to “ready.” Most rapid chargers include
temperature sensing to safely charge a faulty battery.
The fast charger offers several advantages and the obvious one is shorter charge times. This demands
tighter communication between the charger and battery. At a charge rate of 1C, (see BU-402:What is C-
rate?) which a fast charger typically uses, an empty NiCd and NiMH charges in a little more than an hour. As
the battery approaches full charge, some nickel-based chargers reduce the current to adjust to the lower
charge acceptance. The fully charged battery switches the charger to trickle charge, also known as
maintenance charge. Most of today’s nickel-based chargers have a reduced trickle charge to also
accommodate NiMH.
Li-ion has minimal losses during charge and the coulombic efficiency is better than 99 percent. At 1C, the
battery charges to 70 percent state-of-charge (SoC) in less than an hour; the extra time is devoted to the
saturation charge. Li-ion does not require the saturation charge as lead acid does; in fact it is better not to
fully charge Li-ion — the batteries will last longer but the runtime will be a little less. Of all chargers, Li-ion is
the simplest. No trickery applies that promises to improve battery performance as is often claimed by
makers of chargers for lead- and nickel-based batteries. Only the rudimentary CC/CV method works.
Lead acid cannot be fast charged and the term “fast-charge” is a misnomer. Most lead acid chargers charge
the battery in 14–16 hours; anything slower is a compromise. Lead acid can be charged to 70 percent in
about 8 hours; the all-important saturation charge takes up the remaining time. A partial charge is fine
provided the lead acid occasionally receives a fully saturated charge to prevent sulfation.
The standby current on a charger should be low to save energy. Energy Star assigns five stars to mobile
phone chargers and other small chargers drawing 30mW or less on standby. Four stars go to chargers with
30–150mW, three stars to 150–250mW and two stars to 250–350mW. The average consumption is 300mW
and these units get one star. Energy Star aims to reduce current consumption of personal chargers that are
mostly left plugged in when not in use. There are over one billion such chargers connected to the gird
globally at any given time.
Simple Guidelines when Buying a Charger
Use the correct charger for the intended battery chemistry. Most chargers serve one chemistry only.
Make sure that the battery voltage agrees with the charger. Do not charge if different.
The Ah rating of a battery can be marginally different than specified. Charging a larger battery will take a
bit longer than a smaller pack and vice versa. Do not charge if the Ah rating deviates too much (more than
25 percent).
A high-wattage charger shortens the charge time but there are limitations as to how fast a battery can be
charged. Ultra-fast charging causes stress.

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 A lead acid charger should switch to float charge when fully saturated; a nickel-based charger must
switch to trickle charge when full. Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge and receives no trickle charge. Trickle
charge and float charges compensate for the losses incurred by self-discharge.
Chargers should have a temperature override to end charge on a faulty battery.
Observe charge temperature. Lead acid batteries should stay lukewarm to the touch; nickel-based
batteries will get warm towards the end of charge but must cool down on “ready.” Li-ion should not rise
more than 10ºC (18ºF) above ambient when reaching full charge.
Check battery temperature when using a low-cost charger. Remove battery when warm.
Charge at room temperature. Charge acceptance drops when cold. Li-ion cannot be charged below
freezing.
Last Updated 2016-05-04

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BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers
Learn about the good and bad on ultra-fast charging
Ultra-fast Chargers
Nowhere is ultra-fast charging in bigger demand than with the electric vehicle. Recharging an EV in minutes
replicates the convenience of filling 50 liters (13 gallons) of fuel into a tank that delivers 600kWh of energy.
Such large energy storage in an electrochemical device is not practical as a battery with such a capacity
would weigh 6 tons. Most Li-ion only produces about 150Wh per kg; the energy from fossil fuel is roughly
100 times higher. (See BU-1007: Net Calorific Value).
Charging an EV will always take longer than filling a tank, and the battery will always deliver less energy per
weight than fossil fuel. Breaking the rule of law and forcing ultra-fast charging adds stress, even if the
battery is designed for such a purpose. We must keep in mind that a battery is sluggish in nature. Like an
aging man, its physical condition becomes less ideal with use and age. So is the ability to fast-charge.
One assumes that all charge energy goes into the battery, whether charged slowly, rapidly or by ultra-fast
method. Batteries are nonlinear and there is no problem with fast charging an empty Li-ion up to about
50% state-of-charge (SoC). Stresses occur in the second half of the charge cycle towards top charge when
acceptance of lithium ions in the anode becomes labored. An analogy is irate drivers fighting for the last
parking lot in a shopping mall to catch a sale special.
Applying an ultra-fast charge when the battery is empty and then tapering off the current when reaching
50% SoC and higher is called step charging. The laptop industry has been applying step charging for many
years. The charge currents must harmonize with the battery type as different battery systems have
dissimilar requirements in charge acceptance. Battery manufacturers do not publish charge rates as a
function of SoC. Much of this is proprietary information.
Whether you own an EV, e-bike, a flying object, a portable device or a hobby gadget, the following
conditions must be respected when charging a battery the ultra-fast way:
The battery must be designed to accept an ultra-fast charge and must be in good condition. Li-ion can be
designed for a fast charge of 10-minutes or so but the specific energy of such a cell will be low.
Ultra-fast charging only applies during the first charge phase. The charge current should be lowered after
the battery reaches 70 percent state-of-charge (SoC).
All cells in the pack must be balanced and have ultra-low resistance. Aging cells often diverge in capacity
and resistance, causing mismatch and undue stress on weaker cells.
Ultra-fast charging can only be done under moderate temperatures, as low temperature slows the
chemical reaction. Unused energy turns into gassing, metal-plating and heat.
An ultra-fast charger can be compared to a high-speed train (Figure 1) traveling at 300km per hour (188
mph). Increasing power is relatively simple. It’s the track that governs the permissible speed of a train and
not the machinery. In the same manner, the condition of the battery dictates the charging speed

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 166 of 453

Powerful machinery is easy to build, but it’s the track that limits the speed.
A well-designed ultra-fast charger evaluates the condition of the “chemical battery” and makes adjustments
according to the ability to receive charge. The charger should also include temperature compensations and
other safety features to lower the charge current when certain conditions exist and halt the charge if the
battery is under undue stress.
A “smart” battery running on SMBus or other protocols is responsible for the charge current. The system
observes the battery condition and lowers or discontinues the charge if an anomaly occurs. Common
irregularities are cell imbalance or the need for calibration. Some “smart” batteries stop functioning if the
error is not corrected.
The maximum charge current a Li-ion can accept is governed by cell design, and not the cathode material,
as is commonly assumed. The goal is to avoid lithium-plating on the anode and to keep the temperature
under control. A thin anode with high porosity and small graphite particles enables ultra-fast charging
because of the large surface area. Power Cells can be charged and discharged at high currents, but the
energy density is low. Energy Cells, in comparison, have a thicker anode and lower porosity and the charge
rate should 1C or less. Some hybrid Cells in NCA (nickel-cobalt-aluminum) can be charged above 1C with
only moderate stress.
Apply the ultra-fast charge only when necessary. A well-designed ultra-fast charger should have charge-
time selection to give the user the option to choose the least stressful charge for the time allotted. Figure 2
compares the cycle life of a typical lithium-ion battery when charged and discharged at 1C, 2C and 3C rates.
The longevity can further be prolonged by charging and discharging below 1C; 0.8C is the recommended
rate.

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Charging and discharging Li-ion above 1C reduces service life. Use a slower charge and discharge if
possible. This rule applies to most batteries.
The question is often asked; “Why do ultra-fast chargers charge a battery to only 70 and 80 percent?” Fast-
charging creates a lag between voltage and state-of-charge that increases the faster the battery is being
charged. This can be compared to a rubber band lifting a heavy weight. The larger the weight, the wider the
lag becomes. The ultra-fast charge forces the voltage to the 4.20V/cell ceiling quickly while the battery is
only partially charged. Full charge will occur at a slower pace as part of saturation.
Lithium Titanate may be the exception and allow ultra-fast charging without undue stress. This feature will
likely be used in future EVs; however, Li-titanate has a lower specific energy than cobalt-blended Li-ion and
the battery is expensive. (See BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion)
Nickel-cadmium is another battery chemistry that can be charged in minutes to 70 percent state-of-charge.
Like with most batteries, the charge acceptance drops towards full-charge and the charge current must be
reduced.
All ultra-fast methods need for high power. An ultra-fast EV charge station draws the equivalent electrical
power of five households. Charging a fleet of EVs could dim a city.
Summary
All batteries perform best at room temperature and with a moderate charge and discharge. Such a
sheltered life style does not always reflect real world situations where a compact pack must be charged
quickly and deliver high currents. Such typical applications are drones and remote control devices for
hobbyist. Expect a short cycle life when a small pack must give all it has.
If fast charging and high load requirements are prerequisites, the rugged Power Cell is ideal; however, this
increases battery size and weight. An analogy is choosing a heavy diesel engine to run a large truck instead
of a souped-up engine designed for a sports car. The big diesel will outlive the light engine even if both
have identical horsepower. Going heavier will be more economical in the long run. Table 3 summarizes the
charge characteristics of lead, nickel and lithium-based batteries.
Type Chemistry C rate Time Temperatures Charge termination

Continuous low charge or fixed timer.

Slow NiCd 0ºC to 45ºC
0.1C 14h Subject to overcharge. Remove
charger Lead acid (32ºF to 113ºF)
battery when charged.

Rapid NiCd, NiMH, 10ºC to 45ºC Senses battery by voltage, current,

0.3-0.5C 3-6h
charger Li-ion (50ºF to 113ºF) temperature and time-out timer.

Fast NiCd, NiMH, 10ºC to 45ºC Same as a rapid charger with faster
1C 1h+
charger Li-ion (50ºF to 113ºF) service.

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 Type Chemistry C rate Time Temperatures Charge termination

Ultra-
Li-ion, NiCd, 10-60 10ºC to 45ºC Applies ultra-fast charge to 70% SoC;
fast 1-10C
NiMH minutes (50ºF to 113ºF) limited to specialty batteries.
charger

Each chemistry uses a unique charge termination.

Simple Guidelines Regarding Chargers
If possible, charge at a moderate rate. Ultra-fast charging always causes stress.
Fast and ultra-fast charge fills the battery only partially; a slower saturation charge completes the charge.
Unlike lead acid, Li-ion does not need the saturation charge but the capacity will be a bit lower.
Do not apply fast charge when the battery is cold or hot. Only charge at moderate temperatures. Avoid
fast charging an aged or low-performing battery.
Last Updated 2017-12-06

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BU-402: What Is C-rate?
Observe how the charge and discharge rates are scaled and why it matters.
Charge and discharge rates of a battery are governed by C-rates. The capacity of a battery is commonly
rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated at 1Ah should provide 1A for one hour. The same
battery discharging at 0.5C should provide 500mA for two hours, and at 2C it delivers 2A for 30 minutes.
Losses at fast discharges reduce the discharge time and these losses also affect charge times.
A C-rate of 1C is also known as a one-hour discharge; 0.5C or C/2 is a two-hour discharge and 0.2C or C/5 is
a 5-hour discharge. Some high-performance batteries can be charged and discharged above 1C with
moderate stress. Table 1 illustrates typical times at various C-rates.
Table 34 - C-rate and service times when charging and discharging batteries of 1Ah (1,000mAh)

C-rate Time
5C 12 min
2C 30 min
1C 1h
0.5C or C/2 2h
0.2C or C/5 5h
0.1C or C/10 10h
0.05C or C/20 20h

The battery capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be measured with a battery analyzer.
(See BU-909: Battery Test Equipment) The analyzer discharges the battery at a calibrated current while
measuring the time until the end-of-discharge voltage is reached. For lead acid, the end-of-discharge is
typically 1.75V/cell, for NiCd/NiMH 1.0V/cell and for Li-ion 3.0V/cell. If a 1Ah battery provides 1A for one
hour, an analyzer displaying the results in percentage of the nominal rating will show 100 percent. If the
discharge lasts 30 minutes before reaching the end-of-discharge cut-off voltage, then the battery has a
capacity of 50 percent. A new battery is sometimes overrated and can produce more than 100 percent
capacity; others are underrated and never reach 100 percent, even after priming.
When discharging a battery with a battery analyzer capable of applying different C rates, a higher C rate will
produce a lower capacity reading and vice versa. By discharging the 1Ah battery at the faster 2C-rate, or 2A,
the battery should ideally deliver the full capacity in 30 minutes. The sum should be the same since the
identical amount of energy is dispensed over a shorter time. In reality, internal losses turn some of the
energy into heat and lower the resulting capacity to about 95 percent or less. Discharging the same battery
at 0.5C, or 500mA over 2 hours, will likely increase the capacity to above 100 percent.
To obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate alkaline and lead acid
batteries at a very low 0.05C, or a 20-hour discharge. Even at this slow discharge rate, lead acid seldom
attains a 100 percent capacity as the batteries are overrated. Manufacturers provide capacity offsets to
adjust for the discrepancies if discharged at a higher C rate than specified. (See also BU-503: How to
Calculate Battery Runtime) Figure 2 illustrates the discharge times of a lead acid battery at various loads
expressed in C-rate.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 170 of 453

 Figure 61 - Typical discharge curves of lead acid as a function of C-rate

Smaller batteries are rated at a 1C discharge rate. Due to sluggish behavior, lead acid is rated at 0.2C (5h)
and 0.05C (20h).
While lead- and nickel-based batteries can be discharged at a high rate, the protection circuit prevents the
Li-ion Energy Cell from discharging above 1C. The Power Cell with nickel, manganese and/or phosphate
active material can tolerate discharge rates of up to 10C and the current threshold is set higher accordingly.
Last updated 2017-03-09

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BU-403: Charging Lead Acid
Learn how to optimize charging conditions to extend service life.
The lead acid battery uses the constant current constant voltage (CC/CV) charge method. A regulated
current raises the terminal voltage until the upper charge voltage limit is reached, at which point the current
drops due to saturation. The charge time is 12–16 hours and up to 36–48 hours for large stationary batteries.
With higher charge currents and multi-stage charge methods, the charge time can be reduced to 8–10
hours; however, without full topping charge. Lead acid is sluggish and cannot be charged as quickly as
other battery systems. (See BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems.)
Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages, which are [1] constant-current charge, [2] topping
charge and [3] float charge. The constant-current charge applies the bulk of the charge and takes up
roughly half of the required charge time; the topping charge continues at a lower charge current and
provides saturation, and the float charge compensates for the loss caused by self-discharge.
During the constant-current charge, the battery charges to about 70 percent in 5–8 hours; the remaining 30
percent is filled with the slower topping charge that lasts another 7–10 hours. The topping charge is
essential for the well-being of the battery and can be compared to a little rest after a good meal. If
continually deprived, the battery will eventually lose the ability to accept a full charge and the performance
will decrease due to sulfation. The float charge in the third stage maintains the battery at full charge. Figure
1 illustrates these three stages.

The battery is fully charged when the current drops to a set low level. The float voltage is reduced. Float
charge compensates for self-discharge that all batteries exhibit (Courtesy of Cadex)
The switch from Stage 1 to 2 occurs seamlessly and happens when the battery reaches the set voltage limit.
The current begins to drop as the battery starts to saturate; full charge is reached when the current
decreases to 3–5 percent of the Ah rating. A battery with high leakage may never attain this low saturation
current, and a plateau timer takes over to end the charge.
The correct setting of the charge voltage limit is critical and ranges from 2.30V to 2.45V per cell. Setting the
voltage threshold is a compromise and battery experts refer to this as “dancing on the head of a needle.”
On one hand, the battery wants to be fully charged to get maximum capacity and avoid sulfation on the
negative plate; on the other hand, over-saturation by not switching to float charge causes grid corrosion on
the positive plate. This also leads to gassing and water-loss.

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Temperature changes the voltage and this makes “dancing on the head of a needle” more difficult. A
warmer ambient requires a slightly lower voltage threshold and a colder temperature prefers a higher
setting. Chargers exposed to temperature fluctuations include temperature sensors to adjust the charge
voltage for optimum charge efficiency.
The charge temperature coefficient of a lead acid cell is –3mV/°C. Establishing 25°C (77°F) as the midpoint,
the charge voltage should be reduced by 3mV per cell for every degree above 25°C and increased by 3mV
per cell for every degree below 25°C. If this is not possible, it is better to choose a lower voltage for safety
reasons. Table 2 compares the advantages and limitations of various peak voltage settings.
2.30V to 2.35V/cell 2.40V to 2.45V/cell

Advantages Maximum service life; battery Higher and more consistent

stays cool; charge temperature capacity readings; less sulfation.
can exceed 30°C (86°F).

Limitations Slow charge time; capacity Subject to corrosion and gassing.

readings may be inconsistent and Needs water refill. Not suitable for
declining with each cycle. charging at high room
Sulfation may occur without temperatures, causing severe
equalizing charge. overcharge.

Cylindrical lead acid cells have higher voltage settings than VRLA and starter batteries.
Once fully charged through saturation, the battery should not dwell at the topping voltage for more than 48
hours and must be reduced to the float voltage level. This is especially critical for sealed systems because
they are less tolerant to overcharge than the flooded type. Charging beyond the specified limits turns
redundant energy into heat and the battery begins to gas.
The recommended float voltage of most flooded lead acid batteries is 2.25V to 2.27V/cell. Large stationary
batteries at 25°C (77°F) typically float at 2.25V/cell. Manufacturers recommend lowering the float charge
when the ambient temperature rises above 29°C (85°F).
Figure 3 illustrate the life of a lead acid battery that is kept at a float voltage of 2.25V to 2.30V/cell and at a
temperature of 20°C to 25°C (60°F to 77°F). After 4 years of operation permanent capacity losses become
visible, crossing the 80 percent line. This loss is larger if the battery requires periodic deep discharges.
Elevated heat also reduces battery life. (See also BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life.)

Permanent capacity loss can be minimized with operating at a moderate room temperature and a float
voltage of 2.25–2.30V/cell (Source: Power-Sonic)
Not all chargers feature float charge and very few road vehicles have this provision. If your charger stays on
topping charge and does not drop below 2.30V/cell, remove the charge after 48 hours of charging.
Recharge every 6 months while in storage; AGM every 6–12 months.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 173 of 453
These described voltage settings apply to flooded cells and batteries with a pressure relief valve of about
34kPa (5psi). Cylindrical sealed lead acid, such as the Hawker Cyclon cell, requires higher voltage settings
and the limits should be set to manufacturer’s specifications. Failing to apply the recommended voltage will
cause a gradual decrease in capacity due to sulfation. The Hawker Cyclon cell has a pressure relief setting
of 345kPa (50psi). This allows some recombination of the gases generated during charge.
Aging batteries pose a challenge when setting the float charge voltage because each cell has its own
unique condition. Connected in a string, all cells receive the same charge current and controlling individual
cell voltages as each reaches full capacity is almost impossible. Weak cells may go into overcharge while
strong cells remain in a starved state. A float current that is too high for the faded cell might sulfate the
strong neighbor due to undercharge. Cell-balancing devices are available compensate for the differences in
voltages caused by cell imbalance.
Ripple voltage also causes a problem with large stationary batteries. A voltage peak constitutes an
overcharge, causing hydrogen evolution, while the valley induces a brief discharge that creates a starved
state resulting in electrolyte depletion. Manufacturers limit the ripple on the charge voltage to 5 percent.
Much has been said about pulse charging of lead acid batteries to reduce sulfation. The results are
inconclusive and manufacturers as well as service technicians are divided on the benefit. If sulfation could
be measured and the right amount of pulsing applied, then the remedy could be beneficial; however giving
a cure without knowing the underlying side effects can be harmful to the battery.
Most stationary batteries are kept on float charge and this works reasonably well. Another method is the
hysteresis charge that disconnects the float current when the battery goes to standby mode. The battery is
essentially put in storage and is only “borrowed” from time to time to apply a topping-charge to replenish
lost energy due to self-discharge, or when a load is applied. This mode works well for installations that do
not draw a load when on standby.
Lead acid batteries must always be stored in a charged state. A topping charge should be applied every 6
months to prevent the voltage from dropping below 2.05V/cell and causing the battery to sulfate. With
AGM, these requirements can be relaxed.
Measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) while in storage provides a reliable indication as to the state-of-
charge of the battery. A cell voltage of 2.10V at room temperature reveals a charge of about 90 percent.
Such a battery is in good condition and needs only a brief full charge prior to use. (See also BU-903: How to
Measure State-of-charge.)
Observe the storage temperature when measuring the open circuit voltage. A cool battery lowers the
voltage slightly and a warm one increases it. Using OCV to estimate state-of-charge works best when the
battery has rested for a few hours, because a charge or discharge agitates the battery and distorts the
voltage.
Some buyers do not accept shipments of new batteries if the OCV at incoming inspection is below 2.10V
per cell. A low voltage suggests a partial charge due to long storage or a high self-discharge caused by a
micro-short. Battery users have found that a pack arriving at a lower than specified voltage has a higher
failure rate than those with higher voltages. Although in-house service can often bring such batteries to full
performance, the time and equipment required adds to operational costs. (Note that the 2.10V/cell
acceptance threshold does not apply to all lead acid types equally.)
Under the right temperature and with sufficient charge current, lead acid provides high charge efficiently.
The exception is charging at 40°C (104°F) and low current, as Figure 4 demonstrates. In respect of high
efficiency, lead acid shares this fine attribute with Li-ion that is closer to 99%. See BU-409: Charging
Lithium-ion and BU-808b: What Causes Li-ion to Die?

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At the right temperature and with sufficient charge current, lead acid provides high charge efficiency
(Source: Power-Sonic)
Watering
Watering is the single most important step in maintaining a flooded lead acid battery; a requirement that is
all too often neglected. The frequency of watering depends on usage, charge method and operating
temperature. Over-charging also leads to water consumption.
A new battery should be checked every few weeks to estimate the watering requirement. This assures that
the top of the plates are never exposed. A naked plate will sustain irreversible damage through oxidation,
leading to reduced capacity and lower performance.
If low on electrolyte, immediately fill the battery with distilled or de-ionized water. Tap water may be
acceptable in some regions. Do not fill to the correct level before charging as this could cause an overflow
during charging. Always top up to the desired level after charging. Never add electrolyte as this would
upset the specific gravity and promote corrosion. Watering systems eliminate low electrolyte levels by
automatically adding the right amount of water.
Simple Guidelines for Charging Lead Acid Batteries
Charge in a well-ventilated area. Hydrogen gas generated during charging is explosive. (See BU-703:
Health Concerns with Batteries)
Choose the appropriate charge program for flooded, gel and AGM batteries. Check manufacturer’s
specifications on recommended voltage thresholds.
Recharge lead acid batteries after each use to prevent sulfation. Do not store on low charge.
The plates of flooded batteries must always be fully submerged in electrolyte. Fill the battery with
distilled or de-ionized water to cover the plates if low. Never add electrolyte.
Fill water level to designated level after charging. Overfilling when the battery is on low charge can cause
acid spillage during charging.
The formation of gas bubbles in a flooded lead acid indicates that the battery is reaching full state-of-
charge. (Hydrogen appears on negative plate and oxygen on positive plate).
• Lower the float charge voltage if the ambient temperature is higher than 29°C (85°F)..

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 Do not allow a lead acid to freeze. An empty battery freezes sooner than one that is fully charged. Never
charge a frozen battery.
Avoid charging at temperatures above 49°C (120°F).
Last updated 2017-04-04

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BU-404: What is Equalizing Charge?
Know how to apply an equalize charge and not damage the battery.
Stationary batteries are almost exclusively lead acid and some maintenance is required, one of which is
equalizing charge. Applying a periodic equalizing charge brings all cells to similar levels by increasing the
voltage to 2.50V/cell, or 10 percent higher than the recommended charge voltage.
An equalizing charge is nothing more than a deliberate overcharge to remove sulfate crystals that build up
on the plates over time. Left unchecked, sulfation can reduce the overall capacity of the battery and render
the battery unserviceable in extreme cases. An equalizing charge also reverses acid stratification, a
condition where acid concentration is greater at the bottom of the battery than at the top.
Experts recommend equalizing services once a month to once or twice a year. A better method is to apply
a fully saturated charge and then compare the specific gravity readings (SG) on the individual cells of a
flooded lead acid battery with a hydrometer. Only apply equalization if the SG difference between the cells
is 0.030.
During equalizing charge, check the changes in the SG reading every hour and disconnect the charge when
the gravity no longer rises. This is the time when no further improvement is possible and a continued
charge would have a negative effect on the battery.
The battery must be kept cool and under close observation for unusual heat rise and excessive venting.
Some venting is normal and the hydrogen emitted is highly flammable. The battery room must have good
ventilation as the hydrogen gas becomes explosive at a concentration of 4 percent.
Equalizing VRLA and other sealed batteries involves guesswork. Observing the differences in cell voltage
does not give a conclusive solution and good judgment plays a pivotal role when estimating the frequency
and duration of the service. Some manufacturers recommend monthly equalizations for 2–16 hours. Most
VRLAs vent at 34kPa (5psi), and repeated venting leads to the depletion of the electrolyte, which can lead to
a dry-out condition.
Not all chargers feature equalizing charge. If not available, the service should be performed with a
dedicated device.
Last updated 2016-02-23

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BU-405: Charging with a Power Supply
Learn how to charge a battery without a designated charger.
Batteries can be charged manually with a power supply featuring user-adjustable voltage and current
limiting. I stress manual because charging needs the know-how and can never be left unattended; charge
termination is not automated. Because of difficulties in detecting full charge with nickel-based batteries, I
recommend charging only lead and lithium-based batteries manually.
Lead Acid
Before connecting the battery, calculate the charge voltage according to the number of cells in series, and
then set the desired voltage and current limit. To charge a 12-volt lead acid battery (six cells) to a voltage
limit of 2.40V, set the voltage to 14.40V (6 x 2.40). Select the charge current according to battery size. For
lead acid, this is between 10 and 30 percent of the rated capacity. A 10Ah battery at 30 percent charges at
about 3A; the percentage can be lower. An 80Ah starter battery may charge at 8A. (A 10 percent charge rate
is equal to 0.1C.)
Observe the battery temperature, voltage and current during charge. Charge only at ambient temperatures
in a well-ventilated room. Once the battery is fully charged and the current has dropped to 3 percent of the
rated Ah, the charge is completed. Disconnect the charge. Also disconnect the charge after 16–24 hours if
the current has bottomed out and cannot go lower; high self-discharge (soft electrical short) can prevent
the battery from reaching the low saturation level. If you need float charge for operational readiness, lower
the charge voltage to about 2.25V/cell.
You can also use the power supply to equalize a lead acid battery by setting the charge voltage 10 percent
higher than recommended. The time in overcharge is critical and must be carefully observed. (See BU-404:
What is Equalizing Charge.)
A power supply can also reverse sulfation. Set the charge voltage above the recommended level, adjust the
current limiting to the lowest practical value and observe the battery voltage. A totally sulfated lead acid
may draw very little current at first and as the sulfation layer dissolves, the current will gradually increase.
Elevating the temperature and placing the battery on an ultrasound vibrator may also help in the process. If
the battery does not accept a charge after 24 hours, restoration is unlikely. (See BU-804b: Sulfation and
How to Prevent it.)
Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion charges similarly to lead acid and you can also use the power supply but exercise extra caution.
Check the full charge voltage, which is commonly 4.20V/cell, and set the threshold accordingly. Make
certain that none of the cells connected in series exceeds this voltage. (The protection circuit in a
commercial pack does this.) Full charge is reached when the cell(s) reach 4.20V/cell voltage and the current
drops to 3 percent of the rated current, or has bottomed out and cannot go down further. Once fully
charged, disconnect the battery. Never allow a cell to dwell at 4.20V for more than a few hours. (See BU-
409: Charging Lithium-ion.)
Please note that not all Li-ion batteries charge to the voltage threshold of 4.20V/cell. Lithium iron phosphate
typically charges to the cut-off voltage of 3.65V/cell and lithium-titanate to 2.85V/cell. Some Energy Cells
may accept 4.30V/cell and higher. It is important to observe these voltage limits. (See BU-205: Types of
Lithium-ion.)
NiCd and NiMH
Charging nickel-based batteries with a power supply is challenging because the full-charge detection is
rooted in a voltage signature that varies with the applied charge current. If you must charge NiCd and NiMH
with a regulated power supply, use the temperature rise on a 0.3–1C rapid charge as an indication of full
charge. When charging at a low current, estimate the level of remaining charge and calculate the charge
time. An empty 2Ah NiMH will charge in about 3 hours at 750–1,000mA. The trickle charge, also known as
maintenance charge, must be reduced to 0.05C. (See BU-407: Charging Nickel-cadmium; BU-408: Charging
Nickel-metal-hydride.)

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Last updated 2016-02-27

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BU-406: Battery as a Buffer
Find out how to combine the battery and power supply to meet peak requirements.
The main purpose of a stationary battery is to provide power during power outage. Battery banks are also
designed to provide extra power during high-traffic periods when the AC power supply does not have
sufficient capacity to feed the system. In this case, the battery acts as a buffer similar to the battery in a
hybrid car that assists in acceleration.
Cellular repeater towers are an example where the backup battery serves as a buffer. The batteries get fully
charged during off-peak periods and go into discharge mode to assist the AC power supply during the peak
times.
When relying on the battery as buffer, make certain that the battery has enough time to charge between
peak periods. The net charge must always be greater than what was drawn from the battery. Avoid deep
discharges as this would wear down the battery prematurely. Note that stationary and starter batteries are
not made for deep cycling. If periodic cycling is needed, choose a deep-cycle battery.
Last updated 2016-02-23

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BU-407: Charging Nickel-cadmium
Learn how to maximize charge, minimize heat and reduce memory.
Nickel-based batteries are more complex to charge than Li-ion and lead acid. Lithium- and lead-based
systems are charged with a regulated current to bring the voltage to a set limit after which the battery
saturates until fully charged. This method is called constant current constant voltage (CC/CV). Nickel-based
batteries also charge with constant current but the voltage is allowed to rise freely. Full charge detection
occurs by observing a slight voltage drop after a steady rise. This may be connected with plateau timing
and temperature rise over time (more below).
Battery manufacturers recommend that new batteries be slow-charged for 16–24 hours before use. A slow
charge brings all cells in a battery pack to an equal charge level. This is important because each cell within
the nickel-cadmium battery may have self-discharged at its own rate. Furthermore, during long storage the
electrolyte tends to gravitate to the bottom of the cell and the initial slow charge helps in the redistribution
to eliminate dry spots on the separator. (See also BU-803a: Loss of Electrolyte.)
Battery manufacturers do not fully format nickel- and lead-based batteries before shipment. The cells reach
optimal performance after priming that involves several charge/discharge cycles. This is part of normal
use; it can also be done with a battery analyzer. Quality cells are known to perform to full specifications
after only 5–7 cycles; others may take 50–100 cycles. Peak capacity occurs between 100–300 cycles, after
which the performance starts to drop gradually.
Most rechargeable cells include a safety vent that releases excess pressure if incorrectly charged. The vent
on a NiCd cell opens at 1,000–1,400kPa (150–200psi). Pressure released through a re-sealable vent causes no
damage; however, with each venting event some electrolyte escapes and the seal may begin to leak. The
formation of a white powder at the vent opening makes this visible. Multiple venting eventually results in a
dry-out condition. A battery should never be stressed to the point of venting.
Full-charge Detection by Temperature
Full-charge detection of sealed nickel-based batteries is more complex than that of lead acid and lithium-
ion. Low-cost chargers often use temperature sensing to end the fast charge, but this can be inaccurate.
The core of a cell is several degrees warmer than the skin where the temperature is measured, and the
delay that occurs causes over-charge. Charger manufacturers use 50°C (122°F) as temperature cut-off.
Although any prolonged temperature above 45°C (113°F) is harmful to the battery, a brief overshoot is
acceptable as long as the battery temperature drops quickly when the “ready” light appears.
Advanced chargers no longer rely on a fixed temperature threshold but sense the rate of temperature
increase over time, also known as delta temperature over delta time, or dT/dt. Rather than waiting for an
absolute temperature to occur, dT/dt uses the rapid temperature increase towards the end of charge to
trigger the “ready” light. The delta temperature method keeps the battery cooler than a fixed temperature
cut-off, but the cells need to charge reasonably fast to trigger the temperature rise. Charge termination
occurs when the temperature rises 1°C (1.8°F) per minute. If the battery cannot achieve the needed
temperature rise, an absolute temperature cut-off set to 60°C (140°F) terminates the charge.
Chargers relying on temperature inflict harmful overcharges when a fully charged battery is repeatedly
removed and reinserted. This is the case with chargers in vehicles and desktop stations where a two-way
radio is being detached with each use. Reconnection initiates a new charge cycle that requires reheating of
the battery.
Li ion systems have an advantage in that voltage governs state-of-charge. Reinserting a fully charged Li-ion
battery immediately pushes the voltage to the full-charge threshold, the current drops and the charger
turns off shortly without needing to create a temperature signature.

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Full-charge Detection by Voltage Signature
Advanced chargers terminate charge when a defined voltage signature occurs. This provides a more
precise full-charge detection of nickel-based batteries than temperature-based methods. The charger looks
for a voltage drop that occurs when the battery has reached full charge. This method is called negative
delta V (NDV).
NDV is the recommended full-charge detection method for chargers applying a charge rate of 0.3C and
higher. It offers a quick response time and works well with a partially or fully charged battery. When
inserting a fully charged battery, the terminal voltage rises quickly and then drops sharply to trigger the
ready state. The charge lasts only a few minutes and the cells remain cool. NiCd chargers with NDV
detection typically respond to a voltage drop of 5mV per cell.
To achieve a reliable voltage signature, the charge rate must be 0.5C and higher. Slower charging produces
a less defined voltage drop, especially if the cells are mismatched in which case each cell reaches full
charge at a different time point. To assure reliable full-charge detection, most NDV chargers also use a
voltage plateau detector that terminates the charge when the voltage remains in a steady state for a given
time. These chargers also include delta temperature, absolute temperature and a time-out timer.
Fast charging improves the charge efficiency. At 1C charge rate, the efficiency of a standard NiCd is 91
percent and the charge time is about an hour (66 minutes at 91 percent). On a slow charger, the efficiency
drops to 71 percent, prolonging the charge time to about 14 hours at 0.1C.
During the first 70 percent of charge, the efficiency of a NiCd is close to 100 percent. The battery absorbs
almost all energy and the pack remains cool. NiCd batteries designed for fast charging can be charged with
currents that are several times the C-rating without extensive heat buildup. In fact, NiCd is the only battery
that can be ultra-fast charged with minimal stress. Cells made for ultra-fast charging can be charged to 70
percent in minutes.
Figure 1 shows the relationship of cell voltage, pressure and temperature of a charging NiCd. Everything
goes well up to about 70 percent charge, when charge efficiency drops. The cells begin to generate gases,
the pressure rises and the temperature increases rapidly. To reduce battery stress, some chargers lower
the charge rate past the 70 percent mark.

Charge efficiency is high up to 70% SoC* and then charge acceptances drops. NiMH is similar to NiCd.
Charge efficiency measures the battery’s ability to accept charge and has similarities with coulombic
efficiency.

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* SoC refers to relative state-of-charge (RSoC) reflecting the actual energy a battery can store. Full charge
will show 100% even if the capacity has faded. (See BU-105: Battery Definition and what they mean)
(Source: Cadex)
Ultra-high-capacity NiCd batteries tend to heat up more than standard NiCds when charging at 1C and
higher and this is partly due to increased internal resistance. Applying a high current at the initial charge
and then tapering off to a lower rate as the charge acceptance decreases is a recommended fast charge
method for these more fragile batteries. (See BU-208: Cycle Performance.)
Interspersing discharge pulses between charge pulses is known to improve charge acceptance of nickel-
based batteries. Commonly referred to as a “burp” or “reverse load” charge, this method assists in the
recombination of gases generated during charge. The result is a cooler and more effective charge than with
conventional DC chargers. The method is also said to reduce the “memory” effect as the battery is being
exercised with pulses. (See BU-807: How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries.) While pulse charging may be
valuable for NiCd and NiMH batteries, this method does not apply to lead- and lithium-based systems.
These batteries work best with a pure DC voltage.
After full charge, the NiCd battery receives a trickle charge of 0.05–0.1C to compensate for self-discharge.
To reduce possible overcharge, charger designers aim for the lowest possible trickle charge current. In
spite of this, it is best not to leave nickel-based batteries in a charger for more than a few days. Remove
them and recharge before use.
Charging Flooded Nickel-cadmium Batteries
Flooded NiCd is charged with a constant voltage to about 1.55V/cell. The current is then reduced to 0.1C and
the charge continues until 1.55V/cell is reached again. At this point, a trickle charge is applied and the
voltage is allowed to float freely. Higher charge voltages are possible but this generates excess gas and
causes rapid water depletion. NDV is not applicable as the flooded NiCd does not absorb gases because it
is not under pressure.
Last updated 2017-12-06

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BU-408: Charging Nickel-metal-hydride
Know how to apply the correct charge to moderate heat and prevent overcharge.
The charge algorithm for NiMH is similar to NiCd with the exception that NiMH is more complex. Negative
Delta V to detect full charge is faint, especially when charging at less than 0.5C. A mismatched or hot pack
reduces the symptoms further.
NDV in a NiMH charger should respond to a voltage drop of 5mV per cell or less. This requires electronic
filtering to compensate for noise and voltage fluctuations induced by the battery and the charger. Well-
designed NiMH chargers include NDV, voltage plateau, delta temperature (dT/dt), temperature threshold
and time-out timers into the full-charge detection algorithm. These “or-gates” utilize whatever comes first.
Many chargers include a 30-minute topping charge of 0.1C to boost the capacity by a few percentage
points.
Some advanced chargers apply an initial fast charge of 1C. When reaching a certain voltage threshold, a
rest of a few minutes is added, allowing the battery to cool down. The charge continues at a lower current
and then applies further current reductions as the charge progresses. This scheme continues until the
battery is fully charged. Known as the “step-differential charge,” this method works well for all nickel-based
batteries.
Chargers utilizing the step-differential or other aggressive charge methods achieve a capacity gain of about
6 percent over a more basic charger. Although a higher capacity is desirable, filling the battery to the brim
adds stress and shortens the overall battery life. Rather than achieving the expected 350–400 service
cycles, the aggressive charger might exhaust the pack after 300 cycles.
NiMH dislikes overcharge, and the trickle charge is set to around 0.05C. NiCd is better at absorbing
overcharge and the original NiCd chargers had a trickle charge of 0.1C. The differences in trickle charge
current and the need for more sensitive full-charge detection render the original NiCd charger unsuitable
for NiMH batteries. A NiMH in a NiCd charger would overheat, but a NiCd in a NiMH charger functions well.
Modern chargers accommodate both battery systems.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to slow charge a NiMH battery. At a C rate of 0.1C to 0.3C, the voltage and
temperature profiles do not exhibit defined characteristics to trigger full-charge detection, and the charger
must depend on a timer. Harmful overcharge can occur when charging partially or fully charged batteries,
even if the battery remains cold.
The same scenario occurs if the battery has lost capacity and can only hold half the charge. In essence, this
battery has shrunk to half the size while the fixed timer is programmed to apply a 100 percent charge
without regard for battery condition.
Many battery users complain about shorter than expected service life and the fault might lie in the charger.
Low-priced consumer chargers are prone to incorrect charging. If you want to improve battery
performance with a low-cost charger, estimate the battery state-of-charge and set the charge time
accordingly. Remove the batteries when presumed full.
If your charger charges at a high charge rate, do a temperature check. Lukewarm indicates that the batteries
may be full. It is better to remove the batteries early and recharge before each use than to leave them in the
charger for eventual use.
Simple Guidelines for Charging Nickel-based Batteries
The charge efficiency of nickel-based is close to 100 percent up to 70 percent charge. The pack remains
cool but it begins to warm up with decreased efficiency towards full charge.
Nickel-based batteries must cool down on trickle charge. If warm, trickle charge is too high.
Consumer chargers do not always terminate the charge correctly. Remove the batteries when warm to
the touch. Discontinue using a charger that “cooks” batteries.
Charge at room temperature. Do not charge when hot or at freezing temperatures. (See BU-410: Charging
at High and Low Temperatures)

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 Nickel-based batteries are best fast charged; a lingering slow charge causes “memory.”
Nickel- and lithium-based batteries require different charge algorithms. A NiMH charger can also charge
NiCd; a NiCd charger would overcharge NiMH.
Do not leave a nickel-based battery in the charger for more than a few days. If possible, remove the packs
and apply a brief charge before use.
Last updated 2016-05-17

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BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion
Find out how to prolong battery life by using correct charge methods.
Charging and discharging batteries is a chemical reaction, but Li-ion is claimed to be the exception. Battery
scientists talk about energies flowing in and out of the battery as part of ion movement between anode and
cathode. This claim carries merits but if the scientists were totally right, then the battery would live forever.
They blame capacity fade on ions getting trapped, but as with all battery systems, internal corrosion and
other degenerative effects also known as parasitic reactions on the electrolyte and electrodes till play a role.
(See BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to die?.)
The Li ion charger is a voltage-limiting device that has similarities to the lead acid system. The differences
with Li-ion lie in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerances and the absence of trickle or float
charge at full charge. While lead acid offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut off, manufacturers of Li-
ion cells are very strict on the correct setting because Li-ion cannot accept overcharge. The so-called
miracle charger that promises to prolong battery life and gain extra capacity with pulses and other
gimmicks does not exist. Li-ion is a “clean” system and only takes what it can absorb.
Charging Cobalt-blended Li-ion
Li-ion with the traditional cathode materials of cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum typically charge to
4.20V/cell. The tolerance is +/–50mV/cell. Some nickel-based varieties charge to 4.10V/cell; high capacity
Li-ion may go to 4.30V/cell and higher. Boosting the voltage increases capacity, but going beyond
specification stresses the battery and compromises safety. Protection circuits built into the pack do not
allow exceeding the set voltage.
Figure 1 shows the voltage and current signature as lithium-ion passes through the stages for constant
current and topping charge. Full charge is reached when the current decreases to between 3 and 5 percent
of the Ah rating.

Li-ion is fully charged when the current drops to a set level. In lieu of trickle charge, some chargers apply a
topping charge when the voltage drops (Courtesy of Cadex)

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The advised charge rate of an Energy Cell is between 0.5C and 1C; the complete charge time is about 2–3
hours. Manufacturers of these cells recommend charging at 0.8C or less to prolong battery life; however,
most Power Cells can take a higher charge C-rate with little stress. Charge efficiency is about 99 percent
and the cell remains cool during charge.
Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5ºC (9ºF) when reaching full charge. This
could be due to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal resistance. Discontinue using the battery or
charger if the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) under moderate charging speeds.
Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the current drops to 3 percent of the
rated current. A battery is also considered fully charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further.
Elevated self-discharge might be the cause of this condition.
Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much. Although the battery reaches
the voltage peak quicker, the saturation charge will take longer accordingly. With higher current, Stage 1 is
shorter but the saturation during Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however, quickly fill
the battery to about 70 percent.
Li-ion does not need to be fully charged as is the case with lead acid, nor is it desirable to do so. In fact, it is
better not to fully charge because a high voltage stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold
or eliminating the saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime. Chargers
for consumer products go for maximum capacity and cannot be adjusted; extended service life is
perceived less important.
Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified “charge-and-run” method that charges a
lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage 2 saturation charge. “Ready” appears
when the battery reaches the voltage threshold at Stage 1. State-of-charge (SoC) at this point is about 85
percent, a level that may be sufficient for many users.
Certain industrial chargers set the charge voltage threshold lower on purpose to prolong battery life. Table
2 illustrates the estimated capacities when charged to different voltage thresholds with and without
saturation charge. (See also BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries.)
Capacity at
Capacity with full
Charge V/cell Charge time
saturation
cut-off voltage

3.80 60% 120 min ~65%

3.90 70% 135 min ~75%

4.00 75% 150 min ~80%

4.10 80% 165 min ~90%

4.20 85% 180 min 100%

Adding full saturation at the set voltage boosts the capacity by about 10 percent but adds stress due to high
voltage.
When the battery is first put on charge, the voltage shoots up quickly. This behavior can be compared to
lifting a weight with a rubber band, causing a lag. The capacity will eventually catch up when the battery is
almost fully charged (Figure 3). This charge characteristic is typical of all batteries. The higher the charge
current is, the larger the rubber-band effect will be. Cold temperatures or charging a cell with high internal
resistance amplifies the effect.

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The capacity trails the charge voltage like lifting a heavy weight with a rubber band (Courtesy of Cadex)
Estimating SoC by reading the voltage of a charging battery is impractical; measuring the open circuit
voltage (OCV) after the battery has rested for a few hours is a better indicator. As with all batteries,
temperature affects the OCV, so does the active material of Li-ion. SoC of smartphones, laptops and other
devices is estimated by coulomb counting. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge.)
Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge. When fully charged, the charge current must be cut off. A continuous
trickle charge would cause plating of metallic lithium and compromise safety. To minimize stress, keep the
lithium-ion battery at the peak cut-off as short as possible.
Once the charge is terminated, the battery voltage begins to drop. This eases the voltage stress. Over time,
the open circuit voltage will settle to between 3.70V and 3.90V/cell. Note that a Li-ion battery that has
received a fully saturated charge will keep the voltage elevated for a longer than one that has not received a
saturation charge.
When lithium-ion batteries must be left in the charger for operational readiness, some chargers apply a
brief topping charge to compensate for the small self-discharge the battery and its protective circuit
consume. The charger may kick in when the open circuit voltage drops to 4.05V/cell and turn off again at
4.20V/cell. Chargers made for operational readiness, or standby mode, often let the battery voltage drop to
4.00V/cell and recharge to only 4.05V/cell instead of the full 4.20V/cell. This reduces voltage-related stress
and prolongs battery life.
Some portable devices sit in a charge cradle in the ON position. The current drawn through the device is
called the parasitic load and can distort the charge cycle. Battery manufacturers advise against parasitic
loads while charging because they induce mini-cycles. This cannot always be avoided and a laptop
connected to the AC main is such a case. The battery might be charged to 4.20V/cell and then discharged
by the device. The stress level on the battery is high because the cycles occur at the high-voltage threshold,
often also at elevated temperature.
A portable device should be turned off during charge. This allows the battery to reach the set voltage
threshold and current saturation point unhindered. A parasitic load confuses the charger by depressing the
battery voltage and preventing the current in the saturation stage to drop low enough by drawing a leakage
current. A battery may be fully charged, but the prevailing conditions will prompt a continued charge,
causing stress.

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Charging Non-cobalt-blended Li-ion
While the traditional lithium-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.60V, Li-phosphate (LiFePO) makes an
exception with a nominal cell voltage of 3.20V and charging to 3.65V. Relatively new is the Li-titanate (LTO)
with a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V and charging to 2.85V. (See BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion.)
Chargers for these non cobalt-blended Li-ions are not compatible with regular 3.60-volt Li-ion. Provision
must be made to identify the systems and provide the correct voltage charging. A 3.60-volt lithium battery
in a charger designed for Li-phosphate would not receive sufficient charge; a Li-phosphate in a regular
charger would cause overcharge.
Overcharging Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion operates safely within the designated operating voltages; however, the battery becomes
unstable if inadvertently charged to a higher than specified voltage. Prolonged charging above 4.30V on a
Li-ion designed for 4.20V/cell will plate metallic lithium on the anode. The cathode material becomes an
oxidizing agent, loses stability and produces carbon dioxide (CO2). The cell pressure rises and if the charge
is allowed to continue, the current interrupt device (CID) responsible for cell safety disconnects at 1,000–
1,380kPa (145–200psi). Should the pressure rise further, the safety membrane on some Li-ion bursts open at
about 3,450kPa (500psi) and the cell might eventually vent with flame. (See BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion
Safe.)
Venting with flame is connected with elevated temperature. A fully charged battery has a lower thermal
runaway temperature and will vent sooner than one that is partially charged. All lithium-based batteries are
safer at a lower charge, and this is why authorities will mandate air shipment of Li-ion at 30 percent state-of-
charge rather than at full charge. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air.).
The threshold for Li-cobalt at full charge is 130–150ºC (266–302ºF); nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) is 170–
180ºC (338–356ºF) and Li-manganese is about 250ºC (482ºF). Li-phosphate enjoys similar and better
temperature stabilities than manganese. (See also BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion and BU-304b:
Making Lithium-ion Safe.)
Lithium-ion is not the only battery that poses a safety hazard if overcharged. Lead- and nickel-based
batteries are also known to melt down and cause fire if improperly handled. Properly designed charging
equipment is paramount for all battery systems and temperature sensing is a reliable watchman.
Summary
Charging lithium-ion batteries is simpler than nickel-based systems. The charge circuit is straight forward;
voltage and current limitations are easier to accommodate than analyzing complex voltage signatures,
which change as the battery ages. The charge process can be intermittent, and Li-ion does not need
saturation as is the case with lead acid. This offers a major advantage for renewable energy storage such as
a solar panel and wind turbine, which cannot always fully charge the battery. The absence of trickle charge
further simplifies the charger. Equalizing charger, as is required with lead acid, is not necessary with Li-ion.
Consumer and most industrial Li-ion chargers charge the battery fully. They do not offer adjustable end-of-
charge voltages that would prolong the service life of Li-ion by lowering the end charge voltage and
accepting a shorter runtime. Device manufacturers fear that such an option would complicate the charger.
Exceptions are electric vehicles and satellites that avoid full charge to achieve long service life.
Simple Guidelines for Charging Lithium-based Batteries
Turn off the device or disconnect the load on charge to allow the current to drop unhindered during
saturation. A parasitic load confuses the charger.
Charge at a moderate temperature. Do not charge at freezing temperature. (See BU-410: Charging at High
and Low Temperatures)
Lithium-ion does not need to be fully charged; a partial charge is better.
Not all chargers apply a full topping charge and the battery may not be fully charged when the “ready”
signal appears; a 100 percent charge on a fuel gauge may be a lie.

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 Discontinue using charger and/or battery if the battery gets excessively warm.
Apply some charge to an empty battery before storing (40–50 percent SoC is ideal). (See BU-702: How to
Store Batteries.)
Last updated 2017-05-09

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BU-409a: Why do Old Li-ion Batteries Take Long to Charge?
Connect charging behavior to fundamentals in Battery Health
Battery users often ask: “Why does an old Li-ion lake so long to charge?” Indeed, when Li-ion gets older,
the battery takes its time to charge even if there is little to fill. We call this the “old-man syndrome.” Figure 1
illustrates the charge time of a new Li-ion with a capacity of 100 percent against an aged pack delivering
only 82 percent. Both take roughly 150 minutes to charge.

Both packs take roughly 150 minutes to charge. The new pack charges to 1,400mAh (100%) while the aged
one only goes to 1,150mAh (82%) (Courtesy: Cadex Electronics Inc.)
When charging Li-ion, the voltage shoots up similar to lifting a weight with a rubber band. The new pack as
demonstrated in Figure 2 is “hungrier” and can take on more “food" before reaching the 4.20V/cell voltage
limit compared to the aged Li-ion that hits V Limit in Stage 1 after only about 60 minutes. In terms of a
rubber band analogy, the new battery has less slack than to the aged pack and can accept charge longer
before going into saturation.

The new Li-ion takes on full charge for 90 minutes while the aged cell reaches 4.20V/cell in 60 minutes
(Courtesy: Cadex Electronics Inc.)

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Figure 3 demonstrates the different saturation times in Stage 2 as the current trails from the fully regulated
current to about 0.05C to trigger ready mode. The trailing on a good battery is short and is prolonged on an
aged pack. This explains the longer charge time of an older Li-ion with less capacity. An analogy is a young
athlete running a sprint with little or no slow-down towards the end, while the old man gets out of breath
and begins walking, prolonging the time to reach the goal.

The new cell stays in full-charge longer than the old cell and has a shorter current trail (Courtesy: Cadex
Electronics Inc.)
A common aging effect of Li-ion is loss of charge transfer capability. This is caused by the formation of
passive materials on the electrodes, which inhibits the flow of free electrons. This reduces the porosity on
the electrodes, decreases the surface area, lowers the lower ionic conductivity and raises migration
resistance. The aging phenomenon is permanent and cannot be reversed.
The health of a battery is based on these three fundamental attributes:
Capacity, the ability to store energy. Capacity is the leading health indicator of a battery
Internal resistance, the ability to deliver current
Self-discharge, indicator of the mechanical integrity
The charge signature reveals valuable health indicators of Li-ion. A good battery absorbs most of the
charge in Stage 1 before reaching 4.20V/cell and the trailing in Stage 2 is short. “Lack of hunger” on a Li-ion
can be attributed to a battery being partially charged; exceptionally long trailing times relates to a battery
with low capacity, high internal resistance and/or elevated self-discharge.
Algorithms can be developed that compare Stage 1 and Stage 2 based on capacity and state-of-charge.
Anomalies, such as low capacity and elevated self-discharge can be identified by setting acceptance
thresholds. Cadex is developing chargers with algorithms that will provide diagnostic functions. Such
advancement will promote the lone charger into a supervisory position to provide quality assurance in
batteries without added logistics.
Last updated 2017-08-16

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BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures
Learn how to extend battery life by moderating ambient temperatures.
Batteries operate over a wide temperature range, but this does not give permission to also charge them at
these conditions. The charging process is more delicate than discharging and special care must be taken.
Extreme cold and high heat reduce charge acceptance, so the battery must be brought to a moderate
temperature before charging.
Older battery technologies, such as lead acid and NiCd, have higher charging tolerances than newer
systems. This allows them to charge below freezing but at a reduced charge C-rate. When it comes to cold-
charging NiCd is hardier than NiMH.
Table 1 summarizes the permissible charge and discharge temperatures of common rechargeable batteries.
The table excludes specialty batteries that are designed to charge outside these parameters.
Discharge
Battery type Charge temperature Charge advisory
temperature
–20°C to 50°C –20°C to 50°C Charge at 0.3C or lessbelow freezing.
Lead acid
(–4°F to 122°F) (–4°F to 122°F) Lower V-threshold by 3mV/°C when hot.
Charge at 0.1C between –18°C and 0°C.
0°C to 45°C –20°C to 65°C
Charge at 0.3C between 0°C and 5°C.
NiCd, NiMH (32°F to 113°F) (–4°F to 149°F)
Charge acceptance at 45°C is 70%. Charge
acceptance at 60°C is 45%.
No charge permitted below freezing.
0°C to 45°C –20°C to 60°C
Li-ion
Good charge/discharge performance at
(32°F to 113°F) (–4°F to 140°F)
higher temperature but shorter life.

Batteries can be discharged over a large temperature range, but the charge temperature is limited. For best
results, charge between 10°C and 30°C (50°F and 86°F). Lower the charge current when cold.
Low-temperature Charge
Fast charging of most batteries is limited to 5°C to 45°C (41°F to 113°F); for best results consider narrowing
the temperature bandwidth to between 10°C and 30°C (50°F and 86°F) as the ability to recombine oxygen
and hydrogen diminishes when charging nickel-based batteries below 5°C (41°F). If charged too quickly,
pressure builds up in the cell that can lead to venting. Reduce the charge current of all nickel-based
batteries to 0.1C when charging below freezing.
Nickel-based chargers with NDV full-charge detection offer some protection when fast charging at low
temperatures; the poor charge acceptance when cold mimics a fully charged battery. This is in part caused
by a high pressure buildup due to the reduced ability to recombine gases at low temperature. Pressure rise
and a voltage drop at full charge appear synonymous.
To enable fast charging at all temperatures, some industrial batteries add a thermal blanket that heats the
battery to an acceptable temperature; other chargers adjust the charge rate to prevailing temperatures.
Consumer chargers do not have these provisions and the end user is advised to only charge at room
temperature.
Lead acid is reasonably forgiving when it comes to temperature extremes, as the starter batteries in our
cars reveal. Part of this tolerance is credited to their sluggish behavior. The recommended charge rate at
low temperature is 0.3C, which is almost identical to normal conditions. At a comfortable temperature of
20°C (68°F), gassing starts at charge voltage of 2.415V/cell. When going to –20°C (0°F), the gassing threshold
rises to 2.97V/cell.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 193 of 453
A lead acid battery charges at a constant current to a set voltage that is typically 2.40V/cell at ambient
temperature. This voltage is governed by temperature and is set higher when cold and lower when warm.
Figure 2 illustrates the recommended settings for most lead acid batteries. In parallel, the figure also shows
the recommended float charge voltage to which the charger reverts when the battery is fully charged.
When charging lead acid at fluctuating temperatures, the charger should feature voltage adjustment to
minimize stress on the battery. (See also BU-403: Charging Lead Acid.)

Charging at cold and hot temperatures requires adjustment of voltage limit (Source: Betta Batteries)
Freezing a lead acid battery leads to permanent damage. Always keep the batteries fully charged because
in the discharged state the electrolyte becomes more water-like and freezes earlier than when fully
charged. According to BCI, a specific gravity of 1.15 has a freezing temperature of –15°C (5°F). This compares
to –55°C (–67°F) for a specific gravity of 1.265 with a fully charged starter battery. Flooded lead acid batteries
tend to crack the case and cause leakage if frozen; sealed lead acid packs lose potency and only deliver a
few cycles before they fade and need replacement.
Li ion can be fast charged from 5°C to 45°C (41 to 113°F). Below 5°C, the charge current should be reduced,
and no charging is permitted at freezing temperatures because of the reduced diffusion rates on the anode.
During charge, the internal cell resistance causes a slight temperature rise that compensates for some of
the cold. The internal resistance of all batteries rises when cold, prolonging charge times noticeably.
Many battery users are unaware that consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries cannot be charged below 0°C
(32°F). Although the pack appears to be charging normally, plating of metallic lithium can occur on the
anode during a sub-freezing charge. This is permanent and cannot be removed with cycling. Batteries with
lithium plating are more vulnerable to failure if exposed to vibration or other stressful conditions. Advanced
chargers (Cadex) prevent charging Li-ion below freezing.
Advancements are being made to charge Li-ion below freezing temperatures. Charging is indeed possible
with most lithium-ion cells but only at very low currents. According to research papers, the allowable
charge rate at –30°C (–22°F) is 0.02C. At this low current, the charge time would stretch to over 50 hours, a
time that is deemed impractical. There are, however, specialty Li-ions that can charge down to –10°C (14°F)
at a reduced rate.
High-temperature Charge
Heat is the worst enemy of batteries, including lead acid. Adding temperature compensation on a lead acid
charger to adjust for temperature variations is said to prolong battery life by up to 15 percent. The
recommended compensation is a 3mV drop per cell for every degree Celsius rise in temperature. If the float
voltage is set to 2.30V/cell at 25°C (77°F), the voltage should read 2.27V/cell at 35°C (95°F). Going colder, the
voltage should be 2.33V/cell at 15°C (59°F). These 10°C adjustments represent 30mV change.
Table 3 indicates the optimal peak voltage at various temperatures when charging lead acid batteries. The
table also includes the recommended float voltage while in standby mode.
Table 35 - Recommended voltage limits

Battery status -40°C (-40°F) -20°C (-4°F) 0°C (32°F) 25°C (77°F) 40°C (104°F)

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 194 of 453

 Battery status -40°C (-40°F) -20°C (-4°F) 0°C (32°F) 25°C (77°F) 40°C (104°F)
Voltage limit
2.85V/cell 2.70V/cell 2.55V/cell 2.45V/cell 2.35V/cell
on recharge
Float voltage 2.55V/cell 2.45V/cell 2.35V/cell 2.30V/cell 2.25V/cell
at full charge or lower or lower or lower or lower or lower

Recommended voltage limits when charging and maintaining stationary lead acid batteries on float charge.
Voltage compensation prolongs battery life when operating at temperature extremes.
Charging nickel-based batteries at high temperatures lowers oxygen generation, which reduces charge
acceptance. Heat fools the charger into thinking that the battery is fully charged when it’s not.
Charging nickel-based batteries when warm lowers oxygen generation that reduces charge acceptance.
Heat fools the charger into thinking that the battery is fully charged when it’s not. Figure 4 shows a strong
decrease in charge efficiency from the “100 percent efficiency line” when dwelling above 30°C (86°F). At
45°C (113°F), the battery can only accept 70 percent of its full capacity; at 60°C (140°F) the charge acceptance
is reduced to 45 percent. NDV for full-charge detection becomes unreliable at higher temperatures, and
temperature sensing is essential for backup.

High temperature reduces charge acceptance and departs from the dotted “100% efficiency line.” At 55°C,
commercial NiMH has a charge efficiency of 35–40%; newer industrial NiMH attains 75–80% (Courtesy of
Cadex)
Lithium-ion performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces longevity.
Charging and discharging at elevated temperatures is subject to gas generation that might cause a
cylindrical cell to vent and a pouch cell to swell. Many chargers prohibit charging above 50°C (122°F).
Some lithium-based packs are momentarily heated to high temperatures. This applies to batteries in
surgical tools that are sterilized at 137°C (280°F) for up to 20 minutes as part of autoclaving. Oil and gas
drilling as part of fracking also exposes the battery to high temperatures.
Capacity loss at elevated temperature is in direct relationship with state-of-charge (SoC). Figure 5 illustrates
the effect of Li-cobalt (LiCoO2) that is first cycled at room temperature (RT) and then heated to 130°C (266°F)
for 90 minutes and cycled at 20, 50 and 100 percent SoC. There is no noticeable capacity loss at room
temperature. At 130°C with a 20 percent SoC, a slight capacity loss is visible over 10 cycles. This loss is
higher with a 50 percent SoC and shows a devastating effect when cycled at full charge.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 195 of 453

Sterilization of batteries for surgical power tools should be done at low SoC.
Test: LiCoO2/Graphite cells were exposed to 130°C for 90 min.at different SoC between each cycle (Source:
Greatbatch Medical)
In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the
Caution: electrolyte, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with
water for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.

Last updated 2017-09-15

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 196 of 453

BU-411: Charging from a USB Port
Become familiar with the limitations when charging a battery with a USB charger.
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was introduced in 1996 and has since become one of the most widespread
and convenient interfaces for electronic devices. Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, NEC and Nortel contributed to
the developments with the goal of simplifying the interconnection of peripheral devices to a PC, as well as
to allow a greater data transfer rate than was feasible with earlier interfaces. The USB port can also be used
to charge personal devices, but with a current limit of 500mA on the original design, this might have been
an afterthought.
A typical USB network consists of a host that is often a PC and peripherals such as a printer, smartphone or
camera. Data streams in both directions but the power is unidirectional and always flows from the host to
the device. The host cannot take power from an outside source.
With 5V and 500mA available on version USB 1.0 and 2.0, and 900mA on USB 3.0, the USB can charge a
small single-cell Li-ion pack. There is, however, a danger of overloading a USB hub when attaching too
many gadgets. Charging a device that draws 500mA connected together with other loads will exceed the
port’s current limit, leading to a voltage drop and a possible system failure. To prevent overload, some
hosts include current-limiting circuits that shut down the supply when overdrawn.
The original USB port can only charge a small single-cell Li-ion battery. Charging a 3.6V pack begins by
applying a constant current to a voltage peak of 4.20V/cell, at which point the voltage peaks and the current
begins to taper off. (See BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion.) Due to the voltage drop in the cable and
connectors, which is about 350mV, as well as losses in the charging circuit, the 5V supply may not be high
enough to fully charge the battery. This is a minor problem; the battery will only charge to about 70
percent state-of-charge and deliver a slightly shorter runtime than with a fully saturated charge. The
advantage: Li-ion will last longer if not fully charged.
Standard A and B USB plugs, as illustrated in Figure 1, feature four pins and a shield. Pin 1 delivers +5VDC
and pin 4 forms the ground that also connects to the shield. The two shorter pins, 2 and 3, are marked D-
and D+ and carry data. When charging a battery, these pins have no other function than to negotiate
current.

Pin 1 carries +5VDC (red wire) and 4 is ground (black wire). The housing connects to the ground and
provides shielding. Pin 2 (D-, white wire) and pin 3 (D+, green wire) carry data.
Besides the standard type-A and type-B configurations with 4 pins, there are also the USB Mini-A, Mini-B,
Micro-A and Micro-B that include an ID pin to permit detection of which cable end is plugged in. The outer
pin-1 is positive and pin-4 is negative. USB cables are generally standard type-A on one end and either type-
B, Mini-B or Micro-B on the other. The new type-C connector described later features 24 pins and runs on
the USB 3.1 standard.

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Power Delivery
USB 2.0 with a current of 500mA has limitations when charging a larger smartphone or tablet battery.
Keeping the smartphone running on a bright screen during charge could result in a net discharge of the
battery as the USB cannot satisfy both. Connecting a high-speed disk drive requires more than 500mA and
this can create a power issue with the original USB port.
In 2008, USB 3.0 relieved the power shortage by upping the current to 900mA. This current ceiling was
chosen to prevent the thin ground wire from interfering with high-speed data transfer when drawing a full
load.
With the need for more power, the USB Implementers Forum released the Battery Charging Specification in
2007 that enables a faster way to charge off a USB host. This led to the dedicated charger port (DCP)
serving as a USB charger, delivering currents of 1,500mA and higher by connecting the DCP to an AC outlet
or a vehicle. To activate the DCP, the D- and D+ pins are internally connected by a resistor of 200 ohms or
less. This distinguishes the DCP from the original USB ports that carry data. Some Apple products limit the
charge current by connecting different resistor values to the D+ and D- pins.
To support charging and data communication when using the DCP, a Y-shaped cable is offered that
connects to the original USB port for data streaming and to the DCP port to satisfy charging needs. This
appears like a logical solution but the USB compliance specification states that the “use of a Y-cable is
prohibited on any USB peripheral,” meaning that “if a USB peripheral requires more power than allowed by
the USB specification to which it is designed, then it must be self-powered.” The Y-cables and the so-called
accessory charging adapters (ACA) are being used without apparent difficulties.
The question is asked: “Can I cause damage by plugging my device into a USB charger that delivers more
current than 500mA and 900mA?” The answer is no. The device only draws what it requires and no more.
An analogy is plugging in a lamp or a toaster into an AC wall plug. The lamp requires little current while the
toaster goes to the maximum. More power from the USB charger will shorten the charge time.
Sleep-and-charge Mode
In most cases, turning the computer off also shuts down the USB. Some PCs feature the sleep-and-charge
USB port that remains powered on and can be used to charge electronic devices when the computer is off.
Sleep-and-charge USB ports might be colored in red or yellow, but no standard exists. Dell adds a lightning
bolt icon and calls it the “PowerShare” while Toshiba uses the term “USB Sleep-and-Charge.” The sleep-
and-charge USB ports may also be marked with the acronym USB over the drawing of a battery.
USB 3.1 – Type-C Connector
As with most other successful technologies, USB has spawned several versions of connectors and cables
over the years. USB chargers do not always work as advertised and charge times are slow.
Incompatibilities between competitive systems exist, willingly or by oversight.
Companies overseeing USB standards are aware of the shortcomings and brought out the type-C
connector and cable based on the USB 3.1 standard. Rather than using four-pins as in the classic type-A and
type-B, the type-C connector has 24 pins and is reversible, meaning it can be plugged in either way. It
supports 900mA and, on command, delivers 1.5A and 3.0A over a 5V power bus while streaming data. This
results in 7.5 and 15 watt power consumption respectively, as opposed to 2.5W using the original USB
(current times voltage = wattage). The type-C can go up to 5A at 12V or 20V, providing 60W and 100W
respectively. Figure 2 shows the pinout of the USB Type-C connector.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 198 of 453

Side A and B are mirror images. Some pins are connected in parallel to gain higher power and more
reliable connections.
New devices come with the USB-C connector and USB 3.1, but consumers beg for two or three regular USB
3.0 ports on their gadgets to support what worked so well in the past. USB 3.1 is backward compatible with
USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 and the classic type-A and type-B connectors. While in transition to the type-C,
adaptors are available to convert, but expect lower data transfer speeds with adapters than what USB 3.1
offers.
With the availability of higher currents and voltages on the Type-C system as compared to the Standard A
and B connectors, damage to a device can be afflicted when giving a wrong digital command. The
commands may come from a device or an adapter requesting modified power demands. It is advised to
only use compatible or trustworthy brands when experimenting with higher voltages and currents in USB
connectors.
Last Updated 2016-11-25

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 199 of 453

BU-412: Charging without Wires
Find out about energy loss and higher temperature when charging on a pad.
Wireless charging may one day replace plugs and wires, similar to how Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have
modernized personal communication. The concept rests on inductive coupling using an electromagnetic
field that transfers energy from the transmitter to the receiver.
Wireless transfer of power is not new. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered induction by sending
electromagnetic force through space. In the late 1800s and the early 1900s, Nicola Tesla demonstrated
wireless broadcasting and power transmission. The experiments in Colorado Springs in 1899 lead to the
Wardenclyffe Tower in New York. Tesla wanted to prove that electrical power could be transmitted without
wires, but lack of funding halted the project.
It was not until the 1920s that public broadcasting began. Europe built massive transmitters that covered
many countries. The station at Beromünster in Switzerland could have transmitted radio signals at 600kW,
but legislation on electro-smog and protests from the local population limited the power to 180kW. Smaller
FM stations have since replaced these large national transmitters; cellular repeaters and Wi-Fi stations
transmit at a fraction of this power and many are in single watt digits.
Wireless charging shares similarities with radio transmission. It sends signals in a near field condition in
which the primary coil produces a magnetic field that is picked up by the secondary coil in close proximity.
The radio transmitter, on the other hand, works on the far field principle by sending waves that travel
through space. While the receiving coil of the wireless charger captures most of the energy generated, the
receiving antenna of the radio only needs a few microvolts (one millionth of a volt) to recover a signal that
becomes intelligent when amplified.
Types of Wireless Charging
Wireless charging is classified as inductive charging, radio charging and resonance charging. Most of
today’s wireless chargers use inductive charging with transmit and receive coils in close proximity. Electric
toothbrushes were one of the first consumer goods to adopt this method.
Radio charging serves low-power devices operating within a 10-meter (30-foot) radius from the transmitter
to charge batteries in medical implants, hearing aids, watches, entertainment devices and RFID (radio
frequency identification) chips. The transmitter sends a low-wattage radio wave and the receiver converts
the signal to energy. Radio charging resembles radio transmission the most; it offers high flexibility but has
a low power capture and exposes people to electro-smog. Radio charging is not in common use.
Larger batteries for the electric vehicle use resonance charging by making a coil “ring.” The oscillating
magnetic field works within a 1-meter (3-foot) radius. To stay in the power field, the distance between
transmit and receive coil must be within a quarter wavelength (915Mhz has a wavelength of 0.328 meters or
1 foot).
Resonance charging is not limited to high-wattage wireless chargers; it is used at all power levels. While a
3kW system for EV charging achieves a reported efficiency of 93–95 percent with a 20cm (8 inch) air gap, a
100W system is better than 90 percent efficient; however the low-power 5W system remains in the 75–80
percent efficiency range. Resonance charging is still in the experimental stages and is not widely used.
Wireless charging needed a global standard and the Wireless Power Consortium (WPC) accomplished this
in 2008 by introducing the Qi norm. This opened the door for device manufacturers to offer chargers for Qi-
compatible devices with 5 watts of power.
Powermat, a Qi participant, sprung loose over a disagreement and in 2012 started PMA as a new
competitive norm. PMA is similar to Qi but runs at a different frequency. Also in 2012, A4WP announced
resonance charging that allows freedom of movement while simultaneously charging several devices.
A4WP has not yet been approved as a standard. Table 1 summarizes the three norms.
Table 36 - Recognized standards for wireless charging

WPC or Qi (Wireless A4WP (Alliance for Wireless

PMA (Power Matters Alliance)
Power Consortium) Power)
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 200 of 453
 WPC or Qi (Wireless A4WP (Alliance for Wireless
PMA (Power Matters Alliance)
Power Consortium) Power)
2008, Qi was first wireless 2012, Procter & Gamble and 2012 by Samsung and
Established
charging standard Powermat Qualcomm
Inductive charging, Inductive charging, Resonant charging, loosely
Technology 100–205kHz; 277–357kHz; coupled; serious emission
coil distance 5mm; similar to Qi issues remain.
Qi has widest global use; Tight competition with Qi,
A4WP and PWA merged, no
Markets Over 500 products, more gaining ground, 100,000
product available
than 60 mobile phones Powermats at Starbucks,
Samsung, LG, HTC, TI, Powermat, Samsung, LG,
Qualcomm, TediaTek, Intel,
Panasonic, Sony, Nokia, TDK, TI, AT&T, Duracell,
Members & LG, HTC, Samsung, Deutsche
Motorola, Philips, Verizon, WiTricity, Starbucks Teavana,
companies Telecom. No commercial
BMW, Audi, Daimler, VW Huawei, FCC, Energy Star,
products
Porsche, Toyota, Jeep Flextronics

Qi and PMA are in completion while A4WP has no standard and no commercial products. Emission issues
must be solved first.
While the A4WP format may not be available soon in a charging station, a war is being fought over Qi and
PMA. To accommodate both systems, some manufacturers offer chargers and mobile devices that serve
both standards. This is a repeat of when Columbia Records released the 33 rpm LP (Long Play) in 1948 and
RCA Victor promoted the 45 rpm record featuring a large hole. Dual-speed gramophones and an insert
solved the problem.
In 2016, SAE International released SAE TIR J2954 for the electric vehicle. Standardization enables drivers
to simply park their vehicles in spaces with TIR J2954 equipment without having to take further action to
initiate the charge. SAE TIR J2954 runs at a frequency of 85 kHz (81.39 – 90 kHz) and comes with Wire
Power Transfer (WPT) levels 3.7kW (WPT 1) and 7.7kW (WPT 2). Future releases will include 11kW (WPT 3)
and 22kW (WPT 4).
TIR J2954 compatible systems are currently being tested with the US Department of Energy and the
Argonne National Labs. Rollout with finalized standards will be in 2018.
Modern wireless charging follows a complex handshake to identify the device to be charged. When placing
a device onto a charge mat, the change in capacitance or resonance senses its presence. The mat then
transmits a burst signal; the qualified device awakens and responds by providing identification and signal
strength status. The signal quality is often also used to improve the positioning of the receiver or enhance
magnetic coupling between mat and receiver.
The charge mat only transmits power when a valid object is recognized, which occurs when the receiver
fulfills the protocol as defined by one of the interoperability standards. During charging, the receiver sends
control error signals to adjust the power level. Upon full charge or when removing the load, the mat
switches to standby.
Transmit and receive coils are shielded to obtain good coupling and to reduce stray radiation. Some charge
mats use a free moving transmit coil that seeks the object placed for best coupling, others systems feature
multiple transmit coils and engage those in close proximity with the object.
WPC calls the transmitter the TX Controller, or Base Station, and the receiver on the mobile device the RX
Controller, or Power Receiver. There is a resemblance to a transformer with a primary and secondary coil.
Figure 2 illustrates an overview of a Qi wireless charging system.

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 Figure 62 - Overview of Qi wireless charging system

Several systems are competing that may not be compatible. The three most common are Qi, PMA, A4WP.
Qi logo, Chinese word
meaning "natural energy"

Pros and Cons of Wireless Charging

Wireless charging offers the ultimate convenience for consumers and enables safe charging in a hazardous
environment where an electrical spark could cause an explosion. It further permits charging where grease,
dust or corrosion would prevent a good electrical contact. Eliminating electrical contacts also helps doctors
in sterilizing surgical tools. Wireless charging is durable and does not wear out the contacts on multiple
insertions.
Makers of electric vehicles seek convenience in charging, and this is elegantly solved by parking the vehicle
over a transmit coil. Engineers talk about embedding charging coils into highways for continuous charging
while driving or when waiting at a traffic light. This is technically feasible, but high cost, low efficiency and
field emission when transmitting high power remain insurmountable challenges.
For household and business use, the California Energy Commission (CEC), Level V, mandates that AC
adapters must meet a minimum efficiency of 85 percent; Energy Star Level V requires 87 percent
(European CE uses CEC as a base). Adding the losses of the AC adapter to wireless charging brings the
overall efficiency down further as the inductive transfer efficiency of inductive charging is only 75–80
percent. Such a loss adds up when considering that an estimated one billion mobile phone chargers are
plugged into AC outlets worldwide. To improve efficiency and comply with the Energy Star requirements,
WPC combines the power needs into a single power conversion.
Lost energy turns into heat, and a wireless charger can get quite warm during charging. This causes stress
on the device’s battery as it sits on the mat. It should be noted that the heat buildup only occurs during
charging; the charging pad cools down once the battery is fully charged.
WPC was very careful when releasing Qi; the first version has a power limit of 5 watts. A medium-power
version of up to 120 watts is in the works, but this norm must meet stringent radiation standards before
release. Radiation prompts health concerns and these are raised by folks living next to mobile phone
towers and Wi-Fi stations.
Electromagnetic energy from radio towers, mobile phones, Wi-Fi and now wireless charging are
categorized as non-ionizing radiation and are said to be harmless. Ionizing rays from x-rays, on the other
hand, can cause cancer. As the number of non-ionizing devices grows, folks begin to question the safety of
this form of radiation as well. Regulatory authorities are observing possible health risks and will impose
restrictions if harm can be proven.

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Health problems caused by electromagnetic waves are inconclusive; however, carrying a mobile phone
close to the body is a concern. In standby mode the device is constantly seeking contact with a tower by
transmitting signal busts. The transmit power is adjusted to the proximity of the tower and is higher in
remote areas.
Going wireless demands a 25 percent cost premium on the charging station, a burden that also affects the
receiver. For consumers who don’t want to pay the price, charging by wires remains a workable alternative.
Birds looking for the missing wires will appreciate this move.

Figure 63 - Pros and cons of wireless charging

Wireless charging provides convenience but wires offer a practical alternative which the birds will support
(Anonymous source)
Last Updated 2017-09-28

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BU-413: Charging with Solar, Turbine
Learn about charging your batteries from renewable resources and what it costs.
Folks concerned about the environment gravitate towards using renewable energy. The sun provides peak
power of about 1,000 watts per square meter (93W/sq ft) and a solar panel transforms this power into
roughly 130W per square meter (12W/sq ft). This energy harvest corresponds to a clear day with the solar
panel facing the sun. Surface dust on the solar panels and high heat reduce the overall efficiency.
Generating electricity by sunlight goes back to 1839 when Edmond Becquerel (1820–1891) first discovered
the photovoltaic effect. It took another century before researchers understood the process on an atomic
level, which works similar to a solid-state device with n-type and p-type silicon bonded together.
Commercial photovoltaic (PV) systems are 10 to 20 percent efficient. Of these, the flexible panels are only in
the 10 percent range and the solid panels are about 20 percent efficient. Multi-junction cell technologies are
being tested that achieve efficiencies of 40 percent and higher.
At 25°C (77°F), a high quality monocrystalline silicon solar panel produces about 0.60V open circuit (OCV).
Like batteries, solar cells can be connected in series and parallel to get higher voltages and currents. (See
BU-302: Series and Parallel Battery Configurations) The surface temperature in full sunlight will likely rise to
45°C (113°F) and higher, reducing the open circuit voltage to 0.55 V per cell due to lower efficiency. Solar
cells become more efficient at low temperatures, but caution is necessary when charging batteries below
freezing temperatures. (See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures) The internal resistance of a
solar cell is relatively high: with a commercial cell, the series resistance is typically one ohm per square
centimeter (1Ωcm2).
A solar charging system is not complete without a charge controller. The charge controller takes the energy
from the solar panels or wind turbine and converts the voltage so it’s suitable for battery charging. The
supply voltage for a 12V battery bank is about 16V. This allows charging lead acid to 14.40V (6 x 2.40V/cell)
and Li-ion to 12.60 (3 x 4.20V/cell). Note that 2.40V/cell for lead acid and 4.20V/cell for lithium-ion are the
full-charge voltage thresholds.
Charge controllers are also available for lithium-ion to charge 10.8V packs (3 cells in series). When acquiring
a charge controller, observe the voltage requirements. The standard Li-ion family has a nominal voltage of
3.6V/cell; lithium iron phosphate is 3.20V/cell. Only connect the correct batteries for which the charge
controller is designed. Do not connect a lead acid battery to a charge controller designed for Li-ion and
vice-versa. This could compromise the safety and longevity of the batteries as the charge algorithms and
voltage settings are different.
A lower-cost charge controller only produces an output voltage when sufficient light is available. With a
diminishing light source, the charge controller simply turns off and resumes when sufficient levels of light
are restored. Most of these devices cannot utilize fringe power present at dawn and dusk and this limits
them to applications with ideal lighting conditions.
An advanced charge controller tracks power by measuring the voltage and adjusting the current to get
maximum power transfer with prevailing light conditions. This is made possible with maximum power
point tracking (MPPT). Figure 2-25 illustrates the voltage and current source from a solar cell with varying
sunlight. Optimal power is available at the voltage knee where the dropping voltage line meets the vertical
power line. MPPT determines this point.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 204 of 453

MPPT finds the best power point which is at the crossing point of the vertical power line. (V x A = W). The
top horizontal line gets the most light. Wind turbines have a lower internal resistance than PV and the MPPT
differs.
It should be noted that not all MPPT circuits function equally well. Some are coarse and do not respond
immediately to light changes, causing the output to fall or turn off if a shadow falls on the panel. Other
systems drop off too early and do not fully utilize low light conditions.
A common MPPT method is perturb and observe (P&O). The circuit increases the voltage by a small
amount and measures power. If the power increases by the equal amount, further voltage increases are
applied until the optimal setting is reached. P&O achieves good efficiency but it can be sluggish and result
in oscillations.
Another method is incremental conductance that computes the maximum power point by comparing
current and voltage deltas. This requires more computation but has an improved tracking ability over P&O.
Current sweep is a method that observes the current and voltage characteristics of the PV array to calculate
the maximum power point.
Solar panels are normally connected in series, each providing about 20V on a sunny day. The controller
reads the overall string voltage but if one panel gets shaded, the MPPT loses effectiveness. Advanced
systems process each panel or group of panes individually. This allows voltage tracking of shaded panels
down to 5V. The negative is higher system costs.
You may ask, “Why can I not simply plug a 12V solar panel directly into my laptop or mobile phone?” This
should work in principle but is not recommended. The charge controller transforms the incoming DC
voltage from the solar panel or wind turbine to the correct voltage range. In bright sunlight, the voltage of a
12V solar panel can go up to 40V, and this could damage your device.
From 1998 to 2011, the price of commercial photovoltaic (PV) systems dropped by 5–7 percent annually and
analysis suggests that the price-drop will continue. It now costs between US$4 and $5 per watt for a typical
residential solar installation capable of delivering 5kW. Larger installations cost $3 to $4 per watt with
further reductions for megawatt systems.
Maintenance Charger
A maintenance charger is usually powered by a small solar cell that provides a trickle charge to a battery on
a sunny day. These devices help prevent sulfation of a lead acid battery when stroed. Even a small float
charge will keep the battery at full charge.

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Choose a maintenance charger that switches to a controlled float charge when the battery is fully charged.
A prolonged charge, even at a low current, could overcharge the battery and promote internal corrosion. A
float charge that is correctly adjusted only replenishes what the battery loses through self-discharge. (See
also BU-403: Charging Lead Acid)
Last updated: 2017-09-19

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BU-413a: How to Store Renewable Energy in a Battery
Learn how to store renewable energy to bridge the energy gap.
Economists predict rapid growth in micro-grid technology using batteries. Environmentally conscious
Germany, Japan and other countries have made use of solar panels for many years to reduce energy costs.
In parts of Africa where the AC grid is not sufficiently developed to support all household activities, solar
panels with battery backup are mandatory.
Personal energy production is moving to the US Sunbelt; cheaper solar panels and longer-lasting batteries
make this attractive. Batteries store energy during peak production when output is in over-supply to bridge
the gap when free energy goes to rest at night or when the wind stops. Batteries will moderate peak
consumption when the AC grid is stressed to the breaking point.
Renewable energy makes economic sense, but it is expensive. Most of the Western World is served with
cheap and reliable electricity from the AC grid with a per kilowatt-hour cost as low as US $0.06 in parts of
Canada, to $0.15 in many cities and up to $0.40 in some European countries. Electricity produced by a solar
panel comes in at about $0.20 per kWh. When including peripheral expenses, solar power in most parts of
the world is more expensive than buying electricity from the utilities, and as a rough guideline, stored
energy doubles the price.
In spite of the apparent higher cost, putting solar panels on houses is becoming fashionable. Hardware
prices are falling and so is the installation. The most common photovoltaic (PV) solar cells are the
crystalline silicon type with an efficiency of about 20 percent. Flexible panels for portable use, in
comparison, have an efficiency of only about 10 percent. The hardware costs to generate 1 watt of
electricity with solid panels is $2.00–2.50, with cost trending lower.
In solar-rich countries where electricity is expensive, energy from solar panels is being fed back to the AC
grid. This causes the electrical meter to spin backwards, offsetting previously consumed energy, but it can
also induce a problem. The amount of power generated cannot exceed consumption. Dumping more
energy into the grid than consumed makes the system unstable, resulting in voltage fluctuations that can
overload the circuit and lead to brownouts.
Renewable energy has friends and foes in high places. On one side, governments hand out subsidies to
install renewable energy systems, while on the other side utilities try desperately to stem the move of home
electricity generation by reducing incentives and adding fees. The utilities argue that spurious energy
production by homeowners complicates control and cuts into the revenue stream. They see it as creating
glut and famine by means of excess supply during times of plenty and famine when demand is high but
renewable contributions are not available.
The conflict is understandable because utility companies are responsible for providing stable energy at all
times while independent producers are unable to reduce the concern of pending failure caused by an aging
grid that moans during peak demand. Right or wrong, producing clean energy from a renewable resource
should never be curtailed, especially if the resource can be stored, and solar companies are fighting back
through regulators, lawmakers and the courts.
Storing electrical energy is not new. One of the most effective storage media for large hydroelectric power
stations is to pump water back up to the reservoir during low electrical demand and make it available
during peak times. With an efficiency factor of 70–85 percent, pumped hydro is easier to manage than
adjusting the generators to satisfy fluctuating power needs. Flywheels also serve as energy storage. Large
electric motors spin one-ton flywheels when excess energy is available to fill brief energy deficiencies and
stabilize the grid. Pumping compressed air into large underground cavities is another way to store energy
but for small to medium installations, batteries work best. (See BU-1001: Batteries in Industries)
Storage batteries have mostly been lead acid and users complain about their short life span. This is in part
caused by excessive cycling as the battery charges during the day and discharges at night. Lead acid has a
limited cycle count and suffers from sulfation when not periodically fully charged. A fully saturated charge
takes 16 hours, and no solar system can deliver energy for this long. In addition, electrical consumption
tends to increase with time while the solar panels reduce their output due to dirt buildup and aging. This
often leaves lead acid with insufficient charge.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 207 of 453
The switch to Li-ion solves this in part. Li-ion is more resistant to cycling than lead acid and does not need
to be fully charged; in fact a partial charge is better as it relieves stress. But Li-ion is still double or three
times the cost of lead acid in terms of system purchase.
The Tesla Powerwall offers a 7kWh and a 10kWh battery, enough energy to keep a home lit for several
hours. Both packs have the same number of cells; the 7kWh battery uses the robust NMC that is used in
many industrial applications while the 10kWh makes use of the NCA that powers the Tesla S-models. NCA
offers high energy density and short charge time, while the NMC delivers a high cycle count at a lower
capacity. (See BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion)
Both the NCA and NMC are Energy Cells that dislike heavy loads. The power of the Powerwall is limited to
2kW. This is sufficient to run a fridge, brown toast and perhaps iron a shirt, but the wattage is too low to
cook a meal on an electric stove, run an electric dryer or keep the air conditioner going; high-energy
appliances consume more than 2kW. To fill the gap, the AC grid kicks in seamlessly during peak household
activity. A 10kWh battery with 2kW peak power cannot disconnect a household from the grid, but it reduces
the electrical bill by one third to one half.
To fully charge a 10kWh battery during 5 hours of optimal sunshine requires a solar system that delivers 5–
12kW. At an estimated cost of $2 per watt, the 10kW solar hardware comes in at $20,000. Installation and the
DC-AC inverter to convert the solar DC to compatible AC power and synchronize it with the grid might
double the cost. The battery will be extra also.
Another hidden cost that is often overlooked is end-of-life. Solar panels have a life span of 25 years and
batteries are commonly guaranteed for 10 years. At a cost-of-money of 5 percent and a 20 year
amortization, a $25,000 system could cost the owner $2,500 per year. The energy savings should be
greater than this or else the exercise may be misconstrued. Even larger energy savings can be made by
reducing personal transportation or scaling down on the size and power of such a carriage.
Last updated 2016-02-25

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BU-414: How do Charger Chips Work?
Examine the difference between a charger chip and a microcontroller.
When first introduced in the 1980s, charger chips simplified the design of NiCd and NiMH chargers as
batteries with these chemistries were difficult to charge. Li-ion is simpler and most modern charging chips
also include the protection circuits that are needed to safe charge Li-ion. These include current and voltage
regulation, FET switches and may also contain charge status indicators and cell balancing. Added to most
chips is a time-out-timer that halts charge if predictable symptoms do not occur as expected when charging
a flawed battery.
Advanced chips also feature pre-charge conditioning (boost) to wake up an inactive battery, as well as a
sleep mode that lowers the housekeeping current of the circuit while the battery is in storage. Some chips
also initiate a charge if a parasitic load lowers the battery voltage below a preset threshold while residing in
a charger.
Although charger chips are easy and economical to use, they have limitations. Most offer a fixed charge
algorithm that does not permit fine-tuning for specialty uses. Chips are made for a given battery and may
not accommodate different chemistries as requested by the user or read a battery code that may be
embedded in a battery holder. Nor do most chips adjust to an optimal charge current when charging an
aging battery with reduced charge acceptance.
Microcontrollers offer an alternative to charger chips. Although the design cost is higher because of the
extra programming time needed, manufacturing costs are compatible to charger chips. It should be noted
that the charge chip or the microcontroller only form a small part of the charger circuit; the bulk of the cost
lies in the peripheral components, which include solid-state switches, signal lights and the power supply.
The parts cost is directly related to wattage.
Factory-configured charger modules are available that are set to the correct voltage, current and algorithm.
Some have seamless DC-DC conversion to allow charging a battery with a higher voltage than the input
provides. Options include SMBus, solar charging, discharge for calibration and display. Using soft-
programmable charger modules resembles the ready-made AC power supplies that became popular in the
1990s as a lower-cost alternative to building one’s own charger for each application.
Last updated 2016-02-25

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BU-415: How to Charge and When to Charge?
Explore what conditions are best when charging any battery.
Early batteries were reserved for commercial use only, such as telecommunications, signaling, portable
lighting and war activities. Today, batteries have become a steady travel companion of the public at large to
reach a friend, they allow working outside the confines of four walls, provide entertainment when time
permits and enable personal transportation. Best of all, batteries help in missions when people are in need.
Folks are eager to learn more about this wonderful portable energy device and one of the most common
questions asked is, “What can I do to prolong the life of my battery?” Table 1 addresses how to care for
your batteries to meet their needs. Because of similarities within the different battery families, the table
addresses the needs and wants of only the most common systems by keeping in mind that these desires
extend to almost all batteries in use.
Keep a battery at a moderate temperature. As food stays fresher when refrigerated, so also does cool
temperature protect the battery by reducing internal corrosion, also known as parasitic reactions on the
electrolyte and electrodes.
Avoid deep cycling. Each cycle wears the battery down by a small amount and a partial discharge is
better than a full discharge. When possible, only apply a full discharge to calibrate a smart battery and to
prevent “memory” on nickel-based batteries. Li-ion is maintenance-free and the battery lasts longest when
operating between 30 and 80 percent SoC.
Avoid abuse. Like a machine that wears down quicker under strenuous work, so also is a battery stressed
by harsh discharges and rapid charges. Use cells that are optimized for the power and energy requirements
as per application and increase that pack size to minimize load-related stresses.
Avoid ultra-fast charge. Charge Li-ion Energy Cells at less than 1C (below rated Ah); Power Cells are more
rugged and can be charged and discharged at a higher rate. NiCd is the only battery that can be fast
charged up to 70 percent SoC without adverse side-effects.
Store Li-ion at partial charge in a cool place. The worst combination is high voltage and elevated
temperature. Store Li-ion at approximately 50 percent SoC.
Table 37 - Best charging methods
Frequently Lead acid Nickel-based Lithium-ion

asked question (Sealed, flooded) (NiCd and NiMH) (Li-ion, polymer)

How should I Apply a topping charge
Battery comes fully charged. Charge 14–16h. Priming
prepare a new before use. No priming
Apply a topping* charge. may be needed to format
battery? needed
Can I damage
Keep partially charged.
Always store battery fully Battery is robust. New
Low charge can turn off
a battery with charged. pack will improve with use.
protection circuit
incorrect use?
Fully charge every few weeks
Do I need to apply a Partial charge better than a
or months. Continuous low Partial charge is fine
full charge? full charge
charge causes sulfation.
Partial charge causes no harm Partial charge
Can I disrupt the Repeat charges can cause
when applying periodic fully
charge cycle? heat buildup
saturated charges. causes no harm
Should I use up
No, deep discharge wears Apply scheduled
Deep discharge wears the
battery down. Charge more discharges only to prevent
all battery energy battery down
often memory
before charging?

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 Do I have to worry Discharge NiCd every 1–3
No, there is no memory No memory
about “memory”? months
How do I calibrate a Apply discharge/charge when the fuel gauge gets
Not applicable
“smart” battery? inaccurate. Repeat every 1–3 months
Can I charge with Parasitic load can alter full-charge detection and
Avoid load if possible
the device on? overcharge battery or cause mini-cycles
Do I remove the Charger switches to float Remove after a few days in Not necessary; charger
battery when full? charge charger turns off
Keep cells above 2.10V;
How do I store
topping-charge* Store in cool place; can be Store in cool place partially
stored fully discharged charged
my battery?
every 6 months.
Does battery heat Gets lukewarm towards end of Warm but must cool down Must stay cool or slightly
up on charge? charge when ready warm
Slow charge (0.1): 0–45°C (32–113°F) Do not charge
How do I charge
when cold?
Fast charge (0.5–1C): 5–45°C (41–113°F) below freezing
Do not charge
Can I charge at hot Lower threshold by 3mV/°C Battery will not fully charge
temperatures? above 25°C when hot
above 50°C (122°F)
Battery should not get too
What should I know Charger should float at 2.25– Battery must stay cool; no
hot; should include temp
about chargers? 2.30V/cell when ready trickle charge when ready
sensor

Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented.

* Topping charge is applied on a battery that is in service or storage to maintain full charge and to prevent
sulfation on lead acid batteries.
Last updated 2017-11-15

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DISCHARGE METHODS

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BU-501: Basics about Discharging
Learn how certain discharge loads will shorten battery life.
The purpose of a battery is to store energy and release it at a desired time. This section examines
discharging under different C-rates and evaluates the depth of discharge to which a battery can safely go.
The document also observes different discharge signatures and explores battery life under diverse loading
patterns.
The electrochemical battery has the advantage over other energy storage devices in that the energy stays
high during most of the charge and then drops rapidly as the charge depletes. The supercapacitor has a
linear discharge, and compressed air and a flywheel storage device is the inverse of the battery by
delivering the highest power at the beginning. Figure 64, Figure 65 and Figure 66 illustrate the simulated
discharge characteristics of stored energy.

Figure 64 - Discharge Curve of Battery, Figure 65 - Discharge Curve of Super Figure 66 - Discharge Curve of
Exponential Discharge Provides Steady Capacitor. Linear Discharge Prevents the Compressed Air. Inverse. Best
Power to the end Full Use of Energy. Performance at Beginning

Most rechargeable batteries can be overloaded briefly, but this must be kept short. Battery longevity is
directly related to the level and duration of the stress inflicted, which includes charge, discharge and
temperature.
Remote control (RC) hobbyists are a special breed of battery users who stretch tolerance of “frail” high-
performance batteries to the maximum by discharging them at a C-rate of 30C, 30 times the rated capacity.
As thrilling as an RC helicopter, race car and fast boat can be; the life expectancy of the packs will be short.
RC buffs are well aware of the compromise and are willing to both pay the price and to encounter added
safety risks.
To get maximum energy per weight, drone manufacturers gravitate to cells with a high capacity and
choose the Energy Cell. This is in contrast to industries requiring heavy loads and long service life. These
applications go for the more robust Power Cell at a reduced capacity.
Depth of Discharge
Lead acid discharges to 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system to 1.0V/cell; and most Li-ion to 3.0V/cell. At this
level, roughly 95 percent of the energy is spent, and the voltage would drop rapidly if the discharge were to
continue. To protect the battery from over-discharging, most devices prevent operation beyond the
specified end-of-discharge voltage.
When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery gradually recovers and rises
towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the affinity of metals in the electrodes produce this voltage
potential even when the battery is empty. A parasitic load or high self-discharge prevents voltage recovery.
A high load current, as would be the case when drilling through concrete with a power tool, lowers the
battery voltage and the end-of-discharge voltage threshold is often set lower to prevent premature cutoff.
The cutoff voltage should also be lowered when discharging at very cold temperatures, as the battery
voltage drops and the internal battery resistance rises. Table 38 shows typical end-of-discharge voltages of
various battery chemistries.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 213 of 453

 Table 38 - Nominal and recommended end-of-discharge voltages under normal and heavy load

End-of-discharge Li-manganese Li-phosphate Lead acid NiCd/NiMH

Nominal 3.60V/cell 3.20V/cell 2.00V/cell 1.20V/cell

Normal load 3.0–3.3V/cell 2.70V/cell 1.75V/cell 1.00V/cell
Heavy load or low temperature 2.70V/cell 2.45V/cell 1.40V/cell 0.90V/cell

The lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the greater losses.
Over-charging a lead acid battery can produce hydrogen sulfide, a colorless, poisonous and flammable gas
that smells like rotten eggs. Hydrogen sulfide also occurs during the breakdown of organic matter in
swamps and sewers and is present in volcanic gases and natural gas. The gas is heavier than air and
accumulates at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Strong at first, the sense of smell deadens with
time, and the victims are unaware of the presence of the gas. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries)
What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?
A discharge/charge cycle is commonly understood as the full discharge of a charged battery with
subsequent recharge, but this is not always the case. Batteries are seldom fully discharged, and
manufacturers often use the 80 percent depth-of-discharge (DoD) formula to rate a battery. This means that
only 80 percent of the available energy is delivered and 20 percent remains in reserve. Cycling a battery at
less than full discharge increases service life, and manufacturers argue that this is closer to a field
representation than a full cycle because batteries are commonly recharged with some spare capacity left.
There is no standard definition as to what constitutes a discharge cycle. Some cycle counters add a full
count when a battery is charged. A smart battery may require a 15 percent discharge after charge to qualify
for a discharge cycle; anything less is not counted as a cycle. A battery in a satellite has a typical DoD of 30–
40 percent before the batteries are recharged during the satellite day. A new EV battery may only charge to
80 percent and discharge to 30 percent. This bandwidth gradually widens as the battery fades to provide
identical driving distances. Avoiding full charges and discharges reduces battery stress. (See also BU-1003:
Electric Vehicle.)
A hybrid car only uses a fraction of the capacity during acceleration before the battery is recharged.
Cranking the motor of a vehicle draws less than 5 percent energy from the starter battery, and this is also
called a cycle in the automotive industry. Reference to cycle count must be done in context with the
respective duty.
Reference to discharge cycle or cycle count does not relate equally well to all battery applications. One
example where counting discharge cycles does not reflect state-of-life accurately is in a storage device
(ESS). These batteries supplement renewable energies from wind power and photovoltaic by delivering
short-term energy when needed and storing if in excess. The time duration between charge and discharged
can be in milliseconds; a typical battery state-of-charge is 40–60%. Rather than cycle count, coulomb
counting may be used as a means of measuring wear and tear.
Last Updated 2017-05-18

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BU-501a: Discharge Characteristics of Li-ion
Learn about the difference of energy and power requirements in a battery.
The early Li-ion battery was considered fragile and unsuitable for high loads. This has changed, and today
lithium-based systems stand shoulder to shoulder with the robust nickel and lead chemistries. Two basic
types of Li-ion have emerged: The Energy Cell and the Power Cell.
The performance of these two battery types is characterized by energy storage, also known as capacity,
and current delivery, also known as loading or power. Energy and power characteristics are defined by
particle size on the electrodes. Larger particles increase the surface area for maximum capacity and fine
material decreases it for high power.
Decreasing particle size lowers the presence of electrolyte that fills the voids. The volume of electrolyte
within the cell determines battery capacity. Decreasing the particle size reduces the voids between the
particles, thereby lowering the electrolyte content. Too little electrolyte reduces ionic mobility and affects
performance. Think of a drying felt pen that needs recuperating to keep marking papers.
Energy Cell
The Li-ion Energy Cell is made for maximum capacity to provide long runtimes. The Panasonic NCR18650B
Energy Cell (Figure 1) has high capacity but is less enduring when discharged at 2C. At the discharge cutoff
of 3.0V/cell, the 2C discharge produces only about 2.3Ah rather than the specified 3.2Ah. This cell is ideal
for portable computing and similar light duties.

Figure 67 - Discharge characteristics of NCR18650B Energy Cell by Panasonic

The 3,200mAh Energy Cell is discharged at 0.2C, 0.5C, 1C and 2C. The circle at the 3.0V/cell line marks the
end-of-discharge point at 2C.
Cold temperature losses:
25°C (77°F) = 100%
0°C (32°F) = ~83%
–10°C (14°F) = ~66%
–20°C (4°F) = ~53%
Source: Panasonic

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Power Cell
The Panasonic UR18650RX Power Cell (Figure 69) has a moderate capacity but excellent load capabilities. A
10A (5C) discharge has minimal capacity loss at the 3.0V cutoff voltage. This cell works well for applications
requiring heavy load current, such as power tools.

Figure 68 - Discharge characteristics of UR18650RX Power Cell by Panasonic

The 1950mAh Power Cell is discharged at 0.2C, 0.5C, 1C and 2C and 10A. All reach the 3.0V/cell cut-off line
at about 2000mAh. The Power Cell has moderate capacity but delivers high current.
Cold temperature losses:
25°C (77°F) = 100%
0°C (32°F) = ~92%
–10°C (14°F) = ~85%
–20°C (4°F) = ~80%
Source: Panasonic
The Power Cell permits a continuous discharge of 10C. This means that an 18650 cell rated at 2,000mAh can
provide a continuous load of 20A (30A with Li-phosphate). The superior performance is achieved in part by
lowering the internal resistance and by optimizing the surface area of active cell materials. Low resistance
enables high current flow with minimal temperature rise. Running at the maximum permissible discharge
current, the Li-ion Power Cell heats to about 50ºC (122ºF); the temperature is limited to 60ºC (140ºF).
To meet the loading requirements, the pack designer can either use a Power Cell to meet the discharge C-
rate requirement or go for the Energy Cell and oversize the pack. The Energy Cell holds about 50 percent
more capacity than the Power Cell, but the loading must be reduced. This can be done by oversizing the
pack, a method the Tesla EVs use. The battery achieves exceptional runtime but it gets expensive and
heavy.
Discharge Signature
One of the unique qualities of nickel- and lithium-based batteries is the ability to deliver continuous high
power until the battery is exhausted; a fast electrochemical recovery makes it possible. Lead acid is slower
and this can be compared to a drying felt pen that works for short markings on paper and then needs rest to
replenish the ink. While the recovery is relatively fast on discharge, and this can be seen when cranking the
engine, the slow chemical reaction becomes obvious when charging. This only gets worse with age.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 216 of 453

A battery may discharge at a steady load of, say, 0.2C as in a flashlight, but many applications demand
momentary loads at double and triple the battery’s C-rating. GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) for a mobile phone is such an example (Figure 69). GSM loads the battery with up to 2A
at a pulse rate of 577 micro-seconds (μs). This places a large demand on a small battery; however, with a
high frequency, the battery begins to behave more like a large capacitor and the battery characteristics
change.

Figure 69 - GSM discharge pulses of a cellular phone

The 577 microsecond pulses drawn from the battery adjust to field strength and can reach 2 amperes
(Courtesy of Cadex)
In terms of longevity, a battery prefers moderate current at a constant discharge rather than a pulsed or
momentary high load. Figure 4 demonstrates the decreasing capacity of a NiMH battery at different load
conditions from a gentle 0.2C DC discharge, an analog discharge to a pulsed discharge. Most batteries
follow a similar pattern in terms of load conditions, including Li-ion.

Figure 70 - Cycle life of NiMH under different load conditions

NiMH performs best with DC and analog loads; digital loads lower the cycle life. Li-ion behaves similarly
(Source: Zhang 1998)
Figure 71 examines the number of full cycles a Li-ion Energy Cell can endure when discharged at different
C-rates. At a 2C discharge, the battery exhibits far higher stress than at 1C, limiting the cycle count to about
450 before the capacity drops to half the level.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 217 of 453
 Figure 71 - Cycle life of Li-ion Energy Cell at varying discharge levels

The wear and tear of all batteries increases with higher loads. Power Cells are more robust than Energy
Cells (Source: Choi et al 2002)
Simple Guidelines for Discharging Batteries
 Heat increases battery performance but shortens life by a factor of two for every 10°C increase
above 25–30°C (18°F above 77–86°F). Always keep the battery cool.
 Prevent over-discharging. Cell reversal can cause an electrical short.
 On high load and repetitive full discharges, reduce stress by using a larger battery.
 A moderate DC discharge is better for a battery than pulse and heavy momentary loads.
 A battery exhibits capacitor-like characteristics when discharging at high frequency. This allows
higher peak currents than is possible with a DC load.
 Nickel- and lithium-based batteries have a fast chemical reaction; lead acid is sluggish and
requires a few seconds to recover between heavy loads.
 All batteries suffer stress when stretched to maximum permissible tolerances.
Last updated 2018-02-20

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BU-502: Discharging at High and Low Temperatures
Explore the limitations when operating a battery at adverse temperatures and learn how to minimize the
effects.
Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature. Warming a dying battery in a mobile phone or
flashlight in our jeans might provide additional runtime due to improved electrochemical reaction. This is
likely also the reason why manufacturers prefer to specify batteries at a toasty 27°C (80°F). Operating a
battery at elevated temperatures improves performance but prolonged exposure will shorten life.
As all drivers in cold countries know, a warm battery cranks the car engine better than a cold one. Cold
temperature increases the internal resistance and lowers the capacity. A battery that provides 100 percent
capacity at 27°C (80°F) will typically deliver only 50 percent at –18°C (0°F). The momentary capacity-
decrease differs with battery chemistry.
The dry solid polymer battery requires a temperature of 60–100°C (140–212°F) to promote ion flow and
become conductive. This type of battery has found a niche market for stationary power applications in hot
climates where heat serves as a catalyst rather than a disadvantage. Built-in heating elements keep the
battery operational at all times. High battery cost and safety concerns have limited the application of this
system. The more common lithium-polymer uses gelled electrolyte to enhance conductivity.
All batteries achieve optimum service life if used at 20°C (68°F) or slightly below. If, for example, a battery
operates at 30°C (86°F) instead of a more moderate lower room temperature, the cycle life is reduced by 20
percent. At 40°C (104°F), the loss jumps to a whopping 40 percent, and if charged and discharged at 45°C
(113°F), the cycle life is only half of what can be expected if used at 20°C (68°F). (See also BU-808: How to
Prolong Lithium-based Batteries)
The performance of all batteries drops drastically at low temperatures; however, the elevated internal
resistance will cause some warming effect by efficiency loss caused by voltage drop when applying a load
current. At –20°C (–4°F) most batteries are at about 50 percent performance level. Although NiCd can go
down to –40°C (–40°F), the permissible discharge is only 0.2C (5-hour rate). Specialty Li-ion can operate to a
temperature of –40°C but only at a reduced discharge rate; charging at this temperature is out of the
question. With lead acid there is the danger of the electrolyte freezing, which can crack the enclosure. Lead
acid freezes quicker with a low charge when the specific gravity is more like water than when fully charged.
Matched cells with identical capacities play an important role when discharging at low temperature and
under heavy load. Since the cells in a battery pack can never be perfectly matched, a negative voltage
potential can occur across a weaker cell in a multi-cell pack if the discharge is allowed to continue beyond a
safe cut-off point. Known as cell reversal, the weak cell gets stressed to the point of developing a
permanent electrical short. The larger the cell-count, the greater is the likelihood of cell-reversal under load.
Over-discharge at a low temperature and heavy load is a large contributor to battery failure of cordless
power tools. (See BU-803a: Cell Matching and Balancing)
The driving range of an electric vehicle between charges is calculated at ambient temperature. EV drivers
are being made aware that frigid temperature reduces the available mileage. This loss is not only caused by
heating the cabin electrically but by the inherent slowing of the battery’s electrochemical reaction, which
reduces the capacity while cold.
Last updated 2018-01-25

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BU-503: How to Calculate Battery Runtime
Know about hidden battery losses when estimating the energy reserve.
If the battery was a perfect power source and behaved linearly, charge and discharge times could be
calculated according to in-and-out flowing currents, also known as coulombic efficiency. What is put in
should be available as output in the same amount; a 1-hour charge at 5A should deliver a 1-hour discharge
at 5A, or a 5-hour discharge at 1A. This is not possible because of intrinsic losses and the coulombic
efficiency is always less than 100 percent. The losses escalate with increasing load, as high discharge
currents make the battery less efficient. (See also BU-402: What is C-rate?)
Peukert Law
The Peukert Law expresses the efficiency factor of a battery on discharge. W. Peukert, a German scientist
(1855–1932), was aware that the available capacity of a battery decreases with increasing discharge rate and
he devised a formula to calculate the losses in numbers. The law is applied mostly to lead acid and help
estimate the runtime under different discharge loads.
The Peukert Law takes into account the internal resistance and recovery rate of a battery. A value close to
one (1) indicates a well-performing battery with good efficiency and minimal loss; a higher number reflects
a less efficient battery. Peukert’s law is exponential; the readings for lead acid are between 1.3 and 1.5 and
increase with age. Temperature also affects the readings. Figure 72 illustrates the available capacity as a
function of amperes drawn with different Peukert ratings.
As an example, a 100Ah lead acid battery discharged at 15A should theoretically last 6.6 hours (100Ah
divided by 15A) but the actual time is less. With a Peukert number of 1.3, the discharge hours are about 4.8
hours.

Figure 72 - Available capacity of a lead acid battery at Peukert numbers of 1.08–1.50

A value close to 1 has the smallest losses; higher numbers deliver lower capacities. Peukert values change
with battery type age and temperature:
AGM: 1.05–1.15
Gel: 1.10–1.25
Flooded: 1.20–1.60
Source: Von Wentzel (2008)

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 220 of 453

The lead acid battery prefers intermittent loads to a continuous heavy discharge. The rest periods allow the
battery to recompose the chemical reaction and prevent exhaustion. This is why lead acid performs well in
a starter application with brief 300A cranking loads and plenty of time to recharge in between. All batteries
require recovery, and most other systems have a faster electrochemical reaction than lead acid. (See Basics
About Discharging)
Ragone Plot
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are commonly evaluated by the Ragone plot. Named after David V.
Ragone, the Ragone plot looks at the battery’s capacity in watt-hours (Wh) and discharge power in watts
(W). The big advantage of the Ragone plot over the Peukert Law is the ability to read the runtime in minutes
and hours presented on the diagonal lines on the Ragone graph.
Figure 73 illustrates the Ragone plot of four lithium-ion systems using 18650 cells. The horizontal axis
displays energy in watt-hours (Wh) and the vertical axis is power in watts (W). The diagonal lines across the
field reveal the length of time the battery cells can deliver energy at given loading conditions. The scale is
logarithmic to allow a wide selection of battery sizes. The battery chemistries featured in the chart include
lithium-iron phosphate (LFP), lithium-manganese oxide (LMO), and nickel manganese cobalt (NMC). (See
BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion)

Figure 73 - Ragone plot reflects Li-ion 18650 cells

Four Li-ion systems are compared for discharge power and energy as a function of time. Not all curves are
fully drawn out.
Legend: The A123 APR18650M1 is a lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) Power Cell rated at 1,100mAh,
delivering a continuous discharge current of 30A. The Sony US18650VT and Sanyo UR18650W are
manganese based Li-ion Power Cells of 1,500mAh each, delivering a continuous discharge of 20A. The
Sanyo UR18650F is a 2,600mAh Energy Cell for a moderate 5Adischarge. This cell provides the highest
discharge energy but has the lowest discharge power (Source: Exponent)
The Sanyo UR18650F [4] Energy Cell has the highest specific energy and can run a laptop or e-bike for
many hours at a moderate load. The Sanyo UR18650W [3] Power Cell, in comparison, has a lower specific
energy but can supply a current of 20A. The A123 [1] in LFP has the lowest specific energy but offers the
highest power capability by delivering 30A of continuous current. Specific energy defines the battery
capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density is given in volume (Wh/l).

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The Ragone plot helps in the selection of the optimal Li-ion system to satisfy discharge power while
retaining the required runtime. If an application calls for a very high discharge current, the 3.3 minute
diagonal line on the chart points to the A123 (Battery 1); it can deliver up to 40 watts of power for 3.3
minutes. The Sanyo F (Battery 4) is slightly lower and delivers about 36 watts. By focusing on discharge
time and following the 33 minute discharge line further down, Battery 1 (A123) only delivers 5.8 watts for 33
minutes before the energy is depleted. The higher capacity Battery 4 (Sanyo F) can provide roughly 17
watts for the same time; its limitation is lower power.
A design engineer should note that the Ragone snapshot taken by the battery manufacturers represents a
new cell, a condition that is temporary. When calculating power and energy needs, engineers must take
into account battery fade caused by cycling and aging. Battery-operated systems must still function with a
battery that will eventually drop to 70 or 80 percent capacity. A further consideration is low temperature as
a battery momentarily loses power when cold. The Ragone plot does not take these decreased
performance conditions into account.
The design engineer should further develop a battery pack that is durable and does not get stressed during
regular use. Stretching load and capacity boundaries to the limit shortens battery life. If repetitive high
discharge currents are needed, the pack should be made larger and with the correct choice of cells. An
analogy is a truck that is equipped with a large diesel engine instead of a souped-up engine intended for a
sports car.
The Ragone plot can also calculate the power requirements of capacitors, flywheels, flow batteries and fuel
cells. A conflict develops with the internal combustion engine or the fuel cell that draws fuel from a tank, as
on-board re-fueling cheats the system. Similar plots are also used to find the optimal loading ratio of
renewable power sources, such as solar cells and wind turbines.
Reference
Presentation by Quinn Horn, Ph.D., P.E. Exponent, Inc. Medical Device & Manufacturing (MD&M) West,
Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Last updated 2016-05-18

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BU-504: How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity
Know how to maintain a battery fleet and eliminate the risk of unexpected downtime.
A battery performs well when new but the capacity soon begins to fade with use and time. To assure
reliable service during the life span of the battery, design engineers oversize the pack to include some
spare capacity. This is similar to carrying extra fuel in an airplane to enable a waiting pattern or attempt a
second landing approach when so required.
New batteries operate (should operate) at a capacity of 100 percent; replacement occurs when the packs
fade to about 80 percent. All batteries must include a secure level of spare capacity to cover worst-case
scenarios.
In addition to normal capacity fade, cold temperature lowers the capacity, especially Li-ion. The capacity
loss of a Li-ion Energy Cell is about 17 percent at 0°C (32°F), 34 percent at –10°C (14°F) and 47 percent at –
20°C (–4°F). Power Cells perform better at cold temperature with lower cold-related capacity losses than
Energy Cells.
Lack of spare capacity is a common cause of system failures. This commonly happens during heavier than
normal traffic or in an emergency. During routine operations, marginal batteries can hide comfortably
among their peers, but they will fail when put to the test. A battery maintenance program as part of quality
control assures that all batteries in the fleet are within the required performance range.
Figure 74 illustrates the breakdown of a battery that includes capacity fade and spare capacity. Adding 20
percent for fade and 20 percent for spare as a safety net leaves only 60 percent for the actual capacity. Such
a generous allowance may not be practical in all cases.

Figure 74 - Calculating spare battery capacity

Spare capacity should be calculated for a worst-case scenario. The allowable capacity range is 80-100%; a
spare capacity of 20 percent is recommended for critical use. Allow more capacity reserve when operating
at cold temperature.
To verify sufficient spare capacity in a battery fleet, identify batteries that are close to retirement and spot-
check their capacities after a busy day with a battery analyzer. The Cadex analyzer provides this function on
the “Prime” program in that it applies a discharge before charge. The first reading on the display reflects the
spare capacity and the second represents the full capacity after a charge.
If packs with fringe capacity levels come back from a full-day shift with less than 10 percent of spare
capacity, raise the pass/fail target capacity from 80 to 85 percent to gain five extra points. If, on the other
hand, these old-timers come back with 30 percent before charging, keep them longer by lowering the
target capacity to, say, 70 percent. Knowing the energy needs for each application during a typical shift
increases battery transparency. This improves reliability and creates a sweet spot between risk
management and economics.

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While most batteries are replaced when the capacity fades to 80 percent, scanners in some warehouses
can be kept longer because they may not require all available capacity during an 8-hour shift. If this is the
case, the target capacity can safely be set to 70 percent while maintaining ample spare capacity. A starter
battery in a vehicle still cranks the motor with a capacity of 40 percent. The discharge is short and the
battery recharges right away. Allowing the capacity to drop much further might prevent the battery from
turning the engine on a cold morning, stranding the driver. (See BU-902a: How to Measure CCA (Cold
Cranking Amp)
Last updated 2016-05-18

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"SMART" BATTERY

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 225 of 453

BU-601: How does a Smart Battery Work?
Learn about the different bus systems and where the limitations lie.
A speaker at a battery conference once said, “The battery is a wild animal and artificial intelligence
domesticates it.” A battery is illusive and does not exhibit visible changes as part of usage; it looks the
same when fully charged or empty, new or old and in need of replacement. A car tire, in comparison,
distorts when low on air and indicates end-of-life when the treads are worn.
The shortcomings of a battery can be summarized by these three concerns: [1] The user does not know
how much runtime the pack has left; [2] the host is uncertain if the battery can satisfy the power demand;
and [3] the charger must be tailored to each battery size and chemistry. The solutions are complex and the
“smart” battery promises to lessen some of these deficiencies.
Battery users imagine a battery pack as being an energy storage device that resembles a fuel tank
dispensing liquid fuel. For simplicity reasons, a battery can be seen as such; however, measuring stored
energy from an electrochemical device is far more complex.
While an ordinary fuel gauge measures in-and-out-flowing liquid from a tank of a known size with minimal
losses, a battery fuel gauge has unconfirmed definitions and only reveals the open circuit voltage (OCV),
which is a fickle reflection of state-of-charge (SoC). To compound the problem, a battery is a leaky and
shrinking vessel that loses energy and takes less content with each charge. As the capacity fades, the
specified Ah (ampere-hours) rating no longer holds true. Nor can the fuel gauge assess the capacity by
itself; the reading always shows full after recharge even if the capacity has dropped to half the specified Ah.
The simplest method to measure state-of-charge is reading voltage, but this can be inaccurate as load
currents pull the voltage down during discharge. The largest challenge is the flat discharge voltage curve
on most lithium and nickel-based batteries. Temperature also plays a role; heat raises the voltage and a
cold ambient lowers it. Agitation by a previous charge or discharge causes further errors and the battery
needs a few hours rest to neutralize. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-charge.)
Most batteries for medical, military and computing devices are “smart.” This means that some level of
communication occurs between the battery, the equipment and the user. The definitions of “smart” vary
among manufacturers and regulatory authorities, and the most basic smart battery may contain nothing
more than a chip that sets the charger to the correct charge algorithm. In the eyes of the Smart Battery
System (SBS) forum, these batteries cannot be called smart. The SBS forum states that a smart battery
must provide state-of-charge indications.
Safety is a key design objective and the concept behind SBS is to place system intelligence inside the
battery pack. The SBS battery thus communicates with the charge management chip in a closed loop. In
spite of this digital supervision, most SBS chargers also rely on analog signals from the chemical battery to
terminate the charge when the battery is full. Furthermore, redundant temperature sensing is added for
safety reasons.
Benchmarq was the first company to offer fuel-gauge technology in 1990. Today, many manufacturers offer
integrated circuit (IC) chips in single-wire and two-wire systems, also known as System Management Bus
(SMBus).
State-of-charge estimations in a smart battery commonly include coulomb counting, a theory that goes
back 250 years when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb first established the “Coulomb Rule.” Figure 75
illustrates the principle of coulomb counting, measuring in-and-out flowing energy. One coulomb (1C) per
second is one ampere (1A). Discharging a battery at 1A for one hour equates to 3,600C. (Not to be confused
with C-rate.)

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 Figure 75 - Principle of a fuel gauge based on coulomb counting

A circuit measures the in-and-out flowing energy; the stored energy represents state-of-charge. One
coulomb per second is one ampere (1A) (Courtesy of Cadex)
Coulomb counting should be flawless but errors occur. If, for example, a battery was charged for 1 hour at 1
ampere, the same amount of energy should be available on discharge, and no battery can deliver this.
Inefficiencies in charge acceptance, especially towards the end of charge and particularly if fast-charged,
reduces the energy efficiency. Losses also occur in storage and during discharge. The available energy is
always less than what has been fed into the battery.
Single-wire Bus
The single-wire system, also known as 1-Wire, communicates through one wire at low speed. Designed by
Dallas Semiconductor Corp., the 1-Wire combines data and clock into one line for transmission; the
Manchester code, also known as phase coding, separates the data at the receiving end. For safety reasons,
most batteries also run a separate wire for temperature sensing. Figure 76 shows the layout of a single-
wire system.

Figure 76 - Single-wire system of a “smart” battery

A single wire provides data communication. For safety reasons, most batteries also feature a separate wire
for temperature sensing (Courtesy of Cadex)
The single-wire system stores the battery code and tracks battery data that typically includes voltage,
current, temperature and state-of-charge information. Because of the relatively low hardware cost, the
single-wire system is attractive for price-sensitive devices such as measuring instruments, mobile phones,
two-way radios, cameras and scanners.
Most single-wire systems have their own protocol and use a customized charger. The Benchmarq single-
wire solution, for example, cannot measure the current directly; state-of-health (SoH) measurement is only
possible when “marrying” the host to a designated battery.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 227 of 453
System Management Bus
The System Management Bus (SMBus) represents a concerted effort to agree on one communications
protocol and one set of data. Derived from I2C, the Duracell/Intel smart battery system was standardized in
1995 and consists of two separate lines for data and clock. I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) is a multi-master,
multi-slave, single-ended, serial computer bus invented by Philips Semiconductor. Figure 77 shows the
layout of the two-wire SMBus system.

Figure 77 - Two-wire SMBus system

The SMBus works on a two-wire system using a standardized communications protocol. This system lends
itself to standardized state-of-charge and state-of-health measurements (Courtesy of Cadex)
The philosophy behind the SMBus battery was to remove charge control from the charger and assign it to
the battery. With a true SMBus system, the battery becomes the master and the charger the slave that
obeys the command of the battery. This enables a universal charger to service present and future battery
chemistries by applying correct charge algorithms.
During the 1990s, several standardized SMBus battery packs emerged, including the 35 and 202 (Figure 78).
Manufactured by Sony, Hitachi, GP Batteries and others, these interchangeable batteries were designed to
power a broad range of portable devices, such as laptops and medical instruments. The idea was solid but
standardization diverged as most manufacturers began building their own packs.
To prevent unauthorized batteries from infiltrating the market, some manufacturers add a code to exclude
other pack vendors. A few manufacturers go as far as to invalidate the battery when a given cycle count is
reached. To avoid surprises, most of these systems inform the user of the pending end-of-life.

Figure 78 - 35 and 202 series batteries featuring SMBus

Available in nickel- and lithium-based chemistries, these batteries power laptops, biomedical instruments
and survey equipment. Non-SMBus (dumb) versions with the same footprint are also available (Courtesy of
Cadex)

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An SMBus battery contains permanent and temporary data. The battery manufacturer program the
permanent data into the battery, which includes battery ID, battery type, manufacturer’s name, serial
number and date of manufacture. The temporary data is added during use and contains cycle count, usage
pattern and maintenance requirements. Some of the information is kept, while other data is renewed
throughout the life of the battery. The voltage is typically measured in 1mV increments; the current
resolution is 0.5mA; temperature accuracy is about ±3ºC.
Smart battery chargers are divided into Level 1, 2 and 3. Level 1 has been discontinued because it does not
provide chemistry-independent charging and it supported a single chemistry only. A Level 2 charger is fully
controlled by the Smart Battery and acts as an SMBus slave, responding to voltage and current commands
from the Smart Battery. Level 2 also serves as in-circuit charging, a practice that is common in laptops.
Another use is a battery with a built-in charging circuit. In Level 2, battery and circuit are married to each
other.
A level 3 charger can interpret commands from a Smart Battery, as is done with Level 2, and also act as
master. In other words, the Level 3 charger can request charging information from the Smart Battery but it
can also impose its own charging algorithm by responding to the “chemical” battery. Most industrial smart
chargers are based on the hybrid type Level 3.
Some lower-cost chargers have emerged that accommodate SMBus batteries, but these may not be fully
SBS compliant. Manufacturers of SMBus batteries do not endorse this shortcut because of safety concerns.
Applications such as biomedical instruments, data collection devices and survey equipment lean towards
Level 3 chargers with full-fledged charge protocols. Table 5 lists the advantages and limitations of the smart
battery.
Table 39 - Advantages and limitations of the smart battery

Advantages Provides state-of-charge and full charge capacity, reflecting

capacity estimations.
Records battery history, including cycle count, usage pattern,
maintenance requirements, max error, etc.
Configures charger to the correct algorithm.
Reminds user of periodic service.
Protects battery from unauthorized use.

Limitations Adds 25% to the cost of a battery. (Fuel gauge ICs are in the $2-
range)
Complicates the charger; most chargers for intelligent batteries
are hybrid and also service non-intelligent batteries.
Requires periodic calibration.
Readout only shows state-of-charge and not actual runtime.

Simple Guidelines for Using Smart Batteries

 Calibrate a smart battery by applying a full discharge and charge every 3 months or after every
40 partial cycles. Batteries with impedance tracking provide a certain amount of self-calibration.
 A fuel gauge showing 100 percent SoC does not automatically assure a good battery. The
capacity may have faded to 50 percent, cutting the runtime in half. A fuel gauge can give a false
sense of security.
 If possible, replace the battery with the same brand to avoid incompatibility issues with the
device and/or charger. Always test the battery and the charger before use.
 Exercise caution when using a smart battery that does not indicate state-of-charge correctly.
This battery may be faulty or is not fully compatible with the equipment.
Last Updated 2016-10-03

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BU-602: How does a Battery Fuel Gauge Work?
Discover how to measure battery state-of-charge and what future developments may bring.
The lifespan of a battery cannot be defined by the number of cycles or age alone but to a large extent by its
usage (or misusage). As the capacity fades, the runtime gets shorter. The smart battery captures this
capacity fade by reading the previous energy delivered, but these vital health statistics remain mostly
hidden from the user. The battery continues to be a “black box” that conceals vital performance records
and masks when the battery should be replaced.
One of the main tasks of the smart battery is to establish communication between the battery, charger and
user. A fuel gauge indicating state-of-charge fulfills this in part. When pressing the TEST button on a fully
charged SMBus battery, all signal lights illuminate. On a partially discharged battery, half the lights
illuminate, and on an empty battery all lights remain dark or a red light appears. Figure 79 shows a fuel
gauge of a battery that is 75 percent charged with three lights glowing.

Figure 79 - State-of-charge readout of a “smart” battery

Signal lights indicate the battery SoC when pressing the TEST button (Courtesy of Cadex)
While the SoC information displayed on a battery or a display screen is helpful to the user, the readout does
not guarantee the runtime. The fuel gauge resets to 100 percent with a full recharge regardless of how
much capacity the battery can store.
A serious breach of trust occurs if an aged battery shows 100 percent SoC while the battery’s ability to hold
charge has dropped to 50 percent or less. We ask, “100 percent of what?” If, for example, 100 percent of a
good battery results in a 4-hour runtime, a battery holding half the capacity would run for only 2 hours.
Many users are unaware that the fuel gauge only shows SoC; capacity, the leading health indicator,
remains unknown.
Other than applying a controlled discharge, there is no reliable method to measure the capacity of
“chemical battery” but there is a way to read the “digital battery.” The term chemical battery refers to the
actual capacity derived by discharging a fully charged pack, whereas the digital battery is a peripheral
monitoring circuit that stores the estimated capacity derived by coulomb counting when charging and
discharging a battery as part of field use.
The SMBus battery stores the factory-set design capacity in Ah or 100 percent by default. With each full
charge, the battery resets the full-charge flag and during discharge, the coulomb counter measures the
energy consumed. The in-and-out-flowing coulombs can be used to estimate battery state-of-health known
as full charge capacity (FCC). As the battery fades with usage and time, so also does the delivered energy
decrease, and the FCC number will decline. The FCC accuracy of a battery that is being deep cycled is
about +/-5 percent compared to capacity readings taken by discharging. Periodic calibration will improve
the FCC accuracy.
Capacity can also be estimated by coulomb counting during charging. This works best with an empty
battery. A battery with a 100 percent capacity will receive the full coulomb count; one with only 50 percent
capacity will only accept half before the battery reaches full charge. Not knowing the residual SoC when the
coulomb count begins will affect the accuracy. SoC can be estimated by measuring the battery’s open
circuit voltage (OCV), but this only gives a rough approximation as agitation after charge or discharge, as
well as temperature, affects the OCV.

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Tri-state Fuel Gauge
The SoC and capacity information can be shown on a linear display using colored LEDs. The green lights
indicate the usable capacity; the empty part of the battery is marked with un-lit LEDs; and the unusable part
is shown with red LEDs. Figure 2 illustrates a tri-state fuel gauge. The results can also be shown on a digital
display.

Figure 80 - Tri-state fuel gauge

The tri-state fuel gauge reads the “learned” battery information on the SMBus and displays it on a multi
colored LED bar. The illustration shows a partially discharged battery of 50% SoC with 20% empty and
30% unusable (Courtesy of Cadex)
The tri-state fuel gauge provides state-of-function (SoF), the ultimate in battery diagnostics. Some device
manufacturers are hesitant to offer this feature to consumers because this could lead to elevated warranty
claims. A replacement only becomes mandatory if the battery capacity drops below 80 percent; keeping
the evidence hidden is seen as the least disruptive method. SoF can always be accessed by a service code.
SoF works best for industrial uses.
Vehicles with electric propulsion do not show the charge but only the remaining driving range, thus hiding
the capacity. To accommodate capacity fade that would shorten the driving range, the EV battery is being
oversized and does not fully charge and discharge when new. Only as the battery ages and the capacity
fades does the charging range gradually increase. Shorter driving ranges only become apparent once this
grace buffer has been consumed. (See BU-1003: Electric Vehicle)
Last updated 2016-07-28

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BU-603: How to Calibrate a “Smart” Battery
Learn why calibration is needed and how often it is required.
When designing a fuel gauge, engineers commonly make a misjudgment by assuming that a battery will
always stay young. As with people, batteries age and the changing characteristics must be taken into
account to maintain accuracy. Fancy fuel gauges can provide a false sense of security in believing that the
displayed battery readings are correct. For the casual user of a mobile phone or laptop, a fuel gauge error is
only a mild irritant, but the problem escalates with medical and military devices, as well as drones and
electric drivetrains that depend on precise range predictions.
The chemical battery representing the actual energy storage remains the master while the digital battery
provides peripheral support by relying on the information obtained from charge and discharge cycles. But
like all fine machines, precise settings begin to shift and need adjustment. The same happens with an
SMBus battery that also require periodic calibration. The instructions for an Apple iPad reads: “For proper
reporting of SoC, be sure to go through at least one full charge/discharge cycle per month.”
Figure 81 demonstrates a digital battery that is drifting away from the chemical battery; calibration corrects
the tracking error. The accumulating error is application related and the drift on the chart is accentuated for
effect.

Figure 81 - Tracking of Electrochemical and digital battery as a function of time

With use and time the electro-chemical and digital battery drift apart; calibration corrects the error.
Note: The accumulating error is application related; the values on the chart are accentuated.
A smart battery self-calibrates by taking advantage of occasional full discharges, but in real life this seldom
happens. Most discharges are intermittent and go to random depth. In addition, the load signatures often
consist of high frequency pulses that are difficult to capture. The partially discharged battery may be partly
recharged and then stored in a warm room, causing elevated self-discharge that cannot be tracked. These
anomalies add to the display error that amplifies with use and time.
To maintain accuracy, a smart battery should periodically be calibrated by running the pack down in the
device until “Low Battery” appears and then apply a recharge. The full discharge sets the discharge flag and
the full charge establishes the charge flag. A linear line forms between these two anchor points that allow
SoC estimation. In time, this line gets blurred again and the battery requires recalibration. Figure 82
illustrates the full-discharge and full-charge flags.

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 Figure 82 - Full-discharge and full-charge flags

Calibration occurs by applying a full charge, discharge and charge. This is done in the equipment or with a
battery analyzer as part of battery maintenance (Courtesy Cadex)
Battery analyzers serve as a valuable tool to calibrate a smart battery. An analyzer fully charges the battery
and then applies a controlled discharge that provides the all-important capacity readings of the chemical
battery. This discharge measurement is a truer reading than what coulomb counting provides by capturing
past discharge events of the digital battery.
How often should a battery be calibrated? The answer depends on the application. For a battery that is in
continued use, a calibration should be done once every 3 months or after 40 partial cycles. If the portable
device applies a periodic full deep discharge on its own accord, then no additional calibration should be
needed.
What happens if the battery is not calibrated regularly? Can such a battery be used with confidence? Most
smart battery chargers obey the dictates of the chemical battery rather than the digital battery and there are
no safety concerns. The battery should function normally, but the digital readout may become unreliable.
Some smart batteries feature impedance tracking. This is a self-learning algorithm that reduces or
eliminates the need to calibrate. If calibration is required, however, several cycles instead of only one may
be needed to achieve the same result as with a standard system.
Max Error
The accuracy between the chemical and digital battery is measured by the Max Error. Max Error stands for
“maximum error” and is presented in percentage. A low reading indicates good accuracy, and as the
precision diminishes with partial cycles, the Max Error number increases steadily. This supervisory
watchdog can be compared to a medical doctor who measures a medical condition by a number.
Some manufacturers recommend calibration at a Max Error of 8 percent; readings above 12 percent may
trigger an alarm and 16 could render the battery unserviceable. No unified standard exists to determine
what Max Error level requires service or what constitutes an error; every battery manufacturer follows its
own recommendation.
Screen Capture
The SMBus system provides a wealth of information that includes battery manufacturing date, battery
model and serial number, capacity, temperature and estimated runtime, as well as voltages down to the
cell levels. It is an engineer’s delight to have all this data in a table, but the fine print may confuse the user
more than providing help. A busy nurse in a hospital, the policeman on duty and the solider in combat has
only one question: “Will the battery last for my mission?” Figure 83 illustrates a screenshot of the data
stored in an SMBus battery.

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 Figure 83 - Universal screenshot of SMBus battery

Data is organized in tables to assist analysis, a format that is less suited for the everyday battery user.
Access is by a software tool (Source: Texas Instrument)
Of special interest in terms of battery state-of-health (SoH) is full charge capacity (FCC), coulomb count that
is hidden in the table among tons of other information. FCC can be used with reasonable accuracy to
estimate battery SoH without applying a full discharge cycle to measure capacity. Best accuracies are
achieved if the battery is being cycled with a full charge and an occasional deep discharge. If used
sporadically, a deliberate calibration involving a full discharge/charge cycle will be needed from time-to-
time to maintain accuracy.
Last updated 2016-09-02

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BU-604: How to Process Data from a “Smart” Battery
Discover the power of the “smart” battery when making historic performance data visible
Even though smart batteries have been in service since the mid-1990s, they still behave much like a “black
box” and do not communicate to the outside world. Device manufacturers continue to mandate that the
battery be replaced on a date stamp rather than refer to the more relevant FCC information contained in the
battery. Expensive packs are thus discarded every 2–3 years instead of utilizing the full 5-year life
expectancy of Li-ion.
A new frontier is opening that provides easy battery information. The Battery Parser (by Cadex) does this
by establishing communications between the user and the battery by fetching intrinsic battery data to
reveal state-of-function (SoF). The Fishbowl icon as shown in Figure 1 consists of the Charge Ring indicating
state-of-charge and the Status Dome with PASS, CHARGE, CHECK, and FAIL messages. The Status Dome
also illustrates the energy storage capability together with Battery Fade that moves towards the Pass/Fail
line with usage and age.

Figure 84 - The Fishbowl icon display

The Fishbowl icon displays battery state-of-function at a glance with these status messages: PASS
indicates sufficient capacity and SoC CHARGE requires charging before use as SoC slipped below the
Charge Alarm. CHECK includes cell imbalance, high Max Error, elevated internal resistance and more. FAIL
hints at capacity fade, exceeding calendar date or passing beyond pre-set cycle count (Courtesy: Cadex
Electronics)
Battery status indicators must separate state-of-charge and capacity and treat them as unrelated entities.
While a battery with low SoC can be recharged, capacity loss is permanent and predicts end-of-life. This
condition is demonstrated with the encroaching black ceiling bar on top of the Fishbowl. Pressing the
Status Dome on a device featuring a touchscreen reveals possible deficiencies, as well as information
relating to the battery model, specifications, serial number and manufacturing date. The Fishbowl settings
can be altered by the user.
Storing the battery test results in a cloud-based database enables an overview of the entire battery fleet in
terms of location, application, performance and service requirements. This is made possible with the
availability of the serial number and manufacturing date in a smart battery. To check batteries needing
replacement, the operator simply calls up packs that have dropped below the 80 percent capacity or are
older than, say, 5 years.
The operator can also verify SoC by listing all batteries with less than 10 percent reserve before charging.
Tight reserve could lead to failure during heavy traffic or in an emergency. If consistently low, the pass/fail
target capacity threshold should be set higher to boost the reserve. If, on the other hand, most batteries
return with 40 percent capacity after a long mission or a full day, then the target capacity can be lowered
without affecting reliability.
The Battery Parser finds a sweet spot between reliability and economy. The service life of each battery can
be fully utilized and system reliability improved, reducing environmental harm and lowering operating
costs. In addition, fewer devices are sent for repair because the battery becomes a controlled part.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 235 of 453

A cost saving by using battery analysis was demonstrated in a 340-bed hospital in the USA. When the need
to replace the batteries for patient monitors came to $56,000 on the date stamp method, the supervisor
objected and requested that the packs be checked with a battery analyzer. This revealed that most batteries
were in good condition and the budget was reduced to $11,000.
Military is another application where battery analysis will help. A modern soldier carries radios, GPS
devices, smartphones, night vision goggles, infrared sights, flashlights and counter-IED equipment. This
amounts to roughly seven battery types, of which 10 packs are needed each for a 72-hour mission at a
weight of about 9kg (20 lb) per solider. Batteries have become the second highest expense next to
munitions. This can be reduced with a maintenance program, without which soldiers are soon carrying
rocks instead of batteries as Figure 2 demonstrates.

Figure 85 - Soldier carries rocks instead of batteries

Maintenance keeps deadwood out of the military arsenal. The digital state-of-health of “smart” batteries can
be verified within seconds or recorded during each charge (Courtesy of Cadex)
Other uses for the Battery Parser are drones and robots. Drones are demanding on the battery as heavy
loads result in a shorter than expected cycle life. Battery maintenance is paramount to prevent an
expensive vehicle from crashing should a second landing approach be necessary. (See also BU-504: How
to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity)
Battery maintenance utilizing the Battery Parser is best placed into the battery charger. Such a system
shows the capacity with each charge. Alternatively, a quick insertion reveals the battery status before use.
Knowing the performance of each battery enables planning a mission according to the available energy
source, reducing unscheduled events.
Wireless connectivity to the cloud permits collective battery management in which each charge updates
the information. This provides one of the most transparent battery management systems possible without
added logistics. Battery status can be shown on a PC or smartphone with the click of a finger.
Smart batteries and chargers with performance evaluation further assist to classify batteries into
performance groups: A-grade batteries with a capacity of 90–100 percent can be reserved for critical
missions, B-grade packs with 80–90 percent are for everyday use, and the C-grade with 70–80 percent may
be kept as spares or used for shorter errands. Having full control of the battery fleet improves reliability,
simplifies logistics and protects the environment as each battery can be utilized for their full service life.
Last updated 2016-07-25

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FROM BIRTH TO RETIREMENT

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BU-701: How to Prime Batteries
Discover what a battery needs to get going and maintain a long life.
In many ways, a battery behaves like a human being. It senses the kindness given and delivers on the care
given. It is as if the battery has feelings and returns on the benevolence bestowed. But there are exceptions,
as any parent raising a family will know; and the generosity conferred may not always deliver the
anticipated returns.
To become a good custodian, you must understand the basic needs of a battery, a subject that is not taught
in school. This section teaches what to do when the battery is new, how to feed it the right “food” and what
to do when putting the pack aside for a while. Chapter 7 (FROM BIRTH TO RETIREMENT) also looks into
restrictions when traveling with batteries by air and how to dispose of them when their useful life has
passed.
Just as a person’s life expectancy cannot be predicted at birth, neither can we date stamp a battery. Some
packs live to a great old age while others die young. Incorrect charging, harsh discharge loads and
exposure to heat are the battery’s worst enemies. Although there are ways to protect a battery, the ideal
situation is not always attainable. This chapter discusses how to get the most from our batteries.
Priming a New Battery
Not all rechargeable batteries deliver the rated capacity when new, and they require formatting. While this
applies to most battery systems, manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries disagree. They say that Li-ion is
ready at birth and does not need priming. Although this may be true, users have reported some capacity
gains by cycling after a long storage.
“What’s the difference between formatting and priming?” people ask. Both address capacities that are not
optimized and can be improved with cycling. Formatting completes the fabrication process that occurs
naturally during use when the battery is being cycled. A typical example is lead- and nickel-based batteries
that improve with usage until fully formatted. Priming, on the other hand, is a conditioning cycle that is
applied as a service to improve battery performance during usage or after prolonged storage. Priming
relates mainly to nickel-based batteries.
Lead Acid
Formatting a lead acid battery occurs by applying a charge, followed by a discharge and recharge. This is
done at the factory and is completed in the field as part of regular use. Experts advise not to strain a new
battery by giving it heavy duty discharges at first but gradually working it in with moderate discharges, like
an athlete trains for weight lifting or long-distance running. This, however, may not be possible with a
starter battery in a vehicle and other uses. Lead acid typically reaches the full capacity potential after 50 to
100 cycles. Figure 86 illustrates the lifespan of lead acid.

Figure 86 - Lifespan of Lead Acid

A new lead acid battery may not by fully formatted and only attains full performance after 50 or more
cycles. Formatting occurs during use; deliberate cycling is not recommended as this would wear down the
battery unnecessarily.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 238 of 453
Deep-cycle batteries are at about 85 percent when new and will increase to 100 percent, or close to full
capacity, when fully formatted. There are some outliers that are as low as 65 percent when tested with a
battery analyzer. The question is asked, “Will these low-performers recover and stand up to their stronger
brothers when formatted?” A seasoned battery expert said that “these batteries will improve somewhat but
they are the first to fail.”
The function of a starter battery lies in delivering high load currents to crank the engine, and this attribute is
present from the beginning without the need to format and prime. To the surprise of many motorists, the
capacity of a starter battery can fade to 30 percent and still crank the engine; however, a further drop may
get the driver stranded one morning. See also BU-904: How to Measure Capacity)
Nickel-based
Manufacturers advise to trickle charge a nickel-based battery for 16–24 hours when new and after a long
storage. This allows the cells to adjust to each other and to bring them to an equal charge level. A slow
charge also helps to redistribute the electrolyte to eliminate dry spots on the separator that might have
developed by gravitation.
Nickel-based batteries are not always fully formatted when leaving the factory. Applying several
charge/discharge cycles through normal use or with a battery analyzer completes the formatting process.
The number of cycles required to attain full capacity differs between cell manufacturers. Quality cells
perform to specification after 5–7 cycles, while lower-cost alternatives may need 50 or more cycles to reach
acceptable capacity levels.
Lack of formatting causes a problem when the user expects a new battery to work at full capacity out of the
box. Organizations using batteries for mission-critical applications should verify the performance through a
discharge/charge cycle as part of quality control. The “prime” program of automated battery analyzers
(Cadex) applies as many cycles as needed to attain full capacity.
Cycling also restores lost capacity when a nickel-based battery has been stored for a few months. Storage
time, state-of-charge and temperature under which the battery is stored govern the ease of recovery. The
longer the storage and the warmer the temperature, the more cycles will be required to regain full capacity.
Battery analyzers help in the priming functions and assure that the desired capacity has been achieved.
Lithium-ion
Some battery users insist that a passivation layer develops on the cathode of a lithium-ion cell after storage.
Also known as interfacial protective film (IPF), this layer is said to restrict ion flow, cause an increase in
internal resistance and in the worst case, lead to lithium plating. Charging, and more effectively cycling, is
known to dissolve the layer and some battery users claim to have gained extra runtime after the second or
third cycle on a smartphone, albeit by a small amount.
Scientists do not fully understand the nature of this layer, and the few published resources on this subject
only speculate that performance restoration with cycling is connected to the removal of the passivation
layer. Some scientists outright deny the existence of the IPF, saying that the idea is highly speculative and
inconsistent with existing studies. Whatever the outcome on the passivation of Li-ion may be, there is no
parallel to the “memory” effect with NiCd batteries that require periodic cycling to prevent capacity loss.
The symptoms may appear similar but the mechanics are different. Nor can the effect be compared to
sulfation of lead acid batteries.
A well-known layer that builds up on the anode is the solid electrolyte solid electrolyte interface (SEI). SEI is
an electrical insulation but has sufficient ionic conductivity to allow the battery to function normally. While
the SEI layer lowers the capacity, it also protects the battery. Without SEI, Li-ion might not get the longevity
that it has. (See BU-307: How does Electrolyte Work?)
The SEI layer develops as part of a formation process and manufacturers take great care to do this right, as
a batched job can cause permanent capacity loss and a rise in internal resistance. The process includes
several cycles, float charges at elevated temperatures and rest periods that can take many weeks to
complete. This formation period also provides quality control and assists in cell matching, as well as
observing self-discharge by measuring the cell voltage after a rest. High self-discharge hints to impurity as
part of a potential manufacturing defect.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 239 of 453
Electrolyte oxidation (EO) also occurs on the cathode. This causes a permanent capacity loss and increases
the internal resistance. No remedy exists to remove the layer once formed but electrolyte additives lessen
the impact. Keeping Li-ion at a voltage above 4.10V/cell while at an elevated temperature promotes
electrolyte oxidation. Field observation shows that the combination of heat and high voltage can stress Li-
ion more than harsh cycling.
Lithium-ion is a very clean system that does not need additional priming once it leaves the factory, nor does
it require the level of maintenance that nickel-based batteries do. Additional formatting makes little
difference because the maximum capacity is available right from the beginning, (the exception may be a
small capacity gain after a long storage). A full discharge does not improve the capacity once the battery
has faded — a low capacity signals the end of life. A discharge/charge may calibrate a “smart” battery but
this does little to improve the chemical battery. (See BU-601: Inner Working of a Smart Battery) Instructions
recommending charging a new Li-ion for 8 hours are written off as “old school,” a left-over from the old
nickel battery days.
Non-rechargeable Lithium
Primary lithium batteries, such as lithium-thionyl chloride (LTC), benefit from passivation in storage.
Passivation is a thin layer that forms as part of a reaction between the electrolyte, the lithium anode and the
carbon-based cathode. (Note that the anode of a primary lithium battery is lithium and the cathode is
graphite, the reverse of Li-ion.)
Without this layer, most lithium batteries could not function because the lithium would cause a rapid self-
discharge and degrade the battery quickly. Battery scientists even say that the battery would explode
without the formation of lithium chloride layers and that the passivation layer is responsible for the battery's
existence and the ability to store for 10 years.
Temperature and state-of-charge promote the buildup of the passivation layer. A fully charged LTC is
harder to depassivate after long storage than one that was kept at a low charge. While LTC should be
stored at cool temperatures, depassivation works better when warm as the increased thermal conductivity
and mobility of the ions helps in the process.
CAUTION Do not apply physical tension or excessive heat to the battery.
Explosions due to careless handling have caused serious injuries
to workers..

The passivation layer causes a voltage delay when first applying a load to the battery, and Figure 87
illustrates the drop and recovery with batteries affected by different passivation levels. Battery A
demonstrates a minimal voltage drop while Battery C needs time to recover.

Figure 87 - Voltage behavior when applying a load to a passivated battery

Battery A has mild passivation, B takes longer to restore, and C is affected the most (Courtesy EE Times)

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 240 of 453

LTC in devices drawing very low current, such as a sensor for a road toll or metering, may develop a
passivation layer that can lead to malfunction, and heat promotes such growth. This can often be solved by
adding a large capacitor in parallel with the battery. The battery that has developed a high internal
resistance is still capable of charging the capacitor to deliver the occasional high pulses; the standby time
in between is devoted to recharging the capacitor.
To assist in sulfation prevention during storage, some lithium batteries are shipped with a 36kΩ resistor to
serve as a parasitic load. The steady low discharge current prevents the layer from growing too thick, but
this will reduce the storage life. After 2-year storage with the 36kΩ resistor, the batteries are said to still
have 90 percent capacity. Another remedy is attaching a device that applies periodic discharge pulses
during storage.
Not all primary lithium batteries recover when installed in a device and when a load is applied. The current
may be too low to reverse the passivation. It is also possible that the equipment rejects a passivated battery
as being low state-of-charge or defective. Many of these batteries can be prepared with a battery analyzer
(Cadex) by applying a controlled load. The analyzer then verifies proper function before engaging the
battery in the field.
The required discharge current for depassivation is a C-rate of 1C to 3C (1 to 3 times of the rated capacity).
The cell voltage must recover to 3.2V when applying the load; the service time is typically 20 seconds. The
process can be repeated but it should take no longer than 5 minutes. With a load of 1C, the voltage of a
correctly functioning cell should stay above 3.0V. A drop to below 2.7V means end-of-life. (See BU-106:
Primary Batteries)
These lithium-metal batteries have high lithium content and must follow more stringent shipping
requirements than Li-ion of the same Ah. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by air) Because
of the high specific energy, special care must be taken in handling these cells.
CAUTION When charging an SLA with over-voltage, current limiting must be applied to
protect the battery. Always set the current limit to the lowest practical setting
and observe the battery voltage and temperature during charge.
In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the
electrolyte, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with
water for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.
Wear approved gloves when touching the electrolyte, lead and cadmium. On
exposure to the skin, flush with water immediately.

Last Updated 2016-05-25

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BU-702: How to Store Batteries
Learn about storage temperatures and state-of-charge conditions.
The recommended storage temperature for most batteries is 15°C (59°F); the extreme allowable
temperature is –40°C to 50°C (–40°C to 122°F) for most chemistries. While lead acid must always be kept at
full charge during storage, nickel- and lithium-based chemistries should be stored at around a 40 percent
state-of-charge (SoC). This minimizes age-related capacity loss while keeping the battery operational and
allowing for some self-discharge.
Nickel-based batteries can be stored in a fully discharged state with no apparent side effect, and Li-ion
cannot dip below 2V/cell for any length of time. Copper shunts form inside the cells that can lead to
elevated self-discharge or a partial electrical short. (See BU-802b: Elevated Self-discharge.) If recharged,
the cells might become unstable, causing excessive heat or showing other anomalies. Li-ion batteries that
have been under stress may function normally but are more sensitive to mechanical abuse. The liability for
a failed battery goes to the manufacturer when a fault could have been caused by improper use and
handling.
Finding the exact 40–50 percent SoC level to store Li-ion is not all that important. At 40 percent charge,
most Li-ion has an OCV of 3.82V/cell measured at room temperature. To get the correct reading after a
charge or discharge, rest the battery for 90 minutes before taking the reading. If this is not practical,
overshoot the discharge voltage by 50mV or go 50mV higher on charge. This means discharging to
3.77V/cell or charging to 3.87V/cell at a C-rate of 1C or less. The rubber band effect will settle the voltage at
roughly 3.82V. Figure 1 shows the typical discharge voltage of a Li-ion battery.

Battery SoC is reflected in OCV. Lithium manganese oxide reads 3.82V at 40% SoC (25°C), and about 3.70V
at 30% (shipping requirement). Temperature and previous charge and discharge activities affect the
reading. Allow the battery to rest for 90 minutes before taking the reading.
Measuring SoC is especially difficult on nickel-based batteries. A flat discharge curve, agitation after charge
and discharge and temperature affects the voltage. The charge level for storage is not critical for this
chemistry, so simply apply some charge if the battery is empty and store it in a cool and dry place. With
some charge, priming should be quicker than if stored in a totally discharged state.
Storage induces two forms of losses: Self-discharge that can be refilled with charging before use, and non-
recoverable losses that permanently lower the capacity. Table 2 illustrates the remaining capacities of
lithium- and nickel-based batteries after one year of storage at various temperatures. Li-ion has higher
losses if stored fully charged rather than at a SoC of 40 percent. (See BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-
based Batteries to study capacity loss in Li-ion.)
Lead acid Nickel-based Lithium-ion (Li-cobalt)
Temperature
at full charge at any charge 40% charge 100% charge

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 0°C 97% 99% 98% 94%

25°C 90% 97% 96% 80%

40°C 62% 95% 85% 65%

60°C 38% 70% 75% 60%

(after 6 months) (after 3 months)

Elevated temperature hastens permanent capacity loss. Depending on battery type, lithium-ion is also
sensitive to charge levels.
Batteries are often exposed to unfavorable temperatures, and leaving a mobile phone or camera on the
dashboard of a car or in the hot sun are such examples. Laptops get warm when in use and this increases
the battery temperature. Sitting at full charge while being plugged into the mains contributes to a relatively
short battery life. Elevated temperature also stresses lead- and nickel-based batteries. (See BU-808: How to
Prolong Lithium-based Batteries.)
Nickel-metal-hydride can be stored for 3–5 years. The capacity drop that occurs during storage is partially
reversible with priming. Nickel-cadmium stores well. The US Air Force was able to deploy NiCd batteries
that had been in storage for 5 years with good recovered capacities after priming. It is believed that priming
becomes necessary if the voltage drops below 1V/cell. Primary alkaline and lithium batteries can be stored
for up to 10 years with only moderate capacity loss.
You can store a sealed lead acid battery for up to 2 years. Since all batteries gradually self-discharge over
time, it is important to check the voltage and/or specific gravity, and then apply a charge when the battery
falls to 70 percent state-of-charge, which reflects 2.07V/cell open circuit or 12.42V for a 12V pack. (The
specific gravity at 70 percent charge is roughly 1.218.) Lead acid batteries may have different readings, and
it is best to check the manufacturer’s instruction manual. Some battery manufacturer may further let a lead
acid to drop to 60 percent before recharge. Low charge induces sulfation, an oxidation layer on the
negative plate that inhibits current flow. Topping charge and/or cycling may restore some of the capacity
losses in the early stages of sulfation. (See BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it.)
Sulfation may prevent charging small sealed lead acid cells, such as the Cyclone by Hawker, after
prolonged storage. These batteries can often be reactivated by applying an elevated voltage. At first, the
cell voltage under charge may go up to 5V and draw very little current. Within 2 hours or so, the charging
current converts the large sulfate crystals into active material, the cell resistance drops and the charge
voltage gradually normalizes. At between 2.10V and 2.40V the cell is able to accept a normal charge. To
prevent damage, set the current limit to a very low level. Do not attempt to perform this service if the power
supply does not have current limiting. (See BU-405: Charging with a Power Supply.)
Alkaline batteries are easy to store. For best results, keep the cells at cool room temperature and at a
relative humidity of about 50 percent. Do not freeze alkaline cells, or any battery, as this may change the
molecular structure.
Simple Guidelines for Storing Batteries
Primary batteries store well. Alkaline and primary lithium batteries can be stored for 10 years with
moderate loss capacity.
When storing, remove the battery from the equipment and place in a dry and cool place.
Avoid freezing. Batteries freeze more easily if kept in discharged state.
Charge lead acid before storing and monitor the voltage or specific gravity frequently; apply a charge if
below 2.07V/cell or if SG is below 1.225 (most starter batteries).
Nickel-based batteries can be stored for 3–5years, even at zero voltage; prime before use.

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 Lithium-ion must be stored in a charged state, ideally at 40 percent. This prevents the battery from
dropping below 2.50V/cell, triggering sleep mode.
Discard Li-ion if kept below 2.00/V/cell for more than a week. Also discard if the voltage does not recover
normally after storage. (See BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge do?)
CAUTION When charging an SLA with over-voltage, current limiting must be applied to protect the
battery. Always set the current limit to the lowest practical setting and observe the
battery voltage and temperature during charge. In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or
any other cause of exposure to the electrolyte, flush with water immediately. If eye
exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.
Wear approved gloves when touching electrolyte, lead and cadmium. On exposure to
skin, flush with water immediately.

Last Updated: 2017-04-04

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BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries
Become familiar with the do's and don’ts when handling batteries.
Batteries are safe, but caution is necessary when touching damaged cells and when handling lead acid
systems that have access to lead and sulfuric acid. Several countries label lead acid as hazardous material,
and rightly so. Lead can be a health hazard if not properly handled.
Lead
Lead is a toxic metal that can enter the body by inhalation of lead dust or ingestion when touching the
mouth with lead-contaminated hands. If leaked onto the ground, acid and lead particles contaminate the
soil and become airborne when dry. Children and fetuses of pregnant women are most vulnerable to lead
exposure because their bodies are developing. Excessive levels of lead can affect a child’s growth, cause
brain damage, harm kidneys, impair hearing and induce behavioral problems. In adults, lead can cause
memory loss and lower the ability to concentrate, as well as harm the reproductive system. Lead is also
known to cause high blood pressure, nerve disorders, and muscle and joint pain. Researchers speculate
that Ludwig van Beethoven became ill and died because of lead poisoning.
By 2017, members of the International Lead Association (ILA) want to keep the lead blood level of workers
in mining, smelting, refining and recycling below 30 micrograms per deciliter (30µg/dl). In 2014, the average
participating employee checked in at 15.6µg/dl, but 4.8 percent were above 30µg/dl. (Source Batteries &
Energy Storage Technology, Summer 2015.)
Sulfuric Acid
The sulfuric acid in a lead acid battery is highly corrosive and is more harmful than acids used in most other
battery systems. Contact with eye can cause permanent blindness; swallowing damages internal organs
that can lead to death. First aid treatment calls for flushing the skin for 10–15 minutes with large amounts of
water to cool the affected tissue and to prevent secondary damage. Immediately remove contaminated
clothing and thoroughly wash the underlying skin. Always wear protective equipment when handling
sulfuric acid.
Cadmium
Cadmium used in nickel-cadmium batteries is considered more harmful than lead if ingested. Workers at
NiCd manufacturing plants in Japan have been experiencing health problems from prolonged exposure to
the metal, and governments have banned disposal of nickel-cadmium batteries in landfills. The soft, whitish
metal that occurs naturally in the soil can damage kidneys. Cadmium can be absorbed through the skin by
touching a spilled battery. Since most NiCd batteries are sealed, there are no health risks in handling intact
cells; caution is required when working with an open battery.
Nickel-metal-hydride is considered non-toxic and the only concern is the electrolyte. Although toxic to
plants, nickel is not harmful to humans.
Lithium-ion is also benign — the battery contains little toxic material. Nevertheless, caution is required
when working with a damaged battery. When handling a spilled battery, do not touch your mouth, nose or
eyes. Wash your hands thoroughly.
Keep small batteries out of children’s reach. Children younger than four are the most likely to swallow
batteries, and the most common types that are ingested are button cells. Each year in the United States
alone, more than 2,800 children are treated in emergency rooms for swallowing button batteries.
According to a 2015 report, serious injuries and deaths from swallowing batteries have increased nine-fold
in the last decade.
The battery often gets stuck in the esophagus (the tube that passes food). Water or saliva creates an
electrical current that can trigger a chemical reaction producing hydroxide, a caustic ion that causes serious
burns to the surrounding tissue. Doctors often misdiagnose the symptoms, which can reveal themselves as
fever, vomiting, poor appetite and weariness. Batteries that make it through the esophagus often move
through the digestive tract with little or no lasting damage. The advice to a parent is to choose safe toys and
to keep small batteries away from young children.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 245 of 453
Safety Tips
Keep button batteries out of sight and reach of children. Remote controls, singing greeting cards,
watches, hearing aids, thermometers, toys and electric keys may contain these batteries.
Similar to pharmaceutical products, keep loose batteries locked away to prevent access by small
children.
Communicate the danger of swallowing button batteries with your children, as well as caregivers,
friends, family members and babysitters.
If you suspect your child has ingested a battery, go to the hospital immediately. Wait for a medical
assessment before allowing the child to eat and drink.
Ventilation
Charging batteries in living quarters should be safe, and this also applies to lead acid. Ventilate the area
regularly as you would a kitchen when cooking. Lead acid produces some hydrogen gas but the amount is
minimal when charged correctly. Hydrogen gas becomes explosive at a concentration of 4 percent. This
would only be achieved if large lead acid batteries were charged in a sealed room.
Over-charging a lead acid battery can produce hydrogen sulfide. The gas is colorless, very poisonous,
flammable and has the odor of rotten eggs. Hydrogen sulfide also occurs naturally during the breakdown of
organic matter in swamps and sewers; it is present in volcanic gases, natural gas and some well waters.
Being heavier than air, the gas accumulates at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Although noticeable
at first, the sense of smell deadens the sensation with time and potential victims may be unaware of its
presence.
As a simple guideline, hydrogen sulfide becomes harmful to human life if the odor is noticeable. Turn off
the charger, vent the facility and stay outside until the odor disappears.
Caution: When charging an SLA with over-voltage, current limiting must be applied to protect
the battery. Always set the current limit to the lowest practical setting and observe
the battery voltage and temperature during charge. In case of rupture, leaking
electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the electrolyte, flush with water
immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a
physician immediately. Wear approved gloves when touching electrolyte, lead and
cadmium. On exposure to skin, flush with water immediately.

Last Updated 2016-05-25

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BU-704: How to Transport Batteries
Know the hazardous material rules and lithium content when carrying batteries.
Unresolved airplane crashes that were likely caused by batteries catching fire onboard during flight include
the Asiana Airlines 747 near South Korea in July 2011, a UPS 747 in Dubai, UAE in September 2010 and a
UPS DC-8 in Philadelphia, PA in February 2006. These events prompted changes to the UN Manual of Tests
and Criteria in how batteries are certified for transport under UN 38.3.
Safety prompted authorities to tighten the rules when transporting batteries. Although lithium batteries get
the most attention, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) says that based on records from 1991 to 2007
it was only a factor in 27 percent of all incidents. Lead acid, NiMH, NiCd and alkaline are also to blame.
Reports say that short circuit, a preventable problem that can be solved with better packaging, is the largest
problem. Figure 1 shows unprotected cells that can cause an electrical short by touching; propagation can
create a chain reaction releasing a large amount of energy.

Much blame goes to faulty. Regulatory authorities recommend putting small batteries into clear plastic
bags and placing them in a firm box with good padding. Limit the content per box.
Lead Acid
Spillable lead acid batteries are regulated as dangerous goods under Class 8, controlled by UN 2794. These
batteries are considered dangerous goods because of the possibility of fire if shorted. Furthermore, an acid
spill can cause personal injury and property damage. Figure 2 shows the HAZMAT Class 8 label that is
commonly seen on trucks. The shipping rules are simple, well established and make common sense.
When transporting Class 8 goods, note that a vehicle can only carry one type of hazardous material. Stack
batteries upright on a wooden pallet, place honeycomb cardboard between layers and limit stacking to
three layers per pallet. Wrap the pallet with shrink-wrap to improve stability. Add the “Corrosive” label, UN
2794 identification number and mark: “Wet, filled with acid.” Provide bill of lading with description of
hazardous material, company and shipper’s name. Figure 3 shows do’s and don’ts.

label indicating corrosive substance

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Protect batteries from short circuit by placing cardboard insulator pads between layers and shrink-wrap.
Failure to comply can lead to fines.
Some wet, non-spillable sealed lead-acid batteries grouped under UN 2800 are exempt from Class 8. The
battery manufacturer must declare how a battery is regulated on its associated Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) and most AGM (absorbent glass mat) batteries can be shipped under the simpler UN 2800
directive. MSDS contains information on the potential health effects of exposure to chemicals or dangerous
substances and on safe workplace procedures when handling chemical products.
Different rules apply when shipping damaged batteries. A lead acid battery is considered damaged if the
possibility of leakage exists due to a crack or if one or more caps are missing. Transportation companies
and air carriers may require draining the batteries of all acid prior to transport. Place damaged batteries in
an acid-resistant container and add soda ash to neutralize any acid that might spill. Separate damaged and
intact batteries.
Nickel-based Batteries
Nickel-based batteries have no transport limitations; however, some of the same precautions apply as for
lead acid in terms of packaging to prevent electrical shorts and safeguard against fire. Regulations prohibit
storing and transporting smaller battery packs in a metal box. If there is a danger of an electrical short, wrap
each battery individually in a plastic bag. Do not mix batteries with coins and house keys in your pocket.
Lithium-based Batteries
The largest changes in shipping directive are with lithium batteries, and with good reasons. Li-ion is the
fastest growing battery chemistry and already in 2009, 3.3 billion Li-ion were transported by air. Safety is an
ongoing concern, and an airline-pilot union asked the FAA to ban lithium batteries on passenger aircraft.
This came into effect in 2016 and lithium batteries are now shipped in cargo airplanes only.
Lithium batteries can only be transported after passing UN 38.3 testing requirements. In spite of these
precautions, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recorded 138 airport and air incidents between
1991 and 2016 involving lithium batteries. They involved smoke, heat and fire related to battery-operated
devices such as e-cigarettes, laptops and mobile phones. Some incidents occurred before takeoff and the
batteries were removed from the aircraft. Battery fires in flight were extinguished with halon type fire
extinguishers and water, by placing the damaged device in a thermal battery containment bag that some
airlines carry. Failing batteries in the cargo hold that were inadvertently checked into luggage required
emergency landings.
Not all incidents are reported to the FAA, but the number of reported incidents is up from 2015. Recorded
failures in 2016 alone involved 13 e-cigarettes, four laptops, seven mobile phones/tablets and seven spare
batteries. E-cigarette incidents increased notably, while mobile phone and laptop events remain moderate
considering the number of such devices in use.

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Since 2008, lithium batteries can no longer be placed in checked baggage; they must be carried onboard.
Air travelers are reminded of how many batteries they can carry with a portable device and as spares.
Quick access to a fire extinguisher enables putting out a fire in the cabin should one take off. A coffee pot
served as the fire extinguishing device for a flaming laptop battery in one reported incident. This is not
possible with a burning battery in the cargo hold.
Transported lithium-based batteries are divided into two types: The rechargeable lithium-ion is primarily
found in mobile phones and laptops; the non-rechargeable lithium-metal with added restrictions because
of its high lithium content is used in sensing devices as well as in some consumer grade AA, AAA and 9V
formats. Airlines allow both types as carry-on, either installed in devices or carried as spare packs as long
as they don’t exceed the following limitation of lithium or equivalent content:
2 grams per battery for non-rechargeable lithium batteries, also known as lithium-metal.
8 grams per battery for a rechargeable lithium-ion. This amounts to a 100Wh battery.
25 grams total per passenger for all Li-ion combined, amounting to 300Wh.
The lithium content of a lithium-metal battery is printed on the label. Li-ion, on the other hand, uses
equivalent lithium content (ELC) that is calculated by multiplying the rated capacity (Ah) times 0.3. For
example, a 1Ah cell has 0.3 grams of lithium. A modern 18650 cell with a capacity of 3.3Ah contains about 1
gram. The 8-gram limit permits a 26Ah battery, or 95Wh (Ah multiplied by the Li-ion cell voltage of 3.6V
equals Wh). The 18650 is a standardized Li-ion cell of 18mm in diameter and 65mm in length, and is used in
laptops, power tools and other devices. Most laptop batteries are in the 60Wh range.
While regulations limit the Li-ion battery to no larger than 100Wh, each passenger is allowed to carry two
spare packs of 160Wh each, not exceeding 320Wh in total. The airlines recommend placing each battery in
a clear plastic bag to prevent electric short. Batteries that are contained (non-removable) within a device
and are not easily removable are exempt from the rules. These include electric watches, smartphones and
laptops but not power tools with interchangeable battery packs. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based
Batteries by Air.)
All lithium batteries are considered to be dangerous goods and transporting them requires compliance with
Class 9 directives. However, exemptions are made when shipping these batteries in small quantities.
Personnel transporting lithium batteries commercially must be trained. Organizations such as iHazmat or
the International Compliance Center (ICC) educates shippers and packers in the handling of dangerous
goods consistent with to International Air Transport Association (IATA) requirements and issues a
certificate of compliance to those participants who pass a written examination. Those not familiar with
these restrictions often ask some of the following questions:
Q: Must consumer-type lithium-ion batteries always be shipped under Class 9?
A: No. Most Li-ion in consumer products are less than 100Wh and an exemption is made here but
CAUTION labeling is required.
Q: What quantities can I ship outside of Class 9?
A: Cells with a maximum rating of 20Wh and not exceeding 8 in quantity, or 2 batteries with a
maximum rating of 100Wh each as part of Section II. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by
Air.)
Q: When does Class 9 apply?
A: Lithium-based batteries classified under Section IA and IB.
Q: Must lithium-ion batteries be tested for shipment?
A: Yes, all Li-ion must be tested according to UN 38.3. Exceptions are made for prototypes and testing
purposes. Refer to CFR 49 173.185 (e) for requirements regarding the shipment of cells or batteries that have
not been tested to the requirements to UN 38.3.
Since 2016, lithium batteries can no longer be carried in passenger aircraft as cargo. Transporting them are
organized by Packaging Instructions (PI) numbers. The most common designations include:

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 249 of 453

PI 965 Loose Li-ion cells and packs (UN 3480)
PI 966 & 967 Li-ion with/in equipment (UN 3481)
PI 968 Lithium-metal cells and battery packs (UN 3090)
PI 969 & 970 Lithium-metal with/in equipment (UN 3091)
Each PI is further divided into Sections representing IA, IB and II (Roman numerals). IA is most stringent,
and for simplicity this article lists the less restricted packaging first:
Carry-on Maximum 100Wh, passenger can take 2 spares up to 160Wh each, not exceeding 320Wh. No
check-in allowed.
Section II Shipment of small Li-ion in low numbers. These can include up to 8 cells not exceeding
20Wh each and up to 2 packs not exceeding 100Wh each at a total weight of 2.5kg. Batteries must be at 30
percent state-of-charge (SoC) for shipment. Persons preparing such shipment is exempt from dangerous
goods training, but must be provided with “adequate instruction.”
Section IB Shipment of small Li-ion products in larger numbers under Class 9 dangerous goods. Similar
to Section II with a 10kg cargo limit per package. Batteries must be at 30 percent SoC. Training and
certification is mandatory.
Section IA Larger Li-ion products under Class 9 dangerous goods. Cells can be larger than 20Wh and
battery packs can exceed 100Wh, but the package limit is 35kg. Batteries must at 30 percent SoC. Training
and certification is mandatory. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air.)
See also http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/cargo/dgr/Documents/lithium-battery-guidance-document-2017-
en.pdf, entitled “2017 Lithium Battery Guidance Document.”
Be mindful when traveling by air
Shippers and passengers must be aware that batteries are not the only dangerous good banned on an
aircraft as cargo or in checked luggage. Travelers often put the safety of other passengers in danger by
checking in or bringing on board banned items. Figure 4 illustrates some of these forbidden goods. The
Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) remind travelers to declare potentially dangerous
goods. Check dangerous goods under CASA if uncertain what is allowed.

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If uncertain what items are banned, check “dangerous goods” under CASA or other websites (Source:
Daily Telegraph)
Mishaps remind travelers of the importance to observe safety bylaws. In 2014, the captain of a Boeing 737
aircraft declared “Mayday” after observing heavy white smoke billowing from the cargo hold of the plane
during an external pre-flight inspection. Emergency crew uncovered 28 batteries in a checked transit case,
6–8 of which had been destroyed by fire. The report said that an electrical short in a battery started the fire
after the passenger declared that no batteries were in the transit case. Under civil aviation laws, passengers
failing to declare dangerous goods face penalties of up to 7 years in prison. Figure 5 illustrates the remains
of the charred content.

CASA examines the remains of checked luggage after a battery caught fire before take-off. The dangerous
goods were not declared. Shipping of lithium-based batteries is regulated under UN 38.3 (Source: Daily
Telegraph)
Regulations are only as good as actual adherence to the rules. Shipment of dangerous goods can be
circumvented by deliberately mislabeling batteries. There are reported cases where Li-ion was marked with
NiCd, a chemistry that is not classified as dangerous goods. In other cases, lithium-metal with strictest
requirements was listed as more benign Li-ion. Battery chemistries are difficult to identify and the offense
may go undetected. Tightening rules only makes sense if they can be administered policed with reasonable
ease; imposing rules that are too stringent will invite lawbreakers. Only purchase lithium batteries that
come from a reputable company. Check that the batteries meet the UN Manual of Test and Criteria
requirements.
Use Common sense when carrying Batteries
Avoid storing and transporting small batteries in a metal box. Do not carry batteries with coins and house
keys in your jeans. Batteries can short circuit and release high amounts of energy, especially lithium
systems. While a household alkaline may get hot when shorted, lead acid will draw high current for a few
seconds, heat up and possibly spill. Lithium-ion is most treacherous especially when fully charged. An
unprotected Li-ion cell or battery pack continues to draw high current that can lead to a violent self-
destruction and injury through heat exposure and venting with flame.
Up-to-date information on Shipping Lithium Batteries by Air is available on
http://www.iata.org/training/courses/Pages/shipping-lithium-batteries-tcgp52.aspx.

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Disclaimer: While every effort was made to ensure that the information contained in this publication is
accurate, the publisher of Battery University does not warrant or guarantee accuracy and completeness;
nor does the publisher take responsibility for errors, omissions or damages that may arise from this
information. These guidelines are for informative purposes only. Refer to International Air Transport
Association (IATA) regulations when shipping lithium metal or lithium ion batteries or cells:
http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/cargo/dgr/Pages/lithium-batteries.aspx.
Last Updated 2017-02-17

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 252 of 453

BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air
Get familiar with the dangerous goods regulation and advise others
Lithium batteries are dangerous goods and transporting them is only permitted with UN 38.3 certification
according to the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) assists
by publishing the IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR) that helps classify, mark, pack, label and
document dangerous shipments. DGR is recognized by all major airlines.
Lithium-based batteries are divided into Li-ion found in mobile phones and laptops, and the more restrictive
lithium-metal used in sensing devices as well as some consumer grade AA, AAA and 9V formats.

IATA supports 265 airlines in 117 countries carrying 83% of air traffic
Airlines allow both types as carry-on, either installed or carried as spare packs, as long as they don’t exceed
the following lithium limitation:
2 grams per battery for lithium-metal (contend printed on battery)
8 grams per battery for Li-ion, as equivalent lithium content (ELC).
25 grams combined (300Wh total)
The lithium content in the battery governs the energy storage capacity (runtime) measured in watt-hours
(Wh). The Wh measurement is used to limit the quantity a passenger can bring onboard an aircraft, what
can be transported outside of the Class 9 dangerous goods designation, and what mandates Class 9. To
calculate the lithium content, multiply the rated capacity (Ah) times 0.3. For example, a 1Ah cell has 0.3
grams of lithium. To derive Wh, multiply Ah by the cell voltage of 3.6V. A typical laptop battery of 14.4V and
5Ah has 72Wh. (Lithium content: 5Ah x 0.3g = 1.5g x 4 cells in series = 6g).
IATA differentiates between batteries contained in the equipment (non-removable) and batteries that are
packaged separately. If contained, such as in watches, smartphones or laptops, the Wh limit is ignored if
less than 100Wh. However, if the battery is packaged with the equipment and is interchangeable, such as a
removable pack of a power tools, then the battery must be counted. Figures 1a and 1b illustrate examples of
“contained in equipment” and “packaged with equipment.”

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Battery is fitted or joined to the actual device. Example: Watch, laptop, calculator

Battery is not fitted or joined to the device. Example: Power tool with spare pack
Since 2016, lithium batteries can no longer be carried in passenger aircraft as cargo. Under DGR, the
packaging instructions (PI) are organized into PI 965 to PI 970. PI 965 covers Li-ion cells and battery packs
only, while PI 966 includes Li-ion installed in equipment, and PI 967 combines Li-ion with equipment.
Because of higher lithium content, lithium-metal batteries are handled separately under PI 968 to 970. (Most
lithium-metal are non-rechargeable.)
Transporting lithium batteries is divided into two categories:
Non-Class 9 hazardous material shipment. It involves small batteries in limited quantities. This also
applies for courier and mail deliveries. Always attach CAUTION labelling.
Class 9 hazardous material. This enables shipment of larger battery sizes and higher volumes.
Safety laws apply the strictest requirements first to assure that the conditions can be met. To make the
guidelines more palpable for the general public, the tables below list the less stringent conditions first,
followed by larger battery quantifies. This puts the established numbering system in reverse sequence.
Note that Sections IA, IB and II are in Roman numerals.

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Packaging Instruction 965 — includes loose Li-ion cells and battery packs (UN 3480)
Table 2 divides the transport of Li-ion products into four groups: Carry-on defines the quantity of Li-ion
cells and battery packs a passenger can take on an aircraft; Section II specifies shipment of small Li-ion
products in low numbers; Section 1B advises on the shipment of small Li-ion products in larger numbers,
and Section 1A governs larger Li-ion products. Only Carry-on and Section II are exempt from Class 9
hazardous material designation. IATA mandates that cells and battery packs cannot be combined in the
same shipping box. Use separate boxes.

Shipment of loose Li-ion cells and battery packs.

1 Effective April 2016
Passenger Aircraft Ban: Under Sections II, IA and IB, Li-ion is forbidden on passenger aircraft as cargo. All
packages must bear the “Cargo Aircraft Only” label in addition to other required marks and labels. This
limitation does not affect lithium-ion batteries packed with or contained in equipment.
State-of-charge Limits: Li-ion must be shipped at a state-of-charge of no more than 30% of the rated
capacity. This does not apply to batteries packed with or contained in equipment.
Other Restrictions: Shipper can only offer one Section II package (batteries only) per consignment.
Lithium battery shipments must be separated from other cargo.
2 Typical smartphone or tablet battery; 3 Typical laptop battery
All Li-ion shipment must include the CAUTION labels as shown in Figure 3a to indicate the presence of
lithium batteries. Since lithium batteries are only allowed in cargo aircraft, also attach the “Cargo Aircraft
Only” label illustrated in Figure 3b. Batteries shipped Class 9 in Section IA and IB must include the Class 9
label as per Figure 3c. The package must also accompany shipping documents with name and address of
consignor, date, phone number and description of shipment, including the UN number and weight.

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All lithium batteries shipped under PI 965 in Sections II, IA and IB must have a state-of-charge (SoC) of 30
percent. Li-ion is more stable at low SoC than when fully charged. (An analogy is a boiler that is safer at low
pressure than when the gauge touches the red line.) An open circuit voltage of 3.70V when rested indicates
that the Li-ion cell is roughly at a 30 percent SoC. Discharge Li-ion to 3.65V/cell at moderate current. The
50mV overshoot compensates for the rubber band effect as the battery recovers to 3.70V/cell in time. (See
BU-702: How to Store Batteries.)
Li-ion voltages vary according to chemistry and the shipper must be familiar with the type in question to
assure correct charge levels. Cadex battery analyzers offer the AirShip mode to prepare Li-ion for air
shipment. The SoC limit does not apply to Li-ion that are packed with or installed in products.
General Transport Requirements
Travel: Placing batteries in checked luggage is not permitted. Passengers must carry the allotted
batteries onboard the aircraft. Non-removable batteries are exempt (out of sight, out of
mind).
Safeguard: Batteries must be protected against short circuit. Place them in individual plastic bags.
Approval: All Li-ion batteries shipped under Class 9 hazardous material must meet the UN Manual
of Tests and Criteria, Part III, subsection 38.3. A battery pack must be reapproved if the
cells are changed. This applies also if the replacement cells have already been approved.
The approval is on the entire pack.
Prototype: Shipping prototype batteries for testing are exempt. Refer to CFR 49 173.185 (e) regarding
shipping of non-UN tested batteries.
Damage: Batteries identified as defective and in danger of failing in transport are forbidden.
Old batteries: Lithium-based batteries for disposal are forbidden from air transport unless approved by
the appropriate authorities.
Packing: Each shipping package must withstand a 1.2 meter (4 feet) drop in any orientation without
damaging the batteries, causing them to shift or releasing the contents.
Overpack: Under the new rule effective April 2016, the overpack cannot contain more than one (1)
package in accordance with Section II of PI 965. The overpack can, however, contain
other non-dangerous goods or compatible dangerous good items. Add the overpack
label (Figure 4) on the shipping box together with the other required labels with respect
to multiple packages of regulated batteries.

101mm x 74mm (4.0x2.94”) Other dimensions may apply

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Training: Personnel handling lithium-based batteries for transport must be trained. Please see
http://www.iata.org/training/courses/Pages/shipping-lithium-batteries-tcgp52.aspx.

Packaging Instructions 966 and 967 (UN 3481)

PI 966 governs Li-ion cells and battery packs with equipment under UN 3481, and PI 967 oversees Li-ion
cells and battery packs in equipment under UN3481 (Table 5). These rules are similar to PI 965 with the
exception that Li-ion cells and battery packs can be shipped with, or in the equipment. Equipment means
an apparatus requiring Li-ion products to operate.

Shipment of Li-ion batteries with, and in equipment.

Additional Requirements
Limitation: The maximum number of batteries in each package must be limited to those required to
operate the equipment. Extras must be shipped separately or in an overpack.
Activation: Equipment must be turned OFF. Accidental activation in transport must be prevented. Devices
such as watches and temperature loggers that do not pose a danger in transport may be left in the ON
position.
Author’s Note: There is a perceived irregularity that Li-ion under PI 966 and PI 967 are not subject to 30%
SoC
Packaging Instruction 968 — permits lithium-metal cells and battery packs (UN3090)
Lithium-metal batteries have tighter shipping requirements than lithium ion batteries. Most Li-metal is non-
rechargeable, and it is used in watches, medical instruments, pacemakers, sensors, memory retention, etc.
There are also consumer-grade lithium-metal in AAA, AA, 9V and other formats. Table 6 lists the
restrictions in the shipment of these batteries.

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Shipment of lithium-metal cells and battery packs.
Packaging Instruction 969 and 970 (UN 3091)
PI 969 includes lithium-metal with the equipment under UN 3091, while PI 970 rules include lithium-metal in
the equipment, also under UN 3091 (Table 7).
Shipment of lithium-metal with and in equipment.

Shipping Prototype Batteries

Shipping prototype batteries, including annual production runs of no more than 100 cells, or batteries for
testing, are exempt when adhering to shipping regulations CFR 49 173.185 (e). Shipping non-UN tested
batteries is described in: https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/49/173.185
It is FORBIDDEN to ship damaged, defective, recalled or recycled lithium batteries by aircraft. This ban
applies for loose cells or batteries, and those contained in equipment.
Disclaimer: While every effort was made to ensure that the information contained in this publication is
accurate, the publisher of Battery University does not warrant or guarantee accuracy and
completeness; nor does the publisher take responsibility for errors, omissions or damages
that may arise from this information. These guidelines are for informative purposes only. Refer
to International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulations when shipping lithium metal or
lithium ion batteries or cells: (more info)

Last updated 2017-11-23

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 258 of 453

BU-704b: CAUTION & Overpack Labels
Shipping of Lithium-based Batteries by Air; non-Class 9
The shipping labels on this page satisfy Section 11, a consignment that is exempt from the Class 9
hazardous material designation but nevertheless requires marking the boxes according to IATA Dangerous
Goods Regulations. All shipments of lithium-based battery products are classified “Dangerous Goods” that
must follow these rules:
General Transport Requirements
Safeguard: Batteries must be protected against short circuit. (Place in individual plastic bags)
Approval: A battery pack must be approved even if the cells in the pack are approved. This also
applies to modified battery packs.
Labels: Each package must include the CAUTION and Lithium Battery Handling Label with the
words "Lithium ion batteries in compliance with Section 11 of PI 965 (or applicable PI
number). Add a contact phone number. (Print Label)
Overpack: Under the new rule effective April 2016, the overpack cannot contain more than one (1)
package in accordance with Section II of PI 965. The overpack can, however, contain
other non-dangerous goods or compatible dangerous good items. Add an Overpack label
on the shipping box along with the other required labels. (See sample images below)
Damage: Batteries identified as defective and in danger of failing in transport are forbidden.
Old batteries: Lithium battery products for disposal are forbidden from air transport unless approved by
the appropriate authorities.
Packing: Each shipping package must withstand a 1.2 meter drop in any orientation without
damaging the batteries, causing them to shift or releasing the contents.
Limitation: With PI 966 & 967, the maximum number of batteries in each package must be limited to
those required to operate the equipment. Extras must be sent separately.
Activation: Accidental equipment activation during transport must be prevented.
Exceptions: Devices such as watches and temperature loggers that do not pose a danger in transport
may be left in the ON position.
Battery University recommends checking these websites for more detail:
http://www.cad.gov.hk/english/pdf/Packing%20Instruction%20965-970.pdf
Training: http://www.iata.org/training/courses/Pages/shipping-lithium-batteries-tcgp52.aspx

Figure 88 - Caution Label

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 Figure 89 - Over packing Label

Figure 90 – Cadex Lithium Battery Handling Label

Last updated 2017-01-10

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 260 of 453

BU-704c: Class 9 Label
Shipping of Lithium-based Batteries by Air; Class 9
The shipping labels on this page fall under Class 9 hazardous material designation. In addition to the labels
required under “Dangerous Goods” shipment, the Class 9 label must be attached to the box. The “Cargo
Aircraft Only” label only applies to some large shipment of lithium metal batteries. When shipping Class 9
hazardous material, please follow these rules:
Class 9 Shipping Requirements
Training: Anyone handling lithium-based batteries for transport must be trained (try
http://www.iata.org/training/courses/Pages/shipping-lithium-batteries-tcgp52.aspx)
Approval: All Li-ion batteries shipped under Class 9 hazardous material designation must meet the
UN Manual of Test and Criteria, Part III, subsection 38.3. (This addresses safety.)
Labels: Class 9 packages must include
1. Class 9 hazard material label
2. UN designation (UN 3400, 3481, 3090 or 3091)
3. Marking “Lithium Battery” with packing information (PI 965, 1B, 1A or other)
4. Name and address of the shipper and consignee
5. Number of packages and gross weight per package
Packaging: With PI 968 to PI 970, cells and battery packs must be packed in a rigid outer packaging.
Padding: Cells and batteries must be surrounded by non-conductive, non-combustible cushioning
material.
Label: When the package does not meet the above requirements, mark “Cargo Aircraft Only.”
Limitation: Lithium metal in any equipment must not exceed 12g/cell and 500g/ battery.
Exceptions: Button cell installed in equipment and circuit boards do not add to the battery count.

Figure 91 - Class 9 Label

Last updated 2015-04-08

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BU-705: How to Recycle Batteries
Learn about disposal and how toxic material can continue to be used in batteries if recycled.
Lead- and cadmium-based batteries pose the largest environmental concerns, so much so that nickel-
cadmium was banned in Europe in 2009. Attempts are being made to also ban the lead-based battery, but
no suitable replacement is available as was the case by substituting nickel-cadmium with nickel-metal-
hydride. For the first time, lithium-ion has been added to the list of pollutants. This chemistry was classified
as only mildly toxic, but their sheer volume requires tighter scrutiny.
Lead acid paved the way to the success of recycling, and today more than 97 percent of these batteries are
recycled in the USA. The automotive industry should be given credit for having organized recycling early;
however, business reasons rather than environmental concerns may have been the driving force. The
recycling process is simple and 70 percent of the battery’s weight is reusable lead.
Over 50 percent of the lead supply comes from recycled batteries. Other battery types are not as
economical to recycle and are not being returned as readily as lead acid. Several organizations are working
on programs to make the collection of all batteries convenient. Only 20 to 40 percent of batteries in mobile
phones and other consumer products are currently recycled. The goal of recycling is to prevent hazardous
materials from entering landfills and to utilize the retrieved materials in the fabrication of new products.
Spent batteries should be removed from the household. Old primary cells are known to leak and cause
damage to the surrounding area. Do not store old lead acid batteries where children play. Simply touching
the lead poles can be harmful. Also, keep button cells hidden from small children as they can swallow these
batteries. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries)
Even though environmentally unfriendly, lead acid batteries continue to hold a strong market niche,
especially as a starter battery. Wheeled mobility and UPS systems could not run as economically if it were
not for this reliable battery. NiCd also continues to hold a critical position among rechargeable batteries as
large flooded NiCds start jet airplanes and propel sightseeing boats in rivers of larger cities. Although
pollution-free, these batteries are in decline.
Batteries with toxic substances will continue to be with us and there is nothing wrong in using them as long
as they are being disposed of properly. Each battery chemistry has its own recycling procedure and the
process begins by sorting the batteries into the correct categories.
Lead Acid: Recycling of lead acid began with the introduction of the starter battery in 1912. The process is
simple and cost-effective as lead is easy to extract and can be reused multiple times. This led to many
profitable businesses and the recycling of other batteries.
In late 2013, smelters started to report an increased number of Li-ion batteries being mixed in with lead
acid, especially in starter batteries. This can cause fires, leading to explosion and personal injury. The
physical appearance of lead acid and Li-ion packs are similar and sorting at high volume poses a challenge.
For consumers, a battery is a battery and folks are enticed to recycle all batteries, never mind the
chemistry. As more lead acid are being replaced with Li-ion, the problem will only escalate. From 2010–
2013, there has been a 10-fold increase in reported incidents of infiltration of Li-ion with lead acid.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) initiate
action through increased awareness, employee training, battery identification and labeling. X-ray
technologies to separate batteries are being explored and “who carries the liability?” is being asked. Battery
manufacturers put the responsibility on the recyclers who in turn argue that the burden and sustainability of
a product must be borne by the manufacturer. The courts may become the arbitrators.
Nickel-cadmium: When NiCd batteries are disposed of carelessly, the metallic cell cylinder eventually
corrode in the landfill. Cadmium dissolves and seeps into the water supply. Once contamination begins,
authorities are helpless to stop the carnage. Our oceans already show traces of cadmium (along with
aspirin, penicillin and antidepressants) but scientists are not certain of its origin.

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Nickel-metal-hydride: Nickel and the electrolyte in NiMH are semi-toxic. If no disposal service is available in
an area, individual NiMH batteries can be discarded with other household waste in small quantities;
however, with 10 or more batteries, the user should consider disposal them in a secure waste landfill. The
better alternative is taking the spent batteries to a neighborhood drop-off bin for recycling.
Primary Lithium: These batteries contain metallic lithium that reacts violently when in contact with moisture
and must be disposed of appropriately. If thrown in a landfill in a charged state, heavy equipment operating
on top could crush the cases and the exposed lithium could ignite a fire. Landfill fires are difficult to
extinguish and can burn for years underground. Before recycling, apply a full discharge to consume the
lithium content. Primary lithium batteries (lithium-metal) are used in military combat, as well as in watches,
sensors, hearing aids and memory backup. A lithium-metal variety also serves as alkaline replacement in
AAA, AA and 9V formats. Li-ion for mobile phones and laptops do not contain metallic lithium. (See also
BU-106: Advantages of Primary Batteries)
Lithium-ion: Li-ion is reasonably harmless but spent packs should be disposed of properly. This is done
less to retrieve valuable metals, as is the case with lead acid, than for environmental reasons, especially
with the growing volume used in consumer products. Li-ion contains harmful elements that are at the
toxicity level of electronic devices.
Alkaline: After lowering the mercury content in alkaline batteries in 1996, many territories now allow
disposing these batteries as regular domestic trash; however, California considers all batteries hazardous
waste. In Europe, lead acid, NiCd, mercury containing batteries, unsorted collections of multiple battery
types, and battery electrolytes are considered hazardous waste. All others can pass as non-hazardous.
Most stores selling batteries are also required to take back spent batteries. Alkaline batteries contain the
reusable materials of zinc and manganese but the retrieval process is a liability. Efforts are made to increase
the recycling of alkaline cells from the low 4 percent in 2015 to 40 percent in 2025.
In North America, Retriev Technologies, formerly Toxco, and the Rechargeable Battery Recycling
Corporation (RBRC) collect spent batteries and recycle them. While Retriev has its own recycling facilities,
RBRC is in charge of collecting batteries and sending them to recycling organizations. Retriev in Trail,
British Columbia, claims to be the only company in the world that recycles large lithium batteries. They
receive spent batteries from oil drilling in Nigeria, Indonesia and other places. They also recycle retired
lithium batteries from the Minuteman missile silos and tons of Li-ion from war efforts. Other divisions at
Retriev recycle nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride, lead, mercury, alkaline and more.
Europe and Asia are also active in recycling spent batteries. Among other recycling companies, Sony and
Sumitomo Metal in Japan and Umicore in Belgium have developed technology to retrieve cobalt and other
precious metals from spent lithium ion batteries. (See BU-705a: Battery Recycling as a Business)
Umicore uses an ultra-high temperature (UHT) processes to recycle Li-ion and NiMH batteries. Spent packs
are dismantled and melted in an UHT furnace. The derbies are separated into metal alloy containing
copper, cobalt and nickel, and slag, a stony waste containing rare earth metals. Slag can be further
processed to recover lithium, but producing battery-grade lithium is not yet economical and the slag is
used for construction. Methods are being developed to extract lithium for reprocessing into lithium
carbonate for Li-ion production. With an anticipated 10-fold growth in the use of Li-ion batteries between
2020 and 2030, the reuse of lithium could become economical so the metals end up in battery production
again much like lead for lead acid batteries.
Recycling Process
Recycling starts by sorting batteries into chemistries. Collection centers place lead acid, nickel-cadmium,
nickel-metal-hydride and lithium ion into designated drums, sacks or boxes. Battery recyclers claim that
recycling can be made profitable if a steady stream of batteries, sorted by chemistry, is made available.
The recycling process begins by removing the combustible material, such as plastics and insulation, with a
gas-fired thermal oxidizer. Polluting particles created by the burning process are eliminated by the plant’s
scrubber before release into the atmosphere. This leaves the clean and naked cells with metal content.

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The cells are then chopped into small pieces and heated until the metal liquefies. Non-metallic substances
are burned off, leaving a black slag on top that a slag arm removes. The alloys settle according to weight
and are skimmed off like cream from raw milk while still in liquid form.
Cadmium is relatively light and vaporizes at high temperatures. In a process that appears like a pan of water
boiling over, a fan blows the cadmium vapor into a large tube that is cooled with water mist. The vapors
condense to produce cadmium that is 99.95 percent pure.
Some recyclers do not separate the metals on site but pour the liquid metals directly into what the industry
refers to as “pigs” (65 pounds, 24kg) or “hogs” (2,000 pounds, 746kg). Other battery recyclers use nuggets
(7 pound, 3.17kg). The pigs, hogs and nuggets are shipped to metal recovery plants where they are used to
produce nickel, chromium and iron for stainless steel and other high-end products.
To reduce the possibility of a reactive event during crushing, some recyclers use a liquid solution or freeze
lithium-based batteries with liquid nitrogen; however, mixing Li-ion starter batteries with the common lead
acid type still remains a problem as a charged Li-ion is far more explosive than lead acid.
Battery recycling is energy intensive. Reports reveal that it takes 6 to 10 times more energy to reclaim
metals from some recycled batteries than from mining. The exception is the lead acid battery, from which
lead can be extracted easily and reused without elaborate processes. To some extent, nickel from NiMH
can also be recovered economically if available in large quantities.
New recycling methods are being developed that retrieve the metals by electrolysis, also knowns as
chemical recycling. The process is said to be more cost effective and produces higher yields with less
pollutants than traditional smelting. One such alternative to recycle lead acid batteries has been developed
by Aqua Metals. This technology has the potential of revolutionizing traditional melting methods. An
electrochemical process separates the lead by breaking down metals into nanoscopic sizes particles that
are dispersed in water to create a hydro-collodial metal. The process is called AquaRefining. Technical
issues are delaying full implementation at this time.
Each country sets its own rules and adds tariffs to the purchase price of a new battery to make recycling
feasible. In North America, some recycling plants invoice by weight and the rates vary according to
chemistry. While NiMH yields a fairly good return with nickel, the spent NiCd battery is less in demand
because of soft cadmium prices. Due to poor metal retrieval value, Li-ion commands a higher recycling fee
than most other battery types.
Recycling Li-ion batteries is not yet profitable must be government subsidized. There is an incentive to
recover costly cobalt. No recycling technology exists today that is capable of producing pure enough
lithium for a second use in batteries. Lithium for batteries is mined; second hand lithium is used for
lubricants, glass, ceramics and other applications.
The flat cost to recycle a ton of batteries is $1,000 to $2,000; Europe hopes to achieve a cost per ton of
$300. Ideally, this would include transportation, but moving and handling the goods is expected to double
the overall cost. To simplify transportation, Europe is setting up several smaller processing plants in
strategic geographic locations. This, in part, is due to the Basel Convention that prohibits the export of
complete but spent lead acid batteries. As the volume of discarded batteries increases, new technologies
are being tried to make recycling profitable without the support of agencies and governments.
Caution: Under no circumstances should batteries be incinerated, as fire can cause an
explosion. Wear approved gloves when touching the electrolyte. On exposure
to skin, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water
for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.

Last Updated 2018-03-0

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BU-705a: Battery Recycling as a Business
Consider a new business but find out the return
Batteries are expensive and have a relatively short life span. As discarded batteries grow by the tonnage,
entrepreneurs are enticed to start a business in recycling. With an annual world market (2015) of $33 billion,
lead acid is the most common battery in use. This is followed by Li-ion at $16.6 billion, NiMH at $2 billion
and NiCd at $1 billion. All other chemistries only make up $1 billion. Table 1 lists the material cost per ton to
build these batteries.
Table 40 - Battery Material Cost per Ton

Battery Chemistry Metal value (per ton) Recycling

Lithium cobalt oxide $25,000 Subsidy needed

Cobalt $50,000 (2017) Relevant, subsidy

Lithium iron phosphate $400 Subsidy needed

Lead acid $1,500 Profitable

Nickel $10,000–$17,000 Subsidy needed

Cadmium $2,200 Subsidy needed

Lead acid remains the most suitable battery to recycle; 70% of its weight contains reusable lead.
Lithium-ion batteries are expensive to manufacture and this is in part due to the high material cost and
complex preparation processes. The most expensive metal of most Li-ion is cobalt, a hard lustrous gray
material that is also used to manufacture magnets and high-strength alloys.
Knowing that billions of Li-ion batteries are discarded every year and given the high cost of lithium cobalt
oxide, salvaging precious metals should make economic sense and one wonders why so few companies
recycle these batteries.
The reason becomes clear when examining the complexity and low yield of recycling. The retrieved raw
material barely pays for labor, which includes collection, transport, sorting into batteries chemistries,
shredding, separation of metallic and non-metallic materials, neutralizing hazardous substances, smelting,
and purification of the recovered metals.
Recycling programs for lead acid are believed to have started soon after Cadillac introduced the cranking
motor in 1912 as a for-profit business rather than protecting the environment. Recycling can be harmful,
especially with lead acid batteries. Lead can enter the body by inhaling or ingestion when touching the
mouth with lead-contaminated hands. This puts workers and residents of the surrounding areas at risk of
lead poisoning. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries)
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has imposed strict guidelines in recycling of lead acid batteries
in the USA. The recycling plants must be sealed and the smokestacks fitted with scrubbers. To check for
possible escape of lead particles, the plant perimeter must be surrounded with lead-monitoring devices.
Rules are bound to be broken and batteries soon end up in Mexico and other developing countries with
relaxed regulations. China, a leader in lead acid battery production, also took action to protect the
environment by introducing strict guidelines that only reputable companies can meet.
Nickel-based batteries can also be recycled and the retrieved materials are iron and nickel, which are used
in stainless steel production. Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) yields the highest return in nickel, and with
ample supply recycling is said to make money. Low demand for cadmium has reduced the profitability
from recycling NiCd batteries. The growth in batteries is with Li-ion but valuable materials are difficult to
retrieve. This makes Li-ion less attractive for recycling and a financial breakeven may not be possible
without subsidies.

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The true cost to manufacture Li-ion is not so much in the raw materials, as is the case with lead acid and
NiMH, but in lengthy processing and purification processes of the raw materials to reach battery grade.
Retrieving lithium at only 3 percent of the cell mix may never reach break-even levels. If the purity of lithium
is below 99.5 percent, then it is not suitable as raw material for batteries. Recycling brings the metal to
ground zero, from which costly preparations begin anew. It is often cheaper to mine raw material than to
retrieve it from recycling. Lithium from recycled batteries is commonly used for non-battery applications,
such as lubricating greases that are found in WD-40 and other products, rather than batteries. (See BU-308:
Availability of Lithium)
Although alkaline and zinc-carbon account for over 90 percent of batteries consumed in the United States,
they contain few precious metals and the toxicity is low. Organizations are seeking ways to recycle these
batteries as well for the basic metal content and with high volume such a venture should become viable.
Table 41 lists the typical metals content of commonly recycled batteries.
Table 41 - Metals in commonly recycled batteries as a percentage of the overall content

Fe Ni Zn Li Cd Co Al Pb
Mn
Manganese
Iron Nickel Zinc Lithium Cadmium Cobalt Aluminum Lead
Lead
65%
acid

NiCd 35% 22% 15%

NiMH 20% 1% 35 1% 4%

Li-ion 22% 3% 18% 5%

Alkaline 24% 22% 15%

The metal content may vary with battery type. With the exception of lead acid, most recycling requires a
subsidy.
Summary
The primary objective of building a good battery is long life, safety and low price. Recycling is an
afterthought and manufacturers do little to simplify the retrieving of precious metals. The recycling
business is small compared to the vast battery industry, and to this day, only lead acid can be recycled
profitably.
Nickel-based batteries might make money with good logistics, but Li-ion and most other chemistries yield
too little in precious metals to make recycling a viable business without subsidies. The major expense with
modern batteries is not so much the raw materials, as with lead acid, but lengthy preparations, purifications
and processing down to micro- and nano-levels. Nevertheless, batteries contain valuable material that can
be re-used for new products.
To make recycling feasible in the meantime, subsidies are created by adding a tax to each pack sold. The
goal goes beyond retrieving metals for re-use to preventing toxic batteries from entering landfills.
Combining the environmental benefit with making a profit is the ultimate goal, and this might become
feasible with innovative new recycling processes in development.
Another model is to sort batteries into functional and non-functional groups and give those with capacities
of 80 percent or more a second life. Cells and modules of larger battery systems can be tested individually
and reassembled in a new pack. (See BU-803: Can Batteries be Restored?)
Last updated 2017-03-09

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BU-706: Summary of Do’s and Don’ts
Discover ways to extend battery life by following simple guidelines.
“What can I do to keep my batteries longer?” many people ask. As folks stay fit by refraining from smoking,
lowering sugar intake and exercising, so also can battery life be extended. There are no hard numbers as to
how effective good care is, but the proof is in examples where packs were issued as personal goods as
opposed to stock items. Personal care almost always wins
Table 1 summarizes how to prolong battery life through proper attention. Because of similarities within
systems, the chemistries are limited to lead, nickel and lithium.
Table 42 - Do’s and don’ts summary of how to use, maintain and dispose of batteries

Nickel-based:
Battery Lead acid: Flooded, sealed, Lithium-ion: Cobalt,
care gel, AGM manganese, NMC
NiCd, NiMH
Avoid getting battery too hot on Partial and random charge is fine;
Apply saturated charge to
Best way to charge. Do not leave battery in does not need full charge; lower
prevent sulfation; can remain on
charge charger for more than a few days voltage limit preferred; keep battery
charge with correct float voltage.
Subject to memory. cool.

Constant current, NiCd can be fast

charged without stress; trickle Constant voltage to 4.20V/cell; no
charge at 0.05C. trickle charge; battery can stay in
charger.
Constant voltage to 2.40–
2.45/cell, float at 2.25–2.30V/cell. Slow charge = 14h
Charge Rapid charge = 3h*
Battery should stay cool; no fast
methods
charge possible. Charge time 14– Rapid charge = 3h*
16h. Fast charge = 1h
Fast charge = 1h* NiCd
* Recommended
* Recommended

Can endure high peak currents. Do not over-discharge with a heavy Prevent full cycles, apply some charge
Discharge Avoid full discharges. Charge load; cell reversal causes short. after a full discharge to keep the
after each use. Avoid full discharges. protection circuit alive.

Discharge batteries that are in

How to Limit deep cycling; do not deep- Keep cool. Operate in mid SoC of 20–
regular use (mainly NiCd) to 1V/cell
prolong cycle starter battery. Apply fully 80%. Prevent ultra-fast charging and
every 1–3 months to prevent
battery saturation charge. Avoid heat. high loads (most Li-ion)
memory.

Prevent short by placing battery in Loose cell under Section II must be

Flooded: Class 8 restrictions,
clear plastic bag. shipped at 30% state-of-charge.
Transport provide “corrosive” label.
See BU-704: How to Transport See BU-704a Shipping Lithium-based
Non-spillable: Class 8 exempt.
Batteries Batteries

Keep cells at >2.05V. Apply Store at 40% charge in cool place

Store in cool place; NiCd stores for
Storage topping charge** every 6 months (40% SoC reads 3.75–3.80V/cell). Do
5 years; prime before use
to prevent sulfation. not go below 2.0V/cell.

NiCd: Do not dispose.

Toxic. Do not dispose. Electrolyte Low toxicity. Can be disposed in low
Disposal
corrosive. Profitable to recycle. NiMH: May be disposed in low volume. Best to recycle.
volume

** Topping charge is applied on a battery that is in service or storage to maintain full charge and to prevent
sulfation on lead acid batteries.
Under no circumstances should batteries be incinerated, as fire can cause an
Caution: explosion. Wear approved gloves when touching electrolyte. On exposure to
skin, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for

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 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.

Last updated 2017-11-15

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HOW TO PROLONG BATTERY LIFE
General

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BU-801: Setting Battery Performance Standards
Uncover why a battery ages and how device manufacturers deal with capacity fade.
A battery is a corrosive device that begins to fade the moment it comes off the assembly line. The stubborn
behavior of batteries has left many users in awkward situations. The British Army could have lost the
Falklands War in 1982 on account of uncooperative batteries. The officers assumed that a battery would
always follow the rigid dictate of the military. Not so. When order was given to launch the missiles, nothing
happened and no missiles flew that day. Battery-induced failures are common; some are a nuisance but
others have serious consequences.
Even with the best of care, a battery only lives for a defined number of cycles and time. It shares similarity
with a living organism that develops an illness and dies early. Although the manufacturer may specify a
given number of discharge/charge cycles, a battery has no distinct life span; the health rests much on
environmental conditions and usage patterns.
Lead acid reaches the end of life when the active material has been consumed on the positive grids; nickel-
based batteries lose performance because of corrosion. Lithium-ion fades over time when the transfer of
ions slows down due to the buildup of layers on the electrodes (See BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to die?).
Only the supercapacitor should achieve an unlimited number of cycles, but this is not a real battery.
Battery manufacturers are aware of performance loss over time, and there is a deliberate silence on battery
aging caused by capacity fade. Runtimes are always estimated with a perfect battery delivering 100 percent
capacity. This is a momentary condition that only applies when the battery is new. While a dropped call
because of a dying mobile phone battery only causes mild inconvenience, a power loss in a medical or
military device can be devastating.
Consumers have learned to take advertised battery runtimes in their stride. Performance data means little
and no other specification is as loosely given as that of the battery, especially in consumer products. The
manufacturer knows this and gets away with it, in part due to the difficulty of verification. Very seldom does
a user challenge the battery manufacturer for failing to deliver the specified battery performance, even
when human lives are at stake. Less critical failures have been challenged in court and dealt with in a harsh
way.
The battery is an elusive scapegoat that evades inspections; it’s as if it holds special immunity and
privileges. Should the battery quit during a critical mission, then this is seen as beyond control; some may
call it an act of God, as if it were triggered by a natural cause that could not have been prevented.
Batteries should receive the same treatment as a critical part in an aircraft, medical device or industrial
machine where the wear and tear falls under strict maintenance guidelines. Authorities struggle to
implement such guidelines and for good reasons. Generally accepted test procedures have not yet been
established for batteries, and even auditors doing quality control shy away from such ruling and only
examine the outer appearance; state-of-health is mostly ignored. This allows faded batteries to hide
comfortably among their stronger peers. The omission is in part connected with a lack of battery test
devices that can reliably assess a battery on the fly.
Last updated 2016-03-07

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BU-801a: How to Rate Battery Runtime
Learn how device manufacturers estimate battery runtime.
The consumer market follows set standards in specifying battery runtime, but these are loose and some
associations develop their own rules by using the lightest load patterns possible to achieve good numbers.
This results in specifications that carry little resemblance to reality. Under pressure from consumer
associations, manufacturers have finally agreed to standardize testing procedures on key consumer
products.
The Camera and Imaging Products Association (CIPA) set up in Japan in 2002 succeeded in developing a
standardized battery-life test for digital cameras. Under the test scheme, the camera takes a photo every 30
seconds, half of them with flash and the other without. The test zooms the lens in and out all the way before
a shot is taken and leaves the screen on. After every 10 shots, the camera is turned off for a while and the
cycle is repeated. CIPA ratings replicate a realistic way a consumer would use a camera and most new
cameras adopt the CIPA protocol to rate the runtime.
The runtime on laptops is more complex to estimate than a digital camera as programs, type of activity,
wireless features and screen brightness affect the energy consumption. To take these conditions into
account, the computer industry developed a standard called MobileMark 2014, an application-based
benchmark that reflects usage patterns for business users. MobileMark is built on the 20-year history of
BAPCo (Business Applications Performance Corporation) in building benchmarks to evaluate platform
technologies.
Not everyone agrees with the established norm and opponents say that the convention trims the
applications down and ignores real-world practices. The setting of brightness is one example. The display
is one of the most power-hungry components of a modern laptop or tablet, and at full brightness the screen
delivers 250 to 300 nits. (A nit is a unit of brightness equal to one Candela per square meter. Candela is a
unit of luminous intensity.) MobileMark is said to use a setting that is less than half of this. Nor does
MobileMark include Wi-Fi and Bluetooth; it leaves these peripherals up to the manufacturers to investigate.
Mobile phone manufacturers face similar challenges when estimating runtimes. Standby and talk time are
field-strength dependent and the closer you are to a repeater tower, the lower the transmit power will get
and the longer the battery will last. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) takes slightly more power than
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications); however, the more critical power guzzlers are touch
screen displays, video presentations, web surfing, as well as the use of GPS, camera, voice dialing and
Bluetooth. Web-browsing and video-watching typically cut the runtime in half compared to mere talking on
the phone.
Although battery capacity has increased and the circuits have become more efficient, these improvements
do not compensate for the added features of a smartphone that also sees longer and more frequent usages
between charges than mere talking. A new energy crisis is emerging.
Figure 92 illustrates battery improvement against the lack of energy with the early analog cell phones
during the 1990s, the sudden excess energy with the digital phones, and the lack of energy in modern
smartphones and tablets. Improvements in battery capacity cannot keep pace with added consumption.

Figure 92 - Power needs of past, present and future

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The capacity of Li-ion has doubled in 12 years and the circuits draw less power; however, these
improvements do not compensate for the power demand of the new features (Courtesy of Cadex)
Smartphones and tablets operate on a single Li-ion cell, and this has a decisive advantage over a laptop
battery. Cell-matching is not required as with the laptop packs running at 14.40V in a typical 4S2P
configuration. This simplifies cell manufacturing and increases the yields by opening the flood-gates for
broader performance acceptance.
Most users would not notice if a battery came with the specified 100 percent capacity or only 90 percent.
Manufacturers know that consumer batteries vary in capacity and that the user will not test them, especially
those that are non-replaceable. No rules exist as to what constitutes an acceptable battery other than
meeting the obligatory 80 percent within the warranty period.
Last updated 2016-03-07

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BU-801b: How to Define Battery Life
Become familiar with battery fade and how the ready light can deceive the user.
Folks have been using rechargeable batteries for over 100 years but this marvelous power source is still
poorly understood. The battery is a silent worker that delivers energy until it quits of exhaustion and old
age. It is more prone to failure than most other parts in a system. Much is expected but little is given in
return. With a shorter life span than the host device, battery replacement becomes an issue, and the
“when” and “what if” are not well defined by the device manufacturer. Some batteries are replaced too
soon but most stay too long.
A portable system works well when the batteries are new but confidence drops after the first packs need
replacing due to capacity fade. In time, the battery fleet becomes a jumble of good and bad batteries, and
that’s when the headache begins. Battery management mandates that all batteries in a fleet are kept at an
acceptable capacity level. Packs that fall below a given threshold must be replaced to keep system integrity.
Battery failure occurs most often on a heavy traffic day or in an emergency when more than normal service
is demanded.
Batteries exhibit human-like qualities and need good nutrition. Care begins by operating at room temperate
and discharging them at a moderate current. There is some truth as to why batteries cared for by an
individual user outperform those in a fleet; studies can back this up.
Charging is generally well understood, but the “ready” light is misconstrued. Ready does not mean “able.”
There is no link to battery performance, nor does the green light promise full runtime. All batteries charge
fully, even if weak; “ready” simply means that the battery is full.
The capacity a battery can hold diminishes with age and the charge time shortens with nickel-based
batteries and in part also with lead acid, but not necessarily with Li-ion. Lower charge transfer capability
that inhibits the flow of free electrons prolongs the charge time with aged Li-ion. (See BU-409a: Why do Old
Li-ion Batteries Take Long to Charge?)
A short charging time propels faded batteries to the top, disguised as combat ready. System collapse is
imminent when workers scramble for freshly charged batteries in an emergency; those that are lit-up may
be deadwood. (Note that the charge time of a partially charged battery is also shorter.) Figure 93 shows the
“ready” light that is known to lie.

Figure 93 - The “ready” light lies

The READY light indicates that the battery is fully charged. This does not mean “able” as there is no link
between “ready” and battery performance (Courtesy of Cadex)
The amount of energy a battery can hold is measured in capacity. Capacity is the leading health indicator
that determines runtime and predicts end of battery life when low. A new battery is rated at 100 percent, but
few packs in service deliver the full amount: a workable capacity bandwidth is 80–100 percent. As a simple
guideline, a battery on a two-way radio having a capacity of 100 percent would typically provide a runtime
of 10 hours, 80 percent is 8 hours and 70 percent, 7 hours.
The service life of a battery is specified in number of cycles. Lithium- and nickel-based batteries deliver
between 300 and 500 full discharge/charge cycles before the capacity drops below 80 percent.
Cycling is not the only cause of capacity loss; keeping a battery at elevated temperatures also induces
stress. A fully charged Li-ion kept at 40°C (104°F) loses about 35 percent of its capacity in a year without
being used. (See BU:808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries). Ultra-fast chargers and harsh
discharging is also harmful. This cuts battery life to half, and hobbyists can attest to this.
Last updated 2017-08-16
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BU-802: What Causes Capacity Loss?
Discover what causes a battery to fade.
The energy storage of a battery can be divided into three sections known as the available energy that can
instantly be retrieved, the empty zone that can be refilled, and the unusable part, or rock content, that has
become inactive as part of use and aging. Figure 94 illustrates these three sections.

Figure 94 - Aging battery

Batteries begin fading from the day they are manufactured. A new battery should deliver 100 percent
capacity; most packs in use operate at less (Courtesy of Cadex)
As the rock content portion of the battery grows, the charge time shortens because there is less to fill.
Quicker charging times on faded batteries are noticeable especially with nickel-based batteries and in part
also with lead acid, but not necessarily with Li-ion. Lower charge transfer capability that inhibits the flow of
free electrons prolongs the charge time with aged Li-ion. (See BU-409a: Why do Old Li-ion Batteries Take
Long to Charge?)
In most cases, the decrease is linear and capacity fade is mostly a function of cycle count and age. A deep
discharge stresses the battery more than a partial discharge. It is therefore better not to discharge the
battery fully but charge it more often. A periodic full discharge is only recommended on nickel-based
batteries to control “memory” and on smart batteries as part of calibration. Lithium- and nickel-based
batteries deliver between 300 and 500 full discharge/charge cycles before the capacity drops below 80
percent.
Specifications of a device are always based on a new battery. This is only a snapshot, which cannot be
maintained over any length of time. As with any shiny new machine, the battery will fade and if left
unchecked, the reduced runtime can lead to battery-related breakdowns.
A pack should be replaced when the capacity drops to 80 percent; however, the end-of-life threshold can
vary according to application, user preference and company policy. Capacity measurement, a service that
remains the best indicator for replacement, should be done every 3 months with active fleet batteries. (See
BU-909: Battery Test Equipment)
Besides age-related losses, sulfation and grid corrosion are the main killers of lead acid batteries. Sulfation
is a thin layer that forms on the negative cell plate if the battery is allowed to dwell in a low state-of-charge.
If caught in time, an equalizing charge can reverse the condition. Grid corrosion can be reduced with
careful charging and optimization of the float charge. (See BU-403: Charging Lead Acid)
With nickel-based batteries, the rock content is often the result of crystalline formation, also known as
“memory.” A full discharge/charge cycle often restores the battery to full service. A periodic full discharge
while the battery is in service keeps the crystallization under control and prevents damage to the separator.
(See BU-807: How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries)
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 274 of 453
The aging process of lithium-ion is cell oxidation, a process that occurs naturally as part of usage and
aging, and cannot be reversed. (See BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to Die)
Last updated 2017-08-16

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BU-802a: How does Rising Internal Resistance affect Performance?
Understanding the importance of low conductivity
Capacity alone is of limited use if the pack cannot deliver the stored energy effectively; a battery also needs
low internal resistance. Measured in milliohms (mΩ), resistance is the gatekeeper of the battery; the lower
the resistance, the less restriction the pack encounters. This is especially important in heavy loads such as
power tools and electric powertrains. High resistance causes the battery to heat up and the voltage to drop
under load, triggering an early shutdown. Figure 1 illustrates a battery with low internal resistance in the
form of a free-flowing tap against a battery with elevated resistance in which the tap is restricted.

Low resistance, delivers High resistance, current is

high current on demand; restricted, voltage drops
battery stays cool. on load; battery heats up.

Figure 95 - Effects of internal battery resistance

A battery with low internal resistance delivers high current on demand. High resistance causes the battery
to heat up and the voltage to drop. The equipment cuts off, leaving energy behind (Courtesy of Cadex)
Lead acid has a very low internal resistance and the battery responds well to high current bursts that last for
a few seconds. Due to inherent sluggishness, however, lead acid does not perform well on a sustained high
current discharge; the battery soon gets tired and needs a rest to recover. Some sluggishness is apparent
in all batteries at different degrees but it is especially pronounced with lead acid. This hints that power
delivery is not based on internal resistance alone but also on the responsiveness of the chemistry, as well
as temperature. In this respect, nickel- and lithium-based technologies are more responsive than lead acid.
Sulfation and grid corrosion are the main contributors to the rise of the internal resistance with lead acid.
Temperature also affects the resistance; heat lowers it and cold raises it. Heating the battery will
momentarily lower the internal resistance to provide extra runtime. This, however, does not restore the
battery and will add momentary stress.
Crystalline formation, also known as “memory,” contributes to the internal resistance in nickel-based
batteries. This can often be reversed with deep-cycling. The internal resistance of Li-ion also increases with
use and aging but improvements have been made with electrolyte additives to keep the buildup of films on
the electrodes under control. (See BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to Die?) With all batteries, SoC affects the
internal resistance. Li-ion has higher resistance at full charge and at end of discharge with a big flat low
resistance area in the middle.
Alkaline, carbon-zinc and most primary batteries have a relatively high internal resistance, and this limits
their use to low-current applications such as flashlights, remote controls, portable entertainment devices
and kitchen clocks. As these batteries deplete, the resistance increases further. This explains the relative
short runtime when using ordinary alkaline cells in digital cameras.

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Two methods are used to read the internal resistance of a battery: Direct current (DC) by measuring the
voltage drop at a given current, and alternating current (AC), which takes reactance into account. When
measuring a reactive device such as a battery, the resistance values vary greatly between the DC and AC
test methods, but neither reading is right or wrong. The DC reading looks at pure resistance (R) and
provides true results for a DC load such as a heating element. The AC reading includes reactive
components and provides impedance (Z). Impedance provides realistic results on a digital load such as a
mobile phone or an inductive motor. (See BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance)
The internal resistance of a battery does not consist of the cells alone but also includes the interconnection,
fuses, protection circuits and wiring. In most cases these peripherals more than double the internal
resistance and can falsify rapid-test methods. Typical readings of a single cell pack for a mobile phone and
a multi-cell battery for a power tool are shown below.
Internal Resistance of a Mobile Phone Battery
Cell, single, high capacity prismatic 50mΩ subject to increase with age
Connection, welded 1mΩ
PTC, welded to cable, cell 25mΩ 18–30 mΩ according to spec
Protection circuit, PCB 50mΩ
Total internal resistance ca. 130mΩ
Internal Resistance of a Power Pack for Power Tools
Cells 2P4S at 2Ah/cell, 18mΩ subject to increase with age
Connection, welded, each 0.1mΩ
Protection circuit, PCB 10mΩ
Total internal resistance ca. 80mΩ
Source: Siemens AG (2015, München)
Figures 2, 3 and 4 reflect the runtime of three batteries with similar Ah and capacities but different internal
resistance when discharged at 1C, 2C and 3C. The graphs demonstrate the importance of maintaining low
internal resistance, especially at higher discharge currents. The NiCd test battery comes in at 155mΩ, NiMH
has 778mΩ and Li-ion has 320mΩ. These are typical resistive readings on aged but still functional batteries.
(See BU-208: Cycling Performance) that demonstrates the relationship of capacity, internal resistance and
self-discharge.)

Figure 96 - GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time

The capacity of the NiCd battery is 113%; the internal resistance is 155mΩ. 7.2V pack.

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 Figure 97 - GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time

The capacity of the NiMH battery is 94%, the internal resistance is 778mΩ. 7.2V pack

Figure 98 - GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time

The capacity of the Li-ion battery is 107%; the internal resistance is 320mΩ. 3.6V pack (All three figures
courtesy of Cadex)
Notes: The tests were done when early mobile phones were powered by NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. Li-ion
and NiMH have since improved.
The maximum GSM draws is 2.5A, representing 3C from an 800mAh pack, or three times the rated current.
Last updated 2017-02-08

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BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge Do?
Learn about an often ignored characteristic of batteries
All batteries are affected by self-discharge. Self-discharge is not a manufacturing defect but a battery
characteristic; although poor fabrication practices and improper handling can increase the problem. Self-
discharge is permanent and cannot be reversed. Figure 99 illustrates self-discharge in the form of leaking
fluid.

Figure 99 - Effects of high self-discharge

Self-discharge increases with age, cycling and elevated temperature. Discard a battery if the self-discharge
reaches 30 percent in 24 hours (Courtesy of Cadex)
The amount of electrical self-discharge varies with battery type and chemistry. Primary cells such as
lithium-metal and alkaline retain the stored energy best, and can be kept in storage for several years.
Among rechargeable batteries, lead acid has one of the lowest self-discharge rates and loses only about 5
percent per month. With usage and age, however, the flooded lead acid builds up sludge in the sediment
trap, which causes a soft short when this semi-conductive substance reaches the plates. (See BU-804a:
Corrosion, shedding and Internal Short)
The energy loss is asymptotical, meaning that the self-discharge is highest right after charge and then
tapers off. Nickel-based batteries lose 10–15 percent of their capacity in the first 24 hours after charge, then
10–15 percent per month. Figure 100 shows the typical loss of a nickel-based battery while in storage.

Figure 100 - Self-discharge as a function of time

The discharge is highest right after charge and tapers off. The graph shows self-discharge of a nickel-based
battery. Lead- and lithium-based systems have a lower self-discharge (Courtesy of Cadex)
NiMH and NiCd belong to rechargeable batteries that have the highest self-discharge; they need recharging
before use when placed on a shelf for a few weeks. High-performance NiCd has a higher self-discharge
than the standard versions. Furthermore, the self-discharge increases with use and age, of which crystalline
formation (memory) is a contributing factor. Regular full discharge cycles keeps memory under control.
(See BU-807: How to restore Nickel-based Batteries)
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 279 of 453
Li-ion self-discharges about 5 percent in the first 24 hours and then loses 1–2 percent per month; the
protection circuit adds another 3 percent per month. A faulty separator can lead to elevated self-discharge
that could develop into a current path, generating heat and, in an extreme case, initiate a thermal
breakdown. In terms of self-discharge, lead acid is similar to Li-ion. Table 43 summarizes the expected self-
discharge of different battery systems.
Table 43 - Percentage of self-discharge in years and months
Battery system Estimated self-discharge
Primary lithium-metal 10% in 5 years
Alkaline 2–3% per year (7-10 years shelf life)
Lead-acid 5% per month
Nickel-based 10–15% in 24h, then 10-15% per month
Lithium-ion 5% in 24h, then 1–2% per month (plus 3% for safety circuit)

Primary batteries have considerably less self-discharge than secondary (rechargeable) batteries.
The self-discharge of all battery chemistries increases at higher temperature, and the rate typically doubles
with every 10°C (18°F). A noticeable energy loss occurs if a battery is left in a hot vehicle. High cycle count
and aging also increase self-discharge of all systems. Nickel-metal-hydride is good for 300–400 cycles,
whereas the standard nickel-cadmium lasts for over 1,000 cycles before elevated self-discharge starts
interfering with performance. The self-discharge on an older nickel-based battery can get so high that the
pack goes flat from leakage rather than normal use. (See BU-208: Cycling Performance demonstrating the
relationship of capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge.)
Under normal circumstances the self-discharge of Li-ion is reasonably steady throughout its service life;
however, full state-of-charge and elevated temperature cause an increase. These same factors also affect
longevity. Furthermore, a fully charged Li-ion is more prone to failure than one that is partially charged.
Table 44 shows the self-discharge per month of Li-ion at various temperatures and state-of-charge. The
high self-discharge at full state-of-charge and high temperatures comes as a surprise. (See also BU-808:
How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries)
Table 44 - Self-discharge per month of Li-ion at various temperatures and state-of-charge
State-of-charge 0°C (32°F) 25°C (77°F) 60°C (140°F)
Full charge 6% 20% 35%
40–60% charge 2% 4% 15%

Self-discharge increases with rising temperature and higher SoC.

Lithium-ion should not be discharged below 2.50V/cell. The protection circuit turns off and most chargers
will not charge the battery in that state. A “boost” program applying a gentle charge current to wake up the
protection circuit often restores the battery to full capacity. (See BU-803a: How to Awaken Sleeping Li-ion)
There are reasons why Li-ion is put to sleep when discharging below 2.50V/cell. Copper dendrites grow if
the cell is allowed to dwell in a low-voltage state for longer than a week. This results in elevated self-
discharge, which could compromise safety.
Self-discharge mechanisms must also be observed in manufacturing. They vary from corrosion to
impurities in the electrodes that reflect in self-discharge variations not only from batch to batch but also
form cell to cell. A quality manufacturer checks the self-discharge of each cell and rejects those that fall
outside tolerances.
Figure 101 compares the self-discharge of a new Li-ion cell with a cell that underwent forced deep
discharges and one that was fully discharged, shorted for 14 days and then recharged. The cell that was
exposed to deep discharges beyond 2.50V/cell shows a slightly higher self-discharge than a new cell. The
largest self-discharge is visible with the cell that was stored at zero volts.

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 Figure 101 - Self-discharge of new and stressed Li-ion cells

Cells that had been stressed with deep discharges and kept at 0V show a higher self-discharge than a new
cell (Source: TU München)
Figure 102 illustrates the self-discharge of a lead acid battery at different ambient temperatures At a room
temperature of 20°C (68°F), the self-discharge is roughly 3% per month and the battery can theoretically be
stored of 12 months without recharge. With a warm temperature of 30°C (86°F), the self-discharge increases
and a recharge will be needed after 6 months. Letting the battery drop below 60 percent SoC for some time
causes sulfation. (See also BU-702: How to Store Batteries)

Figure 102 - Self-discharge of lead acid as a function of temperature

Lead acid should never drop below 60% SoC. Charge more often when warm.
Source: Power-Sonic

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BU-802c: How Low can a Battery be Discharged?
Discover what causes short runtimes
Not all battery energy can or should be used on discharge; some reserve is almost always left behind on
purpose after the equipment cuts off. There are several reasons for this.
Most mobile phones, laptops and other portable devices turn off when the lithium-ion battery reaches
3.00V/cell on discharge. At this point the battery has about 5 percent capacity left. Manufacturers choose
this voltage threshold to preserve some energy for housekeeping, as well as to reduce battery stress and
allow for some self-discharge if the battery is not immediately recharged. This grace period in empty state
can last several months until self-discharge lowers the voltage of Li-ion to about 2.50V/cell, at which point
the protection circuit opens and most packs become unserviceable with a regular charger. (See BU-808a:
How to awaken Sleeping Li-ion)
Power tools and medical devices drawing high current tend to push the battery voltage to an early cut-off
prematurely. This is especially apparent at cold temperatures and in cells with high internal resistance.
These batteries may still have ample capacity left after the cutoff; discharging them with a battery analyzer
at a moderate load will often give a residual capacity of 30 percent. Figure 103 illustrates the cut-off voltage
graphically.

Figure 103 - Illustration of equipment with high cut-off voltage

Portable devices do not utilize all available battery power and leave some energy behind (Courtesy of
Cadex)
To prevent triggering premature cutoff at a high load or cold temperature, some device manufacturers may
lower the end-of-discharge voltage. Li-ion in a power tool may discharge the battery to 2.70V/cell instead of
3.00C/cell; Li-phosphate may go to 2.45V/cell instead of 2.70V/cell, lead acid to 1.40V/cell instead of the
customary 1.75V/cell, and NiCd/NiMH to 0.90V/cell instead of 1.00V/cell. (See BU-501: Basics About
Discharging)
Industrial applications aim to attain maximum service life rather than optimize runtime, as it is done with
consumer products. This also applies to the electric powertrain; batteries in a hybrid cars and electric
vehicle electric vehicles are seldom fully discharged or charged; most operate between 30 and 80 percent
state-of-charge when new. This is the most effective working bandwidth; it also delivers the longest service
life. A deep discharge to empty followed a full charge would cause undue stress for the Li-ion. Similarly,
satellites use only the mid-band of a battery called the “sweet zone.” Figure 104 illustrates the “sweet zone”
of a battery.

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 Figure 104 - Sweet zone of a Lithium-ion battery to extend life

Operating Li-ion in the “sweet zone” prolongs battery life because a partial cycle is less stressful than a full
cycle. As the capacity fades with use, the battery management system (BMS) may engage the full working
range of the battery (Courtesy of Cadex )
Elevated internal resistance makes alkaline and other primary batteries unsuitable for high load
applications. The resistance rises further as the cell depletes. This causes an early cutoff with the device
drawing some current, and much energy is left behind. Primary batteries have high capacities and perform
well when new, but they soon lose power like a deflating balloon. (See BU-106: Primary Batteries)
Last updated 2016-03-07

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BU-803: Can Batteries Be Restored?
Learn about low-capacity cells, cell matching, balancing, shorted cells and loss of electrolyte.
Battery users and entrepreneurs often ask, “Can batteries be restored?” The answer is: “It depends.” A
battery failure does not always mean end of battery life. Rather than discarding a pack, ingenious
entrepreneurs are discovering business models to grant retired batteries a second life. Considering the
growing number of batteries that are being discarded, such business opportunities can only grow.
The three main battery defects are low capacity, high internal resistance and elevated self-discharge.
Capacity fade occurs naturally with use and time; resistance increase is common with nickel-based
batteries; and elevated self-discharge reflects possible stresses endured in the field. Capacity loss can often
be reversed with NiCd and NiMH; lead acid with sulfation can sometimes also be improved. (See BU-901:
Fundamentals in Battery Testing)
Battery defects include low capacity, high internal resistance and elevated self-discharge. Capacity fade
occurs naturally with use and time; resistance increase is common with nickel-based batteries; and
elevated self-discharge reflects stress. Capacity loss can be reversed on nickel-based batteries affected by
memory; some lead acid with sulfation can also be improved.
Batteries can be classified into portable, wheeled mobility, starter and stationary systems. Not all batteries
are worth servicing but there are jewels among the rubbish. To turn a profit, some basic battery knowledge
will be needed, such as familiarity with chemistries and understanding voltage, Ah, charge methods and C-
rate. Above all, you must have a knack to spot what to touch and what to pass. Knowing the former life and
how the end of battery life is determined will play a large role in how well these discarded batteries can be
redeployed.
Portable Batteries
Store clerks replace mobile phone batteries on the slightest customer complaint without testing the pack.
Installing a new battery satisfies the customer but this often does not solve the perceived problem of short
runtime and the customer may return. There are also batteries that go to sleep due to over-discharge.
These seemingly dead lithium-ion packs cannot be recharged with a regular charger but there is a way to
boost them back to life. (See BU-808a: How to Awaken Sleeping Li-ion)
Many mobile phone batteries are discarded. They fill large boxes under service counters with nowhere to
go. Meanwhile, service providers have discovered that nine out of ten replaced packs are good and can be
restored. A recent study estimates the cost of frivolous battery replacement to be over $650 million per
year in the USA alone.
Ingenious entrepreneurs have discovered an opportunity to recirculate these abandoned batteries. Service
centers have sprung up in the USA, UK and Israel that purchase surplus batteries by the ton and check
them with battery analyzers capable of performing rapid-testing. (See BU-907: Testing Lithium-based
Batteries) Some service centers handle as many as 400,000 batteries per month and the refurbished packs
are redistributed as B-grade to stores. Studies show that these B-grade batteries perform as well as a new
pack as there is no reported difference in the failure rate.
Not all smartphones allow battery replacement, but this does not eliminate the need to test them. Not being
able to replace the batteries has affected the business model as there are fewer available packs to test and
recirculate.
Healthcare is a large user of portable batteries. In the absence of battery maintenance, device
manufacturers recommend replacing the packs according to a date stamp. This helps rotate inventory, but
it adds an unnecessary time restriction as battery-wear is mostly attributed to usage and not idle time. A
heavily used battery could fail within the allotted date stamp period and to compensate for this eventuality,
device manufacturers mandate a tight replacement policy of 2–3 years. Fabrication-to-destination can
cause delays and a battery could be 1 year old when it enters service.
Batteries have improved and live longer; they also carry a higher price tag. Lead- and nickel-based batteries
are good for about 3 years of service; Li-ion typically lasts for 5 years. (See BU-501: Basics About
Discharging)
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 Figure 105 - Date stamp

Under-usage is more common in healthcare than over-usage, and this leads to discarding a large pool of
good batteries. A manager of the Energy Storage Research Program at DOE visited a recycling plant in the
USA and discovered that “every year roughly one million usable lithium-ion batteries are sent in for
recycling with most having a capacity of up to 80 percent.” A medical technician in a large USA hospital in
Michigan reuses spent batteries from patient heart pumps to cut the grass at home with his electric lawn
mower. This makes green energy even greener.
Biomedical technicians are aware of frivolous battery replacements and a whistle-blower at a mid-sized US
hospital said: “Batteries are the most abused components in hospitals. Staff care little about them and only
do the bare minimum. Recommendations for battery maintenance are vague and hidden deep inside
service manuals.”
Restoring spent batteries lends itself to several business models. One is collecting and testing batteries
from organizations that would otherwise discard them. The in-house analysis includes checking the
capacity by applying a full discharge/charge cycle with suitable battery test equipment. Capacity is the
leading health indicator and should read between 80 and 100 percent. Lower thresholds may be acceptable
for less critical applications.
When testing a battery pack, also observe the internal resistance. The resistance of lead- and lithium-based
batteries stays low until the end of life. Although an ohmic reading cannot predict the capacity, a high
measurement could indicate anomalies such as corrosion, also known as parasitic reactions on the
electrolyte and electrodes.
Battery validation should also include a self-discharge test by observing the voltage loss of a fully charged
battery over 24 hours or longer. A stable voltage assures that the cell or pack had not been unduly stressed.
A voltage difference of +/-5mV per cell after 24 hours is a go. If all requirements are met, the battery can be
recertified and sold at reduced cost.
A smart battery may also fail by the manufacturer deliberately programming the end-of-life based on
battery usage or age. This can be a fixed cycle count, a calendar date or exceeding the Max Error level on
an SMBus pack. A further cause of failure is the inability to communicate due to a digital fault. Such errors
cannot be corrected digitally but the cells may still be good. Salvage involves cracking the pack open and
utilizing the naked cells.
The cells can be checked individually or left intact as a family by observing capacity, internal resistance and
self-discharge. When building a pack, pay attention to cell matching. Only use cells of the same model
number and equal performance to build a pack. It is not recommended to utilize cells that were designated
for single-cell use for multi-cell packs as the performance may vary. (See also BU-910: How to Repair a
Battery Pack)

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Wheeled Mobility
Batteries made for the electric powertrain are designed to last longer than those in consumer products.
Experts predict that these rugged industrial batteries should still have up to 70 percent capacity after 10
years of service or 160,000km (100,000 miles) of driving on electric propulsion. (See BU-1002: Electric
Powertrain, HEV, PHEV) If such a long life can be expected, then it will make sense to test and re-purpose
the batteries for a less demanding application. Several companies, including GM and ABB, are taking
advantage of this business opportunity.
Large-scale batteries are divided into smaller modules that are connected in series and parallel. These units
do not need cell-level checking but must meet state-of-health requirements as a module that includes
capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge. Modules with similar performance levels can then be
grouped together and used for solar and other systems. (See BU-901: Difficulties with Testing Batteries)
Starter Batteries
Also known as starter, lighting, ignition (SLI), these batteries are commonly checked with a load test or a
device that reads CCA (cold cranking amp). A battery that cranks can be sold for money, but a CCA
measurement alone does not reveal the capacity, the leading health indicator. CCA refers to the internal
resistance that stays low through most of the battery’s life while capacity gradually fades with use and time.
A battery that is only tested with CCA is a gamble; adding capacity measurement commands a higher
resale value. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity)
Stationary Batteries
Stationary batteries are mostly lead acid. There is no easy way to test the capacity other than applying a full
discharge/charge. These batteries are commonly replaced after 5–10 years of service; more frequently in
hot climates. (See BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life)Battery failures tend to be
permanent, but sulfation–related failures can be corrected if caught in time. Sulfation often occurs on a
solar system when the battery never receives a fully saturated charge. This is also common on electric
wheelchairs that may only get an 8-hour charge overnight.
Adding additives to fix a faded lead acid battery is often not worth the effort. The active materials of an old
battery are exhausted and the plates are corroded. (More on BU-804a: Corrosion, Shedding and Internal
short) Guys who claim success in restoring these old-timers echo what Thomas Edison said: “Just as soon
as a man gets working on the secondary battery, it brings out his latent capacity for lying.” As with all
products, the importance of reducing waste is in respecting the battery, caring for them, and only
discarding them after their useful life has been spent and no salvage is possible.
Last updated 2017-02-12

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BU-803a: Cell Matching and Balancing
Discover that quality cells are the best foundation for a lasting battery pack
A manufacturer cannot predict the exact capacity when the cell comes off the production line, and this is
especially true with lead acid and other batteries that involve manual assembly. Even fully automated cell
production in clean rooms causes performance differences. As part of quality control, each cell is measured
and segregated into categories according to their capacity levels. The high-capacity NiMH and other cells
may be reserved for special applications and sold at premium prices; the large mid-range will go to
commercial and industrial markets; and the low-grade cells might end up in a consumer product or in a
department store. Cycling will not significantly improve the capacity of the low-end cell, and the buyer
should be aware of differences in capacity and quality, which often translate into life expectancy.
Cell matching according to capacity is important, especially for industrial batteries, and no perfect match is
possible. If slightly off, nickel-based cells adapt to each other after a few charge/discharge cycles similar to
the players on a winning sports team. High-quality cells continue to perform longer than the lower-quality
counterparts, and fading is more even and controlled. Lower-grade cells, on the other hand, diverge more
quickly with use and time, and failures due to cell mismatch are more widespread. Cell mismatch is a
common cause of failure in industrial batteries. Manufacturers of professional power tools and medical
equipment are careful with the choice of cells to attain good battery reliability and long life.
Let’s look at what happens to a weak cell that is strung together with stronger cells in a pack. The weak cell
holds less capacity and is discharged more quickly than their strong brothers. Going empty first causes
their strong brothers to overrun their feeble sibling to the point where a high load can push the weak cell
into reverse polarity. Nickel-cadmium can tolerate a reverse voltage of minus 0.2V at a few milliamps, but
exceeding this will cause a permanent electrical short. On charge, the weak cell reaches full charge first,
and then goes into heat-generating overcharge, while the strong brothers still accept charge and stay cool.
The weak cell experiences a disadvantage on both charge and discharge; it continues to weaken until
giving up the struggle.
The capacity tolerance between cells in an industrial battery should be +/– 2.5 percent. High-voltage packs
designed for heavy loads and a wide temperature range should reduce the capacity tolerance further.
There is a strong correlation between cell balance and longevity.
Figure 106 illustrates the cycling performance of five aged Li-ion packs as a function of cell match. The cells
are connected in a 2P4S arrangement with a center tap, forming two battery sections that in our example
are poorly matched. The capacity differences between the two sections are 5, 6, 7 and 12 percent. When
cycled, all batteries show large capacity losses over 18 cycles, but the greatest decrease occurs with the
pack exhibiting 12 percent capacity mismatch.

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 Figure 106 - Cycling performance as a function of cell match

Battery packs with well-matched cells perform better than those in which the cell or group of cells differ in
serial connection.
Configuration: 5Ah prismatic Li-ion connected in 2P4S (14.8V, 10Ah) with center tap
Quality Li-ion cells have uniform capacity and low self-discharge when new. Adding cell balancing is
beneficial especially as the pack ages and the performance of each cell decreases at its own pace. A
problem arises when a cell in a string loses capacity or develops elevated self-discharge. This can be
attributed to high-temperature spots in a large battery. Low-quality cells may also be prone to unequal
aging. Li-phosphate has higher self-discharge that other Li-ion, and this complicates cell balancing. (See
BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge do?)
A battery expert once said: “I have not seen a cell balancing circuit that works.” For multi-cell packs, he
suggested using quality Li-ion cells that have been factory-sorted on capacity and voltage. This works well
for Li-ion packs up to 24V; packs above 24V should have balancing. Most balancing is passive; active
balancing is complex and is only used in very large systems.
Passive balancing bleeds high-voltage cells on a resistor during charge in the 70–80 percent SoC curve;
active balancing shuttles the extra charge from higher-voltage cells during discharge to those with a lower
voltage. Active balancing is the preferred method for EV batteries, but it requires DC-DC converters. The
corrected currents are in the mA range only. Applying a heavy load during acceleration, followed by rapid-
charging with regenerative braking requires well-tuned cells in a high-voltage battery to attain the
anticipated life. EV batteries in the Tesla, BMW i3 and other EVs employ active balancing to minimize cell
stress.
Single-cell applications in mobile phones and tablets do not need cell balancing. The capacity between
cells can vary and each cell is allowed to age on its own terms without causing harm, other than delivering
shorter runtimes. The consumer accepts this decrease; it’s part of planned obsolescence in consumer
products. (See BU-801a: How to Rate Battery Runtime)
All Li-ion cells require a protection circuit that assures that serially connected cells do not exceed 4.25V/cell
(most Li-ion) on charge and that disconnect when the weakest cell drops to 2.80V/cell or lower. The
discharge disconnect prevents the stronger cells from pushing the depleted cell into reverse polarity. The
protection circuit acts like a guardian angel that shields the weaker siblings from being bullied by the
stronger peers. This may explain why Li-ion packs for power tools last longer than nickel-based batteries
without a protection circuit. The protection circuit also safeguards the battery from excessive load current.
(See BU-304: Protection circuits)

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With use and time, battery cells become mismatched, and this also applies to lead acid. Cells that develop
high self-discharge will lead to imbalance and subsequent failure. Manufacturers of golf cars, aerial work
platforms, floor scrubbers and other battery-powered vehicles recommend an equalizing charge if the
voltage difference between the cells is greater than +/– 0.10V, or if the specific gravity varies more than 10
points (0.010 on the SG scale).
An equalizing charge is a charge on top of a charge that brings all cells to full-charge saturation. This
service must be administered with care because excessive charging can harm the battery (see BU-404:
Equalizing Charge). A difference in specific gravity of 40 points poses a performance problem and the cell
is considered defective. (A 40-point difference means one cell has an SG of 1.200 and another 1.240.) A
charge may temporarily cover the deficiency, but the flaw will likely resurface again after a few hours due to
the high self-discharge of the faulty cell.
Last updated 2016-04-02

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BU-803b: What causes Cells to Short?
Learn why some cells short and others don’t
Manufacturers are at a loss to explain why some cells develop high electrical leakage or a short while still
new. The culprit might be foreign particles that contaminate the cells during fabrication, or rough-spots on
the plates that damage the delicate separator. Clean rooms, improved quality control at the raw material
level and minimal human handling during the manufacturing process have reduced the “mortality rate.”
Applying momentary high-current bursts to evaporate a short in a NiCd or NiMH cell has been tried, but this
offers limited success. The short may temporarily vanish, but the damage in the separator remains. The
repaired cell may begin to charge normally and reach the correct voltage, but high self-discharge will likely
drain the battery quickly and the short will return.
It is not advised to replace a shorted cell in an aging pack as the new cells will always be stronger than the
others. Consider the biblical verse, “No one sews a patch of unshrunk cloth on an old garment. If he does,
the new piece will pull away from the old, making the tear worse.” (Mark 2:21) Replacing faulty cells often
leads to battery failures within 6 months. It’s best not to disturb the cells but allow them to age naturally as
an intact family. The exception is replacing a defective cell to salvage a well-functioning pack. (See BU-302:
Series and Parallel Battery Configurations. Also see BU-910: How to Repair a Battery Pack.)
Cobalt-blended Li-ion cells develop fewer leak and electrical shorts than nickel- and lead-based batteries
but they can occur, especially with Li-phosphate. For unknown reasons, the cell at the positive end in a
string is most likely to short first. Perhaps it gets the most stress while the middle cells enjoy some
protection by being buffered.
The mandatory protection circuit for Li-ion packs can only shield the cell from over-voltage, excessive
loading and reverse polarity. An electrical short caused by internal cell damage lies outside the safeguard
of the protection circuit. Most cell failures occur when the battery has been damaged by shock and
vibration, or has been overcharged or overheated. Charging at freezing temperatures can also damage Li-
ion without indication of stress to the user. The Sony recall in 2006, when microscopic metal particles came
into contact with other parts and the Boeing 787 Dreamliner that called for a redesign of the battery system
are examples of when an internal short could not be prevented by a protection circuit. These were certified
Li-ion batteries that developed an electrical short during service. (See BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-
ion.)
To reduce the risk of an electrical short, Li-ion cells for electric powertrains and demanding industrial
applications use a heavy-duty separator. These batteries are larger than those used in consumer products
and also have a lower specific energy. Saying that Li-ion has twice the energy density of NiMH can
inaccurate. Long-lasting Li-ion cells can have a specific energy as low as 60Wh/kg, which is similar to
nickel-cadmium, while some consumer Li-ion can go up to 250Wh/kg
Caution: Applying a high current burst works best with nickel-based batteries.
Do not use this method for lithium-ion cells.

Last updated 2017-05-09

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BU-803c: Loss of Electrolyte
Discover what you can do to keep the integrity of your battery
The loss of electrolyte in a flooded lead acid battery occurs through gassing as hydrogen escapes during
charging and discharging. Venting causes the electrolyte to become more concentrated, and the balance
must be restored by adding clean water. Do not add electrolyte as this upsets the specific gravity and
shortens battery life by promoting corrosion.
Loss of electrolyte in sealed lead acid batteries is a recurring problem that is often caused by overcharging.
Careful adjustment of charging and float voltages, as well as operating at moderate temperatures, reduces
this failure. In flooded batteries, lost water can be replenished by refilling, but in sealed batteries water loss
can lead to dry-out and decline of performance. Replenishing lost liquid in VRLA batteries by adding water
has been tried with limited success. Although the lost capacity can often be regained with a catalyst,
tampering with the cells turns the stack into a high-maintenance project that needs constant supervision.
Nickel-based batteries can lose electrolyte through repeated venting due to excessive pressure during
extreme charge or discharge, as well as from overcharge. Inaccurate full-charge detection and elevated
trickle charge can lead to overcharge. This is especially true with aging and faded packs. After recurring
venting, the spring-loaded seal of the cells may not seal properly again and the deposit of white powder
around the seal opening is evidence of leakage. Sloppy manufacturing can also lead to electrolyte loss.
Dry-up conditions result in a “soft” cell, a defect that cannot be corrected. On charge, the voltage of a “dry”
cell goes high because the battery has no clamping ability. It is no longer chemically active and does not
draw current.
A properly designed and correctly charged lithium-ion cell should not generate gases, nor should it lose
electrolyte through venting. In spite of what advocates say, lithium-based cells can build up an internal
pressure under certain conditions, and a bloated pouch cell is proof of this. (See BU-301a: Types of Battery
Cells) Some cells include an electrical switch that opens if the cell pressure reaches a critical level. Others
feature a membrane that releases gases. Many of these safety features are one way only, meaning that
once activated, the cell becomes inoperable. This is done for safety reasons. (See BU-304a: Safety
Concerns with Li-ion.)
Why does a battery gas?
When overcharged, a battery gases, splitting water in the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen. A battery
becomes a “water-splitting device” by electrolysis. A parallel is the fuel cell but it does the opposite way,
turning oxygen and hydrogen into electricity by producing water. Energy is needed to produce oxygen and
hydrogen and the battery gets the energy through overcharging.
Last updated 2016-03-07

Lead Acid

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BU-804: How to Prolong Lead-acid Batteries
Explore what causes corrosion, shedding, electrical short, sulfation, dry-out, acid stratification and surface
charge
A lead acid battery goes through three life phases: formatting, peak and decline (Figure 1). In the formatting
phase, the plates are in a sponge-like condition surrounded by liquid electrolyte. Exercising the plates
allows the absorption of electrolyte, much like squeezing and releasing a hardened sponge. As the
electrodes activate, the capacity gradually increases.

The three phases of a battery are formatting, peak and decline (Courtesy of Cadex)
Formatting is most important for deep-cycle batteries. They require 20–50 full cycles to reach peak capacity
and field usage does this. During breaking-in, manufacturers recommend going easy on the battery. Starter
batteries are less critical and do not need priming. The full cranking power is available from the beginning,
although CCA will go up slightly with formatting in early use. (See also BU-701: How to Prime Batteries.)
A deep-cycle battery delivers 100–200 cycles before a gradual decline begins. Replacement should occur
when the capacity drops to 70 or 80 percent. Some applications allow lower capacity thresholds but the
time for retirement should never fall below 50 percent as aging may hasten once past the prime.
To keep lead acid in good condition, apply a fully saturated charge lasting 14 to 16 hours. If the charge cycle
does not allow this, give the battery a fully saturated charge once every few weeks. If at all possible,
operate at moderate temperature and avoid deep discharges; charge as often as you can. (See BU-403:
Charging Lead Acid.)
The primary reason for the relatively short cycle life of a lead acid battery is depletion of the active material.
According to the 2010 BCI Failure Modes Study, plate/grid-related breakdown has increased from 30
percent 5 years ago to 39 percent today. The report does not provide reasons for the larger wear and tear
other than to assume that higher demands on the starter battery in modern cars induce added stress. The
organization conducts a study every 5 years to determine the failure modes of batteries that have been
removed from service. (BCI stands for Battery Council International.)
While the depletion of the active material is well understood and can be calculated, a lead acid battery
suffers from other infirmities long before plate- and grid-deterioration sound the death knell. These
conditions are found under: Corrosion, Shedding and internal Short, Sulfation and How to Prevent it, and
Water Loss, Acid Stratification and Surface Charge. Most of these can be reduced by proper handling.
Last Updated 2016-03-07

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BU-804a: Corrosion, Shedding and Internal Short
Find out what the user can do to reduce battery corrosion and shedding.
Corrosion occurs primarily on the grid, and it is known as a “softening and shedding” of the lead off the
plates. This reaction cannot be avoided because the electrodes in a lead acid environment are always
reactive. Lead shedding is a natural phenomenon that can be reduced but not eliminated. A battery that
reaches the end of life through this failure mode has met or exceeded the anticipated life span. Limiting the
depth of discharge, reducing the cycle count, operating at a moderate temperature and controlling
overcharge are preventive measures to keep corrosion in check.
To reduce corrosion on long-life batteries, manufacturers keep the specific gravity at a moderate 1.200 level
when fully charged, compared to 1.265 and greater for high-performance lead acid batteries. (See BU-903:
How to measure State-of-charge) A lower specific gravity decreases the specific battery energy.
Applying prolonged overcharge is another contributor to grid corrosion. This is especially damaging to
sealed lead acid systems. While the flooded lead acid has some resiliency to overcharge, sealed units must
operate at the recommended float charge. (See BU-403: Charging Lead Acid)
Chargers with variable float voltages adjust the charge voltage to the prevailing temperature. Reducing the
float charge when the ambient temperature reaches 29°C (85°F) and increasing it when colder lowers
corrosion. (See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures.) Most chargers for stationary batteries
feature temperature control, but this not common in vehicles. A fully charged starter battery is kept at
14.40V (2.40V/cell) while driving and this can lead to overcharge. The recommended float voltage is 13.60V
(2.27V/cell).
As lead acid batteries are being replaced with Li-phosphate (LiFePO), precise charging is paramount. While
the automotive charging system provides the correct end-of-charge voltage for LiFePO, Li-ion should
receive no further charge when the battery is fully charged. With the LiFePO replacement, this does not
happen and the starter battery receives continuous charge while cruising. Although LiFePO is more tolerant
to overcharge than cobalt-blended Li-ion, overcharge can shorten the life of the Li-phosphate battery.
To attain maximum surface area, the lead on a starter battery is applied in a sponge-like form. With time
and use, chunks of lead fall off and reduce the performance. Figure 1 illustrates the innards of a corroded
lead acid battery.

Grid corrosion is unavoidable because the electrodes in a lead acid environment are always reactive. Lead
shedding is a natural phenomenon that can only be slowed and not eliminated (Source: Journal of Power
Sources 2009)
The terminals of a battery can also corrode. This is often visible with the formation of white powder as a
result of oxidation between two different metals connecting the poles. Terminal corrosion can eventually
lead to an open electrical connection. Changing the connecting terminals to lead, the same material as the
battery pole of a starter battery, will solve most corrosion problems.

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The lead within a battery is mechanically active. On discharge, the lead sulfate causes the plates to expand,
a movement that reverses during charge when the plates contract again. Over time, sulfite crystals form
that cause shedding of lead material. The shedding in a starter battery is manageable because the battery
does not go through a deep discharge, but this is a larger problem with a deep-cycle battery.
Electrical short is another failure mode, especially with starter batteries in trucks. As the battery sheds its
lead to the bottom of the container, a conductive layer forms that gradually fills the allotted space in the
sediment trap. In time, the now conductive liquid may reach the plates, creating a shorting effect. The term
“short” is a misnomer and elevated self-discharge or soft short would be better terms to describe this
condition.
Soft shorts are difficult to detect because the battery functions normally immediately after charge and
everything seems fine. In essence, a charge wipes out all evidence of a soft short condition, except perhaps
an elevated temperature during charge that may be noticed when touching the battery housing. However,
once rested for 6–12 hours, the battery begins to show anomalies such as a lower open circuit voltage and
reduced specific gravity.
The measured capacity will also be low because self-discharge has consumed some of the stored energy.
According to the 2010 BCI Failure Mode Study, shorted batteries accounted for 18 percent of battery
failures, a drop from 31 percent 5 years earlier. Improved manufacturing methods may account for this
reduction.
Another form of soft short is mossing. This occurs when the separators and plates are slightly misaligned
as a result of poor manufacturing practices and they cause parts of the plates to become naked. Such
exposure promotes the formation of conductive crystal moss around the edges, which leads to elevated
self-discharge.
Lead drop is another cause of short in which chunks of lead break loose from the welded bars connecting
the plates. Unlike a soft short that develops with wear and tear, a lead drop often occurs early in battery life
due to a manufacturing defect. This can lead to a serious electrical short with a permanent voltage drop that
could result in thermal runaway.
The most radical and serious form of short is a mechanical failure in which the suspended plates become
loose and touch each other. This results in a sudden high discharge current that can lead to excessive heat
buildup and thermal runaway. Sloppy manufacturing as well as excessive shock and vibration are the most
common contributors to this failure.
Last updated 2017-05-09

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BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it
Applying ways to minimize sulfation.
Sulfation occurs when a lead acid battery is deprived of a full charge. This is common with starter batteries
in cars driven in the city with load-hungry accessories. A motor in idle or at low speed cannot charge the
battery sufficiently.
Electric wheelchairs have a similar problem in that the users might not charge the battery long enough. An
8-hour charge during the night when the chair is not being used is not enough. Lead acid must periodically
be charged 14–16 hours to attain full saturation. This may be the reason why wheelchair batteries last only 2
years, whereas golf cars with the identical battery deliver twice the service life. Long leisure time allows golf
car batteries to get a full charge overnight. (See 403: Charging Lead Acid.)
Solar cells and wind turbines do not always provide sufficient charge for lead acid banks, which can lead to
sulfation. This happens in remote parts of the world where villagers draw generous amounts of electricity
with insufficient renewable resources to charge the batteries. The result is a short battery life. Only a
periodic fully saturated charge can solve the problem. But without an electrical grid at their disposal, this is
almost impossible.
An alternative solution is using lithium-ion, a battery that prefers a partial charge to a full charge. However,
Li-ion is more than double the cost of lead acid. Although more expensive, the cycle count is said to be
cheaper than that of lead acid because of the extended service life.
What is sulfation? During use, small sulfate crystals form, but these are normal and are not harmful. During
prolonged charge deprivation, however, the amorphous lead sulfate converts to a stable crystalline and
deposits on the negative plates. This leads to the development of large crystals that reduce the battery’s
active material, which is responsible for the performance.
There are two types of sulfation: reversible (or soft sulfation), and permanent (or hard sulfation). If a battery
is serviced early, reversible sulfation can often be corrected by applying an overcharge to an already fully
charged battery in the form of a regulated current of about 200mA. The battery terminal voltage is allowed
to rise to between 2.50 and 2.66V/cell (15 and 16V on a 12V mono block) for about 24 hours. Increasing the
battery temperature to 50–60°C (122–140°F) during the corrective service further helps in dissolving the
crystals.
Permanent sulfation sets in when the battery has been in a low state-of-charge for weeks or months. At this
stage, no form of restoration seems possible; however, the recovery yield is not fully understood. To
everyone’s amazement, new lead acid batteries can often be fully restored after dwelling in a low-voltage
condition for many weeks. Other factors may play a role.
A subtle indication whether lead acid can be recovered or not is visible on the voltage discharge curve. If a
fully charged battery retains a stable voltage profile on discharge, chances of reactivation are better than if
the voltage drops rapidly with load.
Several companies offer anti-sulfation devices that apply pulses to the battery terminals to prevent and
reverse sulfation. Such technologies will lower the sulfation on a healthy battery, but they cannot effectively
reverse the condition once present. It’s a “one size fits all” approach and the method is unscientific.
Applying random pulses or blindly inducing an overcharge can harm the battery by promoting grid
corrosion. There are no simple methods to measure sulfation, nor are commercial chargers available that
apply a calculated overcharge to dissolve the crystals. As with medicine, the most effective remedy is to
apply a corrective service for the time needed and not longer.
While anti-sulfation devices can reverse the condition, some battery manufacturers do not recommend the
treatment as it tends to create soft shorts that may increase self-discharge. Furthermore, the pulses contain
ripple voltage that causes some heating of the battery. Battery manufacturers specify the allowable ripple
when charging lead acid batteries.
Last updated 2016-09-22

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BU-804c: Acid Stratification and Surface Charge
Explore simple guidelines to prolong lead acid batteries by proper use.
Acid Stratification
The electrolyte of a stratified battery concentrates at the bottom, starving the upper half of the cell. Acid
stratification occurs if the battery dwells at low charge (below 80 percent), never receives a full charge and
has shallow discharges. Driving a car for short distances with power-robbing accessories engaged
contributes to acid stratification because the alternator cannot always apply a saturated charge. Large
luxury cars are especially prone to acid stratification. This is not a battery defect per se but is application
related. Figure 1 illustrates a normal battery in which the acid is equally distributed from top to bottom.

The acid is equally distributed from the top to the bottom of the battery, providing good overall
performance (Courtesy of Cadex)
Figure 2 shows a stratified battery in which the acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom.
The light acid on top limits plate activation, promotes corrosion and reduces the performance, while the
high acid concentration on the bottom makes the battery appear more charged than it is and artificially
raises the open circuit voltage. The unequal charge across the plates reduces CCA (cold cranking amps),
and starting the engine is sluggish.

The acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. This raises the open circuit voltage and the
battery appears fully charged. Excessive acid concentration induces sulfation on the lower half of the plates
(Courtesy of Cadex)
Allowing the battery to rest for a few days, doing a shaking motion or tipping the battery on its side helps
correct the problem. Applying an equalizing charge by raising the voltage of a 12-volt battery to 16 volts for
1–2 hours also helps by mixing the electrolyte through electrolysis. Avoid extending the topping charge
beyond its recommended time. Topping charge is applied to maintain full charge and to prevent sulfation
on lead acid batteries.
Acid stratification cannot always be avoided. During cold winter months, starter batteries of most
passenger cars dwell at a 75 percent charge level. Knowing that motor idling and driving in gridlocked
traffic does not sufficiently charge the battery; charge the battery occasionally with an external charger. If
this is not practical, switch to an AGM battery. AGM does not suffer from acid stratification and is less
sensitive to sulfation if undercharged than the flooded version. AGM is a bit more expensive than the
flooded version but the battery should last longer.

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Surface Charge
Lead acid batteries are sluggish and cannot convert lead sulfate to lead and lead dioxide quickly during
charge. This delayed action causes most of the charge activities to occur on the plate surfaces, resulting in
an elevated state-of-charge (SoC) on the outside.
A battery with surface charge has a slightly elevated voltage and gives a false voltage-based SoC reading.
To normalize the condition, switch on electrical loads to remove about 1 percent of the battery’s capacity or
allow the battery to rest for a few hours. Turning on the headlights for a few minutes will do this. Surface
charge is not a battery defect but a reversible condition.
Simple Guidelines for Extending Battery Life
Allow a fully saturated charge of 14–16 hours. Charge in a well-ventilated area.

Always keep lead acid charged. Avoid storage below 2.07V/cell or at a specific gravity level below 1.190.

Avoid deep discharges. The deeper the discharge, the shorter the battery life will be. A brief charge on a
1–2 hour break during heavy use prolongs battery life.

Never allow the electrolyte to drop below the tops of the plates. Exposed plates sulfate and become
inactive. When low, add only enough water to cover the exposed plates before charging. Always fill to the
correct level after charge.

Never add acid. This would raise the specific gravity too high and cause excessive corrosion.

Use distilled or de-ionized water. Tap water may be usable in some regions.

When new, a deep-cycle battery may have a capacity of 70 percent or less. Formatting as part of field use
will gradually increase performance. Apply a gentle load for the first five cycles to allow a new battery to
format.

New batteries with low capacity many not perform as well as those that begin life with a high capacity.
Low performers are known to have a short life. A capacity check as part of acceptance is advisable.

A start-stop battery typically has 25 percent more lead than a standard starter battery to attain a high
cycle count. This is reflected in the corresponding price premium.

Last updated 2017-11-15

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BU-805: Additives to Boost Flooded Lead Acid
Know how to extend the life of a lead acid battery and what the limits are.
Adding chemicals to the electrolyte of flooded lead acid batteries can dissolve the buildup of lead sulfate on
the plates and improve the overall battery performance. This treatment has been in use since the 1950s
(and perhaps longer) and provides a temporary performance boost for aging batteries. It’s a stopgap
measure because in most cases the plates are already worn out through shedding. Chemical additives
cannot replace the active material, nor can cracked plates, corroded connectors or damaged separators be
restored with an outside remedy.
Elevated self-discharge is a common failure mode with older batteries. With the shedding of the active
material to the bottom of the container, a conductive layer forms that gradually fills the allotted space in the
sediment trap. The now conductive liquid may reach the plates, creating a soft short. The shedding also
causes the internal resistance to increase, reducing current handling.
Extending the service life of an aging battery can be useful as additives are cheap, readily available and
worth the experiment for a handyman. These salts may reduce the internal resistance to give a sulfated
battery a few extra months of life. Suitable additives are magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), caustic soda and
EDTA (EDTA is a crystalline acid used in industry).
When using Epsom salt, follow these easy steps to treat most starter batteries. Heat about 250ml (8 fl oz or
a cup) of distilled water to about 66ºC (150ºF), mix in as much Epson salt as the water can absorb (a few
tablespoons) and stir until dissolved. Avoid using too much salt because heavy concentration increases
corrosion of the lead plates and the internal connectors.
When pouring the warm solution into the battery, the electrolyte level will raise. Do not remove electrolyte,
and only add as much additive as the battery can take. Be careful not to overfill. Do not place un-dissolved
Epsom salt directly into the battery because the substance does not dissolve well. In place of Epsom salt,
try adding a pinch of caustic soda. Charge the battery after service. The results are not instantaneous and it
may take a month for the treatment to work. The outcome is not guaranteed.
Batteries have improved, and additive treatments may be most effective with older battery models,
expanding their life by a few months until a replacement is on hand. Modern batteries already include
additives that reduce sulfation and corrosion. Industrial users seldom rely on remedial additives to prolong
battery life as the system becomes maintenance prone.
Last updated 2017-03-07

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BU-806: Tracking Battery Capacity and Resistance as part of Aging
Learn about CCA characteristics and capacity fade and how they diverge with age.
All batteries age and the effects manifest themselves in diminished capacity, increased internal resistance
and elevated self-discharge. A new battery (Figure 1) delivers (or should deliver) 100 percent capacity; an
aged unit (Figure 2) may hold only 20 percent. In our example, the capacity loss is illustrated by placing
rocks in the container.

Capacity is represented by a liquid with no obstruction. The battery delivers full runtime (Courtesy of
Cadex)

Capacity loss is illustrated as “rock-content.” The battery behaves normally but it has a short runtime, even
if fully charged (Courtesy of Cadex)
Automotive technicians are most familiar with CCA (cold cranking amps) in relation to turn the engine. CCA
relates to the internal battery resistance and the ability to deliver high load current. Figure 3 illustrates a
starter battery with high CCA and an open tap symbolizing delivering full power; Figure 4 has elevated
internal resistance that limits the current delivery to a trickle.

Cranking current on a starter battery is 300A; a golf car draws 56A

Courtesy of Cadex

Rising internal resistance inhibits power delivery. This is less common as capacity fade occurs first
(Courtesy of Cadex)

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Rechargeable batteries have improved and maintain low internal resistance during most of the service life;
an increase in internal resistance may only occur towards the very end. Starter batteries keep a high CCA
and provide healthy cranking to the end, but the capacity gradually drops without sign. An analogy is a
galloping horse that keeps its spirited performance until its eventual collapse from exhaustion. Figure 5
demonstrates the relationship of capacity and CCA of 20 aging starter batteries, sorted according to
capacity. (See also BU-905a: Testing Starter Batteries in Vehicles.)

Batteries 1–9 have good CCA and high capacity; the CCA of batteries 10–20 still enables good cranking, but
the batteries have large capacity loss. CCA tends to remain high while the capacity drops with aging. Test
method: CCA was estimated with the Spectro CA-12 and the capacity was measured with an Agilent load
bank by applying full discharges according to BCI standards (Courtesy of Cadex)
Batteries 1–9 perform well on capacity and CCA, but batteries 10–20 show notable capacity loss while
maintaining acceptable CCA performance. Capacity depletion eventually disables the cranking. This is
mostly evident during cold spells, which further reduce the capacity.
Car manufacturers often use 65 percent as the pass/fail threshold for warranty replacement while service
garages take 40 percent as an end-of-life indication. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity.) Forty percent
should give another 6–12 months of service, but below this is cause for concern and the battery should be
replaced even though the cranking is still good. Thrifty drivers (including the author), prefer to wait but
invariably get caught with a dead battery at the worst possible moment.
To study the correlation between capacity and internal resistance, Cadex tested 175 aging starter batteries
by measuring the CCA and capacity according to SAE J537. In this lengthy test, Cadex found that the
correlation between capacity and CCA is only 0.55 (1 would be a perfect match). This led to the
development of capacity estimation technology, as relying on the internal resistance, or CCA on a starter
battery is unreliable. Figure 6 demonstrates the aging trend of starter batteries as a function of capacity and
CCA.(See BU-1101: Glossary under SAE J537)

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Batteries in the green PASS field are functional; the red FAIL field denotes breakdown. Most batteries exit
life through the 40% capacity line at the left field; few slip through the 50% CCA line. Test method: Capacity
and CCA were tested accoding to SAE J537 (Courtesy of Cadex)
The horizontal X-axis represents capacity; the vertical Y-axis shows CCA; the stars are the 175 batteries
tested. The arrow shows the typical aging trend of batteries passing through the “Capacity Line” on the left
PASS field. Very few batteries slip through the “CCA Line.”
This demonstrates that starter batteries fail mainly due to capacity fade rather than low CCA or elevated
internal resistance. This characteristic is visible with most lead- and lithium-based batteries. A capacity
measurement is more meaningful than measuring the internal resistance, but estimating capacity on the fly
involves higher complexities than simply taking an ohmic reading.
Last updated 2018-01-23

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BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life
Learn about the temperature and how start-stop shortens the life of a starter battery.
Heat is a killer of all batteries, but high temperatures cannot always be avoided. This is the case with a
battery inside a laptop, a starter battery under the hood of a car and stationary batteries in a tin shelter
under the hot sun. As a guideline, each 8°C (15°F) rise in temperature cuts the life of a sealed lead acid
battery in half. This means that a VRLA battery for stationary applications specified to last for 10 years at
25°C (77°F) would only live 5 years if continuously exposed to 33°C (92°F) and 30 months if kept at a
constant desert temperature of 41°C (106°F). Once the battery is damaged by heat, the capacity cannot be
restored.
According to the 2010 BCI Failure Mode Study, starter batteries have become more heat-resistant. In the
2000 study, a rise in temperature of 7°C (12°F) affected battery life by roughly one year; in 2010 the heat
tolerance has been widened to 12°C (22°F). Other statistics reveal that in 1962, a starter battery lasted 34
months; technical improvements increased the life expectancy in 2000 to 41 months. In 2010, BCI reported
an average age of 55 months for starter batteries, with the cooler North attaining 59 months and the
warmer South 47 months. Colloquial evidence in 2015 revealed that a battery kept in the trunk of a car
lasted one year longer than if positioned in the engine compartment.
The life of a battery also depends on the activity, and the service life is shortened if the battery is stressed
with frequent discharge. Cranking the engine a few times a day poses little stress on a starter battery, but
this changes in the start-stop operation of a micro-hybrid. The micro-hybrid turns the internal combustion
engine (ICE) off at red traffic lights and restarts it when the traffic flows again, resulting in about 2,000
micro-cycles per year. Data obtained from car manufacturers shows a capacity drop to about 60 percent
after 2 years of use. To increase cycle life, automakers use specialty AGM and other systems. (See BU-211:
Alternate Battery Systems.)
Figure 1 shows a capacity drop from 100 percent to about 50 percent after the battery had been exposed to
700 micro cycles. The simulated start-stop test was performed in the Cadex laboratories. CCA remains high
and only shows a decline after about 2,000 cycles.

The capacity drops to about 50 percent after 2 years of use. AGM battery is more robust.
Courtesy of Cadex, 2010
Test method
The battery was fully charged and then discharged to 70% to resemble SoC of a micro hybrid in real life.
The battery was then discharged at 25A for 40 seconds to simulate the engine off with the headlights on. To
simulate cranking and driving, the battery was briefly discharged at 400A and then recharged. CCA was
taken with the Spectro CA-12.

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When connected in series, the voltage of each cell must be uniform, and this is especially important in large
stationary battery systems. With time, individual cells fall out of line but applying an equalizing charge
every 6 months or so should bring the cells back to similar voltage levels. (See BU-404: Equalizing Charge)
What makes this service so difficult is providing the right remedy to each cell. While equalizing will boost
the needy cells, the healthy cell gets stressed if the equalizing charge is applied carelessly. Gel and AGM
batteries have lower overcharge acceptance than the flooded version and different equalizing conditions
apply.
Flooded lead acid batteries are one of the most reliable systems and are well suited for hot climates. With
good maintenance these batteries last up to 20 years. The disadvantages are the need for watering and
good ventilation.
When VRLA was introduced in the 1980s, manufacturers claimed similar life expectancy to the flooded
systems, and the telecom industry was enticed to switch to these maintenance-free batteries. By mid-1990
it became apparent that the life of VRLA did not live up to the flooded type; the typical service life of the
VRLA is 5–10 years, less than half of the flooded equivalent. It was furthermore noticed that exposing VRLA
batteries to temperatures above 40°C (104°F) could cause a thermal runaway due to dry-out.
Last updated 2016-05-26

Nickel-based

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BU-807: How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries
Discover if memory is myth or fact, and how to prevent and eliminate it.
During the nickel-cadmium years of the 1970s and 1980s, battery ills were blamed on “memory.” Today, the
word memory is still being used to advertise newer batteries as being “memory-free.” Memory comes from
“cyclic memory,” meaning that a nickel-cadmium battery could remember how much energy was drawn on
previous discharges and it would deliver the same amount on repeat discharges. If more was demanded,
the voltage would abruptly drop as if to protest against imposed overtime.
Memory occurs when keeping a NiCd battery is overcharged. The effect can be reversed with a pulse
charge, but it is more effectively to apply a full discharge cycle. Figure 8-26 illustrates the anode of a normal
NiCd, memory that formed, and a restored anode.

Figure 107 - New nickel-cadmium cell

The anode (negative electrode) is in fresh condition. Hexagonal cadmium-hydroxide crystals are about 1
micron in cross section, exposing large surface area to the electrolyte for maximum performance.

Figure 108 - Cell with crystalline formation

Crystals have grown to 50 -100 microns in cross section, concealing large portions of the active material
from the electrolyte. Jagged edges and sharp corners can pierce the separator, leading to increased self-
discharge or electrical short.

Figure 109 - Restored cell

After a pulsed charge, the crystals are reduced to 3–5 microns: an almost 100% restoration. Exercise or
recondition is needed if the pulse charge alone is not effective.
Crystalline formation occurs over a few months if a battery is overcharged and not maintained with periodic
deep discharges.
The modern nickel-cadmium battery no longer has cyclic memory, but it suffers from crystalline formation.
The active cadmium material is applied on the negative plate and with time, a crystalline formation
develops that reduces the surface area and lowers the battery performance. In advanced stages, the sharp
edges of the forming crystals can penetrate the separator, causing high self-discharge that can lead to an
electrical short.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 304 of 453
When introduced in the early 1990s, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) was hailed as being memory-free, but this
claim is only partially true. NiMH is subject to memory but to a lesser degree than NiCd. While NiMH has
only the nickel plate to worry about, NiCd also includes the memory-prone cadmium negative electrode.
This is a simple explanation of why NiMH is less susceptible to memory than NiCd.
Crystalline formation occurs if a nickel-based battery is left in the charger for days or repeatedly recharged
without a periodic full discharge. Since most applications fall into this user pattern, NiCd requires a periodic
discharge to 1 volt per cell to prolong service life. A discharge/charge cycle as part of maintenance, known
as exercise, should be done every 1–3 months. Avoid over-exercising as this wears down the battery
unnecessarily.
If regular exercise is omitted for 6 months or longer, the crystals ingrain themselves and a full restoration
with a discharge to 1 volt per cell may no longer be sufficient. Restoration is often possible by applying a
secondary discharge called recondition. Recondition is a slow discharge that drains the battery to about
0.4V/cell and lower.
Tests by the US Army indicate that a NiCd cell needs to be discharged to at least 0.6V to effectively break
up the more resistant crystalline formations. During this corrective discharge, the current must be kept low
to minimize cell reversal as NiCd can only tolerate a small amount of cell reversal. (See BU-501: Basics
About Discharging). ). Figure 2 illustrates the battery voltage during a discharge to 1V/cell, followed by the
secondary discharge to 0.4V/cell.

Recondition restores NiCd batteries with hard-to-remove memory. Recondition is a slow, deep discharge to
0.4V/cell (Courtesy of Cadex)
Recondition is most effective in rejuvenating batteries that have not been exercised. Battery analyzers
(Cadex) automatically apply the recondition cycle if the user-set target capacity cannot be reached with a
discharge to 1V/cell alone. Although low performing batteries can often be fully restored, high self-
discharge makes some old-timers unusable for service.
Most ship batteries in large aircraft are NiCd. Resembling an oversized starter battery in a vehicle, these
batteries are serviced by applying a full discharge and keeping each cell at zero volts for 24 hours before
recharge. Each cell is then checked for correct voltage, and capacity verification is taken with a full
discharge/charge cycle before installing them again in the airplane. Aviation batteries follow strict
maintenance schedules.
Last updated 2016-04-02

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BU-807a: Effect of Zapping
Learn what RC enthusiasts do to enhance NiCd performance.
Remote control (RC) enthusiasts are experimenting with all imaginable methods to maximize battery
performance. The electric motor of a model race car draws 30A for about 4 minutes delivered by a 7.2V
battery. This is over 200W of power, a large amount for a small battery. NiCd batteries often energize these
devices, and a technique that seems to enhance the power is zapping NiCd cells with a very high pulse
current. This is said to increase the cell voltage slightly and generate more power.
According to experts, zapping works best with standard NiCd cells. NiMHs have been tried but they do not
produce consistent results. Nor can zapping be applied to Li-ion. Companies specializing in zapping use a
very high quality NiCd cell from Japan, and the sub-C is the most popular size. The factory handpicks the
cells, and they come with a unique label in a fully discharged state. When measuring the empty cell, the
open circuit voltage should read between 1.11 and 1.12V. If the voltage is lower than 1.06V, then the cell is
suspect and zapping does not enhance the performance.
To zap a NiCd battery, charge a 47,000µF capacitor to 90V and apply the raw power directly across a single
NiCd cell of 1.2V. After the shock treatment, cycle the cell and zap it once more. Experts say that once a cell
is treated and used in service, further zapping will no longer improve performance, nor will it regenerate a
weak cell.
The voltage increase on a successfully zapped battery is between 20 and 40mV when loaded with 30A.
According to experts, the voltage gain is permanent, but there is a small drop of the gained voltage with
usage and time.
There are no apparent side effects from zapping, however, battery manufacturers remain silent about this
treatment. No scientific explanations are available as to why zapping improves battery performance other
than the gained voltage and the apparent lower internal resistance. There is little information available
regarding the longevity of the cells after the treatment.
Another method to improve NiCd batteries is through a recondition program. Tests performed at the Cadex
laboratories reveal a permanent capacity gain of about 7 percent when servicing new NiCd with
recondition, a program that lowers the battery voltage to 0.4V/cell on a secondary discharge. (See BU-807:
How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries) This capacity gain is not fully understood other than to assume that
the battery improves through additional formatting. Another explanation is the removal of early memory.
Since new batteries are stored with some charge, the self-discharge that occurs during storage may
contribute to the buildup of crystalline formation, which recondition reverses.
The interest for RC enthusiasts is shifting to high-performance Li-ion. The question is asked: “Does Li-ion
perform as well as NiCd?” Some experts say no, even when choosing the highest-performing Li-ion. NiCd
remains the most rugged rechargeable battery; it is also the only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with
minimal stress. When the German car manufacturers switched from NiCd to Li-ion for their high precision
power tools, the battery specifications needed to be relaxed because Li-ion could not meet the NiCd
requirements.
Last updated 2018-03-09

Lithium-ion

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BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries
Discover what causes Li-ion to age and what the battery user can do to prolong its life.
Battery research is focusing on lithium chemistries so much that one could imagine that the battery future
lies solely in lithium. There are good reasons to be optimistic as lithium-ion is, in many ways, superior to
other chemistries. Applications are growing and are encroaching into markets that previously were solidly
held by lead acid, such as standby and load leveling. Many satellites are also powered by Li-ion.
Lithium-ion has not yet fully matured and is still improving. Notable advancements have been made in
longevity and safety while the capacity is increasing incrementally. Today, Li-ion meets the expectations of
most consumer devices but applications for the EV need further development before this power source will
become the accepted norm.
What Causes Lithium-ion to Age?
The lithium-ion battery works on ion movement between the positive and negative electrodes. In theory
such a mechanism should work forever, but cycling, elevated temperature and aging decrease the
performance over time. Manufacturers take a conservative approach and specify the life of Li-ion in most
consumer products as being between 300 and 500 discharge/charge cycles.
Evaluating battery life on counting cycles is not conclusive because a discharge may vary in depth and
there are no clearly defined standards of what constitutes a cycle (see BU-501: Basics About Discharging).
In lieu of cycle count, some device manufacturers suggest battery replacement on a date stamp, but this
method does not take usage into account. A battery may fail within the allotted time due to heavy use or
unfavorable temperature conditions; however, most packs last considerably longer than what the stamp
indicates.
The performance of a battery is measured in capacity, a leading health indicator. Internal resistance and
self-discharge also play roles, but these are less significant in predicting the end of battery life with modern
Li-ion.
Figure 1 illustrates the capacity drop of 11 Li-polymer batteries that have been cycled at a Cadex laboratory.
The 1,500mAh pouch cells for mobile phones were first charged at a current of 1,500mA (1C) to 4.20V/cell
and then allowed to saturate to 0.05C (75mA) as part of the full charge saturation. The batteries were then
discharged at 1,500mA to 3.0V/cell, and the cycle was repeated. The expected capacity loss of Li-ion
batteries was uniform over the delivered 250 cycles and the batteries performed as expected.

Eleven new Li-ion were tested on a Cadex C7400 battery analyzer. All packs started at a capacity of 88–94%
and decreased to 73–84% after 250 full discharge cycles. The 1500mAh pouch packs are used in mobile
phones.
Courtesy of Cadex
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 307 of 453
Although a battery should deliver 100 percent capacity during the first year of service, it is common to see
lower than specified capacities, and shelf life may contribute to this loss. In addition, manufacturers tend to
overrate their batteries, knowing that very few users will do spot-checks and complain if low. Not having to
match single cells in mobile phones and tablets, as is required in multi-cell packs, opens the floodgates for
a much broader performance acceptance. Cells with lower capacities may slip through cracks without the
consumer knowing.
Similar to a mechanical device that wears out faster with heavy use, the depth of discharge (DoD)
determines the cycle count of the battery. The smaller the discharge (low DoD), the longer the battery will
last. If at all possible, avoid full discharges and charge the battery more often between uses. Partial
discharge on Li-ion is fine. There is no memory and the battery does not need periodic full discharge cycles
to prolong life. The exception may be a periodic calibration of the fuel gauge on a smart battery or
intelligent device. (See BU-603: How to Calibrate a “Smart” Battery)
The following tables indicate stress related capacity losses on cobalt-based lithium-ion. The voltages of
lithium iron phosphate and lithium titanate are lower and do not apply to the voltage references given.
Note: Tables 2, 3 and 4 indicate general aging trends of common cobalt-based Li-ion
batteries on depth-of-discharge, temperature and charge levels, Table 6 further
looks at capacity loss when operating within given and discharge bandwidths. The
tables do not address ultra-fast charging and high load discharges that will shorten
battery life. No all batteries behave the same.

Table 2 estimates the number of discharge/charge cycles Li-ion can deliver at various DoD levels before the
battery capacity drops to 70 percent. DoD constitutes a full charge followed by a discharge to the indicated
state-of-charge (SoC) level in the table.
Table 45 - Cycle life as a function of

Discharge cycles
Depth of discharge
(NMC / LiPO4)

100% DoD ~300 / 600

80% DoD ~400 / 900

60% DoD ~600 / 1,500

40% DoD ~1,500 / 3,000

20% DoD ~1,500 / 9,000

10% DoD ~10,000 / 15,000

A partial discharge reduces stress and prolongs battery life, so does a partial charge. Elevated temperature
and high currents also affect cycle life.
Note: 100% DoD is a full cycle; 10% is very brief. Cycling in mid-state-of-charge would have best longevity.
Lithium-ion suffers from stress when exposed to heat, so does keeping a cell at a high charge voltage. A
battery dwelling above 30°C (86°F) is considered elevated temperature and for most Li-ion a voltage above
4.10V/cell is deemed as high voltage. Exposing the battery to high temperature and dwelling in a full state-
of-charge for an extended time can be more stressful than cycling. Table 3 demonstrates capacity loss as a
function of temperature and SoC.
Table 46 - Estimated recoverable capacity when storing Li-ion for one year at various temperatures

Temperature 40% charge 100% charge

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 0°C 98% (after 1 year) 94% (after 1 year)

25°C 96% (after 1 year) 80% (after 1 year)

40°C 85% (after 1 year) 65% (after 1 year)

60°C 75% (after 1 year) 60%

(after 3 months)

Elevated temperature hastens permanent capacity loss. Not all Li-ion systems behave the same.
Most Li-ions charge to 4.20V/cell, and every reduction in peak charge voltage of 0.10V/cell is said to double
the cycle life. For example, a lithium-ion cell charged to 4.20V/cell typically delivers 300–500 cycles. If
charged to only 4.10V/cell, the life can be prolonged to 600–1,000 cycles; 4.0V/cell should deliver 1,200–
2,000 and 3.90V/cell should provide 2,400–4,000 cycles.
On the negative side, a lower peak charge voltage reduces the capacity the battery stores. As a simple
guideline, every 70mV reduction in charge voltage lowers the overall capacity by 10 percent. Applying the
peak charge voltage on a subsequent charge will restore the full capacity.
In terms of longevity, the optimal charge voltage is 3.92V/cell. Battery experts believe that this threshold
eliminates all voltage-related stresses; going lower may not gain further benefits but induce other
symptoms. (See BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to die?) Table 4 summarizes the capacity as a function of
charge levels. (All values are estimated; Energy Cells with higher voltage thresholds may deviate.)
Table 47 - Discharge cycles and capacity as a function of charge voltage limit

Charge level Discharge Available

(V/cell) cycles stored energy

[4.30] [150–250] [110–115%]

4.25 200–350 105–110%

4.20 300–500 100%

4.15 400–700 90–95%

4.10 600–1,000 85–90%

4.05 850–1,500 80–85%

4.00 1,200–2,000 70–75%

3.90 2,400–4,000 60–65%

3.80 See note 35–40%

3.70 See note 30% and less

Every 0.10V drop below 4.20V/cell doubles the cycle but holds less capacity. Raising the voltage above
4.20V/cell would shorten the life. The readings reflect regular Li-ion charging to 4.20V/cell.
Guideline: Every 70mV drop in charge voltage lowers the usable capacity by about 10%.
Note: Partial charging negates the benefit of Li-ion in terms of high specific energy.

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Most chargers for mobile phones, laptops, tablets and digital cameras charge Li-ion to 4.20V/cell. This
allows maximum capacity, because the consumer wants nothing less than optimal runtime. Industry, on
the other hand, is more concerned about longevity and may choose lower voltage thresholds. Satellites
and electric vehicles are such examples.
For safety reasons, many lithium-ions cannot exceed 4.20V/cell. (Some NMC are the exception.) While a
higher voltage boosts capacity, exceeding the voltage shortens service life and compromises safety. Figure
5 demonstrates cycle count as a function of charge voltage. At 4.35V, the cycle count of a regular Li-ion is
cut in half.

Higher charge voltages boost capacity but lowers cycle life and compromises safety.
Source: Choi et al. (2002)
Besides selecting the best-suited voltage thresholds for a given application, a regular Li-ion should not
remain at the high-voltage ceiling of 4.20V/cell for an extended time. The Li-ion charger turns off the charge
current and the battery voltage reverts to a more natural level. This is like relaxing the muscles after a
strenuous exercise. (See BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion)
Figure 6 illustrates dynamic stress tests (DST) reflecting capacity loss when cycling Li-ion at various charge
and discharge bandwidths. The largest capacity loss occurs when discharging a fully charged Li-ion to 25
percent SoC (black); the loss would be higher if fully discharged. Cycling between 85 and 25 percent
(green) provides a longer service life than charging to 100 percent and discharging to 50 percent (dark
blue). The smallest capacity loss is attained by charging Li-ion to 75 percent and discharging to 65 percent.
This, however, does not fully utilize the battery. High voltages and exposure to elevated temperature is said
to degrade the battery quicker than cycling under normal condition. (Nissan Leaf case)

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Batteries charging to 85% have a longer life span than enabling full charge. Although longer lasting, a less
than full cycle does not fully utilize a battery.
• 75–65% SoC offers longest cycle life
• EVs use 85–25% SoC to prolong battery life
• 100–25% SoC gives long runtime, makes best use of battery, but reduces battery life.
Courtesy: ResearchGate – Modeling of Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation for Cell Life Assessment.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303890624_Modeling_of_Lithium-
Ion_Battery_Degradation_for_Cell_Life_Assessment
Only a full cycle provides the specified energy of a battery. With a modern Energy Cell, this is 250Wh/kg,
but the cycle life will be compromised. All being linear, the life-prolonging mid-range of 85-25 percent
reduces the energy to 60 percent and this equates to moderating the specific energy density from
250Wh/kg to 150Wh/kg. Mobile phones are consumer goods that utilize the full energy of a battery.
Industrial devices, such as the EV, typically limit the charge to 85% and discharge to 25% to prolong
battery life. (See Why Mobile Phone Batteries do not last as long as an EV Battery)
Figure 7 extrapolates the data from Figure 6 to expand the predicted cycle life of Li-ion by using an
extrapolation program that assumes linear decay of battery capacity with progressive cycling. If this were
true, then a Li-ion battery cycled within 85%–25% SoC would fade to 74% capacity after 14,000 cycles. If
this battery were charged to 85% with same depth-of-discharge, the capacity would drop to 64% at 14,000
cycles, and with a 100% charge with same DoD the capacity would drop to 48%. For unknown reasons,
real-life expectancy tends to be lower than in simulated modeling. (See BU-208: Cycling Performance)

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Li-ion batteries are charged to three different SoC levels and the cycle life modelled. Limiting the charge
range prolongs battery life but decreases energy delivered. This reflects in increased weight and higher
initial cost.
With permission to use. Interpolation/extrapolation by OriginLab.
Battery manufacturers often specify the cycle life of a battery with an 80 DoD. This is practical because
batteries should retain some reserve before charge under normal use. (See BU-501: Basics about
Discharging, “What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle”) The cycle count on DST (dynamic stress test) differs
with battery type, charge time, loading protocol and operating temperature. Lab tests often get numbers
that are not attainable in the field.
What Can the User Do?
Environmental conditions, not cycling alone, govern the longevity of lithium-ion batteries. The worst
situation is keeping a fully charged battery at elevated temperatures. Battery packs do not die suddenly, but
the runtime gradually shortens as the capacity fades.
Lower charge voltages prolong battery life and electric vehicles and satellites take advantage of this. Similar
provisions could also be made for consumer devices, but these are seldom offered; planned obsolescence
takes care of this.
A laptop battery could be prolonged by lowering the charge voltage when connected to the AC grid. To
make this feature user-friendly, a device should feature a “Long Life” mode that keeps the battery at
4.05V/cell and offers a SoC of about 80 percent. One hour before traveling, the user requests the “Full
Capacity” mode to bring the charge to 4.20V/cell.
The question is asked, “Should I disconnect my laptop from the power grid when not in use?” Under
normal circumstances this should not be necessary because charging stops when the Li-ion battery is full.
A topping charge is only applied when the battery voltage drops to a certain level. Most users do not
remove the AC power, and this practice is safe.

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Modern laptops run cooler than older models and reported fires are fewer. Always keep the airflow
unobstructed when running electric devices with air-cooling on a bed or pillow. A cool laptop extends
battery life and safeguards the internal components. Energy Cells, which most consumer products have,
should be charged at 1C or less. Avoid so-called ultra-fast chargers that claim to fully charge Li-ion in less
than one hour.
Last updated 2018-01-02

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BU-808a: How to Awaken a Sleeping Li-ion
Learn what you can do to prevent a Li-ion battery to fall asleep.
Li-ion batteries contain a protection circuit that shields the battery against abuse. This important safeguard
also turns the battery off and makes it unusable if over-discharged. Slipping into sleep mode can happen
when storing a Li-ion pack in a discharged state for any length of time as self-discharge would gradually
deplete the remaining charge. Depending on the manufacturer, the protection circuit of a Li-ion cuts off
between 2.2 and 2.9V/cell. (See BU-802b: Elevated Self-discharge)
Some battery chargers and analyzers (including Cadex), feature a wake-up feature or “boost” to reactivate
and recharge batteries that have fallen asleep. Without this provision, a charger renders these batteries
unserviceable and the packs would be discarded. Boost applies a small charge current to activate the
protection circuit and if a correct cell voltage can be reached, the charger starts a normal charge. Figure 1
illustrates the “boost” function graphically.

Some over-discharged batteries can be “boosted” to life again. Discard the pack if the voltage does not rise
to a normal level within a minute while on boost.
Do not boost lithium-based batteries back to life that have dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a week or longer.
Copper shunts may have formed inside the cells that can lead to a partial or total electrical short. When
recharging, such a cell might become unstable, causing excessive heat or show other anomalies. The
Cadex “boost” function halts the charge if the voltage does not rise normally.
When boosting a battery, assure correct polarity. Advanced chargers and battery analyzers will not service
a battery if placed in reverse polarity. A sleeping Li-ion does not reveal the voltage, and boosting must be
done with awareness. Li-ion is more delicate than other systems and a voltage applied in reverse can cause
permanent damage.
Storing lithium-ion batteries presents some uncertainty. On one end, manufacturers recommend keeping
them at a state-of-charge of 40–50 percent, and on the other end there is the worry of losing them due to
over-discharge. (See BU-702: How to Store Batteries) There is ample bandwidth between these criteria and
if in doubt, keep the battery at a higher charge in a cool place.
Cadex examined 294 mobile phones batteries that were returned under warranty. The Cadex analyzer
restored 91 percent to a capacity of 80 percent and higher; 30 percent were inactive and needed a boost,
and 9 percent were non-serviceable. All restored packs were returned to service and performed flawlessly.
This study shows the large number of mobile phone batteries that fail due to over-discharging and can be
salvaged.
Last updated 2016-03-07

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BU-808b: What Causes Li-ion to Die?
Learn what‘s behind the aging process of Li-ion
The ultimate focus of maximizing the energy density of Li-ion shifted in 2006 when Li-ion unexpectedly
disassembled in consumer products and millions of packs were recalled. Safety gained attention and
batteries became safer. With the advent of the electric vehicle (EV), longevity is moving to the forefront and
experts have begun exploring why batteries fail.
While a 3-year battery life with 500 cycles is acceptable for laptops and mobile phones, the mandated 8-
year life of an EV battery seems long at first. However, it still makes an EV buyer cringe when learning that a
replacement battery carries the price of a compact car with an internal combustion engine. If the life of the
battery could be extended to, say, 20 years, then driving an EV would be justified even if the initial
investment is high.
Manufacturers of electric vehicles choose battery systems that are optimized for longevity rather than high
specific energy. These batteries are normally larger and heavier than those used in consumer goods.
Batteries chosen for an electric powertrain go through strenuous life cycle testing and Nissan selected a
manganese-based Li-ion for the Leaf EV because of solid performance. To beat the clock, the test protocol
mandated a rapid charge of 1.5C (less than 1 hour) and a discharge of 2.5C (20 minutes) under a
temperature of 60°C (140°F). Under these harsh conditions, a heavy-duty battery is expected to lose 10
percent after 500 cycles, which represents 1–2 years of driving. This emulates driving an EV through the
heat of a biblical hell, leaving rubber marks from aggressive driving, and still coming out with a battery that
boasts 90 percent capacity.
In spite of the careful selection and extensive testing, the owners of the Nissan Leaf realized a capacity loss
of 27.5 percent after 1–2 years of ownership, and this without aggressive driving. Why then would the Leaf
under sheltered conditions drop the capacity by so much?
To get a better understanding of what causes irreversible capacity loss in Li-ion batteries, the Center for
Automotive Research at the Ohio State University in collaboration with Oak Ridge National Laboratory and
the National Institute of Standards and Technology performed forensic tests by dissecting failed batteries to
find suspected problem areas on the electrodes.
Unrolling a 1.5-meter-long (5 feet) strip of metal tape representing the anode and cathode coated with oxide
revealed that the finely structured nanomaterials had coarsened. Further studies revealed that the lithium
ions responsible for shuttling electric charge between the electrodes had diminished on the cathode and
had permanently lodged on the anode. This resulted in the cathode having a lower lithium concentration
than a new cell, a phenomenon that is irreversible.
Coulombic Efficiency
Professor Jeff Dahn and his team at Dalhousie University in Halifax studied the longevity of Li-ion by
examining coulombic efficiency (CE). CE defines the completeness by which electrons are transferred in an
electrochemical system during charge and discharge. The higher the efficiency, the less stress there is on
the battery and the longer it should live.
During charge, lithium gravitates to the graphite anode (negative electrode) and the voltage potential
changes. Removing the lithium again during discharge does not reset the battery fully. A film called solid
electrolyte interface (SEI) consisting of lithium atoms forms on the surface of the anode. Composed of
lithium oxide and lithium carbonate, the SEI layer grows as the battery cycles. The film gets thicker and
eventually forms a barrier that obstructs interaction with graphite. (See BU-701 How to Prime Batteries)
The cathode (positive electrode) develops a similar restrictive layer known as electrolyte oxidation. Dr.
Dahn stresses that a voltage above 4.10V/cell at elevated temperature causes this, a demise that can be
more harmful than cycling a battery. The longer the battery stays in a high voltage, the faster the
degradation occurs.

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The buildup can result in a sudden capacity loss that is difficult to predict by testing the duration of a battery
through cycling alone. This phenomenon had been known for some years and measuring the coulombic
efficiency can verify these effects in a more scientific and systematic manner than mere cycling.
Similar to an EV, Li-ion in satellites must also endure a lifespan of 8 years and more. To achieve this, the
cells are charged to only 3.90V/cell and lower. An interesting discovery was made by NASA in that Li-ion
dwelling above 4.10V/cell tend to decompose due to electrolyte oxidation on the cathode, while those
charged to lower voltages lose capacity due to the SEI buildup on the anode.
NASA reports that once Li-ion passes the 8 year mark after having delivered about 40,000 cycles in a
satellite, cell deterioration caused by this phenomenon progresses quickly. Charging to 3.92V/cell appears
to provide the best compromise in term of maximum longevity, but this reduces the capacity to only about
60 percent. (See BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries)
Coulombic efficiency is capable of measuring both changes: the lithium lost due to SEI growth on the
anode and electrolyte oxidation at the cathode. The results can be used to rank the life expectancy of a
battery by quantifying the parasitic reaction.
The CE of a perfect battery would be 1.000,000. If this were the case, Dr. Dahn says, the Li-ion battery would
last for ever. An excellent coulombic efficiency is 0.9999, a level that some lithium cobalt oxides (LCO)
reach. By far the best Li-ion in terms of CE is lithium titanate (LTO); it has a potential to deliver 10,000 cycles.
The negatives are high cost and relatively low specific energy. (See BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion.)
The coulombic efficiency readings vary with temperature and charge rate, also known as C-rate. As the
cycle time gets longer, self-discharge comes into play and CE drops (gets worse). Electrolyte oxidation at
the cathode, in part, causes this self-discharge. Li-ion loses about 2 percent per month at 0ºC (32ºF) with a
state-of-charge of 50 percent and up to 35 percent at 60ºC (140ºF) when fully charged.
Table 1 provides data for the most common Li-ion systems. For simplicity reasons, CE is described as
excellent, good, moderate and poor taken at 30°C (86°F).
Coulombic
Chemical name Material Notes
efficiency1
LiCoO2 Good, only slight drop at High capacity, limited power; fragile.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide2 (LCO)
(60% Co) 50–60°C Mobile phone, laptop

Poor, CE is low, drops High capacity, high power, tolerant

Lithium Manganese Oxide2 (LMO) LiMn2O4
further at 40°C to abuse.

Moderate, CE drops at
Lithium Iron Phosphate2 (LFP) LiFePO4 Power tools, e-bikes, EV, medical,
50–60°C
UPS
LiNiMnCoO2
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt
(10–20% Good, small drop at 60°C
Oxide2 NMC
Co)

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum LiNiCoAlO2 Electric powertrain (Tesla Model S),
N/A
Oxide2 (NCA) (9% Co) grid storage

Very durable but expensive and low

Lithium Titanate3 (LTO) Li4Ti5O12 Excellent
specific energy

Battery manufacturers may one day specify CE in a number.

1 Taken at C/20 (0.05C) and 30°C (86°F). (20h charge & discharge); 2 Cathode material; 3 Anode material
Additives and the effects on Coulombic Efficiency
Lithium-ion has improved and much credit goes to electrolyte additives. Each cell has several additives and
manufacturers keep the combinations a secret. Additives lower internal resistance by reducing corrosion,
decreasing gassing, speeding up manufacturing by fine-tuning the wetting process, and improving low and
high temperature performance. Adding 1–2 percent vinylene carbonate improves SEI on the anode, limits
electrolyte oxidation at the cathode and enhances the CE readings. (See also BU-307: Electrolyte)

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 316 of 453

Additives make up less than 10 percent of the electrolyte and the chemicals are consumed in the formation
of the SEI layer. Folks ask, “Can additives interact with each other?” The answer is, “Absolutely.” A battery
behaves like a living organism and, as a patient taking multiple medications must inform the doctor before
additional pills can be prescribed, similar conditions exist with a battery. Using coulombic efficiency allows
the discovery of possible interferences in weeks rather than having to wait for years for symptoms to
develop.
To examine the correlation between CE and longevity, Dalhousie University worked with battery
manufacturers, including E-One Moli. While a university can carefully document ingredients, cell
manufacturers keep these as top secret. The test bed consisted of 160 cells, four of each type. E-One Moli
provided 80 cells with their own secret sauce; Dalhousie specified the other 80 electrolyte samples.
Dalhousie identified five batteries of interest, each with its own architecture and additives. Figure 2 shows
the coulombic efficiency of these five samples with values ranging from 0.9960 to 0.9995. Figure 3
demonstrates the test results when cycled to death. To Dalhousie’s anticipation and satisfaction, CE
harmonized well with the cycle count. Batteries with high CE lasted the longest; those with low CE values
were the first to die.

Five experimental batteries were tested for coulombic efficiency. A higher CE provides a longer life.
Courtesy of the Dalhousie University

High CE values live the longest; low values die first.

Courtesy of the Dalhousie University

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Battery wear and tear also includes structural degradation that can be captured with traditional cycle
testing. Dr. Dahn calls this type of testing the “sausage machine.” While measuring coulombic efficiency
assists in battery development by giving a snapshot assessment of additives; the old sausage machine
does the verification thereafter.
Figure 4 demonstrates capacity loss caused by the structural degradation of an older Li-ion when cycled at
a 1C, 2C and 3C. The elevated capacity loss at higher C-rates may be lithium plating at the anode caused by
rapid charging. [See BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast chargers]

Moderate charge and discharge currents reduce structural degradation. This applies to most battery
chemistries.
Capacity degradation in Electro Powertrains
When choosing batteries for the powertrains, manufacturers of electric vehicles come to different
conclusions. Tesla cars use the 18650 cell because the cell is readily available and has a low price. This was
a strange choice for the Tesla Roadster, the first EV by Tesla, as the cell was designed for portable devices
such as laptops and medical and military devices. Perhaps unknown to Elon Musk, the founder of Tesla
Motors, cobalt-blended lithium-ion has a high CE reading that adds to longevity in the way the battery is
being used in that application.
The newer Tesla models use the same concept and to reduce stress, Tesla “super-sizes” the pack. The
battery is so large that it operates at a C-rate of only 0.25C (C/4), even at highway speed. This allows Tesla
to focus on high energy density for maximum runtime; power density becomes less important. The
negative of super-sizing is increased energy consumption due to a heavier vehicle and a higher battery
price. (For more information on EV battery choices see BU-1003: Electric Vehicle.)
Summary
The manganese-based Li-ion batteries chosen for the Nissan Leaf and other EVs have excellent lab results.
What may have been overlooked in the Nissan Leaf test is the damage that is being done when keeping the
battery at high voltage and elevated temperature. As the coulombic efficiency tests reveal, these two
conditions can cause more damage than cycling.
The four suspected renegades responsible for capacity loss and the eventual end-of-life of the Li-ion battery
are:
Mechanical degradation of electrodes or loss of stack pressure in pouch-type cells. Careful cell design
and correct electrolyte additives minimize this cause. (See Figure 4.)
Growth of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on the anode. A barrier forms that obstructs the interaction with
graphite, resulting in an increase of internal resistance. SEI is seen as a cause for capacity loss in most
graphite-based Li-ion when keeping the charge voltage below 3.92V/cell. Electrolyte additives reduce some
of the effect.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 318 of 453
 Formation of electrolyte oxidation (EO) at the cathode that may lead to a sudden capacity loss. Keeping
the cells at a voltage above 4.10V/cell and at an elevated temperature promotes this phenomenon. Figure 5
demonstrates SEI and EO as a function of voltage.
Lithium-plating on the surface of the anode caused by high charging rates. (Elevated capacity loss at
higher C-rates in Figure 4 might be caused by this.)

A cell voltage of 3.92V appears neutral; lower voltages add to SEI, higher to EO.
Last Updated 2017-08-31

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BU-808c: Coulombic and Energy Efficiency with the Battery
Discover charge and discharge efficiencies in batteries
All batteries have losses. The energy retrieved after a charge is always less than what had been put in.
Parasitic reaction that occurs within the electrochemistry of the cell prevents the efficiency from reaching
100 percent. Ultra-fast charging and heavy loading also reduces the energy efficiency. This also contributes
to battery strain by reducing cycle life.
Battery efficiency is gaining interest. This is especially critical with large battery systems in electric vehicles,
energy storage systems (ESS) and satellites. The efficiency factor is commonly measured by coulombic
efficiency. A coulomb is a unit of electric charge. One coulomb equals one ampere-second (1As).
Coulombic Efficiency
Coulombic efficiency (CE), also called faradaic efficiency or current efficiency, describes the charge
efficiency by which electrons are transferred in batteries. CE is the ratio of the total charge extracted from
the battery to the total charge put into the battery over a full cycle.
Li-ion has one of the highest CE ratings in rechargeable batteries. It offers an efficiency that exceeds 99
percent. This, however, is only possible when charged at a moderate current and at cool temperatures.
Ultra-fast charging lowers the CE because of losses due to charge acceptance and heat, so also does a very
slow charge in which self-discharge comes into play. See BU-808b: What Causes Li-ion to Die.
The coulombic efficiency of Li-ion improves with cycling. To prove this, Panasonic, E-one Moli, Sony, LG
and Samsung Li-ion batteries in 18650 cell format where cycled. Some cells began with a coulombic
efficiency of 99.1 percent and improved to 99.5 percent with 15 cycles. Some started at 99.5 percent and
reached 99.9 percent with 30 cycles. The consistency on repeat tests was high, reflecting in Li-ion being a
very stable battery system.
Lead acid comes in lower at a CE of about 90 percent, and nickel-based batteries are generally lower yet.
With fast charge, NiCd and NiMH may reach 90 percent but a slow charge reduces this to about 70 percent.
Lower charge acceptance when above 70 percent state-of-charge and self-discharge that increases when
the battery gets warm toward the end of charge are contributing factors for the low CE. Best efficiencies of
all batteries are attained in mid-range state-of-charge of 30 to 70 percent. All battery systems provide
unique CE values that vary with charge rates and temperature. Age also plays a role.
Voltaic efficiency
Voltaic efficiency is another way to measure battery efficiency, which represents the ratio of the average
discharge voltage to the average charge voltage. Losses occur because the charging voltage is always
higher than the rated voltage to activate the chemical reaction within the battery.
Energy Efficiency
While the coulombic efficiency of lithium-ion is normally better than 99 percent, the energy efficiency of the
same battery has a lower number and relates to the charge and discharge C-rate. With a 20-hour charge
rate of 0.05C, the energy efficiency is a high 99 percent. This drops to about 97 percent at 0.5C and
decreases further at 1C. In the real world, the Tesla Roadster is said to have an energy efficiency of 86
percent. Ultra-fast charging on newer EVs will have a negative effect on energy efficiency, as well as the
battery life.
Last updated 2017-10-25

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BU-809: How to Maximize Runtime
Discover simple tricks to lower power consumption and extend runtime.
As the author of BatteryUniversity.com, I get many interesting enquiries from battery users. One battery
user writes, “Hi, I am looking for an answer to a perplexing question. A co-worker and I have identical
mobile phones from the same provider. Moving into a new house, she complained that her battery life has
shortened. I told her she was out of her mind, but then I noticed my battery behaving differently when I
travel. Is there some mysterious force that’s draining the battery?”
Yes, there is a hidden force that drains the battery, but it’s not mystical. In standby mode, a mobile phone is
in constant communication with the tower, transmitting small bursts of power every second or so to check
for incoming calls. To save energy, the transmit power adjusts according to signal strength. Being close to
a repeater tower lowers the power; moving away or entering an area with high electrical noise, such as a
shopping mall, hospital or factory, boosts the power. An analogy is having to raise your voice in a noisy
restaurant.
Living in sight of a tower has advantages and your battery will run longer between charges. Where you park
your mobile phone in the house also affects runtime. A manager of a large cellular provider in the UK said
that his son experienced shorter standby times after moving from the upstairs bedroom to the basement. If
possible, leave your mobile phone in an upstairs room facing a tower. When traveling by car, place the
phone near a window rather than on the floor, but avoid direct exposure to the sun.
Similar rules apply to TETRA and P25 radio systems, cordless telephones, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth devices. A
wireless headset communicating with the cell phone from belt to ear provides longer runtimes than when
placing the handset on the dining-room table while cooking in the kitchen. Although the quality of
communication does not change, the Bluetooth headset needs to work harder when placed farther away
from the user.
When the mobile phone is “off,” the load on the battery is very low and only provides power for
housekeeping to maintain the clock and monitor low-level commands. These consumptions, including self-
discharge, amount to 5–10 percent of the available battery energy per month.
Laptop batteries fare badly in terms of life span. Laptops are demanding bosses that request a steady
stream of power under poor working conditions, toiling in a warm climate. In addition, the battery is
exposed to a high charge voltage when connected to the AC main. Warm temperature and full state-of-
charge are the cause of short battery life in laptops, not cycling.
Modern laptops run cooler, so do tablets and smartphones. Circuits have become more efficient and the
battery capacity is increasing but these improvements are being offset by added features. The two major
gas-guzzlers are the display and the transmitter. Data transfer consumes about twice the energy to simply
talking on the phone.
Simple Guidelines to Prolong Lithium-ion Batteries
Do not discharge Li-ion too low; charge more often. A random or partial charge is fine. Li-ion does not
need to be fully full charged as with lead acid.
Heat the battery to room temperature before charging. Do not charge below freezing.
Limit the time the battery resides at 4.2V/cell (full charge), especially when warm.
Moderate the charge current to between 0.5C and 0.8C for cobalt-blended lithium-ion. Avoid ultra-fast
charging and harsh loading.
When possible, lower the charge voltage limit to prolong battery life.
Keep the battery cool. Move it away from heat-generating environments. Avoid hot cars and windowsills
that are exposed to the sun.
It is not necessary to unplug the laptop from the power grid when not in use. The charger stops charging
when the battery is fully charged.

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 When the SoC fuel gauge becomes inaccurate, calibrate smart batteries by applying a deliberate full
discharge and charge.
Add some charge before a long storage. The charge level is not as critical as cool storage.
Last Updated 2017-05-09

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BU-810: What Everyone Should Know About Aftermarket Batteries
Learn what makes a battery unsafe and what the consumer can do.
In the search for low-cost batteries, consumers may inadvertently purchase counterfeit batteries that are
unsafe. The battery label appears bona fide and the buyer often cannot distinguish between an original and
a forged product. Mobile phone manufacturers are concerned about these products flooding the market
and advise customers to only use approved brands; defiance could void the warranty. Manufacturers do
not object to third-party suppliers as long as the aftermarket batteries are well built, safe and approved by a
safety agency.
Consumers are not the only buyers leaning towards aftermarket batteries. Public safety, healthcare and
other organizations also take advantage of economically priced replacement batteries. Industrial
aftermarket batteries are normally prequalified and many perform well, but the quality can be less
consistent than the brand-name product, and some packs are said to be underperforming. Aftermarket
batteries are mostly used for non-critical applications because liability issues could counter any savings
gained.
Caution also applies when purchasing aftermarket chargers. Some low-end units may not terminate the
battery correctly and rely on the battery’s internal protection circuit to terminate the charge when the
battery is full. Redundancy in charging is important as the protection circuit of a bona fide battery can be
damaged. (See also BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe.)
Aftermarket batteries may also have insufficient safety provisions and rely on the charger to terminate the
charge. Marrying the two aftermarket partners could turn battery charging into an unwanted event.
Accidents are bound to happen when connecting a mobile phone or e-cigarette to the 12-volt system of a
vehicle with a faulty inverter. Personal injury and damage can be the results.
Some manufacturers of laptops, medical devices, e-bikes and others disallow aftermarket batteries by
digitally locking the pack with a tamper-proof security code. This is done in part for safety reasons; it also
secures for the manufacturer a future demand for batteries with good margins.
Last Updated 2016-03-07

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BATTERY TESTING AND MONITORING

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BU-901: Fundamentals in Battery Testing
Discover what causes batteries to fail and why testing is still in its infancy.
No practical method exists to quantify all conditions of a battery in a short, comprehensive test. State-of-
health (SoH) cannot be measured per se, it can only be estimated to various degrees of accuracy based on
available symptoms. If the symptoms are vague or not present, a reliable measurement is not possible.
When testing a battery, three SoH indicators must be evaluated:
Capacity, the ability to store energy
Internal resistance, the capability to deliver current, and
Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-related conditions
Batteries come in many conditions and a charge can easily mask a symptom allowing a weak battery to
perform well. Likewise, a strong battery with low charge shares similarities with a pack that exhibits
capacity loss. Battery characteristics are also swayed by a recent charge, discharge or long storage. These
mood swings must be clearly identified when testing batteries.
Figure 9-1 demonstrates the usable battery capacity in volume that can be filled with a liquid, permanent
capacity loss in the form of “rock content” that reduces the volume, and internal resistance in tap size
symbolizing current flow

symbolizing the usable capacity, the empty portion that can be refilled, permanent capacity loss as “rock
content” and the tap symbolizing power delivery as part of internal resistance.
Courtesy of Cadex
The leading health indicator of a battery is capacity, a measurement that represents energy storage. A new
battery should deliver 100 percent of the rated capacity. This means a 5Ah pack should deliver five amperes
for 1 hour. If the battery quits after 30 minutes, then the capacity is only 50 percent. Capacity also supports
warranty obligations with a replacement due when falling below 80 percent. Most importantly, capacity
defines end of battery life.
Lead acid starts at about 85 percent and increases in capacity through use before the long and gradual
decrease begins. (See BU-701: How to Prime Batteries.) Lithium-ion starts at peak and begins its decline
immediately, albeit very slowly. Nickel-based batteries need priming to reach full capacity when new or
after a long storage.
Manufacturers base device specifications on a new battery. This state is temporary and does not represent
a battery in real-life situations because fading begins from the day it is made. The decrease in performance
only becomes visible once the shine of a new device has worn off and daily routines are being taken for
granted. An analogy is an aging man whose endurance begins to wear off after the most productive years
(Figure 2).

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Few people know when to replace a battery; some are replaced too early but most are kept too long.
Knowing when to replace a battery is a blur for many battery users. When asked, “At what capacity do you
replace the battery?” most reply in confusion, “I beg your pardon?” Few are familiar with the term capacity
as a measurement of runtime, and fewer know that capacity is used as a threshold for retiring batteries. In
many organizations, battery problems only become apparent with increased breakdowns, which may be
caused by a lack of battery maintenance.
Battery retirement depends on the application. Organizations using battery analyzers typically set the
replacement threshold at 80 percent. (See BU-909: Battery Test Equipment.) Some industries can keep the
battery longer than others and a toss arises between “what if” and economics. Scanning devices in
warehouses may go as low as 60 percent and still provide a full day’s work. A starter battery in a car still
cranks well at 40 percent, but that is cutting it thin.
Any battery-operated mission must plan for a worst-case scenario. Although manufacturers include some
reserve when specifying runtime, the amount is seldom clearly defined. Critical missions demand tighter
tolerances and the battery must be replaced sooner than when a sudden failure can be tolerated. (See BU-
503: How to Calculate Battery Runtime)
Medical and military devices are considered critical and batteries are often replaced too soon. Rather than
testing them, device manufacturers prefer to use a cycle count or a date stamp to mandate retirement. To
cover all eventualities, the service duration on a date stamp is often limited to 2 or 3 years.
Medical technicians have discovered that many batteries for defibrillators have more than 90 percent
capacity left when the mandatory 2-year date-stamp expires, replacing perfectly good medical batteries
prematurely. In spite of this apparent waste, a US FDA survey says that “up to 50 percent of service calls in
hospitals surveyed relate to battery issues.” Healthcare professionals at AAMI (Association for the
Advancement of Medical Instruments) say further that “battery management emerged as a top 10 medical
device challenge.”(See BU:803: Can batteries be Restored.)
Another application where battery capacity is important is in a drone. With a good battery, the device may
be specified to fly for 60 minutes, but if unknown to mission control, the capacity has dropped from 100 to
75 percent, the flying time is reduced to 45 minutes. This could crash the $25,000 vehicle when required to
negotiate a second landing approach. By marking the capacity on each pack as part of battery maintenance,
batteries delivering close to 100 percent capacity can be assigned for long hauls while older packs may be
sent for shorter errands. This allows the full use of each battery and establishes a sound retirement policy.
Many batteries and portable devices include a fuel gauge that shows the remaining energy. A full charge
always shows 100 percent, whether the battery is new or faded. This creates a false sense of security by
anticipating that a faded battery showing fully charge will deliver the same runtime as a new one. Batteries
with fuel gauges only indicate SoC and not the capacity.
Battery failure is not only limited to portable devices. Starter batteries in vehicles have also become failure-
prone. In 2008, ADAC (Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club e.V.) stated that 40 percent of all roadside
automotive failures are battery-related. A 2013 ADAC report says that battery problems have quadrupled
between 1996 and 2010.
ADAC, Europe’s largest automotive club, says further that each third breakdown involves either a
discharged or defective battery. The report, published by German Motorwelt in May 2013, also mentions
that only a few starter batteries reach the average age of five years, and this applies to all cars. The statistic
was derived from the more than four million breakdowns that the ADAC car club typically receives in a
year. The study only included newer cars; service-prone vehicles more than 6 years old were excluded.

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BCI (Battery Council International) reports similar results. A 2010 study by the BCI technical subcommittee
revealed that grid-related failures had increased by 9 percent from 5 years earlier. Experts suspect that
higher electrical demands in modern vehicles lead to higher failure rates. (See BU-804: How to Prolong
Lead-acid Batteries.)
Battery failure in Japan is the largest single complaint among new car owners. The average car is driven
13km (8 miles) per day and mostly in congested cities. The most common reason for battery failure is
undercharge, developing sulfation. (See BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it.) Battery performance is
key; problems during the warranty period are recorded as component failure and tarnish customer
satisfaction.
A German manufacturer of luxury cars reported that one in two starter batteries returned under warranty
had no problem. A German manufacturer of high-quality starter batteries stated that factory defects
account for only 5 to 7 percent of all warranty claims. Battery failure during the warranty period is seldom a
factory defect; driving habits are the main culprits. A careful assessment with advanced battery test
instruments capable of looking at various failure symptoms can greatly reduce warranty claims.

The mobile phone industry experiences similar battery warranty issues. Nine out of ten batteries returned
are said to have no problems. Rather than trouble-shooting a customer complaint because of lower than
expected runtime, the clerk simply replaces the battery. This burdens the vendor without solving the
problem; it may also lead to repeat complaints.
Dilemma of Battery Testing
Part of the problem lies in the difficulty of testing batteries, and this applies to storefronts, hospitals, combat
fields and service garages. Battery rapid-test methods seem to dwell in medieval times, and this is
especially evident when comparing advancements on other fronts. We don’t even have a reliable method
to estimate state-of-charge, which is based mostly on voltage and coulomb counting. Assessing capacity,
the leading health indicator of a battery, dwells further behind. Measuring the open circuit voltage and
checking the internal resistance do not provide conclusive evidence of battery state-of-health.
The battery user may ask, “Why is the industry lagging so far behind?” The answer is simple: “Battery
diagnostics are complex.” As there is no single analytical device to assess the health of a person, nor are
instruments available that can quickly and reliably check the state-of-health of a battery. Like the human
body, batteries can have multiple hidden deficiencies that no singular test method can identify with
certainly.
A dead battery is easy to check and all testers are 100 percent accurate. The challenge comes in evaluating
a battery in the 80–100 percent performance range while on duty. Regulators struggle to introduce battery
test procedures. This is mostly due to the unavailability of suitable technology that can assess a battery on
the fly. The battery is labeled “uncontrollable” for good reason; this gives it immunity.
The battery world devotes much effort on the super battery, but this improved battery is incomplete
without being able to check performance while in service. Improving performance and reliability does not
rest in a better battery alone, but in tracking the performance as it ages.
Professor Mark Orazem compares the complexity of testing batteries with the Indian tale in which blind
men touch an elephant to learn what it is (Figure 3). Because each man only feels a part of the body,
disagreements arise among them. Battery testing is complex even for the sighted man but progress is
being made. Better technologies will eventually immerge.

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Story of blind men trying to figure out an elephant through touch. The tale provides insight into the
relativism and opaqueness of a subject matter, such as a battery.
Last updated: 2016-05-27

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BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance
Learn what resistance readings tell about a battery.
The internal resistance provides valuable information about a battery as high reading hints at end-of-life.
This is especially true with nickel-based systems. Resistance measurement is not the only performance
indicator as the value between batches of lead acid batteries can vary by 5–10 percent, especially with
stationary units. Because of this wide tolerance, the resistance method works best when comparing the
readings of a given battery from birth to retirement. Service crews are asked to take a snapshot of each cell
or monoblock at time of installation and then measure the subtle changes as the cells age.
There is a notion that internal resistance is related to capacity, but this is false. The resistance of modern
lead acid and lithium-ion batteries stays flat through most of the service life. Better electrolyte additives
have reduced internal corrosion issues that affect the resistance. This corrosion is also known as parasitic
reactions on the electrolyte and electrodes. Figure 1 shows capacity fade with cycling in relation to the
internal resistance of Li-ion cells.

Resistance does not reveal the state-of-health of a battery and often stays flat with use and aging.
Cycle test on Li-ion batteries at 1C:
Charge: 1,500mA to 4.2V, 25°C
Discharge: 1,500 to 2.75V, 25°C
Courtesy of Cadex
What Is Impedance?
Before exploring the different methods of measuring the internal resistance of a battery, let’s examine what
electrical resistance means and understand the difference between pure resistance (R) and impedance (Z).
R is pure resistance and Z includes reactive elements such as coils and capacitors. Both readings are
obtained in ohms (Ω), a measurement that goes back to the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, who
lived from 1798 to 1854. (One ohm produces a voltage drop of 1V with a current of 1A.) The electric
conductivity is also measured in siemens (s) that is reciprocal to ohmic values.
The electrical resistance of a pure load, such as a heating element, has no reactance. Voltage and current
flow in unison and there is no advancing or trailing phase. The ohmic resistance is the same with direct
current (DC) and alternating current (AC). The power factor (pf) is 1, providing the most accurate metering
of the power consumed.

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Most electrical loads are reactive and consist of capacitive reactance (capacitor) and inductive reactance
(coil). The capacitive reactance decreases with higher frequency while the inductive reactance increases.
An analogy of inductive reactance is an oil damper that stiffens when applying a fast back-and-forth action.
A battery has resistance, capacitance and inductance, and the term impedance includes all three in one
model. Impedance can best be illustrated with the Randles model (Figure 2) that comprises resistors R1 and
R2 as well as capacitor C. The inductive reactance is commonly omitted because it plays a negligible role in
a battery, especially at a low frequency.

The overall battery resistance consists of ohmic resistance, as well as inductive and capacitive reactance.
The diagram and electrical values differ for every battery.
R1 = Internal resistant; R2 = Charge transfer;
C1 = Double layer capacitor
Measuring the battery by resistance is almost as old as the battery itself and several methods have
developed over time, all of which are still in use.
DC Load Method
The ohmic measurement is one of the oldest and most reliable test methods. The battery receives a brief
discharge for a second or longer. The load current for a small battery is 1A or less; for a starter battery it
might be 50A or more. A voltmeter measures the open circuit voltage (OCV) with no load, followed by the
second reading with a load; Ohm’s law calculates the resistance value (voltage difference divided by
current equals resistance).
DC load measurements work well to check large stationary batteries, and the ohmic readings of the device
are very accurate and repeatable. High-end test instruments claim resistance readings in the 10 micro-ohm
range. Many garages use the carbon pile to measure starter batteries and an experienced mechanic gets a
reasonably good assessment of the battery.
The DC load method has limitations in that it blends R1 and R2 of the Randles model into one combined
resistor and ignores the capacitor (see Figure 3). “C” is an important component of a battery that represents
1.5 farads per 100Ah capacity. In essence, the DC method sees the battery as a resistor and can only provide
ohmic references. In addition, the DC load method gets similar readings from a good battery that is partially
charged and a marginal battery that is fully charged. State-of-charge and capacity estimations are not
possible.

The true integrity of the Randles model cannot be seen. R1 and R2 appear as one ohmic value.

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Courtesy of Cadex
The two-tier DC load method offers an alternative method by applying two sequential discharge loads of
different currents and time durations. The battery first discharges at a low current for 10 seconds, followed
by a higher current for 3 seconds (see Figure 4); the Ohm’s law calculates the resistance values. Evaluating
the voltage signature under the two load conditions offers additional information about the battery, but the
values are strictly resistive and do not reveal SoC or capacity estimations. The load test is the preferred
method for batteries that power DC loads.

The two-tier DC load follows the IEC 61951-1:2005 standards and provides lifelike test conditions for many
DC battery applications.
Courtesy of Cadex
AC Conductance
Conductance measurement to evaluate starter batteries was first reported by Keith Champlin in 1975 by
demonstrating a linear correlation between load test and conductance. When injecting a frequency of about
90 hertz, capacitive and inductive reactance converge with a 70–90Ah lead acid battery, resulting in a
negligible voltage lag that minimizes the reactance. (This frequency rises with a smaller battery and drops
with a large pack.) AC conductance meters are commonly used in car garages to measure CCA. The single-
frequency method (Figure 5) sees the components of the Randles model as one complex impedance called
the modulus of Z.

The individual components of the Randles model are molten together and cannot be distinguished.
Courtesy of Cadex
The 1,000-hertz (Hz) ohm test is another common method. A 1,000Hz signal excites the battery and Ohm’s
law calculates the resistance. Note that the AC method shows different values to the DC method when
measuring a reactive resistance, and both readings are correct.
For example, Li-ion in an 18650 cell produces about 36mOhm with a 1,000Hz AC signal and roughly
110mOhm with a DC load. Since both readings are valid, yet far apart, the user must consider the
application. The pulse DC load method provides valuable readings for a DC application such as a heating
element or an incandescent light, while the 1,000Hz method better reflects the performance requirements of
a digital load, such as portable computing and mobile phones that rely to a large extent on the capacitive
characteristics of a battery. Figure 6 illustrates the 1,000Hz-method.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 331 of 453

The 1000-hertz provides reactive resistance readings. This has been the preferred method for taking
impedance snapshots of batteries powering digital devices.
Courtesy of Cadex
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
Research laboratories have been using EIS for many years to evaluate battery characteristics. High
equipment cost, slow test times and the need for trained professionals to decipher the large volume of data
have limited this technology to laboratory environments. EIS reads R1, R2 and C values in the Randles
model (Figure 7); however, correlating the data into CCA and capacity estimations requires complex
modeling. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity.)

R1, R2 and C are measured separately, which enables state-of-charge and capacity measurements.
Courtesy of Cadex
Last Updated 2017-02-12

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BU-902a: How to Measure CCA
Discover why a good CCA reading does not always guarantee a good battery
Ever since Cadillac invented the starter motor in 1912, car mechanics have explored ways to measure cold
cranking amps (CCA). CCA measurements assure that the battery has sufficient power to crank the engine,
especially when cold. Typical CCA readings for a car range from 350 to 600A and higher for trucks. SAE
J537 specifies that a battery with a CCA reading of 500A can deliver 500A at –
without dropping below 7.2 volts.

SAE J537 CCA test IEC CCA test DIN CCA test

Fully charge battery according Fully charge battery according Fully charge battery according
to SAE J537 and cool to -18°C to SAE J537 and cool to -18°C to SAE J537 and cool to -18°C
(0°F) for 24 hours. While at (0°F) for 24 hours. While at (0°F) for 24 hours. While at
subfreezing temperature, subfreezing temperature, apply subfreezing temperature,
apply a discharge current a discharge current equal to apply a discharge current
equal to the specified CCA. the specified CCA. (500 CCA equal to the specified CCA.
(500 CCA battery discharges battery discharges at 500A.) To (500 CCA battery discharges
at 500A.) To pass, the voltage pass, the voltage must stay at 500A.) To pass, the voltage
must stay above 7.2V above 8.4V for 60 seconds. must stay above 9V for 30s
(1.2V/cell) for 30 seconds. and 6V for 150s.

The methods differ in the length of discharge and the cut-off voltages. (See SAE J537 in Glossary.)
A variety of battery testers have emerged that read CCA. Since current flow relates to ohmic value, most
CCA testers measure the internal battery resistance. To test the CCA with a carbon pile, a battery that must
have an SoC of 70 to 100 percent. It is then loaded with half the rated CCA for 15 seconds at a temperature
of 10º C (50º F) and higher. As an example, a 500 CCA battery will discharge at 250A for 15s, and the battery
passes if the voltage stays above 9.6V. Colder temperatures will cause the voltage to drop further. The
carbon pile simulates real-life cranking conditions while observing the voltage, but this method cannot
estimate capacity.
Mechanics prefer small sizes and device manufactures have developed handheld testers, which induce a
momentary high-current pulse that corresponds to the entered CCA value. Ohm’s law calculates the
internal resistance on hand of the induced voltage drop, and the device provides a CCA-equivalent reading.
This test method is fast and convenient, but it does not estimate capacity.
The AC conductance method reads CCA by injecting a single frequency of 80–90 hertz to the battery. These
non-invasive units are small and stay cool during the test, but the battery should have a SoC of 70 percent
and higher. As with other resistance-based test methods, AC conductance cannot read capacity.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 333 of 453

Battery scientists predict that future battery diagnostics lie in EIS by combining the test results of the
Randles model with complex modeling to estimate CCA and capacity. Called multi-model electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy, the Spectro™-series battery rapid-testers (by Cadex) are the first to utilize the EIS
technology. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity)
Accuracy has always been in question and CCA is especially difficult to verify as the readings are affected
by SoC, temperature and and other factors. Figure 1 compares CCA readings taken with AC conductance
and the Spectro™ technology at different SoC. Both measurements decline with lower SoC; however
Spectro™ is affected less than AC conductance. Since many batteries hover at about 70 percent when the
car is brought in for service, the CCA readings between the two methods will appear similar.

The Spectro CA-12 provides stable CCA readings between a SoC of 100 and 40% (red); the values on AC
Conductance drop rapidly with SoC (blue).
Figure 2 illustrates CCA readings as a function of SoC and battery performance. The CCA of Battery A, with
a capacity of 100 percent, stays steady down to an SoC of 10 percent; Battery B, with 37 percent capacity,
starts to show instabilities at an SoC of about 40 percent; and Battery C, with only 22 percent capacity,
provides uncertain results. The test clearly demonstrates that battery state-of-health affects the readings. A
good battery provides strong symptoms with good accuracy; the readings from a weak battery are
muddled and the results are less consistent.

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The battery condition governs accuracy. Battery A (100%) is accurate to 10% SoC; Battery B (37%) to 40%
SoC. Battery C (22%) delivers unstable results. Test condition: Batteries are discharged at 20A. CCA is
measured every 10 min with Spectro™
No single instrument can evaluate all battery anomalies and rapid-testing only provides rough estimations.
A micro-short in a cell, for example, can only be identified by measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV)
after a rest or checking the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Rapid-testing might pass the battery as good
because a charge covers up the anomaly.
All test methods encounter outliers. Reliable results are only possible if robust symptoms are present. This
is not always possible with unformatted batteries and those in storage. No ideal battery test method exists
but EIS has the potential of surpassing other technologies.
Last updated 2016-05-27

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BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge
Explore SoC measurements and why they are not accurate.
Voltage Method
Measuring state-of-charge by voltage is simple, but it can be inaccurate because cell materials and
temperature affect the voltage. The most blatant error of the voltage-based SoC occurs when disturbing a
battery with a charge or discharge. The resulting agitation distorts the voltage and it no longer represents a
correct SoC reference. To get accurate readings, the battery needs to rest in the open circuit state for at
least four hours; battery manufacturers recommend 24 hours for lead acid. This makes the voltage-based
SoC method impractical for a battery in active duty.
Each battery chemistry delivers its own unique discharge signature. While voltage-based SoC works
reasonably well for a lead acid battery that has rested, the flat discharge curve of nickel- and lithium-based
batteries renders the voltage method impracticable.
The discharge voltage curves of Li-manganese, Li-phosphate and NMC are very flat, and 80 percent of the
stored energy remains in the flat voltage profile. While this characteristic is desirable as an energy source, it
presents a challenge for voltage-based fuel gauging as it only indicates full charge and low charge; the
important middle section cannot be estimated accurately. Figure 1 reveals the flat voltage profile of Li-
phosphate (LiFePO) batteries.

Li-phosphate has a very flat discharge profile, making voltage estimations for SoC estimation difficult.
Lead acid comes with different plate compositions that must be considered when measuring SoC by
voltage. Calcium, an additive that makes the battery maintenance-free, raises the voltage by 5–8 percent. In
addition, heat raises the voltage while cold causes a decrease. Surface charge further fools SoC estimations
by showing an elevated voltage immediately after charge; a brief discharge before measurement
counteracts the error. Finally, AGM batteries produce a slightly higher voltage than the flooded equivalent.
When measuring SoC by open circuit voltage (OCV), the battery voltage must be “floating” with no load
attached. This is not the case with modern vehicles. Parasitic loads for housekeeping functions puts the
battery into a quasi-closed circuit voltage (CCV) condition.
In spite of inaccuracies, most SoC measurements rely in part or completely on voltage because of
simplicity. Voltage-based SoC is popular in wheelchairs, scooters and golf cars. Some innovative BMS
(battery management systems) use the rest periods to adjust the SoC readings as part of a “learn” function.
Figure 2 illustrates the voltage band of a 12V lead acid monoblock from fully discharged to full charged.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 336 of 453

Source: Power-Sonic
Hydrometer
The hydrometer offers an alternative to measuring SoC of flooded lead acid batteries. Here is how it works:
When the lead acid battery accepts charge, the sulfuric acid gets heavier, causing the specific gravity (SG)
to increase. As the SoC decreases through discharge, the sulfuric acid removes itself from the electrolyte
and binds to the plate, forming lead sulfate. The density of the electrolyte becomes lighter and more water-
like, and the specific gravity gets lower. Table 2 provides the BCI readings of starter batteries.
Approximate Average Open circuit voltage
state-of- specific
charge gravity 2V 6V 8V 12V
100% 1.265 2.10 6.32 8.43 12.65
75% 1.225 2.08 6.22 8.30 12.45
50% 1.190 2.04 6.12 8.16 12.24
25% 1.155 2.01 6.03 8.04 12.06
0% 1.120 1.98 5.95 7.72 11.89

Readings are taken at 26°C (78°F) after a 24h rest.

While BCI (Battery Council International) specifies the specific gravity of a fully charged starter battery at
1.265, battery manufacturers may go for 1.280 and higher. Increasing the specific gravity will move the SoC
readings upwards on the look-up table. A higher SG will improve battery performance but shorten battery
life because of increased corrosion activity.
Besides charge level and acid density, a low fluid level will also change the SG. When water evaporates, the
SG reading rises because of higher concentration. The battery can also be overfilled, which lowers the
number. When adding water, allow time for mixing before taking the SG measurement.
Specific gravity varies with battery applications. Deep-cycle batteries use a dense electrolyte with an SG of
up to 1.330 to get maximum specific energy; aviation batteries have an SG of about 1.285; traction batteries
for forklifts are typically at 1.280; starter batteries come in at 1.265; and stationary batteries have a low
specific gravity of 1.225. This reduces corrosion and prolongs life but it decreases the specific energy, or
capacity.
Nothing in the battery world is absolute. The specific gravity of fully charged deep-cycle batteries of the
same model can range from 1.270 to 1.305; fully discharged, these batteries may vary between 1.097 and
1.201. Temperature is another variable that alters the specific gravity reading. The colder the temperature
drops, the higher (more dense) the SG value becomes. Table 3 illustrates the SG gravity of a deep-cycle
battery at various temperatures.
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 337 of 453
 Electrolyte temperature Gravity at full charge
40°C 104°F 1.266
30°C 86°F 1.273
20°C 68°F 1.280
10°C 50°F 1.287
0°C 32°F 1.294

Colder temperatures provide higher specific gravity readings.

Inaccuracies in SG readings can also occur if the battery has stratified, meaning the concentration is light
on top and heavy on the bottom. (See BU-804c: Water Loss, Acid Stratification and Surface Charge.). High
acid concentration artificially raises the open circuit voltage, which can fool SoC estimations through false
SG and voltage indication. The electrolyte needs to stabilize after charge and discharge before taking the
SG reading.
Coulomb Counting
Laptops, medical equipment and other professional portable devices use coulomb counting to estimate
SoC by measuring the in-and-out-flowing current. Ampere-second (As) is used for both charge and
discharge. The name “coulomb” was given in honor of Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) who is
best known for developing Coulomb’s law. (See BU-601: How does a Smart Battery Work?)
While this is an elegant solution to a challenging issue, losses reduce the total energy delivered, and what’s
available at the end is always less than what had been put in. In spite of this, coulomb counting works well,
especially with Li-ion that offer high coulombinc efficiency and low self-discharge. Improvements have
been made by also taking aging and temperature-based self-discharge into consideration but periodic
calibration is still recommended to bring the “digital battery” in harmony with the “chemical battery.” (See
BU-603: How to Calibrate a “Smart” Battery)
To overcome calibration, modern fuel gauges use a “learn” function that estimates how much energy the
battery delivered on the previous discharge. Some systems also observe the charge time because a faded
battery charges more quickly than a good one.
Makers of advanced BMS claim high accuracies but real life often shows otherwise. Much of the make-
believe is hidden behind a fancy readout. Smartphones may show a 100 percent charge when the battery is
only 90 percent charged. Design engineers say that the SoC readings on new EV batteries can be off by 15
percent. There are reported cases where EV drivers ran out of charge with a 25 percent SoC reading still on
the fuel gauge.
Impedance Spectroscopy
Battery state-of-charge can also be estimated with impedance spectroscopy using the Spectro™ complex
modeling method. This allows taking SoC readings with a steady parasitic load of 30A. Voltage polarization
and surface charge do not affect the reading as SoC is measured independently of voltage. This opens
applications in automotive manufacturing where some batteries are discharged longer than others during
testing and debugging and need charging before transit. Measuring SoC by impedance spectroscopy can
also be used for load leveling systems where a battery is continuously under charge and discharge.
Measuring SoC independently of voltage also supports dock arrivals and showrooms. Opening the car
door applies a parasitic load of about 20A that agitates the battery and falsifies voltage-based SoC
measurement. The Spectro™ method helps to identify a low-charge battery from one with a genuine
defect.
SoC measurement by impedance spectroscopy is restricted to a new battery with a known good capacity;
capacity must be nailed down and have a non-varying value. While SoC readings are possible with a steady
load, the battery cannot be on charge during the test.

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Figure 4 demonstrates the test results of impedance spectroscopy after a parasitic load of 50A is removed
from the battery. As expected, the open terminal voltage rises as part of recovery but the Spectro™
readings remains stable. Steady SoC results are also observed after removing charge during when the
voltage normalizes as part of polarization.

Battery is recovering after removing a load. Spectro SoC readings remain stable as the voltage rises.
Last updated 2017-10-25

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BU-904: How to Measure Capacity
Learn about various test methods and why none is fully satisfactory.
Capacity is the leading health indicator of a battery, but estimating it on the fly is complex. The traditional
charge/discharge/charge cycle is still the most dependable method to measure battery capacity. While
portable batteries can be cycled relatively quickly, a full cycle on large lead acid batteries is not practical for
capacity measurement.
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) specifies the capacity of a starter battery by Reserve Capacity (RC).
RC reflects the runtime in minutes at a steady discharge of 25A. DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung) and
IEC (International Electrochemical Commission) mark the battery in Ah at a typical discharge of 0.2C-rate
(5h ate) for starter batteries. A 60Ah battery would discharge at 12A. No accurate RC to Ah conversion
exists but the most common formula is RC divided by 2 plus 16. A short method is dividing RC by 1.9.
Discharge Method
One would assume that capacity measurement by discharge is the most accurate method, but this is not
always the case, especially with lead acid batteries. Even when using highly accurate equipment in a
temperature controlled environment and following established charge and discharge standards, variations
between identical tests occur. This is not fully understood except to realize that batteries are
electrochemical devices that have human-like qualities. Our IQ level also varies depending on the time of
day and other conditions. Lithium- and nickel-based chemistries provide more consistent discharge results
than lead acid.
Cadex labs checked 91 starter batteries with diverse performance levels, and the results have been plotted
in Figure 1. The horizontal x-axis presents the batteries from weak to strong, and the vertical y-axis reflects
the capacity. The tests followed SAE J537 standards by applying a full charge and a 24-hour rest, followed
by a regulated 25A discharge to 10.50V (1.75V/cell). The results in diamonds represent Test 1. The test was
repeated under identical conditions, and the capacities shown in squares characterize Test 2. Only done
within days of each other, Test 1 and 2 differ much as +/-15 percent average in capacity. Other laboratories
observe similar discrepancies.

capacities differ +/–15% between Test 1 and Test 2. Tests were done according to SAE J537
Courtesy of Cadex (2005)

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When evaluating battery test results, the question is asked: “Against what standard are the readings
compared?” If done with the classic charge/discharge cycle that has large inaccuracies, then modern test
technologies have no benchmark and scientists may ask: “Which method is more accurate, the
discharge/charge method or other evolving technologies?” This is a valid question as non-intrusive
technologies are emerging that only take seconds to test a battery.
Non-invasive Method
Spectro™ (by Cadex) uses multi-model electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) that checks battery
health in seconds with a scanning process. The non-invasive technology combines EIS with complex
modeling to estimate capacity, CCA and SoC with the help of matrices, also known as look-up tables. Here
is how it works:
A sinusoidal signal of multiple frequencies is injected into the battery at a few millivolts. After digital
filtering, the extracted signal forms a Nyquist plot onto which various electro-chemical models are
superimposed. Spectro™ selects the best matching models; non-fitting replicas are rejected. Data fusion
then correlates the values of the key parameters to derive at capacity and CCA estimations. Figure 2
illustrates the patented process in a simplified way.

A sinusoidal signal produces a Nyquist plot; data fusion correlates the values of the key parameters to
estimate capacity and CCA.
US patent 7,072,871; Courtesy of Cadex
The Nyquist plot was invented by Harry Nyquist (1889–1976) while at Bell Laboratories. It presents the
frequency response of a linear system displaying both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot using
frequency as parameter. The horizontal x-axis of a Nyquist plot reveals the real ohm impedance while the
vertical y-axis represents the imaginary impedance. (See BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries, Figure
3.)
Capacity vs. CCA
Starter batteries have two distinct values, CCA and capacity. These two readings are different; one cannot
predict the other and correlation between the two is almost non-existent, except perhaps towards the end
of battery life. (See BU-806, Tracking Battery Capacity and Resistance as part of Aging)
Most rapid-testers look at the internal resistance and do a CCA approximation. Reading battery resistance is
relatively simple, but this alone cannot predict capacity, nor can it tell when to replace a battery as the end-
of-life characteristic is primarily capacity related. Most starter batteries crank the engine with very little
capacity; a sudden failure might occur when the capacity drops below 30 percent.
Some battery testers, including Spectro™, display “Resistance High” when the ohmic reading is elevated, a
failure that commonly relates to heat damage. A working starter battery reflects a single-digit mOhm value
that is represented by R1 in the Randles model on the right. (See BU-902: How to Measure Internal
Resistance) Batteries developing high resistance move into double-digit readings, and these can be caused
by these

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 Figure 110 - Randles Model

Low electrolyte level (See BU-804c: Water Loss, Acid Stratification and Surface Charge)
Stratification of electrolyte (See BU-804c: Water Loss, Acid Stratification and Surface Charge)
Sulfation of electrodes (See BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it)
Bad or deteriorated weld connections of the collector plates and posts
Collector plate cracking corroded (See BU-804a: Corrosion, Shedding and internal Short)
Poor battery connection at the clamps or internal to the battery
R1 represents the electrolyte resistance, which is affected by items 1 and 2 above. Items 3 to 6 relate R1
characterizes the electrolyte resistance created by low electrolyte and/or acid stratification as reflected in
items 1 and 2 of the above listed conditions. Items 3 to 6 relate to sulfation, corrosion and contact resistance
from the battery posts to the electrodes as well as the electrodes to the electrolyte.
The R2/C parallel circuit represents charge transfer resistance and speed. It signifies the required energy
needed to overcome the potential barrier at the electrode-electrolyte interface that activates the ion inside
the electrolyte, which results in moving electrons from the electrode to the terminals. On a poor battery, the
barrier resistance is higher than in a good battery with high capacity. The R2/C branch holds the secret to
capacity estimation and differ from the more mechanical conditions captured in R1.
The ability to separate individual components in the Randles model, as Spectro™ does, enables improved
battery assessment that reduces battery replacement, especially during the warranty period. “Resistance
High” distinguishes a battery with low charge from one that has a genuine defect. The test can be done with
a partial charge.
“How accurate are the readings?” car mechanics ask. This depends on the battery. A fault can only be
diagnosed with confidence if clear symptoms are present. A new battery or one that has been in storage
can become an outlier on capacity estimation. Best results are achieved with a “working” battery that is
pulled from service. Accuracy is also based on the quality of the matrix. (See BU-905: Testing Lead Acid
Batteries, Matrix).
Although capacity and CCA readings are clearly marked on the battery, these values are not always correct.
The CCA of some starter batteries are found to be higher or lower than shown; only the manufacturer
would know. Because of high cost, CCA tests are seldom done once the battery is sold. In addition, deep-
cycle batteries show low capacity readings when new and this could lead to warranty returns. The values
will increase as the battery is being formatted with use. (See BU-701: How to Prime Batteries.)
Last updated 2017-06-09

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BU-905: Testing Lead Acid Batteries
Discover developments in non-invasive rapid-test technologies.
There are no shortages of battery testers, but most lack accuracy. Capacity, the leading health indicator of a
battery, is difficult to obtain on the fly. Stating that a battery tester measuring internal resistance will also
provide capacity estimation is misleading. Advertising features that are outside the equipment’s capabilities
confuses the industry into believing that complex tests can be done with basic methods. Resistance-based
instruments can identify a dying or dead battery — so does the user. Vendors often overstate the ability of
battery testers knowingly. This is similar to promoting a shampoo that promises to grow lush hair on a
man’s bald head.
Without reliable test devices on hand, battery testing becomes guesswork, resulting in good packs being
replaced too soon and passing weak ones, only to have them fail on the road soon after checking. Lack of
accurate battery testing also causes unnecessary replacements under the battery warranty program.
Examining warranty returns reveals that less than 10 percent of these batteries have a manufacturing fault.
Most faults are user-inflicted.
The challenge arises when assessing a battery as part of routine service before performance degradations
are noticeable. Such a test is only effective when including capacity measurement. Capacity oversees the
energy storage, governs the runtime and predicts the end-of-life. Internal resistance, on the other hand, is
responsible for the power to crank the engine and deliver high current under load on demand. A snapshot
taken with a CCA tester on a starter battery refers to the resistive battery condition only. Better electrolytes
and corrosion-resistant electrode materials are keeping the resistance on modern batteries low through
most of their life. Failure due to elevated resistance has become rare and may only develop at the end-of-
life. (See BU:901: Fundamentals of Battery Testing.)
Unlike voltage, current and ohmic measurements, no universal instrument exists that can read the capacity
of every battery that comes along. There are three common testing concepts: Scalar, vector and EIS with
complex modeling (Spectro™).
Scalar is the simplest of the three. It takes a battery reading and compares it with a reference that is often a
resistive value. Most single-frequency AC conductance testers measuring CCA are based on the scalar
concept.
The vector method applies signals of different currents or it excites the battery with varied frequencies, and
then evaluates the results against preset vector points to study the battery under various stress conditions.
This adds complexity and the added benefits are marginal.
Spectro™ scans the battery with a frequency spectrum, as if to capture the topography of a landscape, and
compares the imprint with a matrix to estimate battery capacity, CCA and SoC. Spectro™ promises the
most in-depth battery analysis, but it is also the most complex. (See also BU-904: How to Measure
Capacity.). Figure 1 summarizes the three battery test methods.
Type Excitation Applications Results
Single reference point; pulses or Automotive, stationary; Voltage, CCA, internal
Scalar
single-frequency excitation simple, commonly used resistance, no capacity

Multiple frequencies, currents; Automotive, stationary; As above. More complex

Vector
compares against vector less commonly used with marginal gain

Combines EIS with complex Provides CCA, capacity

Lead- and lithium-based
Spectro™ modeling; fuses data to derive at and SoC with appropriate
batteries
capacity, CCA, SoC matrices

The table compares scalar, vector and Spectro™ which combines electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) with complex modelling.
Matrix

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A matrix is a multi-dimensional look-up table against which readings are compared. Text recognition,
fingerprint identification and visual imaging operate on a similar principle. In battery analysis, matrices are
primarily used to estimate capacity; however, CCA and state-of-charge also benefit from using a matrix.

classifications provides significant improvement in test accuracies over units measuring only CCA. Most
resistance-based testers deliver state-of-health predictions that are not much better than 5 correct in 10,
results that can be compared with tossing a coin. Many service technicians are unaware of the low
prediction rate as lab verifications are seldom done.
There is a desire for higher accuracies, but a battery can only be diagnosed if measurable symptoms are
present. While packs pulled from the field give the most reliable results, outliers often lack formatting or
had been in prolonged storage. To also test these batteries with certainty, matrices can be developed that
include the anomalies.
State-of-charge also plays an important role, and the tester must distinguish between low charge and low
capacity. Both conditions lower battery performance and are difficult to identify. Most battery testers work
down to 70 percent SoC; Spectro™ goes down to 60 percent.
Creating a matrix involves scanning many batteries at different state-of-health levels. The more batteries
included in the mix that are the same model but have different capacity losses, the stronger the matrix will
become. A well-developed matrix should include naturally-aged battery samples with capacities ranging
from 50 to 100 percent. An analogy is a bridge with many pillars to eliminate weak spots.
The population should also include batteries from hot and cold climates and different uses. For example, an
aging starter battery in a Las Vegas taxi will show different symptoms than the battery in grandma’s car in
northern Germany used only to take her grandchildren for a ride.
Obtaining faded batteries is difficult. Forced aging by cycling in an environmental chamber is of some help,
but age-related stresses are not presented accurately and the learned symptoms can fool the system. This
is especially visible with Li-ion batteries. Although the capacity is down, the Nyquist plot does not follow
the signature of natural aging as part of daily usage. (See BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries.)
A generic matrix is most practical as it serves a group of batteries. Generic matrices for the Spectro™
system are available for most car batteries; the user simply enters the capacity and CCA ratings. Instead of
a numeric readout, the generic matrix provides pass/fail classification based on a capacity threshold. This
solution is acceptable for most service personnel as the instrument makes the decision, eliminating
uncertainties and customer interference.
Summary
A battery must undergo multiple checks, the way a medical doctor examines a patient with several tests to
find the diagnosis. A serious illness could escape the doctor’s watchful eyes if only blood pressure or
temperature were taken. While medical staff is well trained to evaluate the data points taken, most battery
personnel do not have the same knowledge and only want to know if the battery is dead or alive. Nor are
battery test devices capable of providing a detailed diagnosis of all battery ills. The battery user must be
reminded that a battery tester is not a universal test tool but an estimation device that works for a
designated battery population.
Last updated 2016-05-27

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BU-905a: Testing Starter Batteries in Vehicles
Learn more how to test a battery, a poorly understood subject
Research firms and trade associations report increased failure rates of starter batteries in modern cars. The
reason for the shorter than expected service life is blamed on in-car technology systems that draw high
current and prevent a fully charged battery. Other failures are heat related stresses that occur when driving
in hot climates. Fewer than 7% of reported problems are caused by factory defects. (See BU-901:
Fundamentals in Battery Testing.)
Why Starter Batteries fail
Battery failures are in part influenced by driving habits, the liberal use of auxiliary loads, hot climate
conditions, start-stop and battery mount. Even under the best conditions, a quality battery ages and this
manifests itself in a gradual drop of capacity. Common failures of starter batteries include:
Heat failure Heat promotes corrosion that reflects in rising internal resistance, resulting in labored
cranking. Batteries installed in engine compartments and driving in hot climates result in
higher heat failures than those operating in temperate climates. A heat failed battery can
be identified with a CCA tester.
Low charge Idling and driving in gridlock with auxiliary loads engaged does not produce sufficient
charge and the battery may dwell at 70% state-of-charge (SoC), a level that induces
sulfation. A prolonged low-charge condition makes the battery inoperative but this
condition can often be improved with long-distance driving or external charging.
Capacity fade Auxiliary loads such as heating elements and mechanical gates hasten capacity fade. The
capacity loss goes unnoticed until the battery stops cranking for lack of energy. Replace
the battery when the capacity drops to 40%. A CCA test cannot detect a battery with low
capacity.
Factory defect Factory defects are roughly 7% or less. Improved manufacturing practises have
decreased factory defects while stress related faults are increasing.
What does CCA, RC (Ah) and SoC mean?

Capacity loss that occurs naturally with usage is illustrated as a build-up of rocks. Capacity and CCA do not
correlate.
Source: Cadex Electronics
The most common specification of a starter battery is CCA representing cold cranking amps. Batteries also
specify capacity, the electrical storage capability that is marked in ampere-hours (Ah) or Reserve Capacity
(RC) in minutes. Europe uses Ah while North America goes for RC. (See BU-904: How to Measure
Capacity.)
CCA Cold cranking amps is responsible for cranking the engine, a reading that correlates to
internal battery resistance. Figure 1 illustrates CCA in the form of a free-flowing tap
pouring liquid.
Capacity Represents energy storage measured Ah or RC. Figure 1 shows capacity as liquid storage.
Capacity loss is shown as rock buildup that reduces volume.

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SoC State-of-charge is demonstrated with liquid levels that can be replenished if low.
What goes wrong?
Figure 2 illustrates a battery with low CCA that is dying after 1–2 years because of heat failure. A typical
cause is corrosion that raises the internal battery resistance and lowers the CCA. The capacity remains
steady but it cannot be delivered due to low CCA. Replace a battery when CCA drops to 50%.

Symptoms: Poor cranking due to high internal resistance. Failure mode is gradual and gives early warning.
Test Method: AC conductance or impedance reader. Replace battery when CCA drops to 50%.
Source: Cadex Electronics
Figure 3 shows the natural decrease of CCA and capacity on a well maintained battery. The pack will
eventually fail at a ripe old age due to low capacity while CCA is still in working range. A ‘no-start’ occurs
when the capacity drops below a required capacity level to crank the engine. A starter battery should be
replaced when the capacity drops to 40 percent.

Symptoms: Capacity fade goes unnoticed and the failure appears sudden. Check capacity as part of
preventative service.
Test Method: Rapid-test with Spectro™. Full discharge with load bank is not recommended.
Source: Cadex Electronics
A starter battery must have low internal resistance and sufficient capacity to enable cranking. CCA and
capacity can be presented on a two-dimensional table by plotting CCA on the vertical and capacity on the
horizontal axis. Figure 4 demonstrates three batteries in various conditions.

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A starter battery can fail by heat failure or capacity fade. Both faults are permanent and cannot be reversed.
CCA relates to internal resistance that is easy to measure; capacity reflects energy storage that is more
complex to estimate.
Battery 1: Delivers good capacity and has high CCA. This battery performs well.
Battery 2: No cranking due to low capacity. A CCA check may pass this battery in error.
Battery 3: Slow cranking due to heat failure. A CCA check correctly identifies this battery.
Capacity, the Leading Health Indicator
A battery tester should examine CCA and capacity. CCA and capacity do not correlate. Each reading is
unique, of which capacity is the more complex to estimate. (See also BU-806: Tracking Battery Capacity
and Resistance as part of Aging.)
To study failure modes, a German luxury car maker tested 175 starter batteries. Figure 5 plots capacity and
CCA of this extensive test that lasted six-months. Heat failed batteries were excluded.

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Most batteries pass through the Capacity Line; few fail because of low CCA. The test batteries were trunk
mounted and driven in a moderate climate.
Note: Test was done by a German luxury car manufacturer. Heat damaged batteries were excluded.
Test Method: Capacity and CCA were tested according to DIN and IEC standards.
As the graph illustrates, most batteries pass through the Capacity Line on the left of the green field. Very
few fail by dropping through the CCA Line. Without ability to estimate capacity, batteries with high CCA
pass as good, only to fail on the road because of low capacity. Meanwhile, good batteries are being
replaced in error. CCA alone cannot predict the end of battery life. CCA tends to stay high while the capacity
drops predictably. The Figure 6 illustrates this phenomenon on 20 aging batteries.

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Starter batteries cannot be tested by CCA alone as the reading of a normally aging battery tends to stay
high while capacity drops predictably with age.
Test Method: CCA was taken with Spectro CA-12; capacity was measured with an Agilent load bank by
applying full discharges according to BCI standards.
Spectro CA-12 Battery Rapid-tester
Spectro CA-12 is a battery rapid-tester that is capable of estimating CCA, capacity and SoC of 12V starter
batteries. The CCA range is 100–1,200A, capacity range is 30–105Ah or 60–210 minutes in RC.
To test a starter battery, select between flooded and AGM, and then enter CCA and capacity ratings in
ampere hours (Ah) or reserve capacity (RC). The battery should have a minimal SoC of 50%. The test time
is 15 seconds.
For more information on battery test methods, see BU-902: How to Measure Internals Resistance. Note:
The Spectro CA-12 is currently only available to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)

Battery rapid-tester estimates CCA, capacity and state-of-charge.

U.S. patent 7,072,871
How does the Spectro™ Rapid-tester work?
Spectro uses multi-model electro-chemical impedance spectroscopy (Spectro™). This is a further
development of electro-chemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), a technology that has been in use for
many years. The non-invasive test scans the battery with multiple frequencies to generate a Nyquist plot.
The Nyquist information is filtered and superimposed onto electrochemical models to derive battery state-
of-health (SoH). Nyquist analysis is suitable to test lead acid and Li-ion batteries.
This is the first commercial application using “multi-model EIS” technology to estimate the state-of-health
of a battery. The Spectro CA-12 is also the only instrument on the market capable of estimating capacity on
the fly.

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In medical terms, Spectro™ can be compared to a modern CAT scan. While the traditional X-ray machine
only reflects shadowy outlines of a skeleton, the Spectro™ technology applied to batteries can see what
doctors would refer to as soft tissues. Battery scientists predict that advanced battery diagnostics is
gravitating towards EIS technologies using complex modeling.
Last updated 2017-10-16

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BU-906: Testing Nickel-based Batteries
Learn about test methods and what the limitations are.
Capacity-fade of nickel-based batteries correlates, in part, with a rise in internal resistance. NiCd and NiMH
share similarities with lead- and lithium-based batteries in that the internal resistance remains low at first
and then rapidly increases towards the end of life. Measuring resistance could serve as a simple rapid-test
method to detect end-of-life but this would not provide dependable state-of-health (SoH) information. (See
BU-208: Cycling Performance).
QuickTest™ (by Cadex) goes deeper than mere resistance measurements and fuses data from six variables.
These are capacity, internal resistance, self-discharge, charge acceptance, discharge capabilities and
mobility of electrolyte. A trend-learning algorithm combines the data to provide a dependable state-of-
health (SoH) reading in percentage. The system uses battery-specific matrices that are stored in the test
device. Figure 1 illustrates a simplified structure of the algorithm.

QuickTest™ structure
Multiple variables are fed to the micro controller, “‘fuzzified” and processed by parallel logic. The data is
averaged and weighted according to battery application.
US patent 6,778,913
Courtesy of Cadex
As QuickTest™ includes the internal resistance of a battery pack, the welding joints between the cells must
be taken into consideration, especially with packs of 10 cells or more. Although seemingly insignificant in
terms of added resistance, the mechanical linkage behaves differently to the chemical cell and this causes
an unwanted error. The linkage error is not seen on a conventional discharge test or when doing only a
resistance check but it interferes with higher end rapid-test methods involving excitation signals that look at
many variables.

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In addition to the resistance of interlinking cells, each cell in a multi-cell pack responds differently to the
excitation signals. As the pack ages, these characteristics begin to diverge; QuickTest™ looks at the
average of all cells combined. QuickTest™ only works effectively with nickel-based batteries, Li-ion and
lead acid systems uses different rapid-test technologies. (See BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries.)
Last updated 2016-01-22

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BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries
Explore new methods and know about the limitations.
With the large number of lithium-ion batteries in use and the applications growing, a functional rapid-
testing method is becoming a necessity. Several attempts have been tried, including measuring internal
resistance, and the results have been mixed. Additives keep the internal resistance of modern Li-ion low
throughout most of the life, making ohmic test unreliable.
Electrochemical dynamic response, the method QuickSort™ uses, measures the mobility of ion flow
between the electrodes. Based on time domain analysis by applying brief load pulses, the response time on
attack and recovery is measured; an algorithm computes the results and compares them against a set of
parameters. As seen in Figure 1, a good battery resists the attack and recovers quickly whereas the impact
of a weaker battery is larger and the recovery is slower. Figure 1 illustrates the concept of the technology.

The electrochemical dynamic response measures the ion flow between the positive and negative plates. A
strong battery recovers quickly from an attack whereas a weaker pack behaves more sluggishly.
U.S. Patent 7,622,929; Courtesy of Cadex
Lithium-ion batteries have different diffusion rates. In terms of electrochemical dynamic response, Li-ion
polymer with gelled electrolyte is found to be faster than standard Li-ion and needs modified parameters to
achieve accuracy. Unique active materials and additives that are kept top secret by battery manufacturers
complicate the test procedure.
Cadex devoted much effort to testing small single Li-ion cell in mobile phones. The objective is to also test
larger Li-ion in multi-cell configuration, over a broad range of state-of-charge, which involves combining
time domain test with frequency domain.
When scanning a battery from kilohertz down to millihertz in frequency domain mode, the high frequency
range called migration reveals the resistive qualities of a battery that present a bird’s-eye view of the
landscape. However, the unique characteristics of Li-ion lie in the mid frequency range called charge
transfer and the low range dubbed diffusion. Batteries with faded capacity suffer from low charge transfer
and slow active Li-ion diffusion.
Evaluating batteries at sub one-hertz frequency would require prolonged test times. At one millihertz, for
example, one cycle takes 1,000 seconds, or 16 minutes, and several data points are required to complete
the analysis. Rapid-tests should only last a few seconds and not longer than 5 minutes. With clever
software simulation, the duration can be shortened to fall within the desired short test time.
In Figure 2, a good battery and a faded battery are scanned from 0.1Hz to 1kHz. The difference in impedance
(-Imp -Z) is strongest between 1Hz and 10Hz. It should be noted that capturing resistive readings alone has
limited value as state-of-charge (SoC) and temperature also affect the signature and muddle SoH
references. Furthermore, different Li-ion architectures and how the battery has aged also affect the results.
Natural aging produces a different signature than artificial aging and the reason for this discrepancy is not
fully understood.

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Impedance variances are most visible below 10Hz. The horizontal scale is logarithmic to condense the
frequency range (Courtesy of Cadex)
Test results captured by frequency domain are best represented by the Nyquist plot. Invented by Harry
Nyquist (1889–1976) while at Bell Laboratories; a Nyquist plot presents the frequency response of a linear
systems displaying both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot using frequency as parameter. The
horizontal x axis of a Nyquist plot reveals the real Ohm impedance while the vertical y axis represents the
imaginary impedance. (Impedance is explained on BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance)
Figure 3 divides the scanned battery results as delivered by the Nyquist plot into migration, charge transfer
and diffusion. Migration derived at high frequency on the left provides resistive characteristics of a battery;
the all-important charge transfer in the middle forms a semi-circle that represents the kinetics of the
battery; and the low frequency part on the right represents diffusion.

The mid-frequency semi-circle represents battery characteristics best. Larger batteries require lower
frequencies (Courtesy of Cadex)
Li-ion shares similarities with lead acid; the Spectro™ technology that is used to measure the capacity of
lead acid batteries will also be able to service Li-ion. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity)
Summary

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No rapid-test can evaluate all battery symptoms and there are always outliers that defy the test protocol.
Correct prediction should be 9 out of 10. QuickSort™ (by Cadex) exceeds this requirement with most Li-ion
packs for mobile phones, but this technology only tests single-cell packs up to 1,500mAh. New
technologies in development promise to test larger Li-ion packs, but this may extend the test to a few
minutes to accommodate low frequency sampling.
Capacity is the gate keeper to battery health, and rapid-test technologies with capacity estimation also
enhance battery management systems (BMS). Such rapid-test technologies can be included in chargers to
evaluate the integrity of the battery with each charge by giving the green ready light only if the set target
capacity is met; low capacity batteries are shown the backdoor. This provides quality control without
adding an extra layer of overhead.
Last updated 2017-01-10

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BU-907a: Battery Rapid-test Methods
Learn how to measure State-of-health without digital error
A battery resembles a living organism that cannot be measured; only estimated by diagnostics similar to a
doctor examining a patient. The accuracy of rapid-testing varies according to symptoms that change with
state-of-charge (SoC), agitation after charge and discharge, temperature and storage. A rapid-test must
distinguish between a good battery that is partially charged and a weak pack that is fully charged. Both will
deliver similar runtimes in the hands of the user but have different performance levels.
A widely used performance analysis is coulomb counting in which in-and-out-flowing energies are
measured. Coulomb counting goes back 250 years when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb first established
the “Coulomb Rule.” Elegant in concept, coulomb counting has its own problem by losing accuracy when
the battery is randomly charged and discharged. (See BU-603: How to Calibrate a “Smart: Battery.) State-
of-health (SoH) estimation by a digital solution is incomplete without including the chemical battery.
The leading health indicator of a battery is capacity. Capacity represents energy storage, a quality that
gradually and permanently fades with use. Other characteristics responsible for SoH are internal resistance
that governs load current and self-discharge that examines mechanical integrity. All three characteristics
must be met to give a battery a clean bill of health.
Estimating the capacity of the chemical battery on the fly is most complex. This involves algorithms and
matrices that serve as lookup tables similar to letter or face recognition. Modern rapid-test methods move
towards advanced machine learning in capturing the many moods of a battery.
Here is a summary of simple to complex test methods to examine batteries.
Voltage Reveals SoC. Capacity estimation is not possible. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-
charge.)
Ohmic test Measures internal battery resistance to verify loading characteristics and to identify fault
conditions. Resistance readings do not correlate with capacity. The ohmic test is also
known as an impedance test (Z). (See BU-902: How to Measure Internals Resistance.)
Full cycle Reads the capacity of the chemical battery with a charge/discharge/charge cycle. The
results are accurate but a battery must often be removed from service and the testing
times take hours. (See BU-909: Battery Test Equipment.)
Rapid-test Most rapid-test methods are based on time domain or frequency domain. Time domain
excites the battery with pulses to observe ion-flow of Li-ion batteries. Frequency domain
scans the battery with multiple frequencies to generate a Nyquist plot for analysis. Both
methods require complex algorithms with parameters or matrices that serve as lookup
tables.
BMS Battery Management Systems estimate SoC by monitoring voltage, current and
temperature. Some BMS for Li-ion also counts coulombs. A BMS can identify a battery
defect but is unable to estimate capacity accurately. (See BU-908: Battery Management
Systems.)
Coulomb counting Reads in-and out flowing current. The smart battery stores the data in the Full Charge
Capacity (FCC) register that can be accessed but the readings can be inaccurate if the
battery is not calibrated. A full cycle corrects the tracking error.
Battery parser A new method to estimate capacity during charge. A proprietary filtering algorithm
establishes the precise SoC; coulomb counting estimates battery capacity.
Rapid-test Methods

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No single test can capture all health indicators of a battery. Many rapid-test devices look only at voltage and
internal resistance. While capacity loss of a fading NiCd or NiMH may correlate with rising internal
resistance, this relationship is less evident with lithium- and lead-based batteries. Advertising capacity
estimation with a tester that only measures voltage and internal resistance can be misleading. It confuses
the industry into believing that complex results are attainable with simplistic methods. Resistance-based
instruments will indeed identify a dying or dead battery; but so does the user.
A battery is a reactive device and the method by which resistance measurements are taken matters. A DC
measurement looks at pure resistive values while AC includes reactive components that provide additional
information. Figure 1 represents the impedance of a good and faded Li-ion battery when scanned with AC
from 0.1Hz to 1kHz. The strongest variances in impedance (-Imp -Z) are observed on the low frequency
scale ranging between 1Hz and 10Hz.

Impedance variances are most visible below 10Hz. The horizontal scale is logarithmic to condense the
frequency range.
Source: Cadex Electronics
It should be noted that resistive readings alone are inconclusive. No size fits all and the signatures vary with
battery size and type. The results are further skewed by SoC levels, agitation and temperature. Cadex
laboratories further discovered differences in how batteries are aged. What is most puzzling is why natural
aging produces dissimilar signatures than artificial aging done in environmental chambers with fixed test
regimes. This human-like behavior shares similarities with longevities people experience living in different
global regions.
Cadex is pioneering in several rapid-test methods. These are Quick-sort Model Specific, Electrochemical
Dynamic Response and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). (See also BU-907: Testing
Lithium-based Batteries)
Quick-sort Model Specific (QSMS)
QSMS observes difference in resistive values when assessing a battery with DC and AC methods. For
example, the resistance of Li-ion in an 18650 cell is about 110mOhm with DC measurement and roughly
36mOhm with a 1,000Hz AC signal. The variance between the two readings provides performance
information when compared with battery-specific parameters that are stored in a lookup table.
The algorithm is relatively simple and the test time is short, but the logistics of creating the parameters
derived from good, marginal and poor batteries adds to complexity. QSMS is one of several rapid-test
methods that Cadex has developed to classify mobile phone batteries on the fly.
Electrochemical Dynamic Response (EDR)

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EDR measures the mobility of ion-flow between electrodes by applying load pulses and evaluating the
response time on attack and recovery. The recovery times are compared with stored parameters relating to
battery performance. Figure 2 demonstrates a good battery that is firm and has a quick recovery against a
weak battery that shows softness and has a sluggish recovery.

EDR measures the ion flow between the positive and negative plates. A strong battery recovers quickly
from an attack whereas a weaker pack is more sluggish.
U.S. Patent 7,622,929. Source: Cadex Electronics
The diffusion coefficient of Li-ion differs according to active material and electrolyte additives used. EDR
was developed by Cadex to rapid-test a broad range of mobile phone batteries. The technology is now
being developed to test larger batteries.
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
EIS moves rapid-testing to a higher complexity level by scanning a battery with multiple frequencies to
generate a Nyquist plot. The Nyquist information is superimposed onto electrochemical models that enable
the estimation of capacity, CCA and SoC non-invasively. The typical test time is 15 seconds.
The Nyquist plot is named after Harry Nyquist (1889–1976), a former engineer at Bell Laboratories. It
presents the frequency response of a linear system by displaying both amplitude and phase angle on a
single plot using frequency as parameter. The horizontal x axis reveals the real Ohm impedance while the
vertical y axis represents the imaginary impedance. Scientists predict that battery diagnostics is gravitating
toward EIS technology by combining test results with complex modeling.
Figure 3 illustrates the three domains of the Nyquist plot entitled migration on the high frequency end,
charge transfer in mid-range, and diffusion on the low frequency scale.

The mid-frequency semi-circle represents battery characteristics best. Larger batteries require lower
frequencies.

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Source: Cadex
When scanning a battery from kilohertz to millihertz, the Migration field reveals resistive qualities of a
battery that represents a bird’s-eye view of the landscape. Valuable characteristics are found in the mid
frequency range called Charge Transfer. This all-important domain forms a semi-circle representing the
kinetics of the battery that provide SoH references. The low range dubbed Diffusion includes additional
information relating to capacity but this requires long test times. Battery size directs the frequency; the
larger the battery in ampere-hours, the lower the applied frequency becomes.
A rapid-test should last from a few seconds to no more than 5 minutes, but applying ultra-low frequencies
prolongs time. For example, at one millihertz (mHz), one cycle takes 1,000 seconds, or 16 minutes, and
several data points are required to complete the analysis. Test durations can often be shortened with clever
software simulation.
Nyquist analysis is well suited to test lithium- and lead-based batteries. The multi-model electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy, or Spectro™ by Cadex, is the first EIS-based application that estimates battery
capacity. Capacity is the leading health indicator; CCA of a starter battery refers to the internal battery
resistance that is responsible for engine cranking. In a well-maintained battery, CCA stays high while the
capacity gradually decreases with use. A ‘no-start’ occurs when the capacity drops below a required
capacity level to crank the engine. To eliminate surprises, a starter battery should be replaced when the
capacity drops to 40 percent. The benefit of capacity estimation also becomes clear in this application. (See
also BU-905a: Testing Starter Batteries in a Vehicle.)
Battery Parser
The term “parser” has been in use in computer technology to describe receiving and sorting instructional
data. Cadex uses this term to define battery capacity by establishing the precise SoC with a proprietary
algorithm (patent pending) and then counting the coulombs that “fill” the available space of the battery. The
charge period must be long enough to attain good readings. Lab results at Cadex show higher capacity
accuracies with the battery parser than what is typical with uncalibrated coulomb counting of a smart
battery.
The battery parser uses advanced machine learning, algorithms that will make its way into modern battery
chargers to provide quality control in batteries. This integration will promote the charger into a supervisory
system with no added logistics and little extra cost. Diagnostic battery chargers make battery performance
transparent by removing the “black box” syndrome, a problem that has haunted battery users for centuries.
Summary
No rapid-test can evaluate all battery symptoms. There will always be outliers to defy the test protocols.
Correct predictions for batteries in service should be 9 out of 10. Outliers may include batteries that are new
and have not been fully formatted, or packs that have been in storage. Low SoC also causes errors.
Capacity is the gate keeper of battery health that relates to runtime and predicts end-of-life. The term
capacity is poorly understood. A battery is typically replaced when the capacity fades to 80 percent. (See
BU-504: How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity.)
When choosing the end-of-life thresholds, an organization should ensure that the lowest performing battery
can perform the assigned duty. Revealing capacity estimation by rapid-testing or in a charger will change
the way batteries are maintained. These advances will ultimately usher in an industrial revolution in
batteries.
Last updated 2017-10-16

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BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS)
Mercedes CEO Dieter Zetsche says, "The intelligence of the battery does not lie in the cell but in the
complex battery system." This is reminiscent to computers in the 1970s that had big hardware but little
software.

Many batteries are equipped with a state-of-charge (SoC) gauge that shows the remaining charge. While
this is helpful, the readout is incomplete without also tracking the capacity as the battery fades. The user
may be accustomed to a battery that delivers full capacity, but this condition is temporary and cannot be
maintained. Capacity is the primary indicator of battery state-of-health (SoH) and should be part of the
battery management system (BMS). Knowing SoC and SoH provides state-of-function (SoF), the ultimate
confidence of readiness, but technology to provide this information in an effective way is being improved.
Building a better BMS is a challenge when considering that we still lack a dependable method to read state-
of-charge, the most basic measure of a battery. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge) Reading the
remaining energy in a battery is more complex than dispensing liquid fuel. While a fuel tank has a fixed
dimension and delivers fuel which can be measured with great accuracy, an electrochemical storage
system reduces its size and the in- and out-flowing coulombs cannot be assessed with great accuracy as
the battery ages.
The BMS also provides protection when charging and discharging; it disconnects the battery if set limits
are exceeded or if a failure occurs. Established BMS standards are the SMBus (System Management Bus)
used for mostly portable applications, as well as the CAN Bus (Controller Area Network) and the simpler LIN
Bus (Local Interconnect Network) for automotive use.
Stationary batteries were among the first to include supervisory systems and the most basic is voltage
monitoring of individual cells. Some systems also include cell temperature and current measurement.
Recording a slight difference in cell temperature hints to a problem, and measuring the voltage drop of
each cell at a given load reveals cell resistance. Dry-out, corrosion, plate separation, and other malfunctions
can thus be identified.

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Although the BMS is effective in detecting anomalies; capacity fade, the most predictable health indicator,
is difficult to estimate because voltage and internal resistance are commonly not affected. The ability to
read capacity fade from 100 to 70 percent would be valuable, but most BMS cannot do this effectively and
the battery might be given a clean bill of health even if the capacity has dropped to 50 percent. Most BMS
only respond to anomalies that lie outside capacity estimation, such as voltage differences among cells
caused by cell imbalances and a change in internal resistance.
Some industrial and medical device manufacturers use a date stamp to determine the end of battery life,
others observe the cycle count. While counting cycles may be simplistic, no convention exists that defines
a cycle and some systems simply call it a cycle when the battery is charged. (See BU-501: Basics About
Discharging.) Date-stamping has similar shortcomings in that it promotes premature replacement of
batteries that are seldom used, while the heavy hitters may stay in service too long. (See BU-803: Can
Batteries be Restored?) To reduce risk of failure, authorities mandate early replacement, and a two-year
service life is common. Prolonged storage will give the batteries a very short working life.
Biomedical engineers are aware that most batteries are replaced too soon. iPhone owners have
complained that their smartphones show 100 percent charge when the battery is only 90 percent charged.
Even military leaders say that their battery arsenal for combat is so poor that many soldiers carry rocks
instead of batteries. Effective battery management is either missing or is inadequate. Over-expectations
with BMS are common and the user is stunned when stranded without battery power.
Let’s look at how a BMS works, note the shortcomings and examine up-and-coming technologies that
could change the way batteries are monitored.
A BMS takes the imprint of the “chemical battery” during charging and discharge and establishes the
“digital battery” that communicates with the user. Figure 1 illustrates the battery components consisting of
stored energy, the empty portion that can be refilled and the inactive part that is permanently lost. Rated
capacity refers to the manufacturer’s specified capacity in Ah (ampere-hours) that is only valid when the
battery is new; available capacity designates the true energy storage capability derived by deducting the
inactive part. State-of-charge (SoC) refers to the stored energy, which also includes the inactive part.

A battery consists of stored energy, the empty portion that can be recharged and the inactive portion that is
permanently lost due to aging.
A BMS is programmed to a rated capacity and it measures the in-and-outflowing coulombs that relate to
the available capacity. As the capacity drops, the coulomb count decreases and this discrepancy enables
capacity estimation. The most accurate readings are possible when counting the coulombs from a fully
discharged battery during a complete charge or discharging a fully charged battery to the cut-off point.
Such clean starts are seldom possible and real-life capacity estimations get muddled over time.
A BMS sets flags when receiving a full discharge and charge. During a rest period, an advanced BMS may
also calculate SoC on hand of the stable open circuit voltage and begin counting the coulombs during
charge and discharge from that vantage point. Some BMS also look at voltage recovery after removing a
load to estimate SoC and/or SoH.
Battery Sensing by Voltage-Current-Temperature

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The old Volkswagen Beetle had minimal battery problems. Its battery management system applied charge
to the battery and burned the over-charge energy on a resistor while cruising through a relay-operated
regulator. The car had no parasitic loads when parked.
Since then, modern vehicles have been inundated with onboard electronics to enhance safety,
convenience, comfort and pleasure; features no one knew were needed. For the accessories to function
reliably, the state-of-charge of the battery must be known at all times. This is especially critical with start-
stop technology that is being adopted worldwide.
When the engine of a start-stop car is off at a red light, the battery draws 25–50 amperes to feed the lights,
ventilators, windshield wipers and other accessories. The battery must have enough charge to crank the
engine, which requires an additional 350A for a brief moment. When the engine runs again and the car
accelerates to the posted speed limit, the battery only begins charging after a 10-second delay, a deferral
allows channeling all energy to vehicle acceleration. When back in charge mode, the lead acid battery is
notoriously slow in charging.
To provide vital battery information, luxury cars are fitted with a battery sensor that measure voltage,
current and temperature. Figure 2 illustrates the electronic battery monitor (EBM) packaged in a small
housing forming part of the positive battery clamp.

The sensor reads voltage, current and temperature to estimate state-of-charge and detect anomalies;
capacity assessment is not possible.
The EBM works well when the battery is new but most sensors do not adjust correctly to aging. The SoC
accuracy of a new battery is about +/–10 percent. With aging, the EBM begins to drift and the accuracy can
drop to 20 percent and higher. This is in part connected to capacity fade, a value most BMS cannot
estimate effectively. It is not an oversight by engineers; they fully understand the complexities and
shortcomings involved.
A typical start-stop vehicle goes through about 2,000 micro cycles per year. Such a strain would reduce the
capacity of a standard starter battery to about 60 percent and carmakers use different battery systems that
include AGM and the Advanced Lead-carbon. (Also see BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life)
Automakers want to ensure that no driver gets stranded in traffic with a dead battery. To conserve energy,
modern cars turn off unnecessary accessories when the battery is low on charge and the motor stays on at
a stoplight. Even with this measure, the state-of-charge can remain low if commuting in gridlock traffic
because an idling motor does not provide much charge to the battery. With lights, windshield wipers and
electric heating elements engaged there could be a net discharge.
Battery monitoring is also important on hybrid vehicles to optimize charge levels. Intelligent charge
management prevents overcharge and avoids deep discharge. When the charge level is low, the internal
combustion engine (ICE) engages earlier than normal and is left running longer for additional charge. On a
fully charged battery the ICE turns off and the car moves on electric energy in slow traffic.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 362 of 453

An EV driver expects similar accuracies in energy reserve as is possible with a fuel-powered vehicle but
current technology does not allow this. To compensate, the EV battery is overrated and the fuel gauge is
adjusted to preserve extra energy when the charge drops low to cover for inaccuracies. The EV driver is
advised not to let the charge go too low but to charge more often. A mid-charger range is best for the
battery.
The EV driver also anticipates the same driving range as the car ages. This is not possible and the drivable
distance gets shorter with each passing year, but the BMS makes allowances. A new battery may only
charge to about 80 percent and discharge to 30 percent. As the capacity fades, the bandwidth gradually
increases, providing similar driving ranges as a new battery would. The distances traveled will be
noticeably shorter when driving in cold temperatures because of reduced battery performance and once
the battery has aged beyond the energy compensation band of the BMS. (See BU-1003: Electric Vehicle.)
Adding Capacity Estimation in BMS
The EBM has limitations in that it cannot estimate capacity effectively. This can be overcome by adding
capacity estimations. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity) Figure 3 shows a BMS with common sensing
points to which the ability to measure capacity has been added. Spectro™ stands for electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with complex modeling. This converts a simple battery sensor to the state-
of-function (SoF) level.

Spectro-BMS™ adds capacity as key element to estimate battery state-of-health.

Knowing SoF improves battery validation, but some device manufacturers refuse to reveal capacity
readings to a consumer that are less than 100 percent, especially during the warranty period. To conceal
unwanted information, the data can be made code-accessible for service personnel use only. (See also BU-
602: How does a Battery Fuel Gauge Work?)
Consumer concerns put aside, SoF signifies a momentous improvement to BMS in terms of battery
reliability as it tracks capacity fade and calculates the true runtime on the available energy. Capacity-based
BMS will also predict eventual replacement, an issue that cannot be fully satisfied with current BMS
technologies. Future BMS will combine the information of the “digital battery” with that of the “chemical
battery” to provide reliable SoF data through advanced learn algorithms.
Last updated 2018-03-09

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BU-909: Battery Test Equipment
Examine available battery analyzers and checkout how well they service various battery types.
The energy a battery holds can be measured with a battery analyzer by applying a full discharge. The
battery is first charged and then discharged at a controlled current while measuring the time to reach the
end-of-discharge point. (See BU-402: What is the C-rate?) A capacity of 100 percent delivers the specified
Ah; 50 percent is shown if the discharge time is cut in half.
Measuring capacity by discharge gives the most reliable assessment, a method that is most effective with
portable batteries. A periodic analysis ensures that the batteries are kept within an acceptable performance
range and prompts replacement if the capacity is below a required target threshold and can no longer be
raised. Larger batteries are normally not cycled as this is time-consuming and stresses the battery. That’s
where non-invasive test methods come in. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity)
Progress is being made with rapid-testing but this only provides estimated state-of-health results and the
accuracies vary with the technology used. While older rapid-test methods measured the internal battery
resistance, advanced rapid-test methods look at diffusion, charge transfer and migration that are present in
Li-ion and lead acid batteries. (See BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries.)
Technicians are most comfortable testing a battery with a voltmeter, anything further goes beyond the
routine for many. Chemistry, voltage and Ah markings on the battery are often not well understood, nor are
maintenance folks sure what to look for in a battery. Many portable packs have multiple connections with
unclear markings. Hesitation is understandable as batteries come in many chemistries and vary in size from
a coin to installations filling an entire building. A voltage reading gives instant results by showing that
something is alive and a brief loading verifies power, but this does not assure sustained delivery that is so
critical in a battery.
Battery Analyzer
Battery analyzers became popular in the 1980s and 1990s to restore nickel-cadmium batteries that were
affected by “memory.” Today these workhorses are used to analyze a broad range of batteries as part of
fleet management and assuring system integrity. Periodic battery analysis is needed because batteries tend
to have a shorter life than the host it powers. Battery analyzers act as gatekeepers to retire packs when they
fall below a set performance criteria.
Figure 1 illustrates a Cadex C7000 Series battery analyzer that accommodates lead-, nickel- and lithium-
based batteries. The instrument features automated service programs and operates in stand-alone mode or
with PC software.

Four-station analyzers services batteries from 1.2 to 36V and 6A charge and discharge currents. The
batteries interface with custom Battery Adapters that configure the analyzer to the correct setting.
Courtesy of Cadex

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The most common program is Auto that charges a battery, applies a discharge to measure capacity and
completes the program with a final charge. Other programs include Custom to put the battery through a
unique choice of charge, discharge, wait and repeat. The Lifecycle program cycles the battery until the
capacity has dropped to the preset target capacity while counting the cycles. This program is used to
evaluate battery durability. OhmTest measures the internal battery resistance and Runtime discharges a
battery at three different current levels to simulate unique usage pattern. QuickSort™ sorts lithium-ion
batteries into Good, Low and Poor in 30 seconds, and Boost reactivates packs that have fallen asleep due to
over-discharge. Further programs include Self-Discharge to test losses and Prime that cycles a battery until
the maximum capacity is reached. Prime also verifies the spare capacity before charge.
Connecting various shapes of batteries to an analyzer has always been a challenge and folks have designed
fancy contraptions with springs and levers so complicated that only the inventor can operate. There are no
simple ways to connect a battery, especially when servicing small packs with tiny surface contacts or smart
batteries with numerous blade contacts.
Cadex solved the battery interface with SnapLock™ adapters. These custom-made adapters are easy to use
as they are designed for a given battery type; they only go in one way. Each adapter stores up to 10 codes
(C-codes) that configures the analyzer to the correct settings. The user can edit the parameters with the
analyzer’s menu function or with the PC-BatteryShop™ software. The universal adapters interface to
specialty packs, such as mobile phone batteries; larger batteries connect by the user-programmable Smart
Cable.
PC Software
A battery analyzer would not be complete without intuitive software. PC-BatteryShop™ provides a simple
yet powerful PC-interface to control and monitor Cadex C7000 Series battery analyzers. With software, the
PC becomes the command center and displays charge and discharge characteristics in real time. Clicking
the mouse on any of the 3,000 batteries listed in the database or swiping the bar code on the battery label
configures the analyzer. Figure 2 demonstrates such a system.
Running on software, the PC takes over the control of the battery analyzer. Programming is by clicking on a
battery in the database or scanning the battery label.
Courtesy of Cadex
Smart batteries enable a new level of battery analysis by reading the battery serial number, model, type
and age, as well as the digital equivalent of the capacity that reflects battery state-of-health without
applying a full discharge. A full discharge will still be needed occasionally to verify and calibrate the battery.
(See BU-604: How to Process Data from a “Smart” Battery.)
Battery Test Systems
While battery analyzers check batteries in service and predict replacement, battery test systems provide
multi-purpose test functions for research laboratories. Typical applications are life-cycle testing to simulate
battery loading and verifying durability in the field, as well as checking cell balance of a multi-cell pack in
field simulation. These tests can be fully automated with a custom program that the user composes.
Figure 3 illustrates the Cadex C8000, a battery test system that captures load signatures of mobile phones,
laptops and power tools, and then applies the simulated loads to verify battery runtime as if used in real life
situations. The device is capable of monitoring individual cells with the help of floating analog inputs. The
Dual Power Port Cable extends the discharge current from 10A per station to 20A by parallel function.
Higher wattage is possible by connecting the C8000 to an external load bank. The system also manages
environmental chambers and reads SMBus batteries while being in full control of all functions from one
central point.

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Four independent channels provide up to 10A each and 36V nominal. Maximum charge power is 400W,
discharge is 320W. The discharge power can be enhanced with external load banks.
Courtesy of Cadex
Being digital provides advantages over analog by offering a large test range in a compact housing. This
eliminates the need to buy extra modules to perform low and high voltage and current measurements.
Another advantage is ultimate immunity from neighboring channels. The limitation is the inability to
measure extremely low voltage and current that would be possible with specialty modules. The C8000
works as a stand-alone or with PC-BatteryLab™ operating up to eight C8000 analyzers servicing 32 batteries
independently (with most PCs).
A battery test system, such as the Cadex C8000, includes many redundant safety algorithms that identify a
faulty battery and terminate a service before an unwanted event could occur. Such security may not be
available when using a programmable power supply and a programmable load to test batteries. Although
an open platform offers great flexibility, it requires careful programming to prevent stress to the battery
inflicting possible damage or fire if an anomaly occurs. For destructive tests the safeguards of the C8000
can be overridden.
Last updated 2017-10-06

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BU-910: How to Repair a Battery Pack
Learn to repair battery packs and open a business
Batteries for power tools and other commercial devices can often be repaired by replacing one or all cells.
Finding a replacement cell in NiMH is relatively easy; locating an appropriate Li-ion cell to repair a pack is
more difficult. Brand-name Li-ion cells are not readily available because a reputable battery manufacturer
will only sell to certified pack assemblers in higher volume. (See BU-305: Building a Lithium-ion Pack)
When repairing a Li-ion pack, make certain that each cell is properly reconnected to a protection circuit.
(See BU-304: Why are Protection Circuits Needed? and BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion) All Li-ion
batteries must have a protection circuit. Some single-cell and power-tool packs may have simplified
circuits; lead and nickel-based batteries are exempt.
While the classic lead- and nickel-based batteries share similarities in terms of cell voltage, the lithium-ion
family diverges and some have different voltages. The typical Li-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.6V and
charges to 4.2V, some specialty Li-ion charge to 4.1V and newer Energy Cells top at 4.35V/cell and higher.
Li-phosphate is an exception with a nominal cell voltage of 3.2V and a charge limit of 3.65V/cell. Also
unique is Li-titanate with a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V and a charge limit of 2.85V. (See BU-205: Types of
Lithium-ion) These cells are definitely not interchangeable.
Besides diversity in chemistry, cobalt-blended Li-ion comes in the high-capacity Energy Cell for moderate
loads and the Power Cell for high currents with less capacity. When replacing the cells of a power tool
battery, use Power Cells with identical specification; laptops, e-bike, etc. use the Energy Cell. There are also
hybrid cells that satisfy both applications.
Do not go cheap on the cells by sourcing them from an unrecognized manufacturer. Failing packs
performances are often traced to inferior cells, and this also applies to the popular 18650 Li-ion format. One
hears repeatedly of companies that took advantage of marked-down prices from a clearing house, only to
have the packs fail after 2–3 years because of high cell failure.
If a relatively new pack has only one defective cell and a suitable replacement cell is on hand, then
exchanging the affected cell makes sense. With an aged battery, however, it’s best to replace all cells.
Mixing new with old causes a cell mismatch that will lead to a short life. In a well-matched battery pack all
cells have similar capacities and the weakest link in a chain determines the performance. (See BU-302:
Serial and Parallel Battery Configurations)
Cells designed for a multi-cell pack require tighter tolerances than those for single-cell use, such as a
mobile phone. Cell manufacturers cannot fully control the process and some cells will have higher
capacities than others. Such a discrepancy won’t be noticed by the user in a single-cell device but
uniformity is important in a multi-cell pack.
A battery shop may salvage good cells from a failed pack for reuse but the recovered cell must be checked
for capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge; the three key health indicators of a battery. (See BU-901:
Fundamentals in Battery Testing.) When checking a cell with a battery analyzer, mark the capacity so the
value can be matched with a pack that might need a cell of similar capacity. Also make certain that the
internal resistance is on par with a good cell and then verify self-discharge. Elevated self-discharge points
to a cell with high electro-mechanical stress. To check self-discharge, the open circuit voltage of a fully
charged Li-ion cells should be within +/-5mV after a 24-hour.
Visitors of BatteryUniversity.com frequently ask: “Can NiCd can be replaced with NiMH?” In theory, this
should be possible as both chemistries have the same cell voltage, but full-charge detection and trickle
charge have different demands. NiMH uses a more refined charge algorithm than NiCd. (See BU-408:
Charging Nickel-metal-hydride) A modern NiMH charger can charge both NiMH and NiCd; the old NiCd
charger could overcharge NiMH by not properly detecting full-charge and applying a trickle charge that is
too high. Unless otherwise marked, each chemistry requires its own charger.

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Spot-welding a cell is the only reliable way to get dependable connection. Limit the heat transfer to the cells
during welding to prevent damage. Insulate each cell electrically as the skin carries a voltage and is
conductive. If the new cell is at a different charge level than the existing cell, apply a slow charge to bring
them all to the same level. Observe the temperature during charging. Nickel-based cells will warm up
towards the end of charge but must cool down after switching to ready; Li-ion should stay cool during
charge. The rise in temperature should be equal for all cells; unevenness hints to an anomaly.
Measure the voltage of a repaired pack and check it again after 24 hours and then again after a few days, if
possible. If an OCV drops lower than observed in another pack of same model, then there is fear of elevated
self-discharge. (See BU-802b: Elevated Self-discharge).
Last updated 2017-05-09

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BU-911: How to Repair a Laptop Battery
Find out the challenges and limitations of repairing “smart” batteries
Most laptop batteries are smart and consist of the “chemical battery” that is managed by the “digital
battery.” A common protocol is the System Management Bus, better known as SMBus.
The typical SMBus battery has five or more battery connections consisting of positive and negative battery
terminals, thermistor, clock and data. The connections are often unmarked; however, the positive and
negative are commonly located at the outer edges of the connector and the inner contacts accommodate
the clock and data. (The one-wire system combines clock and data.) For safety reasons, a separate
thermistor wire is brought to the outside. Figure 1 illustrates a battery with six connections.

The positive and negative terminals are usually placed on the outside; no norm exists on the arrangement
of the other contacts.
Courtesy of Cadex
Some batteries are equipped with a solid-state switch that is normally in the “off” position and no voltage is
present at the battery terminals. Connecting the switch terminal to ground or pulling it up often turns the
battery on. If this does not work, the pack may need a code for activation. Battery manufacturers keep these
proprietary codes a well-guarded secret to which even service personnel have no access.
Use a voltmeter to locate the positive and negative battery terminals and establish the polarity. If no voltage
is present, a solid-state switch may be in the “off” position and needs activating. Connect the voltmeter to
the outer terminals, take a 100-Ohm resistor (other values may also work), tie one end to ground and with
the other end touch each terminal while observing the voltmeter. Repeat by tying the resistor to a positive
voltage potential. If there is no response, then it is possible that the battery is dead or locked by a code. The
100-Ohm resistor is low enough to engage a digital circuit and high enough to protect the battery against a
possible electrical short.
Establishing the connection to the battery terminals should now enable charging. If the charge current
stops after 30 seconds, an activation code may be required. Some battery manufacturers add an end-of-
battery-life switch that turns the battery off when reaching a certain age or cycle count. They argue that
customer satisfaction and safety can only be guaranteed by regularly replacing the battery. Mind you, such
a policy also rotates inventory.
If at all possible, connect the thermistor during charging and discharging to protect the battery against
possible overheating. Use an ohmmeter to locate the internal thermistor. The most common thermistors

meaning that the resistance decreases with rising temperature. In comparison, a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) causes the resistance to increase. Warming the battery with your hand is sufficient to
detect a small change in resistor value when looking for the correct terminal on the battery.

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After repair, the fuel gauge might not work, is inaccurate or provides wrong information. The battery may
need some sort of an initialization/calibration process by fully charging and discharging the pack to reset
the flags. A “flag” is a measuring point to mark and record an event. (See BU-603: How to Calibrate a
“Smart” Battery).
The circuits of some smart batteries must be kept “alive” during the replacement of the cells. Disconnecting
the voltage for only a fraction of a second can erase vital data in the memory. An analogy is open-heart
surgery where doctors must keep all organs of the patient alive. The lost data could contain the resistor
value of the digitized shunt that is responsible for the coulomb counter and other data.
To assure continued operation when changing the cells, supply a secondary voltage of same voltage level
through a 100-Ohm resistor to the circuit before disconnection. Remove the outside supply only after the
circuit receives voltage again from the new cells. Furthermore, some fuel gauge chips run wires to each
cell. These must be reassembled in the correct sequence beginning with cell one, then two, three and so
forth.
You will also need to be aware of compliance issues. Unlike other regulated standards, the SMBus allows
variations and this can cause problems. The repaired SMBus battery should be checked for compatibility
with the charger. Batteries for critical uses, such as heathcare, are typically replaced and not repaired. See
also www.sbs-forum.org and www.acpi.info.
Simple Guidelines when Repairing Battery Packs
Only connect cells that are matched in capacity. Do not mix cells of different chemistries.
Never charge or discharge Li-ion batteries unattended without a working protection circuit. Each cell
must be monitored individually with a protection circuit.
Include a temperature sensor that disrupts the charge current on high heat.
Apply a slow charge to a repaired pack to bring all cells to parity.
Pay attention when using an unknown brand. Elevated temperature hints to an anomaly.
Li-ion is sensitive to reverse polarization. Observe correct polarity.
Do not charge a Li-ion battery that has physical damage, has bulged or has dwelled at a voltage of less
than 1.5V/cell for some time.
Check a repaired pack for self-discharge. Intrinsic defects often have high self-discharge.
Last updated 2016-01-29

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BU-912: How to Test Mobile Phone Batteries
Build a business giving mobile phone batteries a second life
Smartphones draw more power than a cell phone and the runtime can be shorter even with a larger battery
because transmitting data uses roughly twice the energy to talking. The battery in many handsets is the
only replaceable part and it gets the most blame when the expected runtime cannot be met. In the absence
of point-of-sale battery testing, the packs are often replaced, only to have the problem recur.
Storefront battery testers check the battery in about 5 minutes with rapid-test methods. Most are compact
single-bay units that are simple to operate (Figure 9-32). With PC, advanced analyzers print service reports,
store customer information and connect to the Internet.

The analyzer rapid-tests, charges and cycles batteries. A universal battery adapter (RigidArm™) allows easy
interface to cellular batteries. QuickSort™ tests batteries in 5 minutes. (See BU-907: Testing Lithium-based
Batteries.)
Courtesy of Cadex
Storefront testing gives a customer a clear assessment of the battery performance. Short runtimes could be
caused by the device drawing excess current due to location or an intrinsic fault. Knowing the limitation
satisfies the user and ends the suspicion that the battery might be at fault. Testing also saves money as
only faded packs are replaced.
Figure 2 illustrates a storefront service model that tests a battery while the customer waits. If the battery is
low on charge, a store clerk may ask the customer to browse in the store while giving the battery a quick
charge, but if the pack has a genuine fault, an alternate pack can be given from a pool of previously tested
batteries. These pre-tested packs have proven to be as reliable as new ones.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 371 of 453

Batteries are serviced while the customer waits. A faulty pack is replaced from the pool of previously
serviced batteries. Storefront testing reduces handling, lessens disposal and improves customer
satisfaction (Courtesy of Cadex)
Hooking up the battery needs some skill as mobile phone batteries have typically three or four contacts.
The battery’s positive [+] terminal is normally at the outer edge and the negative [–] is towards the inside.
The third contact is the thermistor, which monitors battery temperature. For a quick test, the thermistor
does not need to be hooked up. The fourth contact, if available, provides a code for battery identification.
Figure 3 illustrates typical contact positioning.

The positive [+] is normally at the outer right and the negative [–] is on the inside. Most batteries have a
thermistor; some also offer a code.
To allow quick and easy testing of batteries, Cadex developed the RigidArm™ (Figure 4) that is compatible
with most Cadex battery analyzers. This universal adapter features spring-loaded arms that meet the
battery contacts from the top down and apply the correct pressure to the electrical contacts. Lockable
mechanisms allow quick and repetitive testing of the same type of batteries. The retractable floor holds the
battery in a vertical position, and magnetic guides keep the battery in place if laid horizontally. A
temperature sensor monitors the battery during the test for added safety.

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The universal adapter simplifies the interface with small batteries. The adapter holds 10 of the most
commonly used mAh ratings and is compatible with Cadex battery analyzers.
Courtesy of Cadex
Some smartphones no longer provide access to the battery. In the fast evolving consumer market, device
manufacturers reckon that a battery lasts as long as the device and glass breakage is likely the most
common failure of a smartphone. However, service centers still need to check the batteries and adapters
are available to test mobile phone batteries for Apple, Samsung and other similar products at the service
level.
QuickSort™ vs. app
Apps are available that provide SoC and SoH estimations in mobile phones. These software solutions
appear to work at first but inaccuracies develop once the device is broken in. This is also the time when
battery problems begin.
QuickSort™ takes a "snapshot" of the chemical battery to give a true picture of battery SoH, unencumbered
of peripheral readings that lose the ability to track the battery over time.
Last updated 2018-02-14

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BU-913: How to Maintain Fleet Batteries
Build a business giving mobile phone batteries a second life
Battery maintenance keeps batteries within a given performance standard and schedules replacement
when the capacity drops below a set target. This utilizes each pack for its fully intended life without fear of
unexpected downtime; it also enacts a solid replacement procedure. Device manufacturers support battery
maintenance because it eliminates under-performing batteries and reduces the number of devices being
sent for repair. Well-performing batteries reflect positively on the equipment; a win-win situation for all
parties.
Rechargeable batteries do not die suddenly but gradually get weaker with time. A service every 3 months
or so offers plenty of assurance that all batteries meet the required capacity and last through the shift with
extra energy to spare.
One of the simplest systems of battery maintenance is attaching a label that displays the last service, the
due date, the capacity and the internal resistance. Figure 1 illustrates such a label. The system is self-
governing in that a prudent user only picks a battery that has been serviced and meets the capacity
requirements. Expired packs are analyzed, and when meeting the capacity requirements, they are relabeled
and returned to service. Batteries that have slipped below the target capacity threshold are replaced or
assigned to a less demanding use.

The label shows battery information at a glance with service and service due dates
Courtesy of Cadex
Figures 2 to 4 illustrate the battery label system involving [1] identifying batteries that are due for service, [2]
analyzing and recertifying them upon meeting the requirements and [3] returning the qualified batteries to
service while replacing the faded packs with new units.

When taking a battery from the charger, the user checks the service date and if expired, the battery is
placed in the “To be serviced” box.

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The analyzers service the batteries and recondition them if low in capacity (only nickel-based batteries
receive recondition). Passing batteries are relabeled with new the capacity readings and the next service
date.

Failed batteries are retired and replaced with new packs. The new and serviced batteries go back into
service.
Setting up a battery maintenance system requires a battery analyzer that can print battery stick-on labels.
The analyzer should also offer a program that automatically applies a corrective service if certain parameter
thresholds cannot be met. Cadex analyzers satisfy these requirements and offer target capacity selection to
establish the minimum performance criteria.
Most fleet operations use a capacity threshold of 80 percent as the battery pass/fail criterion. Increasing the
threshold to 85 percent tightens the performance tolerance but passes fewer batteries; lowering the
settings extends service life but relaxes the performance standards. When choosing the target capacity
setting, the organization must ensure that the lowest performing battery is still able to fulfill its assigned
duty. This can be done by examining the spare capacity after a busy day. (See BU-504: How to Verify
Sufficient Battery Capacity.)
Another maintenance method is labeling each battery with a permanent ID number. The printer that is part
of PC-BatteryShop™ (Cadex) generates these labels in bar code format. To service a battery, the user scans
the label, which configures the analyzer to the service parameters and retrieves historic performance data
for review. Besides service dates and capacity readings, purchasing date, vendor information and pricing
can also be entered. Figure 5 illustrates the battery scan, service and data examination.

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Labeling each battery with a unique number simplifies battery service. Swiping the barcode label reveals
the history of the battery.
Courtesy of Cadex
Smart batteries have the ability to store delivered performance taken by coulomb counting during
discharge and charge. This data can be utilized with reasonable accuracy to estimate battery capacity
without applying a full discharge cycle. (See BU-604: How to Process Data from a “Smart” Battery.)
Occasional full discharges will still be needed to calibrate the battery.
Maintenance for critical systems can be shared on the cloud. Such a system oversees the performance of
fleet batteries and assists in the budgeting to replace packs that have fallen below the target capacity. This
enables a fully transparent battery maintenance system, virtually eliminating failures caused by
underperforming batteries.
Battery maintenance, once a “fly by the seat of your pants operation” will see a firming up, leading to
greatly improved battery reliability. Our expectation is not so much for a super battery that does not yet
exist but in properly maintaining what we have.
Last updated 2016-05-27

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BU-914: Battery Test Summary Table
Battery users want instant readout pertaining to battery state-of-health
A battery resembles a living organism that cannot be measured, only estimated to a varied degree of
accuracy based on available symptoms. This simulates a doctor examining a patient by taking multiple
tests and applying the law of elimination. Rapid-test methods for batteries have been lagging behind other
technologies; complexity and uncertain results when testing outliers are the reasons for the delay.
Cadex realizes the importance of battery diagnostics and has made notable advancements in rapid-test
technologies. These developments form the building blocks for Diagnostic Battery Management (DBM), a
new direction innovative companies are pursuing in the care and maintenance of batteries. Rather than
inventing another new super battery, DBM is vital to assure reliability of current battery systems by
monitoring capacity, the leading health indicator, along with other parameters.
Capacity represents energy storage, internal resistance relates to current delivery, and self-discharge
reflects mechanical integrity. All three properties must be met to qualify a battery. In addition to these static
characteristics, a battery has different of state-of-charge (SoC), dynamic characteristics that effect battery
performance and complicate rapid-testing.
Well-developed battery test technologies must recognize all battery conditions and provide reliable results,
even if the charge is low. This is a demanding request as a good battery that is only partially charged
behaves in a similar way to a faded pack that is fully charged.
Test methods range from taking a voltage reading, to measuring the internal resistance by a pulse or AC
impedance method, to coulomb counting, and to taking a snapshot of the chemical battery with
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). Capacity estimations by deciphering the chemical battery
are more complex than digital monitoring by coulomb counting. Digging into the chemical battery involves
proprietary algorithms and matrices that function as lookup tables similar to letter or face recognition.
Voltage and internal resistance do not correlate with capacity and fail to predict the end of battery life
effectively, especially with Li-ion and lead acid systems. The truth lies in the chemical battery. A digital
measurement alone is subject to failure because the chemical symptoms are not represented.
Here are the most common battery test methods:
Voltage Battery voltage reflects state-of-charge in an open circuit condition when rested. Voltage
alone cannot estimate battery state-of-health (SoH).
Ohmic test Measuring internal resistance identifies corrosion and mechanical defects when high.
Although these anomalies indicate the end of battery life, they often do not correlate with
low capacity. The ohmic test is also known as impedance test (Z).
Full cycle A full cycle consists of charge/discharge/charge to read the capacity of the chemical
battery. This provides the most accurate readings and calibrates the smart battery to
correct tracking errors, but the service is time consuming and causes stress.
Rapid-test Common rapid-test methods include time domain by activating the battery with pulses to
observe ion-flow in Li-ion, and frequency domain by scanning a battery with multiple
frequencies. Advanced rapid-test technologies require complex software with battery-
specific parameters and matrices serving as lookup tables.
EIS Multi-model electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) checks battery health by
frequency scanning. This non-invasive technology combines EIS with complex modeling
to estimate capacity, CCA and SoC with the help of matrices, also known as look-up
tables. Multi-model EIS has been commercialized by Cadex under Spectro™.
Battery Sensor A battery sensor estimates SoC, internal battery resistance and anomalies by monitoring
voltage, current and temperature. Commonly pole-mounted to the battery in vehicles, a
battery sensor may not accurately estimate capacity and correctly predict end-of-life.
BMS Mostly used for Li-ion, the Battery Management System provides protection against
voltage, current and temperature extremes when charging and discharging a battery.
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 Many BMS also count coulombs. Common BMS communication standards include
SMBus (System Management Bus) for mostly portable battery applications. Other are the
CAN Bus (Controller Area Network) and the simpler LIN Bus (Local Interconnect Network)
for automotive use.
Coulomb Reads in-and out flowing current. The smart battery stores the data in the Full Charge
counting Capacity (FCC) register that can be accessed. The readings can be inaccurate if the
battery is not calibrated. A full cycle corrects the tracking error.
Battery Parser The battery parser provides a method to estimate capacity during charge (patent
pending) by estimating state-of-charge (SoC) and state of health (SoH) through the
Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). EKF is a nonlinear estimation algorithm that uses “priori
state estimation” to attain SoC approximation of a Li-ion battery. The “posteriori density
function” then corrects the estimation and calculates SoH at the end of charge.
SOLI SOLI (state-of-life Indicator) estimates battery life on delivered energy by reading
outflowing coulombs. The set Lifespan starts at 100% and counts down until the end-of-
life capacity is reached according to manufacturer’s specifications.
Reliable results are only possible when robust symptoms are present. This is not always possible,
especially with unformatted lead acid batteries or packs that had been in storage. A good battery pulled
form service generally provides solid symptoms with good accuracy; readings from a weak battery can be
muddled with inconsistent results. Reliable measurements are impossible if the symptoms are vague or not
present, which is the case if the battery has turned into a potato. This fools the system and the battery
becomes an outlier. Well-developed rapid-test methods should correctly predict 9 batteries out of 10. EIS
has the potential to advance further and surpass other technologies.
Table 1 summarizes test procedures with the most common battery systems. Lead acid and Li-ion share
communalities in keeping low resistance under normal condition. Exceptions are heat fail and mechanical
faults that raise the internal resistance and a battery replacement ahead of time. Nickel-cadmium and
nickel-metal-hydride, and in part also the primary battery, reveal the end-of-life.

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Lead acid and Li-ion share communalities by keeping low resistance under normal condition; nickel-based
and primary batteries reveal end-of-life by elevated internal resistance.
At a charge efficiency of 99 percent, Li-ion is best suited for digital battery estimation. This helps in BMS
design by enabling capacity estimation with coulomb counting. While the readings are instant, occasional
calibration is needed to correct the tracking error that occurs with random battery usage. In comparison,
nickel-based batteries have low charge efficiency and high self-discharge, deficiencies that would skew
digital tracking. Under the right conditions and moderate temperature, lead acid batteries are reasonably
efficient but not quite good enough to use coulomb counting effectively.
Cold temperature reduces the efficiency of all batteries and affects rapid-testing. Although a battery may
function below freezing, charge acceptance is reduced and charge times must be prolonged by lowering
the current. Some chargers do this automatically; if not certain, do not charge Li-ion batteries below
freezing.
Summary
Mark Twain said: “I didn't have time to write a short letter, so I wrote a long one instead.” Efforts to make
something “short” also apply in the development of Diagnostic Battery Management. Adding features is
easy, but also keeping the price affordable is a challenge. Switching to new microcontrollers with added
intelligence and simplifying assembly enables new product features that were unthinkable a few years ago.
But as Mark Twain hinted, making something economical takes time.
The objective is to advance the battery into a reliable, safe, cost efficient and environmentally sustainable
power source. This requires systems that operate in the background with minimal overhead and little extra
cost. The goal is to fully utilize each battery and make state-of-health transparent to the user and fleet
supervisor. This can make unexpected battery failures a thing of the past.
Last updated 2018-02-01

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AMAZING VALUE OF A BATTERY

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BU-1001: Batteries in Industries
Learn about unique applications and what features to look for when choosing a battery.
Consumers are the first to hear about an apparent battery breakthrough. To get top media attention, the
new super battery promises to also satisfy the need for electric vehicle (EV). Personal mobility is an
emotional issue that cannot be suppressed, even if it harms the environment. The industrial space, on the
other hand, is more conservative and it appears to lag behind. Not so. Industry is rational and understands
the many constraints of the battery by focusing on reliability, economy, longevity and safety.
Batteries for Traction
Wheelchairs, scooters and golf cars mostly use lead acid batteries. Even though heavy, lead acid works
reasonably well and only moderate attempts are made to switch to other systems Li-ion will be a natural
alternative in many applications.
Although Li-ion is more expensive than lead acid, the cycle cost can be lower because of the longer life. A
further advantage of Li-ion over lead- and nickel-based batteries is the low maintenance. Li-ion can be left at
any state-of-charge without adverse side effects. In contrast, NiCd and NiMH need an occasional full
discharge to prevent memory and lead acid requires a saturated charge to prevent sulfation.
Most wheelchairs and golf cars are still powered with lead acid, so are forklifts. With forklifts, the heavy
weight is less of an issue, but the long charging time is a disadvantage for warehouses operating 24 hours a
day. Some forklifts are fitted with fuel cells that charge the battery while the vehicle is in use. The battery
can be made smaller but not eliminated because the fuel cell has poor power delivery and has a sluggish
ramp-up on demand; the battery remains the primary power source.
The heavier the wheeled application is, the less suitable the battery becomes. This does not prevent
engineers from looking into large battery systems to replace the polluting internal combustion engine (ICE).
One such application is the Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) system at ship ports. AGVs run 24 hours a
day, so the vehicles cannot be tied up for lengthy charging intervals. Li-ion solves this in part by replacing
the very large 10-ton, 300kWh lead acid with a battery that is lighter and can be charged more quickly.
No economical battery solution exists yet for large traction systems and burning fossil fuel cannot be fully
avoided. While a modern Li-ion battery delivers about 150Wh/kg of energy, the net calorific value (NCV) of
fossil fuel is over 12,000Wh/kg. Even at the low 25-percent efficiency of an ICE engine, the energy from a
battery is fractional compared to fossil fuel (see BU-1007: Net Calorific Value). Furthermore, the ICE can
operate in extreme cold and heat, a task the battery struggles to meet.
Batteries for Aviation
The duty of batteries on board an aircraft is to feed navigation and emergency systems when the Auxiliary
Power Unit (APU) is off or during an emergency in flight. The battery provides power for braking, ground
operation and starting the APU. In the event of engine failure, the batteries must supply energy from 30
minutes to 3 hours. Each aircraft must also have enough battery power to facilitate a safe landing. During
flight, the electrical power is supplied by generators and, similar to a car, the on-board battery could be
disconnected if so required.
Most commercial jetliners use flooded nickel-cadmium. Starting a large aircraft begins by spooling the
APU, a small turbine engine located at the tail section of an airplane. This takes significantly longer and
requires more energy than cranking a reciprocating engine of similar size. The spooling speed of the APU
must be sufficiently high to attain compression for self-sustained ignition. Starting takes about 15 seconds
and consumes 15kW of energy. Once running, an air compressor or hydraulic pump jumpstarts the large jet
engines one-by-one.
Smaller aircraft often have sealed lead-acid. Although heavier than NiCd, lead acid requires less
maintenance. The 12 and 24V aviation batteries are rated in IPP (current peak power)* and IPR (current
power rating)** rather than CCA (cold cranking amps) as is common in the automotive industry. IPP and
IPR are the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 60952-1) standard for aircraft batteries and FAA
TSO-C173 that allow a battery to spool each engine for 25–40 seconds at high current.

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Modern jet fighters spool the jet engines with Li-ion, so does the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. The Airbus 350
offers the option of either chemistry. As the on-board functions of an airliner move from hydraulic to
electrical, larger batteries are required. The higher energy-dense Li-ion satisfies this demand better than
NiCd and lead acid. However, unexpected Li-ion failure with serious consequences may move airplane
makers back to NiCd. All batteries are subject to breakdowns; there are also reported heat failures with
NiCd, but these can be better managed than Li-ion.
NiCd provides durability and reliable service, but it needs high maintenance that includes exercising the
battery to eliminate memory. The service of the main-ship battery consists of a total discharge and shorting
each cell for 24 hours with a strap. The battery is also checked for capacity with a battery analyzer. Smaller
NiCd batteries have different service requirements.
Although aircraft carry many different batteries aboard, their sole purpose is to start the engine and provide
backup power when the engines are off. Large aircraft will continue to fly on fossil fuel as batteries are not
yet practical for propulsion. Small battery-powered airplanes are being tried for pilot training and to fly
short hops but these are experimental only. Weight and reliability on an aging battery remain major
concerns.
*Ipp: Peak current delivered at 0.3 seconds into a 15 second controlled discharge at a constant terminal
voltage of half the nominal battery voltage.
**Ipr: This is the discharge current at the conclusion of a 15 second controlled discharge at a constant
terminal voltage of half the nominal battery voltage.
Batteries for Aerospace
Early satellites used NiCd batteries, and this led to the discovery of the “memory” phenomenon. The
battery followed a routine discharge schedule but when more energy was demanded, the battery could
remember. The voltage would drop as if to protest against unwanted overtime.
NiCd was replaced by nickel-hydrogen as a battery with an exceptional long service life. Entrepreneurs
tried to introduce this amazing battery for commercial use but high price and large size spoiled market
acceptance. Each cell costs around $1,000 and has the appearance of a small steam engine with a steel
pressure tank.
Li-ion is the battery of choice for satellites. It is light-weight, easy to charge, durable and cycles well. Li-ion
can dwell in any SoC for an extended length of time without adverse side effects; it has low self-discharge
and is virtually maintenance free.
The Mars Curiosity Rover uses specially designed lithium nickel oxide cells (LiNiCo) in 8S2P formation
(eight cells in series and two in parallel) that is only partially charged and discharged to stretch longevity.
Under this regime, the life span is four years and roughly 700 sol. (The term sol is used by planetary
astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars.) The 43Ah cells, of which two are in parallel,
have a maximum discharge C-rate of 0.55C.
NASA wants Li-ion batteries to last for 7 years and 37,000 cycles with a DoD of 40 to 60 percent. NASA labs
reveal that end-of-life is connected with the growth of the SEI layer on the anode, loss of cathode material,
loss of conductive path, plating of metallic lithium and electrolyte oxidation. Large 140Ah Li-ion cells are in
development that promise to last up to 18 years. (See also BU-808B: What causes Li-ion to die?)
Stationary Batteries
With a growing choice of batteries for energy storage systems (ESS), the selection should not be based on
price alone. Cost per kWh says little without also examining the total cost of ownership that includes cost
per cycle, longevity and eventual replacement.
Lead acid is well suited for duties that need only occasional discharges. The flow battery and sodium-sulfur
battery work well for large systems requiring regimented discharges, while lithium ion is recommended for
small to medium systems delivering short discharging with fast charging ability multiple times a day.

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Traditionally, stationary batteries have been lead acid. Size and weight is of lesser concern, and the limited
cycle count does not pose a problem when the batteries are seldom discharged. Large stationary batteries
are mostly flooded and require regular checking of the electrolyte level. This maintenance can be reduced
with an automatic watering system.
Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) is the low-maintenance version of the flooded lead acid. It is said that
VRLA can be installed and forgotten, but this is often taken to the extreme in that the batteries get
neglected. Maintenance includes checking the voltage, internal resistance and sometimes capacity levels.
Applications that are exposed to hot and cold temperatures as well as those requiring deep cycling are
often served by flooded nickel-cadmium. These batteries are more rugged than lead acid but are roughly
four times the cost. Flooded nickel-cadmium batteries are non-sintered and are less subject to memory that
the sintered versions, which are sealed, but some maintenance is still required. NiCd is the only battery that
can be rapidly charged with minimal stress.
Many stationary batteries are also served by Li-ion. Li-ion comes with many advantages, but the battery
does not perform as well as NiCd and lead acid at low temperature. Another battery that is making a
comeback for stationary use is nickel-iron.Inventor Thomas Edison promoted NiFe for the electric vehicle,
but it eventually lost out to lead acid due to high cost and high self-discharge. Improvements have
eliminated some of the failings, and the superior durability of this battery is gaining renewed interest.
Grid Storage Batteries
Renewable energy sources such as wind and sun do not provide a steady stream of energy, nor do they
always harmonize with user demand. Large energy storage batteries called load leveling or grid storage
batteries are needed to provide a seamless service.
Storing energy to supply peak shaving power is not new. Hydroelectric power stations use excess
electricity to pump water back up to the reservoir at night for use the next day. With an efficiency factor of
70–85 percent, pumped hydro is easier to manage than adjusting the generators to the exact power need.
Pumping compressed air into large underground cavities and underwater balloons are also being used to
store energy.
Flywheels also serve as energy storage. Large electric motors rev up one-ton flywheels when excess
energy is available to supply brief energy deficiencies. High-speed flywheels spin at over 30,000 rpm on
magnetic bearings in a vacuum chamber. Electric motors/generators with permanent magnets charge and
discharge the kinetic energy on demand.
Modern flywheels replace steel with carbon fibers to withstand higher rotations of up to 60,000 rpm.
Energy increases by the square of speed, providing four times the power at a reduced weight. Should the
flywheel fail, the housing prevents shrapnel form escaping.
Using flywheels to store kinetic energy is not new. In the 1940s and 1950s, city busses in Switzerland were
powered by flywheels. An electric motor would spin a 3-ton flywheel to 3,000 rpm in 3 minutes. Turning
into a generator, the motor would then transform the energy back into electricity. Each charge would yield
for 6km (3.75mi) on a flat road. The bus was pollution-free but the gyroscope action resisted changing
direction on a windy road.
Load leveling is gravitating towards Li-ion because of small footprint, low maintenance and long life. Li-ion
does not suffer from sulfation as lead acid does when not fully charged periodically. This can be a major
drawback with installations when demand exceeds supply. Li-ion also has the benefit of being light-weight
and semi-portable for installations in remote locations. The negatives of Li-ion are its high price and low
performance at cold temperature. A further drawback is the inability to charge below freezing.
Li-ion has come down in price and Table 1 provides a cost comparison with lead acid for grid storage
applications. Although the initial price of Li-ion is higher than lead acid, the cost per cycle is lower in deep-
cycle applications. Li-ion is said to gain in market share but lead acid will keep its stronghold.
Lead acid Li-ion
Battery cost $20,000 $52,000

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 Lead acid Li-ion
Lifespan 500 cycles at 50% DoD 1,900 cycles at 90% DoD

Cost per cycle $40 $28

Li-ion has a higher initial cost but is lower on the cost per cycle. Prices are estimated.
Courtesy: http://www.powertechsystems.eu/en/technics/lithium-ion-vs-lead-acid-cost-analysis
The energy output of a large industrial wind turbine is 1 megawatt (MW) and more; the biggest units have
grown to 10MW. Several turbines form a wind farm that produces 30–300MW. To fathom a megawatt, 1MW
feeds 50 houses or a Walmart superstore.
Not all renewable energy systems include load leveling batteries. The batteries simply get too large and the
investment cannot always be justified. If supported by batteries, a 30MW wind farm uses a storage battery
of about 15MW. This is the equivalent of 20,000 starter batteries or 176 Tesla S 85 EVs with an 85kWh
battery each. The cost to store energy in a battery is high, and some say it doubles the cost to a direct
supply.
The battery management system (BMS) keeps the battery at about 50 percent charge to allow absorbing
energy on wind gusts and delivering on high load demands. Modern BMS can switch from charge to
discharge in less than a second. This helps stabilize the voltage on transmission lines, also known as
frequency regulation.
Last updated 2017-05-09

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BU-1002: Electric Powertrain, then and now
Explore the limitations of the battery when compared to the internal combustion engine.
Propulsion by an electric powertrain is not new — Ferdinand Porsche designed a hybrid vehicle in 1898.
Called the Lohner-Porsche carriage, the hybrid function served as an electrical transmission; its purpose
was not to lower fuel consumption as the focus is today. With Mr. Porsche in the driver’s seat, the car broke
several speed records in Austria in 1901.
Another early hybrid was the Woods Motor Vehicle built in Chicago in 1915. It had a four-cylinder internal
combustion engine (ICE) in conjunction with an electric motor. Below 25km/h (15mph), the electric motor
propelled the vehicle; at higher speeds the gasoline engine kicked in to take the vehicle up to 55km/h
(35mph).
In early 1900, a car buyer had three choices of propulsion systems: electric, steam, and ICE, of which the
ICE was the least common. The electric cars (EVs) appealed to the upper class and they were finished with
fancy interiors and expensive materials. Although higher in price than the steam and gasoline-powered
vehicles, the EV served the wealthy with its quiet and comfortable ride over the vibrating, smelly and
maintenance-prone gasoline-powered counterpart. Best of all, the EV did not require changing gears. Back
then, the knuckle-busting chore of shifting gears was the most dreaded task when driving a gasoline-
powered car. Nor did the EV need manual cranking to start the engine, a task the upper class did not want
to be seen doing. Since the only good roads were in town, the limited range of the EV posed no problem;
most driving was local commuting.
The Detroit Electric, one of the most popular EVs then, was said to get 130km (80 miles) between battery
charges. Its top speed was 32km/h (20mph), a pace considered adequate for driving. Physicians and
women were the main buyers. Thomas Edison, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Clara Ford, the wife of Henry
Ford, drove Detroit Electrics. Figure 1 shows Thomas Edison with his 1914 Detroit Electric model.

Figure 111 - Thomas Edison with a 1914 Detroit Electric, model 47

Thomas Edison felt that nickel-iron was superior to lead acid for the EV and promoted his more expensive
batteries.
Source: National Museum of American History

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The battery of choice for the EV was lead acid. At a higher price point, the buyer could fit the Detroit Electric
with a nickel-iron (NiFe), a battery Thomas Edison promoted for its superior cycle life and good
performance at subfreezing and hot temperatures. The NiFe had a cell voltage of 1.2V, was robust and
could endure overcharging and repeated full discharging but on a purely performance level, NiFe provided
only a slightly better specific energy to lead acid and was expensive to manufacture. In addition, the battery
had a high self-discharge of 20–40 percent per month, greater than the 5 percent with lead acid.
In 1914 a devastating fire destroyed the Edison factory, and the popularity of nickel-iron waned. Production
of the EV peaked in 1912 and continued until the 1920s. Batteries already posed limitations in the electric
powertrain a hundred years ago. Thomas Edison knew this and commented, “Just as soon as a man gets
working on the secondary battery, it brings out his latent capacity for lying.”
Henry Ford’s mass-production and cost-cutting measures in 1912 of the Model T were not the only reason
for the shift to gasoline-powered cars. The invention of the starter motor in 1912, the need to travel long
distances and the discovery of Texas crude oil made the ICE more attractive and affordable to the general
public.
The EV became a thing of the past until the early 1990s when the California Air Resources Board (CARB)
mandated more fuel-efficient and lower-emission vehicles. It was the CARB zero-emission policy that
prompted General Motors to produce the EV1. Available for lease between 1996 and 1999, the EV1 initially
ran on an 18kWh lead acid battery that was later replaced with a 26kWh NiMH.
Although the NiMH had an impressive driving range of 260km (160 miles), the EV1 was not without
problems. Manufacturing costs rose to three times that of a regular gasoline-powered car. In 2001,
politicians changed the CARB requirements, which prompted General Motors to withdraw the EV1, to the
dismay of many owners. In the 2006 documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car?, governments give a
mixed message regarding cleaner transportation.
Low cost and high current capabilities make lead acid a good candidate for starter applications. It has about
720Wh, is forgiving if abused and cranks the engine even if the capacity has dropped to 30 percent.
Batteries for the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) are about twice this size, and the plug-in has about 12.5kWh;
EVs go from 15kWh to 90Wh. Figure 10-3 compares the battery sizes.

Figure 112 - Typical battery wattages in vehicles

While starter and hybrid batteries are tolerant to capacity fade, a weak EV battery travels shorter distances
(Courtesy of Cadex)
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 386 of 453
Batteries and cost per kWh vary greatly according to chemistry. Table 3 estimates the price of the most
common batteries in use today. At $120 per kWh, a deep-cycle-battery for golf cars and wheelchairs is most
economical, followed by the starter, forklift and stationary batteries. Complex manufacturing, electronic
safety circuits and battery management systems (BMS) make newer technologies more expensive than
older systems, even with volume production.
Table 48 - Battery sizes of wheeled mobility

Application Chemistry Capacity Cost/kWh (est.) Battery price

E-bicycle Li-ion 360Wh $1,200 $400-500

Starter Lead acid 0.5-1kWh $160 $120

Golf car Lead acid 8kWh $120 $720 (set)

Forklift Lead acid 18kWh $166 $3,000

Stationary Lead acid Small to large $200 $50,000 typical

HEV NiMH, Li-ion 1-2kWh $500 $2,000–3,000

PHEV NiMH, Li-ion 5–15kWh $500 $10,000–12,000

EV Li-ion 20–90kWh $350 $10,000–30,000

Estimated cost/kWh is lowest with lead acid and most expensive with lithium-ion.
Last updated 2016-05-30

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BU-1002a: Hybrid Electric Vehicles and the Battery
Protect our environment by lowering your fossil fuel consumption.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
Governments are asking the public to reduce fuel consumption and lower pollution. They do this without
imposing a change in driving habits and the HEV fits the bill. Japan is leading in adapting the HEV because
of high fuel costs and environmental concerns.
The purpose of the HEV is to conserve fuel without sacrificing performance, and the HEV achieves this by
using one or several electric motor to assist the ICE during acceleration and to harness kinetic energy when
braking. The ICE turns off at traffic lights and the electric motor propels the car through slow-moving traffic.
On full power, both the ICE and electric motor engage for optimal acceleration.
The HEV uses a mechanical powertrain to transfer power from the ICE to the wheels. In this respect, the
HEV resembles an ordinary vehicle with a crankshaft and a clutch, also known as parallel configuration.
Fuel savings are achieved by the use of a smaller ICE that is tuned for maximum fuel efficiency rather than
high torque. Toyota claims a thermal efficiency of 40 percent for the new Prius. Peppy driving is accredited
to the electric motor as this propulsion system delivers far better torque than a sluggish ICE of the same
horsepower.
Most batteries for HEVs are guaranteed for 8 years. To meet this long service life, the cells are optimized for
longevity rather than high specific energy as with consumer products. The battery maker achieves this in
part by using a thicker and more durable separator. To reduce stress, the battery operates at 30–80 percent
state-of-charge (SoC), or roughly 3.5–4.0V/cell for Li-ion, rather than the customary 3.0–4.20V/cell.
HEV batteries operate momentarily and share similarity with a starter battery by applying short power
bursts for acceleration rather than long, continuous discharges as with the EV. Rarely will an HEV battery
discharge to a low 20 percent state-of-charge (SoC). Under normal use, a parallel HEV consumes less than
2 percent of the available battery capacity per mile (1.6km). Capacity fade goes unnoticed, and an HEV
battery still works well with less than half the original capacity.
Figure 4 shows the battery capacity of six hybrid cars at a 256,000km (160,000 miles). The test was done by
the US Department of Energy’s FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies Program (FCVT) in 2006 according
to SAE J1634 practices and it included the Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius.

Figure 113 - End-of-life battery capacity of HEVs

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At 256,000km (160,000 miles), the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68% capacity, the Insight had 85% and the
Prius had 39%. The capacity fade did not affect the fuel efficiency by much (Source: FreedomCAR and
Vehicle Technologies Program)
The hybrid battery of the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68 percent remaining capacity; the Insight had 85
percent and the Prius 39 percent. Even with lower capacity at the end of life, the fuel efficiency was not
severely affected. The Insight showed a 1.2mpg (0.12L/km) decrease in fuel economy during the test, while
the Prius reduced the fuel efficiency by 3.2mpg (0.33L/km). Air-conditioning was off in both cases.
Stringent battery demands are needed for hybrid trucks with a gross vehicle weight of 33 tons (73,000 lb).
The battery must be able to continuously charge and discharge at 4C, deliver 10kW (200hp) for up to 10
minutes, operate at –20°C to 40°C (–4°F to 104°F) and deliver 5 years of service. Supercapacitors would
provide the required durability but high cost and low energy density are against this choice. Lead acid has
good discharge characteristics but it is slow to charge. Li-ion, especially LTO, would be a good choice but
high power draw requires active cooling. Second generation NiMH is being tested; the rugged NiCd may
also be tried.
Paradox of the hybrid vehicle
As good as a hybrid may be, the car is not without ironies. At a conference addressing advanced
automotive batteries, an HEV opponent argued with an HEV maker that a diesel car offers better fuel
economy than a hybrid. Being a good salesman, the HEV maker flatly denied the claim. Perhaps both are
right. In city driving, the HEV clearly delivers better fuel-efficiency while diesel consumes less on the
highway. Combining both would provide the best solution, but the high cost of a diesel-hybrid solution
might not pay back with low fuel prices, although such vehicles are available in Europe.
High-end HEVs come with a full-sized ICE of 250hp and an electrical motor of 150–400hp in total. Such
vehicles will surely find buyers, especially if the government assists with grants for being “green.” It’s
unfortunate that consumers who walk, cycle or take public transportation won’t get such handouts.
Common sense reminds us to conserve energy by driving less, or using smaller vehicles when driving is
necessary.
Wolfgang Hatz, the then head of powertrain for Volkswagen Group, said that hybrid technology is a very
expensive way to save a small amount of fuel and states that Volkswagen only makes hybrids because of
political pressure. He supports diesel as the most energy-efficient motor, especially on highways.
Volkswagen may have a solution — the 1-Liter Car (Figure 5). It is called the 1-Liter Car because the concept
vehicle burns only one liter of fuel per 100km. To prove the concept, the then VW chairman Dr. Ferdinand
Piëch drove the car from their headquarters in Wolfsburg to Hamburg for a shareholders meeting. The
average consumption was just 0.89 liters per 100km (317mpg).

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 Figure 114 - Volkswagen’s 1-Liter Car

The 1-Liter Car is said to be the most economical car in the world but it never made it into production
(Source: Volkswagen AG)
Aerodynamics and weight help to achieve the low fuel consumption. While a typical car has a drag
coefficient of 0.30, the 1-Liter Car is only 0.16. Carbon fiber and a magnesium frame reduce the weight to
290kg (640lb). The one-cylinder diesel engine generates 8.5hp (6.3kW), and the 6.5-litre (1.43-gallon) fuel
tank has a range of 650 kilometers (400 miles). The average fuel consumption is 0.99 liter per 100km
(238mpg).
Although the 1-Liter Car did not go into production, VW demonstrated that fossil fuel could be stretched
should the cost rise or should frivolous consumption create unsustainably high pollution levels. Point-to-
point personal transportation could be made possible with a light carrier that weighs only 290kg, a weight
that is less than the 540kg Tesla S battery. Rather than consuming 150–250Wh per kilometer, as with an
electric vehicle, the 1-Liter Car would only use about 40Wh/km. Even though it burns fossil fuel, the
environmental impact would be less than an EV propelled with electricity, which is mainly produced by
fossil fuel.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
Most PHEVs use a fully electrified powertrain in a series configuration with no mechanical linkage from ICE
to wheels. The system runs solely on the electric motor for propulsion, and the ICE only engages when the
batteries get low to supply electricity for the electric motor and to charge the battery. The driving range of a
fully charged battery is about 50km (30 miles).
The PHEV is ideal for commuting and doing errands. No gasoline is consumed when driving on batteries
and the highways are tax-free. However, there will be an increase in the electrical utility bill to charge the
batteries at home.
Unlike the parallel HEV that relies on the battery for only brief moments, the PHEV battery is in charge
depletion mode, meaning that the battery must work harder than on an HEV. This adds to battery stress
and reduces longevity. While a capacity drop to 39 percent will affect the performance of the Toyota Prius
HEV only marginally, such a loss would reduce the electric driving range of a PHEV from 50km to 20km (30
to 12 miles).
Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 390 of 453
The Chevy Volt carries a 16kWh Li-ion battery that weighs 181kg (400 lb) and powers a 149hp (111kW) electric
motor. The temperature of the prismatic cells is kept at 20–25C (68–77F) during charging and driving. An
115VAC outlet fills the battery in 8 hours; a 230VAC reduces the charging time to 3 hours. The driving range
is 64km (40 miles) before the 1.4-liter four-cylinder ICE kicks in to activate the 53kW AC generator that
powers the electric motors.
Economics
As good as the PHEV sounds, the long-term savings may be smaller than expected, especially if a battery
replacement is needed during the life of the car. Battery aging is an issue that car makers avoid mentioning
in fear of turning buyers away. A motorist used to driving ICE cars expects ample power at hot and cold
temperatures and minimal performance degradation with age. The battery cannot match this fully, and the
owner will need to tolerate a decrease in driving range during the winter, as well as accept a small
reduction in delivered mileage with each advancing year due to battery aging.
Modern cars do more than provide transportation; they also include amenities for safety, comfort and
pleasure. The most basic of these are the headlights and windshield wipers. Buyers also want cabin heat
and air-conditioning, services that are taken for granted in a vehicle that burns fossil fuel. Heat is a by-
product in the ICE that must be generated with battery power in a PHEV, but the larger concern is air-
conditioning, which draws 3–5kW of power. Comforts might need to be provided more sparingly when
running on a battery.
Many PHEV buyers value the environmental benefit and the pleasure of driving a quiet vehicle powered by
electricity. This has a large buyer appeal because electric propulsion is more natural than that of an ICE.
Drivers must adapt to the new lifestyle of charging the vehicle at night when electricity is cheap and then
driving measured distances. Users of these cars will also appreciate new charging stations at workplaces
and shopping malls.
Last updated 2016-05-30

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BU-1003: Electric Vehicle (EV)
Discover alternatives to fossil fuel in batteries
In the early 1900s, the electric vehicle was reserved for dignitaries the likes of Thomas Edison, John D.
Rockefeller, Jr. and Clara Ford, the wife of Henry Ford. They chose this transportation for its quiet ride over
the vibrating and polluting internal combustion engine. Environmentally conscious drivers are
rediscovering the EV with a choice of many attractive products.
The EV culture is developing distinct philosophies, each satisfying a unique user group. This is visible with
vehicle sizes and the associated batteries. The subcompact EV comes with a battery that has 12–18kWh, the
mid-sized family sedan has a 22–32kWh pack, and the luxury models by Tesla stand alone with an
oversized battery boasting 60–85kWh to provide extended driving range and achieve high performance.
Table 1 lists the most common EVs.
Table 49 - Electric vehicles with battery type, range and charge time

Model Battery Charge Times

Toyota Prius 3h at 115VAC 15A;
4.4kWh Li-ion, 18km (11 miles) all-electric range
PHEV 1.5h at 230VAC 15A

Chevy Volt 16kWh, Li-manganese/NMC, liquid cooled, 181kg (400 10h at 115VAC, 15A;
PHEV lb), all electric range 64km (40 miles) 4h at 230VAC, 15A

16kWh; 88 cells, 4-cell modules; Li-ion; 109Wh/kg; 13h at 115VAC 15A;

Mitsubishi iMiEV
330V, range 128km (80 miles) 7h at 230VAC 15A

Smart 8h at 115VAC, 15A;

16.5kWh; 18650 Li-ion, driving range 136km (85 miles)
Fortwo ED 3.5h at 230VAC, 15A

BMW i3 22kWh (18.8kWh usable), LMO/NMC, large 60A ~4h at 230VAC, 30A;
Curb 1,200kg prismatic cells, battery weighs 204kg (450 lb) driving 50kW Supercharger;
(2,645 lb) range of 130–160km (80–100 miles) 80% in 30 min

30kWh; Li-manganese, 192 cells; air cooled; 272kg 8h at 230VAC, 15A;

Nissan Leaf*
(600 lb), driving range up to 250km (156 miles) 4h at 230VAC, 30A

Tesla S* 70kWh and 90kWh, 18650 NCA cells of 3.4Ah; liquid 9h with 10kW charger;
Curb 2,100kg cooled; 90kWh pack has 7,616 cells; battery weighs 120kW Supercharger,
(4,630 lb) 540kg (1,200 lb); S 85 has up to 424km range (265 mi) 80% charge in 30 min

Chevy Bolt 60kWh; 288 cells in 96s3p format, EPA driving rate 40h at 115VAC, 15A;
Curb 1,616kg; 383km (238 miles); liquid cooled; 200hp electric 10h at 230VAC, 30A
battery 440kg motor (150kW) 1h with 50kWh

Table 1:

* In 2015/16 Tesla S 85 increased the battery from 85kWh to 90kWh; Nissan Leaf from 25kWh to 30kWh.
The makers of Nissan Leaf, BMW i3 and other EVs use the proven lithium-manganese (LMO)battery with a
NMC blend, packaged in a prismatic cell. (NMC stands for nickel, manganese, cobalt.) Tesla uses NCA
(nickel, cobalt, aluminum) in the 18650 cell that delivers an impressive specific energy of 3.4Ah per cell or
248Wh/kg. To protect the delicate Li-ion from over-loading at highway speed, Tesla over-sizes the pack by
a magnitude of three to four fold compared to other EVs.
The large 90kWh battery of the Tesla S Model (2015) provides an unparalleled driving range of 424km (265
miles), but the battery weighs 540kg (1,200 lb), and this increases the energy consumption to 238Wh/km
(380Wh/mile), one of the highest among EVs. (See BU-1005: Fuel Cell Vehicle.)

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 392 of 453

In comparison, the BMW i3 is one of the lightest EVs and has a low energy consumption of 160Wh/km
(260Wh/mile). The car uses an LMO/NMC battery that offers a moderate specific energy of 120Wh/kg but is
very rugged. The mid-sized 22kWh pack provides a driving range of 130–160km (80–100 miles). To
compensate for the shorter range, the i3 offers REX, an optional gasoline engine that is fitted on the back.
Table 2 compares the battery size and energy consumption of common EVs. The range is under normal
non-optimized driving conditions.
Table 50 - Estimated energy consumption and cost per km/mile of common EVs

EV make Battery Range km (mi) Wh/km (mi) Energy cost/km (mi)

BMW i3 22kWh 135km (85) 165 (260) $0.033 ($0.052)

GM Spark 21kWh 120km (75) 175 (280) $0.035 ($0.056

Fiat 500e 24kWh 135km (85) 180 (290) $0.036 ($0.058)

Honda Fit 20kWh 112km (70) 180 (290) $0.036 ($0.058)

Nissan Leaf 30kWh 160km (100) 190 (300) $0.038 ($0.06)

Mitsubishi MiEV 16kWh 85km (55) 190 (300) $0.038 ($0.06)

Ford Focus 23kWh 110km (75) 200 (320) $0.04 ($0.066)

Smart ED 16.5kWh 90km (55) 200 (320) $0.04 ($0.066)

Mercedes B 28kWh (31.5)* 136km (85) 205 (330) $0.04 ($0.066)

Tesla S 60 60kWh 275km (170) 220 (350) $0.044 ($0.07)

Tesla S 85 90kWh 360km (225) 240 (380) $0.048 ($0.076)

Energy cost only includes the consumed electricity at $0.20/kWh; service items are excluded.
* Driving range limited to 28kWh; manual switch to 31.5kWh gives extra 16km (10 mile) spare
Clarification: The driving ranges in Tables 1 and 2 differ. This is less of an error than applying different
driving conditions. Discrepancies also occur in topping charge, depth of discharge and fuel-gauging.
The cost of an EV battery has come down to about $350/kWh, but Tesla managed to lower the price to
$250/kWh using the 18650, a popular cell of which 2.5 billion were made in 2013. The 18650 in the current
Tesla models is an unlikely choice as the cell was designed for portable devices such as laptops. Available
since the early 1990s, the 18650 cell is readily available at a low cost. The cylindrical cell-design further
offers superior stability over the prismatic and pouch cell, but the advantage may not hold forever as
prismatic and pouch cells are improving. Large Li-ion cells are relatively new and have the potential for
higher capacities and lower pack-cost as fewer cells are needed.
Prices are dropping and Bloomberg (December 2017) says that the average EV battery costs now $209 per
kWh. This includes housings, wiring, BMS and plumbing, housekeeping that adds 20 percent to 40 percent
to cell costs. Experts predict that the EV battery will drop below $100 per kWh by 2025. This will put the EV
in par with a conventional powered vehicle of similar features. These price reductions do not apply to
stationary battery systems that, according to Bloomberg, will command a 51 percent price premium over
the EV because of lower volume.
All EV makers must provide an 8-year warranty or a mileage limit on their batteries. Tesla believes in their
battery and offers 8 years with unlimited mileage. Figure 3 illustrates the battery that forms the chassis of
the Tesla S Model. The Model S 85 contains 7,616 type 18650 cells in serial and parallel configuration. The
smaller S-60 has 5,376 cells.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 393 of 453

 Figure 115 - Battery in a Tesla S Model chassis

The 85kWh battery has 7,616 18650 cells in parallel/serial configuration. At $250 per kWh, the cost is lower
than other Li-ion designs.

Source: Tesla Motors

EV manufacturers calculate the driving range under the best conditions and according to reports, the
distances traveled in the real-world can be 30–37 percent less than advertised. This may be due to the extra
electrical loads such as headlights, windshield wipers, as well as cabin heating and cooling. Aggressive
driving in a hilly countryside lowers the driving range further.
Cold temperature also reduces the driving range. What battery users may also overlook is the difficulty of
charging when cold. Most Li-ion cannot be charged below freezing. To protect EV batteries, some packs
include a heating blanket to warm the battery during cold temperature charging. A BMS may also
administer a lower charge current when the battery is cold. Fast charging when cold promotes dendrite
growth in Li-ion that can compromise battery safety. (See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperature)
EV owners want ultra-fast charging and technologies are available but these should be used sparingly as
fast charging stresses the battery. If at all possible, do not exceed a charge rate of 1C. (See BU-402: What is
C-rate?) Avoid full charges that take less than 90 minutes. Ultra-fast charging is ideal for EV drivers on the
run and this is fine for occasional use. Some EVs keep a record of stressful battery events and this data
could be used to nullify a warranty claim. (See BU-401a: Fast and Ultrafast Chargers)
Estimating SoC has always been a challenge, and the SoC accuracy of a battery is not at the same level as
dispensing liquid fuel. EV engineers at an SAE meeting in Detroit were surprised to learn that the SoC on
some new BMS were off by 15 percent. This is hidden to the user; spare capacity makes up for a shortfall.
EV makers must further account for capacity fade in a clever and non-alarming way to the motorist. This is
solved by oversizing the battery and only showing the driving range. A new battery is typically charged to
80 percent and discharged to 30 percent. As the battery fades, the bandwidth may expand to keep the
same driving range. Once the full capacity range is needed, the entire cycle is applied. This will cause stress
to the aging battery and shorten the driving ranges visibly. Figure 4 illustrates three SoH ranges of an EV
fuel gauge.

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 Figure 116 - Driving range as a function of battery performance

A new EV battery only charges to about 80% and discharges to 30%. As the battery ages, more of the
usable battery bandwidth is demanded, which will result in increased stress and enhanced aging.
Economics
On the surface, driving on electricity is cheaper than burning fossil fuel; however, low fuel prices,
uncertainty about battery longevity, unfamiliarity with battery abuse tolerances and high replacement costs
are factors that reduce buyer incentives to switch from a proven propulsion system to the electric
drivetrain. The EV will always have shorter driving ranges than vehicles with ICE because oversizing the
battery has a diminishing return. When the size is increased, batteries simply get too heavy, negatively
affecting travel economics and driving range. (See BU-1005: Fuel Cell Vehicle, Figure 1.)
Technology Roadmaps as part of the International Energy Agency (IEA) compares energy consumption and
cost of gasoline versus electric propulsion;
An EV requires between 150Wh and 250Wh per kilometer depending on vehicle weight, speed and terrain.
At an assumed consumption of 200Wh/km and electricity price of $0.20 per kWh, the energy cost to drive
an EV translates to $0.04 per km. This compares to $0.06 per km for a similar-size gasoline-powered car
and $0.05 per km for diesel. Price estimations exclude equipment costs, service and the eventual
replacement of the product.
Battery endurance and cost will govern the success of the EV. A consumer market will likely develop for a
light EV with a battery providing 160km (100 miles) driving range or less. This will be a subcompact
commuter car owned by a driver who adheres to a tightly regimented driving routine and follows a
disciplined recharging regime. According to research, 90 percent of commuting involves less than 30km.
The EV market will also include high-end models for the ecology-minded wealthy wanting to reduce
greenhouse gases.
Driving an EV only delivers optimal environmental benefit when charging with renewable resources.
Burning coal and fossil fuel to generate electricity, as is done in many countries, does not reduce
greenhouse gases. In the US, 50 percent of electricity is generated by burning coal, 20 percent by natural
gas and 20 percent by nuclear energy. Renewable energy by hydro is 8 percent and solar/wind energy is
only 2 percent.
Going electric also begs the question, “Who will pay for the roads in the absence of fuel tax?” Governments
spend billions on road maintenance and expansions; the EV, and in part the PHEV, can use the
infrastructure for free. This is unfair for folks using public transport as they pay double: first paying income
tax to support the road infrastructures and second in purchasing the train fare.
The high cost of the EV against the lure of cheap and readily available fossil fuel will slow the transition to
clean driving. Government subsidies may be needed to make “green” cars affordable to the masses, but
many argue that such handouts should be directed towards better public transportation, systems that had
been ignored in North America since the 1950s.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 395 of 453

Guidelines for EV Batteries
 Life span. Most EV batteries are guaranteed for 8 years or 160,000km (100,000 miles). Hot
climates accelerate capacity loss; insufficient information is available about how batteries age
under different climates and usage patterns.
 Safety. Concerns arise if the battery is misused and is kept beyond its designated age. Similar
fears occurred 150 years ago when steam boilers exploded and gasoline tanks burst. A carefully
designed BMS assures that the battery operates within a safe working range.
 Cost. This presents a major drawback as the battery carries the cost of a small car powered by
an ICE. BMS, battery cooling, heating and the eight-year warranty add to the cost.
 Performance. Unlike an ICE that works over a wide temperature range, batteries are sensitive to
heat and cold and require climate control. Heat reduces the life, and cold lowers the
performance temporarily. The battery also heats and cools the cabin.
 Specific energy. In terms of calorific value per weight, a battery generates only 1 percent of what
fossil fuel produces. One kilogram (1.4 liter, 0.37 gallons) of gasoline yields roughly 12kWh of
energy, whereas a 1kg battery delivers about 150Wh. However, the electric motor is 90 percent
efficient while a modern ICE comes in at about 25 percent.
 Specific power. The electric propulsion system has better torque with the same horsepower
than the ICE. This is reflected in excellent acceleration.
Last updated 2018-02-08

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BU-1004: Charging an Electric Vehicle
Learn about the different options charging an EV
If you own an EV, you want to pamper the battery and charge the car at home and at the office. The power
requirements to charge a mid-sized EV is similar to that of an electric stove connected to a 40A, 240VAC
circuit developing up to 9.6kW. Most mid-sized EVs carry a 6.6kW on-board charger designed for a 4- to 5-
hour charge. (6.6kW is derived by multiplying 220V by 30A.)
On-board chargers are limited by cost, size and thermal issues. With the availability of three-phase AC
power in most European residences, on-board chargers can be made smaller than with a two-phase
system. Renault offers compact on-board chargers that range from 3–43kW.
The hookup to charge an EV is called the Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE) and must be installed
by an electrician. There are three categories of charging.
Level 1 Cord-set connects to a regular household outlet of 115VAC, 15A (230VAC, ~6A in
Europe). This singe-phase hookup produces about 1.5kW, and the charge time is 7 to 30
hours depending on battery size. Level 1 meets overnight charging requirements for e-
bikes, scooters, electric wheelchairs and PHEVs not exceeding 12kWh.
Level 2 Wall-mount; 230VAC, 30A two pole, charges a mid-sized EV in 4 to 5 hours. This is the
most common home and public charging station for EVs. It produces about 7kW to feed
the 6.6kW on-board EV charger. The cost to install a Level 2 EVSE is about $750 in
materials and labor. Households with a 100A service should charge the EV after cooking
and clothes-drying to prevent exceeding the allotted household power.
Level 3 DC Fast Charger; 400–600VDC, up to 300A; serves as ultra-fast charging by bypassing
the on-board charger and feeding the power directly to the battery. Level 3 chargers
deliver up to 120kW to fill a Li-ion battery to 80 percent in about 30 minutes. The power
demand is equal to five households.
In the 1990s and 2000s, EV makers made a concerted effort to develop a universal charging port for EVs and
this resulted in the SAE J1772, a 5-pin connector carrying AC and data. The drawback is a charge time
pursuant to Level 2 that takes several hours.
EV makers agree that the future of the EV lies in fast charging. While Level 2 only gains about 40km (25
miles) per hour charge, DC Fast Charging fills the battery to 80 percent in 30 minutes. This changes the EV
from a commuter car into a touring vehicle, and EV marketing has started to push the concept.
Japan was first to introduce DC Fast Charging by developing the CHAdeMO connector for the Nissan Leaf
and Mitsubishi MiEV. JEVS (Japan Electric Vehicle Standard) specified the connector that includes two
large DC pins with communications pins for the CAN-BUS. The CHAdeMO standard was formed by TEPCO
(The Tokyo Electric Power Company), Nissan, Mitsubishi, Fuji Heavy Industries (manufacturer of Subaru
vehicles) and Toyota in 2008. It charges a battery at 500VDC and 125A with up to 62.5kW charging power.
CHAdeMO stands for “CHArge on the Move;” Figure 1 illustrates the plug.

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 Figure 117 - Japanese CHAdeMO DC Fast Charge plug developed in 2008

Nissan and Mitsubishi lead DC fast charging and developed CHAdeMO. It fast-charges at 500VDC and 125A,
developing up to 62.5kW of power.
While the CHAdeMO connector performs well, the West lobbied against it, citing “technical issues.” The
reason for this may be the “not invented in my backyard” syndrome as well as a standard that favors
certain brands of cars. SAE rejected CHAdeMO in favor of their version.
After much delay, the SAE International J1772 Committee released the SAE DC Fast Charging standard in
2012, a system that is also known as the Combo Charging System (CCS). The delay caused a setback in
building the CHAdeMO infrastructure and some argue that the postponement was deliberate.
To keep compatibility with Level 2 charging, CCS is based on the existing J1772 connector by adding two
DC pins. When charging on AC, the circular connector provides AC power and communications to govern
voltage, charge rate and end-of-charge. DC Fast Charging uses the same communications protocol but
adds the DC pins. Figure 2 illustrates the charging connectors for AC and DC charging with the vehicle inlet.

Figure 118 - SAE J1772 Combo Charging System (CCS)

CCS allows Level 2 charging by connecting to the upper circular receptacle only, and Level 3 charging with
a plug that includes the DC terminals.
SAE J1772 divides charging into four levels:
 AC level 1: 120VAC, 12–16A, up to 1.92kW
 AC level 2: 240VAC, 80A 19.2kW
 DC level 1: 200-500VDC, up to 80A (40kW)
 DC level 2: 200-500VDC, up to 200A (100kW)

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The SAE Combo or CCS is the de facto global standard for Level 2 and 3 charging and Audi, BMW, Daimler,
Ford, General Motors, Porsche and Volkswagen jointly announced their support in 2011. The Chevy Spark
was the first EV to feature the SAE Combo in 2013. There is now talk to discontinue the CHAdeMO. To
maintain compatibility with EVs featuring CHAdeMO, newer Nissan Leafs include an SAE J1772 port to
allow Level 2 charging. Some charger manufacturers, including ABB, offer both charging plugs at their
“pumps.”
Tesla Motors does not follow standards easily, and they came up with their own system. Their exclusive
Supercharger fills a depleted battery to 80 percent in 40 minutes and gives a driving range of 270km.
(Charging from 80–100 percent doubles the time.) While Tesla was criticized by some for introducing their
Superchargers, others say that Tesla is way ahead of the game and did not want to wait for the world to get
its standards right. Tesla is in discussions with Nissan and BMW to offer their Supercharger standard to
these EV makers as well. They are also working on an inter-protocol charging adapter that can support the
CHAdeMO and SAE J1772 systems.
Charging the Tesla S 85 on a Supercharger begins at a voltage of about 375V and 240A, consuming 90kW.
As the battery fills, the voltage rises to about 390VDC and the current drops to roughly 120A. The initial
90kW into the 85kWh battery has a charge rate that is only slightly higher than 1C. After a brief moment, the
C-rate falls to a comfortable 0.8C, and then goes down further, avoiding harmful battery stress that is
related to ultrafast charging.
Battling three incompatible charging systems was not the plan for EV makers, but it occurred in part by not
accepting available technologies and delaying their own standards. Tesla jumped ahead with their own
technology and is investing heavily into building Superchargers and offering free charging; other EV
makers have followed by also making charging free, at least for now. The resulting incompatibility has
similarities with the railroads industry in the 1800s, when railway companies ran their trains on different
track gauges. LP vs. 45 RPM, as well as Sony Beta vs. VHS are other examples of similar situation.
BMW with its SAE Combo Charging system chose 24kW rather than the more common 50kW for the DC
Fast Charger. They reckon that 24 kW is cheaper, lighter and easier to install than a 50kW system. While
50kW would charge faster, the benefit is for a brief moment only before the charge acceptance degrades.
Scaling down is especially apparent with the smaller i3 battery, as well as packs that cannot take the ultra-
fast charge due to advanced age and other anomalies. Tests show that the 50 kW charger fills a battery to
80 percent in about 20 minutes; the 24 kW charger does it in roughly 30 minutes.
Doubling the power does not cut the charge time in half and moving up in the pyramid has diminishing
returns. The main reason for powerful chargers relates to battery size. The BMW i3 carries a 22kW battery
compared to the monster 85kW in the Tesla S 85. Both charging systems keep the charge C-rate at about 1C
during DC fast charging to moderate battery stress levels.
DC fast charging is more complex in that it must evaluate the condition of the battery and apply a charge
level that the battery can safely absorb. A cold battery must be charged slower than a warm one; the
charge current must also be reduced when cells develop high internal resistance and when the balancing
circuit can no longer compensate for cell mismatch. (See BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperature)
DC Fast Charging is not designed to fill the battery completely but to allow the vehicle to reach the next
charging station. Using Level 2 is the preferred routine for everyday charging.
Table 3 summarizes the charge levels and times with Levels 1, 2 and 3. The charge times may not fully
agree with advertised rates as the calculations are based on charging an empty battery to fully SoC; some
EV makers consider the battery charged when it reaches 80 percent. The charge time also shortens as the
battery fades because there is less to fill.
Table 51 - Estimated charging times on Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE)

Level 1 Level2 Level 3

Cordset Wall-mount DC Fast Charge
Charge levels
1.5kW 6.6kWh* 20-120kW
120VAC, 15A 240VAC, 30A** 400–600VDC, up to 300A

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 8km (5 mi) 36km (22 mi) 110, 270km (70, 168 mi)
Driving Range
per 1h charge per 1h charge per 30min charge
4.4kWh Toyota Prius 4h 1h N/A
16kWh Chevy Volt 12h 3h N/A
22kWh BMW i3 15h 4h 24kW: To 80% in 30 min
32kWh Nissan Leaf 16h 5h 50kW: To 80% in 20 min
60kWh Chevy Bolt 40h 10h 50kW: To 80% in 60min
90kWh Tesla S 85 60h 15h 120kW: To 80% in 40 min

EVs carry the charging circuit on board and the most common is the 6.6kW system, Tesla has 10kW
charger.
* Tesla EVs come with 10kW and 20kW chargers; Renault uses 3–43kW 3-phase on-board chargers
** A 30-amp EVSE needs a 40A circuit breaker some EVs come with larger on-board chargers
Last updated 2018-02-08

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BU-1005: Does the Fuel Cell-powered Vehicle have a Future?
Learn about the revival of the fuel cell for transportation
The fuel cell as a propulsion system is in many ways superior to a battery because it needs to carry less
energy storage by weight and volume compared to a vehicle propelled by batteries only. Figure 1 illustrates
the practical driving range of a vehicle powered by a fuel cell (FC) compared to lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion
batteries. (Also see BU-210: How does the fuel Cell work?)

Figure 119 - Driving range as a function of energy storage

The logarithmical curves of battery power place limitations in size and weight. The FC has a linear
progression and is similar to the ICE vehicle.
Note: 35MPa hydrogen tank refers to 5,000psi pressure; 70MPa is 10,000psi.
Source: International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 34, 6005-6020 (2009)+
One can clearly see that batteries simply get too heavy when increasing the size to enable greater
distances. In this respect, the fuel cell enjoys similar qualities to the internal combustion engine (ICE) in that
it can conquer great distances with only the addition of extra fuel.
The weight of fuel is most critical in air transport. Airlines only carry sufficient fuel to safely reach their
designation, knowing that the airplane becomes more fuel efficient towards the end of the journey as the
weight eases. A study group calculated that if the kerosene in an aircraft were replaced with batteries, the
flight would last less than 10 minutes.
Although the fuel cell assumes the duty of the ICE in a vehicle, poor response time and a weak power band
make on-board batteries necessary. In this respect, the FC car resembles an electric vehicle with an on-
board charger that keeps the batteries charged. This results in short cycles that reduces battery stress over
the EV; a propulsion system that bears a resemblance to the HEV.
The FC of a mid-sized car generates around 85kW (114hp) to charge the 18kWh on-board battery and drive
the electric motor. On start-up, the vehicle relies fully on the battery; the fuel cell only contributes after
reaching a steady state in 5–30 seconds. During the warm-up period, the battery must also deliver power to
activate the air compressor and pumps. Once warm, the FC provides enough power for cruising; however,
during acceleration, passing and hill-climbing both the FC and battery provide throttle power. Braking
delivers kinetic energy to the battery.

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Hydrogen costs about twice as much as gasoline, but the higher efficiency of the FC compared to the ICE in
converting fuel to energy bring both systems on par. The FC has the added benefit of producing less
greenhouse gas than the ICE.
Hydrogen is commonly derived from natural gas. Folks might ask, “Why not burn natural gas directly in the
ICE instead of converting it to hydrogen through a reformer and then transforming it to electricity in a fuel
cell to feed the electric motors?” The answer is efficiency. Burning natural gas in a combustion turbine to
produce electricity has an efficiency factor of only 26–32 percent while a fuel cell is 35–50 percent efficient.
That said, the machinery required to support the FC is costlier and requires more maintenance than a
simple burning process.
To complicate matters further, building a hydrogen infrastructure is expensive. A refueling station capable
of reforming natural gas to hydrogen to support 2,300 vehicles costs over $2 million, or $870 per vehicle. In
comparison, a Level 2 charging outlet to charge EVs can easily be installed by connecting to the existing
electric grid. The benefit with FC is a quick refill similar to filling a tank with liquid fuel.
Durability and cost are further deterrents for the FC, but improvements are made. The service life of an FC-
powered car has doubled from 1,000 hours to 2,000 hours. The target for 2015 is 5,000 hours, or a vehicle
life of 240,000km (150,000 miles).
A further challenge is vehicle cost as the fuel cell is more expensive to build than an ICE. As a guideline, an
FC vehicle is more expensive than a plug-in hybrid, and the plug-in hybrid is dearer than a gasoline-
powered car. With low fuel prices, alternative propulsion systems are difficult to justify on cost alone and
the environmental benefits must be considered. Japan is making renewed efforts with FC propulsion to
offer an alternative to the ICE and the EV. Toyota plans to phase out the ICE by 2050 and other vehicle
makers are observing the trend.
Last updated 2017-01-18

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BU-1006: Cost of Mobile and Renewable Power
Compare battery energy with fossil fuel and other resources
Lifting off in a large airplane is exhilarating. At a full weight of almost 400 tons, the Boeing 747 requires 90
megawatts of power to get airborne. Take-off is the most demanding part of a flight and when reaching
cruising altitude the power consumption decreases to roughly half.
Powerful engines were also used to propel the mighty Queen Mary that was launched in 1934. The 81,000-
ton ocean liner measuring 300 meters (1,000ft) in length was powered by four steam turbines producing a
total power of 160,000hp (120 megawatts). The ship carried 3,000 people and traveled at a speed of 28.5
knots (52km/h). Queen Mary is now a museum in Long Beach, California.
Table 1 illustrates man’s inventiveness in the quest for power by comparing an ox of prehistoric times with
newer energy sources made available during the Industrial Revolution to today’s super engines, with
seemingly unlimited power.
Table 52 - Ancient and modern power sources

Since Type of power source Generated power

3000 BC Ox pulling a load 0.5hp 370W

350 BC Vertical waterwheel 3hp 2,230W

1800 Watt's steam engine 40hp 30kW

1837 Marine steam engine 750hp 560kW

1900 Rail steam engine 12,000hp 8,950kW

1936 Queen Mary ocean liner 160,000hp 120,000kW

1949 Cadillac car 160hp 120kW

1969 Boeing 747 jet airplane 100,000hp 74,600kW

1974 Nuclear power plant 1,520,000hp 1,133,000kW

Large propulsion systems are only feasible with the internal combustion engines (ICE), and fossil fuel
serves as a cheap and plentiful energy resource. Low energy-to-weight ratio in terms of net calorific value
(NCV) puts the battery against the mighty ICE like David and Goliath. The battery is the weaker vessel and is
sensitive to extreme heat and cold; it also has a relatively short life span.
While fossil fuel delivers an NCV of 12,000Wh/kg, Li-ion provides only between 70Wh/kg and 260Wh/kg
depending on chemistry; less with most other systems. Even at a low efficiency of about 30 percent, the
ICE outperforms the best battery in terms of energy-to-weight ratio. The battery capacity would need to
increase 20-fold before it could compete head-to-head with fossil fuel.
Another limitation of battery propulsion over fossil fuel is fuel by weight. While the weight diminishes when
being consumed, the battery carries the same deadweight whether fully charged or empty. This puts
limitations on EV driving distance and would make the electric airplane impractical. Furthermore, the ICE
delivers full power at freezing temperatures, runs in hot climates, and continues to perform well with
advancing age. This is not the case with a battery as each subsequent discharge delivers slightly less
energy than the previous cycle.
Power from Primary Batteries
Energy from a non-rechargeable battery is one of the most expensive forms of electrical supply in terms of
cost per kilowatt-hours (kWh). Primary batteries are used for low-power applications such as wristwatches,
remote controls, electric keys and children’s toys. Military in combat, light beacons and remote repeater
stations also use primaries because charging is not practical. Table 2 estimates the capability and cost per
kWh of primary batteries.

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 Table 53 - Capacity and cost comparison of primary alkaline cells

AAA cell AA cell C cell D cell 9 Volt

Capacity (alkaline) 1,150mAh 2,850mAh 7,800mAh 17,000mAh 570mAh

Energy (single cell) 1.725Wh 4.275Wh 11.7Wh 25.5Wh 5.13Wh

Cost per cell (US$) $1.00 $0.75 $2.00 $2.00 $3.00

Cost per kWh (US$) $580 $175 $170 $78 $585

.One-time use makes energy stored in primary batteries expensive; cost decreases with larger battery size.
Power from Secondary Batteries
Electric energy from rechargeable batteries is more economical than with primaries, however, the cost per
kWh is not complete without examining the total cost of ownership. This includes cost per cycle, longevity,
eventual replacement and disposal. Table 3 compares Lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion.
Table 54 - Energy and cost comparison of rechargeable batteries

Lead acid NiCd NiMH Li ion

Specific energy (Wh/kg) 30–50 45–80 60–120 100–250

Cycle life Moderate High High High

Temperature
Low when cold -50°C to 70°C Reduced when cold Low when cold
performance

UPS with infrequent Rugged, high/low HEV, UPS with frequent EV, UPS with
Applications
discharges temperature discharges frequent discharges

Cost per kWh ($US)

$100-200 $300-600 $300-600 $300–1,000
Load leveling, powertrain

Although Li-ion is more expensive than Lead acid, the cycle cost may be less. NiCd operates at extreme
temperatures, has the best cycle life and accepts ultra-fast charge with little stress.
Power from Other Sources
To reduce the fossil fuel consumption and to lower emissions, governments and the private sector are
studying alternate energy sources. Table 4 compares the cost to generate 1kW of power that includes initial
investment, fuel consumption, maintenance and eventual replacement.
Table 55 - Cost of generating 1kW of energy

Equipment Cost of fuel Total cost

Fuel type Life span
to generate 1kW per kWh per kWh
Li-ion $500/kW (20kW battery $0.60
2,500h (repl. cost $0.40/kW) $0.20
Powertrain costing $10,000) ($0.40 + $0.20)

$30/kW $0.34
ICE in vehicle 4,000h (repl. cost $0.01/kW) $0.33
($3,000/100kW) ($0.33 + $0.01)

Fuel cell $0.35

2,000h
- portable -> $1.85 – 4.10
$3,000–7,500 4,000h
- mobile -> $1.10 – 2.25
40,000h
- stationary -> $0.45 – 0.55

Solar cell $12,000, 5kW system 25 years $0 ~$0.10*

Electricity $0.20
All inclusive All inclusive $0.20
electric grid (average)

Estimations include the initial investment, fuel consumption, maintenance and replacement of the
equipment. Grid electricity is lowest.

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* Amortization of investment yielding 200 days of 5h/day sun; declining output with age not included.
Power from the electrical utility grid is most cost-effective. Consumers pay between $0.06 and $0.40US per
kWh, delivered with no added maintenance cost or the need to replace aging power-generating machinery;
the supply is continuous. (The typical daily energy consumption per household in the West is 25kW.)
The supply of cheap electricity changes when energy must be stored in a battery, as is the case with a solar
system that is backed up by a battery and in the electric powertrain. High battery cost and a relatively short
life can double the electrical cost if supplied by a battery. Gasoline (and equivalent) is the most economical
solution for mobility.
The fuel cell is most effective in converting fuel to electricity, but high equipment costs make this power
source expensive in terms of cost per kWh. In virtually all applications, power from the fuel cell is
considerably more expensive than from conventional methods.
Our bodies also consume energy, and an active man requires 3,500 calories per day to stay fit. This relates
to roughly 4,000 watts in a 24-hour day (1 food Calorie* = 1.16 watt-hour). Walking propels a person about
40km (25 miles) per day, and a bicycle increases the distance by a factor of four to 160km (100 miles). Eating
two potatoes and a sausage for lunch propels a bicyclist for the afternoon, covering 60km (37 miles, a past-
time activity I often do. Not all energy goes to the muscles alone; the brain consumes about 20 percent of
our intake. The human body is amazingly efficient in converting food to energy; one would think that the
potato and sausage lunch could hardly keep a laptop going for that long. Table 5 provides the stored
energies of calories, proteins and fat in watt-hours and joules.
* A calorie specifies the energy level food provides to the body. Kilocalories on food packages and related
nutrition are normally published in “Calories with capital “C”. Example: 800 Calories on the food label are in
essence 800 kilocalories. Table 5 below uses the official standard of 1.16mWh/cal.
Table 56 - Relationship of calorie to watt-hours

Calories Milliwatt-hour Joule

Food calorie 1 1.16 4,184

1 gram of protein 4 4.64 16,736

1 gram of carbohydrate 4 4.64 16,736

1 gram of body fat 9 10.46 37,656

The body stores store energy in the form for fat containing high net calorific value.
Table 6 compares the estimated power and energy per passenger/kilometer for a loaded Boeing 747, the
retired Queen Mary ocean liner, a gas-guzzling SUV, a fit person on a bicycle, and walking on foot.
Table 57 - Power needs of different transportation modes

Boeing 747 Ocean liner SUV Bicycle

Function On foot
jumbo jet Queen Mary or large car (Bike & rider)
Full weight 369 tons 81,000 tons 2.5 tons 100kg (220lb) 80kg (176lb)

900km/h 52km/h 100km/h 20km/h 5km/h

Cruising speed
(560 mph) (32mph) (62mph) (12.5mph) (3.1mph)

77,000kW 120,000kW 200kW 2,000W 2,000W

Maximum power
(100,000hp) (160,000hp) (275hp) (2.7hp) (2.7hp)

65,000kW 90,000 kW 130 kW 80 W 280 W

Power at cruising
(87,000hp) (120,000hp) (174hp) (0.1hp) (0.38hp)

Passengers 450 3,000 4 1 1

140kW 40kW 50kW 80W 280W

Power per passenger
580kJ* 2,800kJ* 1,800kJ* 14.4kJ* 200kJ*

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Air travel consumes the least per passenger-km in high-speed transportation; the boat is efficient for slow
tonnage transport, but the absolute lowest energy consumption is the bicycle.
* 1 joule is the energy of 1A at 1V for 1 second, or 1 watt times second.
4.186 joules raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1 Celsius; 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.
The bicycle is by far the most effective form of transportation. Comparing a bicycle to a car, a cyclist would
only consume 0.4 liter of fuel per 100km (630mpg). Walking is also efficient; it uses about 1 liter per 100km
(228mpg). The problem with self-powered propulsion is the limited travel range before fatigue sets in.
In terms of energy usage, cars are one of the least efficient modes of transportation. Most ICEs utilize only
25 percent of the net calorific value from the fuel for propulsion. The math looks even worse when
including vehicle weight and a single passenger, the driver. The ratio of machine to man is about ten-to-
one, higher on a large vehicle. When accelerating a 1.5-ton vehicle, less than 2 percent of the energy moves
the 75kg (165 lb) driver, his briefcase and his lunch bag; 98 percent goes to heat and friction. Even a
modern jet plane has better fuel efficiency than a car. A loaded Airbus 340 gets 3.4l/100km (70mpg),
cruising at 950km/h (594mph).
Trains are one of the most efficient modes of transportation. The 36km Yamanote circle line, connecting
major urban centers in Tokyo carries 3.5 million passengers per day. During rush hour, the 11-car train runs
every 150 seconds. Such a passenger volume would be unthinkable by private cars on city streets.
Modern trains are less intrusive than freeways to move people and goods. Building efficient public
transportation systems would give cities back to the people who are the rightful owners. The most
desirable cities were built before the arrival of the car as designers had the well-being of people in mind.
Trains are also economical to move freight. Transporting one ton of freight consumes only 0.65 liters of fuel
per 100km (362mpg).
Last updated 2017-05-19

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BU-1007: Net Calorific Value
Compare battery energy with fossil fuel and other resources
Since the beginning of time, wood was a readily available fuel to mankind; however during the medieval
period, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) was concerned that England could not produce enough wood for
heating, cooking and building houses and he urged citizens to conserve. Coal mining in the 1700s lifted this
apparent shortage and the abundant new energy source became the nucleus for the Industrial Revolution.
But burning large amounts of coal soon began to darken the skies over cities and caused health problems.
In 1859, explorers discovered oil, first in Pennsylvania and then in Texas. By 1900, the Middle East became a
key supplier of oil, and after World War I, Mexico, Venezuela and Iran began pumping liquid energy. Oil was
cheap, plentiful, easy to transport, safe to use and relatively clean to burn; it soon became the preferred
energy resource.
As wood led to coal and coal to oil, scientists turned to nuclear power to generate what was seen as an
unlimited pool of energy at low cost. The common nuclear fuels are uranium-235 and plutonium-239, of
which plutonium-239 is so powerful that 1kg can produce nearly 10 million kWh of electricity. Science writer
David Dietz (1897–1984) wrote, “Instead of filling the gas tank of your car two or three times a week, you will
travel for a year on a pellet of atomic energy the size of a vitamin pill.”
In the 1950s, nuclear plants began generating electricity and nuclear-powered submarines and aircraft
carriers became common. Amendments were written and the Atomic Energy Act invited the private sector
to harness nuclear energy. This was met with a sharp learning curve that led to accidents and meltdowns.
The most serious nuclear accidents were Three Mile Island in the USA, Chernobyl in the Ukraine and
Fukushima in Japan. The enormity of damage led to slowing nuclear growth and to this day, radiation and
disposal of spent fuel remains a problem.
Scientists pointed to hydrogen as the next energy miracle as it has an unlimited supply and is clean. Cars
powered by the hydrogen fuel cells would run so clean that the hot water from the tailpipe could be used to
serve tea. But hydrogen is expensive to produce because it takes as much energy to create as it delivers.
After much anticipation, hydrogen became a pipedream.
Much of the global energy comes by burning hydrocarbons in the form of petroleum, natural gas and coal
that are leftovers of living matter from past geological times. The sun, the source of all life, provided these
canned energies but they are non-renewable. Figure 1 illustrates the fuels used to generate electricity. Coal,
the most common fuel, produces the highest amount of CO2; natural gas is about half that of the coal
equivalent, and oil sits somewhere in between.

Figure 120 - Global electricity generation by fuel (IEA 2014)

Coal is cheap but emits about twice the CO2 of natural gas. The CO2 emmission of oil is in between coal
and natural gas (Courtesty: Internal Energy Agency)

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Table 2 lists the net calorific value (NCV) and efficiency of various energy sources in Wh per liter. Diesel and
gasoline overshadow hydrogen and the Li-ion battery in terms of NCV. Any departure from a simple
combustion process to harvest energy is met with higher energy costs, but the gain must be offset with the
benefit of generating less greenhouse gas (CO2).

Figure 121 - Net calorific values

Diesel and gasoline surpass hydrogen and Li-ion. The conversion efficiency is thermal output and does not
include friction and drag.
* CNG (compressed natural gas) is 250 bars (3,625psi)
** Hydrogen is at 350 bar (5,000psi)
Table 3 provides a summary of the net calorific values of ancient and modern fuels by mass (kg) and
volume (liter). With the exception of hydrogen by mass, hydrocarbons offer the highest energy by weight.
Table 58 - Energy densities of fossil fuel and batteries

Fuel Energy by mass (Wh/kg) Energy by volume (Wh/l)

Hydrogen (350 bar)* 39,300 750
Liquid hydrogen* 39,000 2,600
Propane 13,900 6,600
Butane 13,600 7,800
Diesel fuel 12,700 10,700
Gasoline 12,200 9,700
Natural gas (250 bar) 12,100 3,100
Body fat 10,500 9,700
Ethanol 7,850 6,100
Black coal (solid) 6,600 9,400
Methanol 6,400 4,600
Wood (average) 2,300 540
Li-cobalt battery 150 330
Li-manganese 120 280

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 Flywheel 120 210
NiMH battery 90 180
Lead acid battery 40 64
Compressed air 34 17
Supercapacitor 5 73

Table 3:.

Fossil fuel carries roughly 100 times the energy per mass compared to Li-ion.
Compiled from various sources. Values are approximate.
* Hydrogen has the highest energy to mass ratio (Wh/kg), but energy by volume (Wh/l) reveals a truer
picture in terms of storage and delivery. Diesel has almost 14 times the specific energy of pure hydrogen by
volume (750Wh/l at 350 bar or 5,000psi)
Oil and natural gas can be drawn from the earth cheaply and with little preparation. Hydrogen, in
comparison, needs energy to be produced and it is hard to store. Economics are a deciding factor when
choosing a fuel for heating and mobility. This puts environmental issues on the backburner. Fossil fuel is
among the cheapest, most efficient and readily available fuels, but the ecological harm when consumed in
large scale is beginning to get everyone’s attention.
Last updated 2016-03-06

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BU-1008: Working towards Sustainability
Compare battery energy with fossil fuel and other resources
Private transportation is a much desired and emotional issue and governments are promoting this culture
by subsidizing roads and even handing out grants to buy certain vehicles. Already in the 1950s, the car was
given the status of supreme ruler and commuter trains were removed in favor of freeways. With pollution
hitting the tipping point and roads in gridlock, the lack of long-term city planning is becoming evident.
Commuting by car in an urban setting is not sustainable as the road system cannot accommodate the
population growth in urban areas.
In the 1930s, Europe had a different vision for the car. With a large rural population, farmers needed low-
cost transportation and Citroën, a French carmaker, designed a “rugged umbrella on four wheels.” The car
was to carry four workers and a payload of 100kg (220 lb), traveling at a top speed of 60km/h (37mph) on a
well-suspended chassis that did not break farm eggs when driving across a ploughed field. The vehicle was
to consume no more than 3 liters of gasoline per 100km (78mpg). The first models had a 375cc motor
developing 9hp; the 2CV (my first car in Switzerland) had the larger 425cc engine with 12hp (9kW). With a
tailwind the car would reach a top speed of 85km/h (53mph). Figure 1 illustrates a 1958 Citroen 2CV.

Figure 122 - 11-22: 1958 Citroen 2CV

In 1930, the main objectives were economical transportation for people and goods and the Citroen 2CV met
this criterion with a 425cc air-cooled two-cylinder motor producing 12hp (Courtesy Classic Car Catalogue).
In 1934, then chancellor Adolf Hitler gave Ferdinand Porsche specifications to build the Volkswagen: a
“people’s car” capable of transporting two adults and three children at 100 km/h (62 mph) while consuming
no more than 7 liters of fuel per 100 km. The engine had to be powerful enough to maintain cruising speeds
on Germany’s new freeways, which Hitler is said to have promoted to ease mass unemployment. Hitler
asked for a simple design to make the car affordable and to ensure that worn parts could be exchanged
quickly and cheaply. The car was to be made available to citizens on a savings scheme at a price that was
less than a worker’s 2-year income.
Today’s luxury cars are powered with 275hp (200kW) engines, enough to provide electrical energy for 10
houses. Most vehicles carry only the driver, and few restrictions exist as to vehicle size, horsepower and
distances driven. Our highways are mostly free to use; general tax revenue and gas tax pay for them. A
research group said that gasoline would need to cost five-times the current price if drivers were to pay for
the highway costs.
Free-roaming takes a toll on the environment. According to the US Department of Energy, 71 percent of the
oil consumed in the USA is for transportation and 51 percent goes to passenger cars and light trucks.
Concerns about pollution by burning fossil fuel were first published in 1971; governments acknowledged an
environmental demise in 1991, and today our leaders are taking note but cannot halt the rise of greenhouse
gases. Over the past 400,000 years, CO2 concentrations have fluctuated between 180 and 280 parts per
million; today’s level is at 400 parts per million.

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The US burns 19 million barrels of oil a day (one barrel has 159 liters). Europe, with twice the population and
a comparable standard of living, consumes only half this amount. More could be done to reduce
consumption, and concerned citizens feel that climate change is not being taken seriously in the West. An
analogy is vodka consumption in Russia that causes drunkenness. Stopping the flow, economists say,
would bring the country to a halt.
Scientists say that developed nations consume a level of energy that is one-and-a-half times what mother
earth can produce. Folks living in the next millennium might fret over the environmental damage their
forefathers have caused, forcing millions of farmers in water-starved territories to flee the once fruitful land
because of encroaching deserts. Schoolbooks may describe how wealthy businessmen lined their pockets
while politicians looked the other way and denied any connection with human activity and unusual weather
patterns. Questions will be asked why past leaders did nothing to slow a frivolous and unsustainable
lifestyle.
No one likes change, and when the medical associations realized in the 1970s that smoking tobacco was
harmful to human health, the then US president Ronald Reagan hinted, “Yes, we must do everything to cut
down on smoking, but let’s not hurt the tobacco industry” (paraphrased).
New European cars under the 2015 law can only emit 130 grams of CO2 per kilometer. This is equal to 5.6
l/km (42mpg). The 2021 target will be 95g/km and 4.1 l/km (57mpg). Car makers must pay 95 euro per gram
of excess emission premiums for each vehicle that exceeds this limit. Japan is following the lead and also
requires and achieves emission levels of about 130g/km.
The US president said that America is getting tough on car pollution as well. Progress was made and the
CO2 release of 268g/kg in 2010 was lowered to an average of 190g/km, or 8.15 l/100km (29mpg), on 2015
model cars. Much work still lies ahead to reduce fuel consumption as burning 1 liter of gasoline generates
2.3kg of CO2 (19 lb per US gallon).
Resource-rich Americans dislike limitations while resource-lean countries in Europe and Asia were enticed
to conserve and get innovative. Our European and Japanese friends have demonstrated that protecting our
environment is possible without sacrificing standard of living. Much work will revolve around the electric
powertrain, but no battery exists yet that can match hydrocarbons in net calorific value. Limitations will
continue as long as the battery operates on an electrochemical process.
Pledge to Humanity
The goal for humanity is to maintain an environment that is sustainable, finds contentment and provides
social justice. Rich nations may not reach this objective without the help from poorer lands, These caring
and resourceful folks may one day come forth to teach the well-established that material possession does
not satisfy and that the deeper meaning of life is love, relationships and spiritual fulfillment. They will tell
rich nations to go back to the basics and rediscover the bounty of this fine earth by letting go of excess
baggage. Those who find the virtue of simplicity will finally begin to enjoy life more abundantly.
Last updated 2016-06-02

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BU-1009: Battery Paradox – Afterword
Join in with what folks say and make your own contribution.
In closing, the author stresses the importance of observing battery performance. The battery begins to fade
the moment it comes off the assembly line; it is also one of the most prone parts to fail. While a faded pack
in a personal device may only cause mild inconvenience, loss of mission-critical power can have serious
consequences.

Safety falls under regulatory authorities and being labeled uncontrollable, the battery tends to evade the
scrutiny of inspection. This allows weak batteries to hide in a system and cause havoc. Meanwhile
seemingly less important regulatory issues are being tightened to the hilts with only moderate benefit. The
battery is a scapegoat.

Batteries should receive the same treatment as a critical part in an aircraft or machine where wear-and-tear
falls under strict maintenance guidelines. This is not the case with batteries.
Jet engine life is measured in flight-hours and flight cycles. One cycle is a take-off and landing. An Airbus
330 needs maintenance after 200-400 cycles.
A biomed technician said: “Batteries are the most abused components. Staff care little about them and only
do the bare minimum. References to battery maintenance are vague and hidden inside service manuals.”
A new device is approved with a perfect battery, rendering the procedure flawed. Batteries will fade in use
and field personnel ask, “At what capacity should I replace the battery? How much spare is enough? How
often should I test the pack?”

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An AAMI (Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation) survey of medical professionals
states: “Battery management emerged as a top 10 medical device challenge.” A US FDA survey says, “up to
50 percent of issues in hospitals are battery related.” (FDA regulations are very tough in other fields.)

A Li-ion battery in a medical device lasts for about 5 years. In the absence of battery maintenance, the
manufacturers mandate a 2-year life span. Most packs still have over 90 percent capacity when being
discarded. DOE reports that “every year roughly one million usable Li-ion batteries are sent in for recycling
with most having a capacity of up to 80 percent.”
Battery developments fall into two categories: Birth-to-graduation and workforce-to-retirement. Striving for
higher capacities is desirable but battery fade must also be observed. Capacity is the leading health
indicator, a measure that is poorly understood. When battery users are asked, “At what capacity do you
replace the battery?” most reply in confusion, “I beg your pardon?”

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Battery maintenance has a good return rate, but when demonstrating a battery analyzer, the manager of a
US railway company quipped, “Our guys could not be bothered testing batteries; they throw them out with
the radios.” (The company maintained 10,000 high-end radios.)

Battery diagnostics and monitoring have lagged behind other technologies but an industrial revolution in
batteries is looming. In the 1970s, the world had computers but little software. Bill Gates changed this
around. Today, the world evolves around batteries but lacks control technology. Modern systems will
assess battery performance while charging and make the results transparent to the battery user and fleet
manager alike.
Last updated 2017-05-11

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INFORMATION

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BU-1101: Glossary
Discover easy-to-understand explanations of technical battery terms.
AC: Alternating current; current flows in both directions. Household current is AC.
Acid: Compound in a battery that promotes electrochemical reaction.
AGM: Absorbent Glass Mat is a lead acid battery that uses a glass mat to promote the recombination of
gases produced by the charging process.
Allotrope: Two or more forms of the same element in the same physical state (solid, liquid, gas) that differ
from each other in physical and sometimes chemical properties.
Ampere-hours: Symbol Ah is a unit of charge. Example: Drawing a current of one ampere (1A) from a
battery for one hour (1h) equates in one ampere-hour (1Ah).
Anode: Electrode on which oxidation occurs; releases electrons on discharge. When applying power to a
device (vacuum tube, diode, battery on charge), the anode is positive; taking power away on discharge
turns the anode to negative.
Antimony: Used in lead acid batteries to improve mechanical strengths of lead plates and enhances
performance. Other uses are flame proofing, producing low friction applications, and building
semiconductors.
ASoC: Absolute state-of-charge; ability to take specified charge when the battery is new.
ASoH: Absolute state-of-health; ability to store specified energy when the battery is new.
Barrel: Measuring unit for liquids (oil); 1 barrel has 42 US gallons, 35 Imperial gallons, 159 liters.
Basel Convention: International treaty to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations;
signed in1989 in Basel, Switzerland and made effective in 1992.
Battery: Electrochemical cell, or cells, connected in series (some in parallel); composed of the anode
(negative electrode), cathode (positive electrode), separator and electrolyte as catalyst.
Battery cycle: Charge followed by a discharge and recharge. No standard exists as to level of charge and
discharge to constitute a cycle.
Battery Directive 2006/66/EC: European legislation on waste batteries to protect the environment.
BESS: Battery energy storage system (also known as ESS)
BMS: Battery Management System used inside or outside a battery to manage charge, discharge and
provide SoC; forms an essential part to assure battery longevity and safety.
Bluetooth: Low-power radio communications up to 10 meters (30 feet). Bluetooth borrowed the name from
Harald Bluetooth, a Danish king who lived more than 1,000 years ago.
Boolean bit: System of symbolic logic devised by George Boole in the 1840s; used in computers.
Button cell: Miniaturized battery also known as coin cell. Most are non-rechargeable.
Calcium: Fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth crust; essential for living organisms to build
bone, teeth and shells. Discovered by Humphry Davy (1778–1829). Improves mechanical strength of lead
plates in lead acid batteries; enhances performance.
Candela (cd): Unit of luminous intensity; agreed international name since 1967.
Capacitance: Unit measuring the electrical charge in a capacitor (condenser), measured in farad (f).
Capacitor: Component consisting of two conductive surfaces separated by an insulator. Passes AC;
indefinite resistance for DC; voltage lags behind the current (opposite of a coil).
Capacity: Electrical energy of a battery in ampere-hours (Ah). The stored energy is measured by observing
the elapsed time while discharging at a constant current to the end-of-discharge voltage. The capacity is
the leading health indicator of a battery.
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Capacity offset: Capacity correction when discharging a battery at a higher C-rate than specified.
Carbon dioxide: (CO2) Odorless gas formed during combustion, respiration and decomposition of organic
substances. Plants absorb CO2; excess CO2 is blamed for climate change.
Cathode: Electrode in an electrochemical cell in which reduction takes place by absorbing electrons. During
discharge, the cathode is positive; reverse on charge.
C-code: Abbreviation for configuration code. C-code is stored in a battery adapter and configures the
analyzer to the correct battery settings (Cadex systems).
Cell mismatch: Cells in a battery pack that have unequal capacities, voltages or resistive values.
Cell reversal: Cell polarity reverses on a deep discharge at high load. Damages affected cell.
Charge: Replenishing electrical charge to a cell or battery.
Chemical battery: Behavior of the actual battery as opposed to monitoring peripheral activities.
Cobalt (Co): Hard, lustrous, gray metal; used in batteries, magnets, and high-strength alloys.
Co-generation: Utilization of heat and kinetic force. Heat drives steam turbines; kinetic force produces
electricity through a generator; charges a battery on deceleration.
Coke: Derivative of coal from which most gases have been removed through heating.
Coulomb: Unit of electric charge. One coulomb (1C) equals one ampere-second (1As).
Coulombic efficiency, also called faradaic efficiency or current efficiency describes the charge efficiency by
which electrons are transferred in a batteries.
C rate: Unit by which charge and discharge times are scaled. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges at a
current that is at par with the marked Ah. (See BU-402)
Current-limiting charger: Keeps current constant and allows voltage to fluctuate. (NiCd, NiMH chargers)
Cycle: Charge/discharge/charge. No standard exists as to what constitutes a cycle.
Cycle life: Number of cycles a battery can deliver. (End of-battery-life for portable devices is commonly set
to 80%.)
Cylindrical cell: Positive and negative plates are rolled up and placed into a cylindrical container.
DC: Direct current; current flows in one direction. A battery delivers a DC current.
DC-to-DC converter: Converts DC to a higher or lower voltage potential.
Delta temperature over delta time (dT/dt): Senses rate of temperature increase over a given time rather
than by measuring the absolute value; used for full charge detection of nickel-based battery. (See BU-407)
Digital battery: Peripheral that monitors battery activity associated with the smart battery.
DIN, IEC: Capacity of a starter battery is measured with a 0.2C-rate (5h) discharge of a fully charged battery
to 1.55V/cell or a 0.05 (20h) discharge to 1.75V/cell.
DoD: Depth of discharge; 100% is full discharge; 80% is commonly used for specification.
Double-layer capacitor: Electrostatic storage device utilizing the electrical double layer effect that is formed
near the surface of the carbon electrode; also called super capacitors or ultracapacitors.
Driving range: EVs display the allowable driving rang range rather than capacity. As the capacity fades,
battery gets charged more and discharged deeper. The full capacity is hidden.
Dumb battery: Basic electrochemical battery with no electronic intelligence with which to communicate.
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), also known as impedance spectroscopy; method to test
electrochemical characteristics of a battery; EIS injects AC signals at different frequencies and analyzes the
response. (See BU-904)
Electrode: Conductor or plate in a cell in which an electrochemical reaction occurs.
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Electrolyte: Non-metallic conductor of electricity (typically liquid) placed between positive and negative
electrodes of a battery. Ion movement enables current flow.
Electrolyte oxidation (EO): Formation of a restrictive film on the Li-ion cathode if the voltage is kept above
4.10V/cell. The longer the battery stays in a high voltage, the more pronounced the degradation will be.
Energy: Work measures over time. Multiplying voltage x current x time = Watt-hours (Wh). Energy is also
given in joules (J); 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.
Energy Cell: Battery cell designed for maximum capacity. Power density may be compromised.
Energy density: Also known as volumetric energy density; specifies the amount of energy a cell can hold in
volume (Wh/l). Energy density is synonymous with the runtime of a battery.
Energy Star: Organization promoting energy efficiency.
Exercise: In battery maintenance, one or several discharge cycles to the end-of-discharge with recharge;
prevents memory buildup in NiCd and NiMH batteries.
Farad (f): Charge in coulombs necessary to change the potential between the plates of a capacitor by 1V. (1
Farad = 1 Coulomb per Volt)
Fast charge: 1–3 hours charge time.
Float charge: Similar to trickle or maintenance charge; compensates self-discharge of lead acid battery.
Flow battery: A cross between a conventional battery and a fuel cell. Liquid electrolyte of metallic salts is
pumped through a core with positive and negative electrodes, separated by a membrane. The resulting ion
exchange generates electricity. (See BU-210b)
Frequency: Number of events in a given time. Indicates how often the AC voltage changes from positive to
negative per second, or how many times a battery is cycled.
Fuel cell: Device converts oxygen and hydrogen into electricity and water. (See BU-210)
Fuel gauge: State-of-charge (SoC) indicator to estimate the charge level of a battery.
Fuzzy logic: Multi-valued, mathematical logic derived from blurred data derives at a voted result. Battery
rapid testing, image recognition, weather forecasting and medical tests follow fuzzy logic.
Graphene: Allotrope of carbon in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each
vertex; establishes the basic structural element of graphite, charcoal diamonds and more.
Graphite: A form of carbon with hexagonally crystallized allotrope, used in lead pencils, lubricants,
batteries and the anode of most Li-ion.
Gravimetric energy density: Also known as specific energy; indicates the amount of energy a cell holds in
weight (Wh/kg); synonymous with battery runtime.
Halon: Agent to suppress fire. Used also for Li-ion fires.
Hertz (Hz): Unit of frequency; 1Hz constitutes one full cycle per second.
Hydrogen (H): Chemical element with atomic number 1; lightest and most abundant chemical element;
constitutes roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass. Hydrogen gas becomes explosive at a
concentration of 4 percent.
Hydrometer: Device to measure the specific gravity of a fluid; reads state-of-charge of a lead acid and other
flooded batteries.
Hysteresis charge: Charger turns off at full charge and resumes after a time to compensate for parasitic
loads and self-discharge.
I2C: Inter-Integrated Circuit is a multi-master, multi-slave, single-ended, serial computer bus invented by
Philips Semiconductor.
IEC 60079: Intrinsically safe standards to prevent explosion in areas of flammable gas and dust.

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IEC 60086: Safety standard for primary batteries.
IEC 62133: Safety requirements for sealed secondary cells/batteries for portable use.
IEEE 1625: Standard for rechargeable batteries for mobile computing devices.
IEEE 1725: Standard for rechargeable cells/batteries for mobile phones.
Imaginary impedance: Also known as complex impedance; characterizes the electrical resistance of
reactive components as a function of frequency. Rising frequency lowers the capacitive resistance and
increases the inductance resistance.
Impedance: Combination of capacitive, inductive and ohmic resistance; measured in ohms (R); frequency
dependent.
Inductance (L): Winding that causes an electromotive force when current is applied; frequency dependent;
reacts opposite to a capacitor; measurement in Henry (H.
Intelligent battery: Also known as smart battery; enables communication between device, charger and
user.
Internal resistance: Electrical resistance of a battery pack in milliohms (m). A good battery has low
resistance; corrosion raises it.
Intrinsically safe battery: Has built-in protection circuit to enable safe operation in a hazardous area;
prevents sparks by limiting voltage and current spikes.
Ion: Atom or molecule with unequal number of electrons and protons; provides a positive or negative
electrical charge.
Joule (J): Energy measurement: 1 joule = 1A at 1V for 1 second. Also applies to mechanical energy.
Lead acid battery: Oldest rechargeable battery; used as starter battery wheeled mobility, UPS, etc.
Lithium (Li): Soft, silver-white metal belonging to the alkali metal group; lightest and least dense metal in
the element family; discovered by Johan August Arfwedson in 1817; metal is named after the Greek word
“lithos” meaning “stone.”
Lithium battery: Has lithium-metal anode; most are non-rechargeable.
Lithium-ion battery: Rechargeable battery with cobalt, manganese, nickel and/or other metals as cathode
and graphite anode.
Lithium-ion polymer battery: Similar to Li ion with a solid polymer as electrolyte; addition of gelled material
promotes conductivity.
Lithium polymer battery: Also known as solid-state battery; uses solid polymer as electrolyte; heat induces
conductivity.
Load current: Current flow when applying an electrical load.
Manchester coding, also known as phase coding, is used in 1-Wire battery communications to combine
data and clock in a single-wire system
Manganese (Mn): Cathode material of Li-ion. Also used in steelmaking.
Matrix: Lookup table to compare and derive at characteristics, such as battery capacity.
Max Error: Expected margin of error (%) of charge calibration on SMBus battery.
Memory: Reversible capacity loss in nickel-based batteries.
Microsecond (μs): One-millionth of a second (10-6).
Milliampere-hour (mAh): Specifies battery capacity or rating; 1000mAh equals 1Ah.
Millihertz: Unit of frequency. Example: 1 Hertz = 1 cycle/second; 1mHz = 1,000 seconds.
Millisecond (ms): One-thousand of a second (10-3).

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Nano: Latin for dwarf. 1 nanometer (nm) is one-billionth (10-9) of a meter or a layer of 3–6 atoms.
NCA: Nickel-cobalt-aluminum Li-ion; serves as cathode material.
Negative delta V (NDV): Drop in battery voltage when sealed NiCd and NiMH reach full charge; used to
detect full charge.
Newton (N): Unit of force named after Isaac Newton; equal to accelerating 1kg a distance of 1 meter per
second; (1N = 0.2248 pounds of force).
Nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd): Rechargeable battery using cadmium as anode and nickel as cathode.
Nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH): Rechargeable battery for satellites; pressure vessel contains the hydrogen.
Nickel-iron battery (NiFe): Rechargeable battery developed by Thomas Edison in 1901.Used for mining;
powered German V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rockets during World War II.
Nickel-metal-hydride battery (NiMH): Similar to NiCd; anode made of a hydride alloy that is less toxic than
cadmium; 30 percent more capacity than NiCd but is less durable.
Nickel-zinc battery (NiZn): Similar to NiCd; first developed in 1920; short life due to dendrite growth.
Nit: Unit of brightness equal to one candela per square meter.
NMC: Lithium-ion with nickel, manganese and cobalt as cathode material.
Nominal voltage: Terminal voltage of batteries.
Nyquist plots: Invented by Harry Nyquist (1889–1996) while working at Bell Laboratories; provides
the frequency response of a linear system that displays both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot
using frequency as parameter.
Ohmic resistance: Electrical DC resistance with no capacitive and inductive reactance.
OhmTest™: Battery resistance measurement based on IEC 61951 (Cadex trademark).
Organic: Relating or belonging to carbon-based chemical compounds. Also relates to an organism, a living
entity. Organic matter is the product of decay from a once living organism
Overcharge: Exceeding charge acceptance. The battery heats up, produces gases and is subject to an evet.
Overpack: Package can contain other non-dangerous or compatible dangerous good items. Limit is one
package in accordance with Section II of PI 965. (Effective 1 April 2016).
Parasitic load: Power consumption with the device turned off.
Passivation layer: Resistive layer that forms on some batteries after prolonged storage. Applying a brief
load breaks the layer and enables current flow.
Peukert law: Calculates battery capacity on discharge rate; higher rates decrease capacity. Mainly used for
lead acid batteries; a reading close to 1 indicates a battery with minimal loss; larger number reflect higher
losses; named after Wilhelm Peukert (1897).
Phosphate: Salt or phosphoric acid.
Polymer: Electrical insulator that passes ions.
Pouch cell: Packaged into a flexible, heat-sealable foil pouch similar to wrapping food products.
Power: Voltage x current = power in watts (W). Also in horsepower (1hp = 746W).
Power Cell: Battery cell designed for maximum current delivery. Energy density may be compromised.
Power density: Also known as volumetric power density; reflects loading capability of a battery.
Power factor: Ratio of real power versus apparent power. The unity power factor of 1 delivers 100% current
to a load; a power factor of 0.50 reduces the contribution to 50%. A purely resistive load (heater elements)
has a unity power factor of 1; a purely capacitive or inductive load has a power factor of 0.
Primary battery: Non-rechargeable battery.
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Prismatic cell: A battery in which the positive and negative plates are stacked instead of rolled.
Protection circuit: Electronic circuit in a battery pack maintains safety when exceeding design limits.
Quick charger: Charges a battery in 3–6 hours.
QuickSort™: Classifies battery state-of-health into good, low and poor (Cadex trademark).
QuickTest™: Method to quick-test battery state-of-health (Cadex trademark).
Ragone chart: Plots battery performance on specific energy versus specific power
Randles Model: Equivalent electrical circuit representing electrolyte resistance in a battery that is
commonly used in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
Rapid charge: Same as quick charge.
Reactance: Inductive and capacitive resistance; frequency dependent.
Recondition: Secondary discharge applied after end-of-discharge to drain the battery further; helps break
down crystalline formation (memory) of nickel-based batteries. (See BU-807)
Reformer: Device that extracts hydrogen from fossil and other fuels.
Reserve Capacity: American way of measuring battery capacity by applying a fixed discharge current and
measuring time in minutes. Europe uses the ampere-hour (Ah) method under DIN and IEC. DIN and IEC
mark the battery in Ah at a typical discharge of 0.2C-rate (5h-rate). See Abbreviation.
Residual capacity: Remaining battery capacity before charge.
Resistance: Restriction to current flow; high resistance generates voltage drop and heat.
Reverse load charge: Intersperses discharge pulses between charge pulses to promote the recombination
of gases generated during fast charge; reduces memory.
RSoC: Relative state-of-charge; available charge with capacity fade (also known as SoC).
RSoH: Relative state-of-health; available storage capability when battery is broken in (also known as SoH)
Runtime: The length of time a battery provides power with a charge.
SAE J537: Test standard for 12V automotive starter batteries.
 RC: Apply a full charge (charge to 14.4–16V at 16°C–43°C (60°F–110°F)). After a 24h rest, apply a
regulated 25A discharge to 10.50V (1.75V/cell). Readings are in minutes of discharge time known
as “Reserve Capacity” (RC).
 CCA: Fully charge the battery and cool to -18°C (0°F) for 24 hours. While cold, apply a discharge
current equal to the specified CCA reading. To pass, the voltage must stay above 7.2V (1.2V/cell)
for 30 seconds.
SAE J1634: Test standard for electric vehicle; energy consumption, range.
SAE J1772: North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles.
Secondary battery: Rechargeable battery
Self-discharge: Capacity loss due to internal leakage.
Separator: Isolates cathode and anode in a battery; acts as catalyst to promote ion movement from
cathode to anode on charge and in reverse on discharge.
Siemens (s): Unit of electric conductance; equal to reciprocal ohm. Named after Ernst Werner von Siemens
(1816–1892).
Silver-zinc: Rechargeable battery with high specific energy for defense and aerospace; has a short cycle
life; is expensive.
Single-wire Bus: Simplified smart battery with one wire providing digital communications.
Slow charge: Overnight charge lasting 10–16 hours at a charge current of 0.1C.

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Smart battery: Also known as an intelligent battery; communicates with device, charger and user.
SMBus: System Management Bus is a two-wire interface based on I2C; communicates with the battery and
device by accepting control parameters and providing battery status, such as state-of-charge, manufacturer
information, cycle count and error messages.
Sodium-nickel-chloride: Further development of sodium-sulfur battery. Zeolite Battery Research Africa
Project (ZEBRA) made the battery commercially viable; must be heated for operation, used for large UPS
and EVs.
Sodium–sulfur (NaS): Molten-salt battery; gained attention in 1970s, 1980s; has a short service life and high
manufacturing costs; superseded by the sodium-nickel-chloride battery.
Soft cell: High cell resistance. The voltage drops on a load and is unable to clamp on charge. Very cold
temperature and lack of electrolyte causes this condition.
Solid electrolyte interface (SEI): A film composed of lithium oxide and lithium carbonate forms on the
surface of the Li-ion anode. The SEI layer grows with cycling and can form a barrier to obstruct ion flow.
Sol: Used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars. A Mars solar day has a
mean period of 24 hours 39 minutes 35.244 seconds.
Specific energy: Also known as gravimetric energy density; indicates the amount of energy a cell contains
in weight (Wh/kg); relates to battery capacity; governs runtime.
Specific gravity (SG): Weight ratio of a chemical solution compared to water at a specified temperature. SG
of water is 1.0; the electrolyte of a fully charged lead acid battery is about 1.30.
Specific power: Also known as gravimetric power density; reflects the loading capability or the amount of
current the battery can deliver; readings in W/kg.
Spectro™: Multi-model electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Scans battery with a frequency and
compares the signatures against matrices representing various conditions. (Cadex trademark) (See BU-904)
Spectroscopy: Analysis of a compound or a battery when scanned with a frequency.
Spinel: Hard glassy mineral consisting of an oxide of magnesium and aluminum that forms a three-
dimensional chemical structure. Manganese-based Li ion has such a spinel structure.
State-of-charge (SoC): Indicates charge level of a battery; normally measured in percent. SoC has no
relationship with capacity.
State-of-function (SoF): Reflects battery readiness that verifies capacity, current delivery, voltage, SoC, self-
discharge and more; measured in %. (Capacity, current delivery and SoC are most basic.)
State-of-health (SoH): Reflects battery performance that verifies capacity, current delivery, voltage and self-
discharge; measured in %. SoH excludes SoC.
Sulfation: Formation of lead sulfate crystal in a lead acid battery that inhibits current flow; storage at low
state-of-charge causes this.
Supercapacitor: Electrochemical capacitor also known as an ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor;
specific energy is a fraction of Li-ion. Has high cycle life; offers good cold temperature performances.
System Management Bus (SMBus): Protocol for smart battery (See SMBus in Glossary).
Thermal runaway: Uncontrolled disintegration of a battery from the inside out; can be caused by cell
defect, overcharging, excess heat and other abusive conditions.
Thermal voltage: A voltage created by the junction of dissimilar metals when a temperature difference
exists between these junctions
Thermistor: Electrical resistor that changes resistance with temperature.
Titanate: Substance used for anode material of some lithium-based batteries.
Trickle charge: Also known as maintenance charge, compensates self-discharge of a battery.

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UL 1642: Safety acceptance test for lithium-based batteries by Underwriters Laboratories. Other agencies
are IEC 62133, IEEE 1625, IEEE 1725, BAJ (Japan), UN. In 2010, UL 1642 transitioned to IEC 62133, made fully
effective on 1 May 2012.
UN 38.3: Safety norms for shipping battery products
Universal Serial Bus (USB): Bi-directional data port featuring a 5-volt supply and two data lines to
accommodate auxiliary devices and to charge batteries.
Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA): Maintenance-free lead acid battery recombines oxygen (positive plate)
with hydrogen (negative plate) on charge; valve regulates pressure by release of excess gases. Repeated
venting will lead to dry out.
Vinylene carbonate: Additive to improve performance of Li-ion cathode.
Voltage (V): Electric energy potential per unit charge. 1V = 1J/Coulomb. (1,000 joules = 0.277Wh).
Voltage delay: During prolonged storage, some battery systems develop a passivation layer. This results in
a momentarily lower voltage until the film is dissipated through discharge.
Voltage limit: Battery thresholds on charge and discharge.
Voltage-limiting charger: Current is allowed to fluctuate in saturation mode while the voltage is capped
(lead acid and Li ion charging).
Volumetric energy density: Also known as energy density; specifies energy storage in volume (Wh/l). (See
Energy Density in this Glossary)
Watt (W): Unit of power; ampere (A) times volt (V) equals watts (W).
Watt-hour (Wh): Unit of electrical energy equivalent to a power consumption of one watt for one hour (One
watt-hour = 3600 Joules). Multiplying a battery voltage (V) by the rated capacity (Ah) gives the battery
energy in Wh. Example: 14.4V x 2.5 Ah = 36 Wh.
Wi-Fi: Wireless Internet connections; based on 2.4GHz 802.11b standard.
Zapping: Applying a momentary current pulse to a battery to evaporate a short.
Zinc-air: Generates electrical energy by an oxidation process of zinc and oxygen. Most zinc-air batteries are
non-rechargeable, provide high specific energy but have poor load capabilities.
Last updated 2017-11-20

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BU-1102: Abbreviations
Learn about battery-related abbreviations and make use of conversions.
$ Dollar in US currency (exchange rate of ca. first quarter 2016)
18650 Li-ion cylindrical cell format measuring 18mm x 65mm
A Ampere (electrical)
AAMI Association for the Advancement of Medical Instruments
A4WP Alliance for Wireless Power
AC Alternating current
ACA Accessory Charging Adapters used to charge batteries from USB port
ADAC Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club (German automobile club)
AEDLC Asymmetric Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor
AFC Alkaline fuel cell
AGM Absorbent Glass Mat (battery)
AGV Automatic Guided Vehicle
Ah Ampere-hour; battery provides energy over a specified time
ALPA Air Line Pilots Association
ANSI American National Standards institute
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
ASoC Absolute state-of-charge
ASoH Absolute state-of-health
BAPCO Business Applications Performance Corporation
Bar Unit of pressure; 1 bar = 100kPa; 1 bar = 14.503psi
bbl Measurements of liquid, 1 barrel = 42 US gallons (35 Imperial gallons), 159 liters
BCG The Boston Consulting Group
BCI Battery Council International
BESS Battery energy storage system (also known as ESS)
BMS Battery management system
BMW Bavarian Engine Works (Bayerische Motoren Werke)
BTU British Thermal Unit; 1 BTU = 1,054 joules; 1 BTU = 0.29Wh
C Celsius, Centigrade (°C x 9/5 + 32 = °F)
Cal, food label Calorie; 1cal = 1.16 watt; 1cal = 4.18 joules
Cal, standard Calorie; 1cal = 1.16mWh; 1cal = 4.18 kilojoules
CAN Bus Controller Area Network, vehicular network to communicate with applications
CARB California Air Resources Board
CCA Cold cranking amps at –18°C (0°F). The norms differ as follows:
- BCI discharges battery at CCA-rate for 30s; battery at or above 7.2V passes
- IEC discharges battery at CCA-rate for 60s; battery at or above 8.4V passes

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- DIN discharges battery at CCA-rate for 30s and 150s; battery at or above 9V and 6V respectively passes
CCCV Constant current constant voltage (charge method for lead acid, Li-ion)
CCV Closed circuit voltage (battery under charge or discharge)
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (digital communication on mobile phones)
CEC Certificate of Equivalent Competency (International regulations)
CEC California Energy Commission seeking high efficiency in consumer AC adapters
CID Circuit interrupt device (acts as fuse)
CIPA Camera and Imaging Products Association
CL Current limiting (as in charging a battery)
CNG Compressed natural gas
CNT Carbon nanotube
CPU Central processing unit
Co Cobalt (metal)
COC Certificate of Competency
CO2 Carbon dioxide (also seen as CO2)
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
C-rate Discharge rate of a battery
DC Direct current
DCA Dynamic charge acceptance
DC-to-DC Direct current to direct current converter, also seen as DC-DC or DC/DC
DCP Dedicated Charger Port, a dedicated USB charging port only with no data
DGP Dangerous Goods Panel
DGR Dangerous Goods Regulation
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization)
DLC Double-layer capacitor
DMFC Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
DoD Depth of discharge
DOE Department of Energy (US)
DOT Department of Transportation (US)
DSP Digital signal processor
dT/dt Delta Temperature over delta time (charge method)
EBM Electronic battery monitor
EDTA Crystalline acid
EFB Enhanced Flooded Battery
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
ELC Equivalent lithium content
EMF Electromagnetic field
EMF Electromotive force
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EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US)
ESS Energy storage systems
EV Electric vehicle
F Fahrenheit (°F - 32) x 5/9 = °C)
f Farad (unit of capacitance)
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FC Fuel cell
FCVT FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies (US Department of Energy)
FDA Food and Drug Administration
Foot/’ Foot (dimension) 1’ = 12”; 1’ = 0.3048m; 1’ x 3.28 = 1m
g Gram; 1g = 0.035oz; 1g x 28.35 = 1 oz
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications (cell phones)
h Hour (time)
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
hp Horsepower (power) 1hp = 745.7 watts
Hz Hertz (electrical frequency)
I Current (electrical)
i.e. Id est. Latin: That is
IATA International Air Transport Association
IC Integrated circuit (chip)
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICE Internal combustion engine
IEC International Electrochemical Commission
ILA International Lead Association
Inch/“ Inch; 1” = 25.4mm; 1” = 0.0254 meter; 1” x 39.3 = 1m
IPF Interfacial protective film
IPP IEC aircraft battery rating (0.3/15s power discharge)
IPR Aircraft battery rating according to IEC (15s power discharge)
IS Intrinsic safety (used on batteries)
J Joule (unit of energy), 1J = 1A at 1V for 1s = 1 watt x second; 1J = 0.238 calorie/s
JCESR Joint Center for Energy Storage Research
kg Kilogram; 1kg = 0.45 pound; 1kg x 2.2 = 1 pound
kJ Kilo-Joule; 1kJ = 0.277Wh
km Kilometer; 1km = 0.621 miles; 1km x 1.60 = 1 mile
kN Kilo-Newton (law of motion) 1N = 1kg m/s2
kPa Kilo-Pascal (pressure); 1kPa = 0.01 bar; 1kPa = 0.145psi
kW Kilowatt (electrical power); 1kWh = 3.6MJ; 1MJ = 860kcal = 238cal/s
kWh Kilowatt-hour (electrical energy)
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L Inductance (electrical coil)
lb Pound (weight, from Roman libra) 1 lb x 0.45 = 1kg
LCD Liquid crystal display
LCO Lithium cobalt oxide (also LiCoO2, secondary battery)
LED Light emitting diode
LFP Lithium iron phosphate (also LiFePO4, secondary battery)
LFPT Low frequency pulse train (method to test a battery)
LiCoO2 Lithium ion cobalt oxide (also LCO, secondary battery)
LiFePO4 Lithium iron phosphate oxide (also LFP, secondary battery)
LiFeS2 Lithium iron disulfide (primary battery)
Li-ion Lithium-ion battery (short form)
LIN Bus Local Interconnect Network, low-cost multiplexed automotive communication
Li-M Lithium manganese dioxide (also LiMnO2, primary battery)
LiMn2O4 Lithium ion manganese oxide (also LMO, secondary battery, spinel structure)
LiMnO2 Lithium manganese dioxide (primary battery, different from secondary LiMn2O4)
LiNiCoAlO2 Lithium ion nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (also NCA, secondary battery)
LiNiMnCoO2 Lithium ion nickel manganese cobalt oxide (also NMC, secondary battery)
Li2TiO3 Lithium titanate oxide (also LTO, secondary battery)
LiSO2 Lithium sulfur dioxide (primary battery)
LiSOCI2 Lithium thionyl chloride (also LTC, primary battery)
L/km Liter per kilometer
LMO Lithium ion manganese oxide (also LiMn2O4, secondary battery, spinel structure)
LTC Lithium thionyl chloride (also LiSOCI2, primary battery)
LTO Lithium-titanate (also Li2TiO3, secondary battery)
m Meter (dimension) 1m = 3.28 feet; 1m x 0.305 = 1 foot
mAh Milliampere-hours
MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell
mHz Millihertz (1mHz has a sinusoidal revolution of 1,000 seconds)
Microfarad [µF] Farad is the standard unit of capacitance, one-millionth 10-6 of a farad)
Min Minute (time)
mm Millimeter (dimension) 1mm = 0.039”; 1mm x 25.4 = 1”
Mn Manganese (chemical element used in batteries)
MPa Mega-Pascal unit of pressure (1MPa = 145 psi)
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
Mpg Miles per gallon
ms Millisecond
MW Megawatt (power)
N Newton is a force. 1N = 1kg m/s2 (force required to accelerate 1kg at 1m/s)
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NaS Sodium-sulfur (battery)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCA Lithium-ion battery with nickel, cobalt, aluminum cathode (also LiNiCoAlO2)
NCV Net calorific value (1 food calorie = 1.16 watt-hour; standard rating is 1.16mWh)
NDV Negative delta V (full-charge detection)
NG Natural gas, consumption measured in joules (1,000 joules = 0.277Wh)
NiCd Nickel-cadmium (secondary battery)
NiFe Nickel-iron (secondary battery)
NiH Nickel-hydrogen battery (secondary)
NiMH Nickel-metal-hydride (secondary battery)
NiZn Nickel-zinc (secondary battery)
NMC Lithium-ion with nickel, manganese, cobalt cathode (also LiNiMnCoO2)
NRC National Research Council
NTC Negative temperature coefficient
OCV Open circuit voltage
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
Oz Ounce; 1 oz = 28 grams; 1 oz x 0.035 = 1 gram
Pa Pascal (1Pa = 0.00045psi)
PAFC Phosphoric acid fuel cell
PC Personal computer
PEM Proton exchange membrane (fuel cell), also PEMFC
PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell, also PEM
pf Pico-farad (capacitor rating, one-trillionth 10-12 of a farad)
pf Power factor (ratio of real power to the apparent power on AC)
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PMA Power Matters Alliance
PRBA Portable Rechargeable Battery Association
psi Pound per square inch (pressure) 1psi = 0.145kPa; 1psi x 6.89 = 1kPa
PTC Positive temperature coefficient
PTC Over-voltage protection (batteries, motors, speakers)
QA Quality assurance
Qi Standard on inductive charging by Wireless Power Consortium (WPC)
Q-Mag™ Quantum magnetic battery analysis (Cadex trademark)
R Resistor (electrical)
RBRC Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation
RC Remote control (hobbyist)
RC Reserve capacity of starter battery. Conversion formula: RC divided by 2+16=Ah. A short
method is dividing RC by 1.9.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 428 of 453

R&D Research and development
RSoC Relative state-of-charge (also known as SoC)
RSoH Relative state-of-health (also known as SoH)
RPM Revolution per minute
s Second (time)
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers, founded early in 1900 by US auto manufacturers
SBS Smart Battery System
SEI Solid electrolyte interface (Li-ion)
SG Specific gravity (acid density of electrolyte)
SLA Sealed lead acid (battery)
SLI Starter-light-ignition (battery), also known as starter battery
SMBus System Management Bus, single-ended simple two-wire bus for batteries and more
SoC State-of-charge
SoF State-of-function
SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell
SoH State-of-health
UL United Laboratories (product safety testing and certification)
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
US$ Currency in United States dollar
USB Universal Serial Bus (data)
V Voltage (electrical)
VA Volt-ampere (similar to watt with true current flow in a reactive load)
VAC Voltage with alternating current (grid)
VL Voltage limiting (as in charging a battery)
VRLA Valve regulated lead acid (battery)
W Watt (electrical power; voltage x current = watts)
Wh Watt-hour (electrical energy; watts x h = Wh); 1Wh = 860 cal/h = 0.238cal/s
Wh/kg Watt-hour per kilogram (measurement of specific energy)
Wh/km Watt-hour per kilometer
Wh/l Watt-hour per litter (measured in energy density)
Wi-Fi Wireless fidelity (network)
W/kg Watt per kilogram (measurement of specific power)
WPC Wireless Power Consortium, standard for wireless charging
WW World War
Z Impedance (reactance-based resistance, frequency dependent)
ZEBRA Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project (battery)

Last updated 2017-11-20

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 429 of 453

BU-1103: Bibliography
Explore resources that contributed to a better understanding of battery knowledge.
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI). http://www.acpi.info.
Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club e.V. (ADAC). 2008 issuefor the year 2007.
Angelantoni, André, PostPeakLiving.com. http://www.postpeakliving.com.
Argonne National Laboratory, (2008, January). Developments in lithium-ion battery technology in the
People’s Republic of China. Oak Rige, TN: U.S. Department of Energy.
Avicenne Energy, market research and consulting firm; general battery information
Barnes, N.M., Hodgman, J.S., Leclair, R.A., Mullersman, R.H., Perman, G.T., Weinstock, I.B., & Wentzel,
F.W., Jr. (1979). The sealed lead battery handbook.Gainsville, FL: General Electric Company.
Battelle-Geneva R&D Center. Pioneering work on a new generation of nickel-metal-hydride batteries under
Klaus D. Beccu, Dr.-Ing.
Batteries and Energy Storage Technology Magazine(BEST Magazine). Sundry information on battery
developments, editor Gerry Woolf. http://www.bestmag.co.uk.
Battery Council International. (2010). Failure modes study: A report of the BCI Technical Subcommittee on
Battery Failure Modes.Chicago, IL: Battery Council International.
Berndt, D. (1993). Maintenance-free batteries: Lead-acid, nickel cadmium, nickel-hydride: A handbook of
battery technology.New York: Wiley.
Bonnefoi, L., Simon, P., Fauvarque, J.F., Sarrazin, C., Sarrau, J.F., & Lailler, P. (1999). Multi electrode
prismatic power prototype carbon/carbon supercapacitors. Journal of Power Sources,83, 162-169.
Boston Consulting Group (BCG). (2010). Batteries for electric cars: Challenges, opportunities, and the
outlook to 2020. http://www.bcg.com/documents/file36615.pdf.
Brotherston, I.D., & Loveday, D.C. (2008, June 8-11). Proceedings of the 38th Power Sources
Conference,Cherry Hill, NJ, USA.
Buchmann, Isidor. (2010). Author of http://www.BatteryUniversity.com.
Center for Automotive Research at Ohio State University in collaboration with Oak Ridge National
Laboratory and the National Institute of Standards Technology. How batteries grow old. (2010 Oct.).
Choi, S.,& Lim, H. (2002). Factors that affect cycle life and possible degradation mechanisms of lithium ion
batteries based LiCoO2. Journal of Power Sources, 111.
Dahn, Jeff, & Ehrlich, Grant M. (2010). Lithium-ion batteries. In David Linden & Thomas B. Reddy (Eds.),
Linden's handbook of batteries (4th ed.) (chap. 26). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Dibner, Bern. (1964). Alessandro volta and the electric battery. Danbury, CT: Grolier Publishing, Franklin
Watts, Inc.
Energizer Applications support, presentation by Dan Durbin at Medical Device & Manufacturing; (MD&M)
West, Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
EV Li-ion Battery Forum. http://www.ev-li-ionbatteryforum.com.
Frost & Sullivan. (2009). Overview on global battery markets.
Exponent, Inc.; presentation by Quinn Horn, Ph.D., P.E. as Medical Device & Manufacturing (MD&M) West,
Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Fire Protection Research Foundation (The), Quincy Massachusetts, USA; Lithium-Ion Battery Hazard and
use Assessment (2011), Celina Mikaloajczak, Michael Kahn, Kevin White, Richard Thomas Long.
Gates Energy Products (1992). Rechargeable battery applications handbook. Boston, MA: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
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Grant, J.C. (Ed.). (1975). Nickel-cadmium battery application engineering handbook (3rd ed.). Gainesville,
FL: General Electric Company.
Greenwich Strategy, LLC, Summary of Findings on Viability of Tesla’s Gen III, May 2014
Gyuk, Imre, Mgr. Energy Storage System Program of U.S. Department of Energy. Comments of recycling
roughly one million usable lithium-ion batteries per year (2014).
International Energy Agency (IEA). (2009). Technology roadmaps: Electric and plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (brochure). http://www.iea.org/papers/2009/EV_PHEV_brochure.pdf.
Jossen, (Andreas). (2015, March) 22th Design & Elektronik-Entwicklerforum, TU München
Journal of Power Sources, 191 (2009) 127-133 by Elsevier Journals.
Lackner, J.L., King, T.E., & Haines, R.L. (1969). Battery design for aerospace power supplies. Canadian
Aeronautics and Space Journal,15(10).
Linden, D. (Ed.). (1995). Handbook of batteries (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lu, Z. (1998). AC impedance studies on sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries over cycle life in analog and
digital operations. Electrochimica Acta,43, 3333-3342.
Miller, John. (2010). Capacitor talk on supercapacitors in the Batteries & Energy Storage Technologies
Magazine. UK.
NASA (2014) Aerospace Battery Workshop, Jet propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
Yarney Technical Products, Inc.
Nikiforuk, Andrew. (2008). Tar sands: Dirty oil and the future of a continent. Vancouver, BC: Greystone
Books.
Orazem, M.E. and Tribollet, B. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
New Jersey, 2008.
Perez, R.A. (1985). The complete battery book. Philadelphia, PA: Tab Books.
Qian, W., Wilkinson, D.P., Shen, J., Wang, H., Zhang, J. (2006, March). Architecture for portable direct liquid
fuel cells, Journal of Power Sources. I54(1), 202-213.
Rechargeable Battery Association (PRBA). http://www.prba.org.
Sanyo Electric Co. Ltd. (1997). Cadnica engineering handbookSF-9785ND.
Shmuel De-Leon Energy, Ltd. Sundry information on battery developments as part of published online
information on http://www.sdle.co.il and http://www.batteriesdatabase.com.
Sieber, A., & Weck, C. (2004). What’s the difference between DVB-H and DAB in the mobile environment?
EBU Technical Review. Solarbuzz. http://www.solarbuzz.com.
Smart Battery System Implementers Forum. http://www.sbs-forum.org.
Spurgeon, B. (1999, March 18). Can 160-year-old invention transform motor vehicles? International Herald
Tribune, page 10.
Steinrötter, Michael. (2011) Carbon-based Anodes, a Rare Earth Situation? Retrieved from Batteries &
Energy Storage Technology, Winter 2011.
Tanahashi, I., Yoshida, A., & Nishino, A. (1990). Preparation and characterization of activated carbon tablets
for electric double-layer capacitors. B. Chem. Soc., 63(10), 2755-2758.
Thomas, C.E. (2009). Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared. International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy,34(15), 6005-6020. http://www.elsevier.com.
Union Carbide Corporation. (1982). Eveready battery engineering data:4. Danbury, CT: Union Carbide
Corporation, Battery Products Division.

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U.S. Department of Energy FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies Program. Hybrid electric vehicle end-of-
life testing. James Francfort, Donald, Karner, Ryan Harkins, Joseph Tardiolo. 2006 test at the Idaho National
Laboratory Transportation Technology Department, Idaho Falls, Idaho 83415, prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy under DOE Idaho
Operations Office. http://www.inl.gov/technicalpublications/Documents/3311048.pdf.
Vincent, C.A., et al. (1984). Modern batteries: An introduction to electromechanical power sources. London:
Edward Arnold.
von Wentzel, Constantin. (2008). How lead acid batteries work. Comparing marine battery technologies.
http://www.vonwentzel.net/Battery/00.Glossary.
Weydanz, W. (Wolfgang). (2015, March) 22th Design & Elektronik-Entwicklerforum, Siemens AG Corporate
Technology.
Wikipedia.Online encyclopedia containing information from various contributors.
Zhang, L. (1998). AC impedance studies on sealed nickel metal hydride batteries over cycle life in analog
and digital operations, Electrochimica Acta, 43. Zheng, J.P., & Jow, T.R. (1995). A new charge storage
mechanism for electrochemical capacitors. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 142(1), L6-L8.
Last updated 2017-07-31

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 432 of 453

BU-1104: About the Author
Know more about a humble beginning and the desire to share common knowledge.
Isidor Buchmann is the founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics Inc. as well the author of
www.BatteryUniversity.com.
Fascinated with electronics during his school years, Isidor built and sold broadcast radios that ran with no
external power source – they only required an antenna and a ground wire (no battery needed).

During his apprenticeship, he invented an internal combustion engine that was based on continuous
propulsion. Felix Wankel in Germany, the inventor of the Wankel Rotary Engine, reviewed the drawings and
theory of operation and replied that while the design was unique and original, manufacturing would be too
expensive for commercialization. The continuous propulsion ICE invented by Isidor was never built.
After graduation, Isidor left his native Switzerland and immigrated to Canada to pursue a career in
electronics. When the anticipated job opportunities did not materialize, he pooled his savings and started
his own company. In a small room at his house he worked on product developments long into the night
while raising a large family.
Isidor conceived the business model in the early 1980s while working at General Electric. NiCd batteries
caused many failures then, and while repairing two-way radios he discovered a way to rejuvenate these
“memory” prone batteries. In his spare time at home, he developed a battery analyzer that featured the
proprietary “recondition” program. To prevent conflict of interest with GE, Isidor quit his job and went on
his own. The beginning was challenging but with perseverance, his company Cadex Electronics, eventually
flourished.
Isidor knew early on that manufacturing battery analyzers to reverse memory had a limited market, and in
2000 Cadex began researching battery diagnostics that included rapid-test methods. The development
secured several patents and established a leading position in the field of battery diagnostics and
monitoring. Spectro™, one of the inventions, is currently the only commercial device that employs
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to estimate the capacity of a battery. Most competitive test
systems use the simpler internal resistance method. Batteries have improved and resistance alone no
longer provides reliable health indications.
Realizing the importance of batteries for an increasing number of users from all walks of life, Isidor began to
write articles that have been published in roughly 300 trade magazines worldwide. Many articles were
translated into different languages and he earned a writer’s award.
The growing interest in batteries enticed Isidor to publish a book entitled, Batteries in a Portable World: A
Handbook on Rechargeable Batteries for Non-Engineers. The first release dates back to 1997; a larger
second larger edition arrived in 2001 and subsequent editions followed. The book became a bestseller.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 433 of 453

Isidor wanted to share his battery knowledge with a broader audience and in 2003 he began publishing the
material on the web. Today, www.BatteryUniversity.com is an open teaching resource for engineers,
academia, media, as well as students and ordinary battery users.
The website is continuously being updated to reflect advancements in battery technologies and how to
apply them in industries. As the battery improves, Isidor believes that the use of the battery will further
grow to eventually become a partial alternative to fossil fuel in the electric powertrain, drones and wheeled
mobility. This, he says, has much room for improvement.
Isidor is the father of five grown children and lives in the Vancouver suburb of Burnaby. To reduce
greenhouse gases and keep fit he commutes the 10km (6 miles) trip to work by bicycle, rain or shine. The
downhill ride to the shores of the Fraser River where the Cadex Headquarters is located is easy; climbing
the hill in the evening takes a bit more effort. He believes in human propulsion and has not yet switched to
an e-bike. He wants to keep the fossil fuel that is so frivolously being burned in the ground to lower green-
house gas and enable future generations to enjoy.
Isidor and the Cadex team take pride in sharing battery knowledge and are open to suggestions. We can be
reached at www.batteryuniversity.com/contact
Last updated 2016-04-15

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BU-1105: About Cadex
Find out how a company can serve a society with advanced technology.
Isidor Buchmann, founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics, recognized the high failure rate of nickel-
cadmium batteries in portable devices and developed a battery analyzer that would exercise and rejuvenate
these rechargeable batteries. He ran his business in a small room in his residence under the name
Buchmann Enterprises Inc. After receiving the registered Cadex trademark, he changed the company name
to Cadex Electronics Inc. in 1985. Cadex is derived from “CADmium-EXerciser.”
The first battery analyzer introduced in 1981 failed to achieve the anticipated market acceptance and only a
few of the Cadex 450 were sold. The setback did not discourage Isidor, and he started to design a modular
battery analyzer that could simultaneously service different battery types. The resulting Cadex 550 battery
analyzer sold reasonably well and became the workhorse for two-way radio batteries serving the public
safety, railway and oil industries. In 1983, the company moved from Isidor’s home address to a rented
office.
In 1985, a communications company commissioned Cadex to develop and manufacture an intelligent fast-
charger for the End-of-Train Unit. The device clamps to the last car of a freight train and replaces the
caboose by providing vital operating information such as brake pressure and car-in-motion data. The
successful project formed the foundation for several new Cadex products that were assisted with research
funds from the Science Council of British Columbia and the National Research Council of Canada (NRC).
The charger design led to the development of a fully programmable battery analyzer in 1991 that benefitted
from the rapidly growing mobile phone market. In 1995, the Cadex C7000 Series with the SnapLock™
battery adapter system established a new standard to which competitive products were compared. This
opened markets in public safety, defense, healthcare, transportation, logistics and mining in over 100
countries, resulting double-digit growth for several years.
As Cadex grew, the company needed relocating to larger premises. Doubling plant size with each move
made the new location look empty at first. Items that were within arm’s reach now needed long-distance
running. Eventually, employees and equipment filled in the void and the hum of activity replaced the
echoing sound resembling an empty hall.
Isidor felt proud walking down the long corridors with offices to the left and right, filled with dedicated staff
serving customers and taking orders. During this period of rapid growth, Cadex received contracts from a
U.S. defense organization and a leading medical company to supply battery chargers and analyzers for
defibrillators. Business organizations took notice of this rising company and Isidor was a finalist at four
Entrepreneur of the Year events.
Cadex reached financial strength to build its own headquarters and acquired one of the most scenic parcels
of land in a new industrial park in Richmond, BC. Architects drew up plans and Isidor spent several months
optimizing the floor layout and enhancing the appearance.
The building includes a large two-story glass octagon that serves as entrance lobby and accommodates the
reception and meeting rooms. A broad staircase leading to the second floor conveys an atmosphere of
grandeur and space. Large windows and balconies facing the mighty Fraser River, on which the building is
located, provide a relaxing show of swans frolicking in the waters and ducks grazing on the riverbanks. This
tranquil setting central to metropolitan Vancouver provides a pleasant working environment and promotes
creative thinking.

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 435 of 453

 Figure 123 - Cadex headquarters in Richmond, BC, Canada

With the wonders of nature at its door, Cadex offers its staff a tranquil alternative to the noise and hustle of
crowded city streets.
Courtesy of Cadex

Everyone with an idea and a little bit of savings can start a company. This turns Karl Marx’s famous dictum on
its head that imposed layers of permissions, secure access to capital, a plant filled with machinery and ready
buyers to consume the products it produced. What is needed more than ever is a vision and the discipline to slug
it out even when the first attempt goes bust. Once the products are accepted, continued improvements must be
made together with attentive customer service. Products may fail in the field, but how quickly these problems
are being solved measures the success. And, yes, don’t forget sacrifice. The owners must become the servants
who continuously hunt for the greatest talents in the land.

Last updated 2016-04-15

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BU-1403: Author’s Creed
We are sent to this earth to fulfill an ordained purpose, an obligation and a service to humanity that, if
properly carried out, dwells above acquiring wealth and fame. For material wealth does not bring true joy
and happiness; serving others does. My endeavor is to make this world a better place by providing a
stepping-stone to guide the next generation and by helping in technological advancements. It pleases me if
my modest contributions can help others.

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LEARNING TOOLS

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BU-1501: Battery History
Welcome to the Leaning Tools section of BatteryUniversity.com. Here you find practical experience and
gossip from many conferences and academic institutions summarized in entertaining and easy-to-read
presentations. Guys don’t want to read too much, so enjoy the engaging graphics as a teaching tool.
Battery History
Batteries have been around for over 200 years but it was only with the invention of the telephone and
telegraph that they found practical applications. Flashlights and radios soon followed. Most batteries were
non-rechargeable and needed refilling of electrolyte or replacement when depleted. The first rechargeable
battery was the lead acid invented by Gaston Planté in 1859.
9 slides PowerPoint

1. Cover
2. When was the Battery Invented
3. Early Batteries
4. Experimentations at the Institute of France
5. Mass production in 1802
6. Battery Developments: 1600 to 1900
7. Battery Developments: 1900 to Present
8. Overview of Battery Types
9. Take home

Download :

1.8mb

Last updated 2016-03-03

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BU-1502: Basics about Batteries
Welcome to the Leaning Tools section of BatteryUniversity.com. Here you find practical experience and
gossip from many conferences and academic institutions summarized in entertaining and easy-to-read
presentations. Guys don’t want to read too much, so enjoy the engaging graphics as teaching tool.
Basics about Batteries
Lean about the advantages and disadvantages of different battery chemistries, packaging and
configurations, charging and discharging, safety and health concerns, as well as transporting and storing
them. The presentation also advises what batteries like and dislike and how you can prolong their lives.
55 slides PowerPoint

1. Cover
2. Outline
3. Battery Chemistries
4. Relationship between Power and Energy
5. Energy storage capacity
6. Ability to deliver current
7. Battery chemistries - Lead Acid
8. Types of Lead Acid Batteries
9. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) & Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
10. Types of Lithium Batteries
11. Li-ion Systems
12. Lithium-polymer Hype
13. Confusion with Nominal Voltages
14. Safety concerns with Li-ion
15. Packaging and Configurations
16. Battery formats
17. Cylindrical cell
18. Button cell
19. Prismatic cell
20. Pouch cell
21. Best Cell Design
22. Serial connection
23. Parallel connection
24. Serial-parallel connection
25. Charging, Discharging, Storing
26. The right way to charge lead acid
27. The right way to charge NiMH
28. The right way to charge Li-ion
29. What batteries like and dislike
30. Charging / Discharging
31. Ultra-fast charging
32. Charging without wires
33. Charging without wires cont.
34. Charging at high and low temperatures
35. Charging from a USB Port
36. Discharge methods
37. Storing
38. Health concerns with lead
39. Health concerns with cadmium

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 440 of 453

 40. Transporting Li-ion
41. Transporting Li-ion cont.
42. FAQ on charging and discharging
43. How to prolong Battery Life
44. Battery fade cannot be stopped, but slowed
45. Knowing the difference between Capacity and SoC
46. Avoid deep discharges
47. Keep battery cool
48. Retain moderate charge voltage
49. Tables of Battery Dos and Don’ts
50. Summary
51. What people say
52. Limitations with Current Technologies
53. How far can the Battery go?
54. Net Calorific Values
55. Take home

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Last updated 2014-10-07

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BU-1503: How to Maintain Batteries
Welcome to the Leaning Tools section of BatteryUniversity.com. Here you find practical experience and
gossip from many conferences and academic institutions summarized in entertaining and easy-to-read
presentations. Guys don’t want to read too much, so enjoy the engaging graphics as teaching tool.
How to Maintain Batteries
Batteries are often installed and forgotten. Some packs are replaced too soon but most are left in service
too long and become unreliable. Learn what causes batteries to fail and how you can check their health
with modern battery test equipment. The presentation also introduces smart batteries and rapid-test
technologies.
71 slides PowerPoint

1. Cover
2. Outline
3. Caring for the Battery from Cradle to Grave
4. Definition of a Battery
5. The Unavoidable Fact of Aging
6. When should a battery be replaced?
7. The Finite Life of a Battery
8. Let’s not forget the Spare Capacity
9. Management with a Battery Analyzer
10. Purchasing
11. Incoming Inspection
12. Periodic Capacity Check
13. Retirement
14. Storing
15. What causes Batteries to fail?
16. The Ready Light on a Charger lies, and why . . .
17. Declining Capacity
18. Rising Internal Resistance
19. Elevated Self-discharge
20. Self-discharge varies with chemistry
21. Premature Voltage Cut-off
22. Battery Maintenance Methods
23. Management by Date-stamping
24. Maintenance by removable Battery Label
25. Maintenance by removable Battery Label cont.
26. Maintenance by Bar Code Label
27. PC-BatteryShop™
28. Machine-to-machine Cloud Solutions
29. Rapid-test Methods
30. Test methods that no longer work
31. Types of Data Collections and what each offers
32. Types of Battery Excitations
33. Frequency Domain
34. Combining EIS with complex modeling
35. Spectro™ for Lead Acid and how it works
36. Definitions of a Starter Battery
37. How Starter Batteries are tested
38. Capacity and CCA of aging starter batteries

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 39. Relationship between Capacity and CCA
40. Spectro CA-12 measures Capacity and CCA in 15 seconds
41. Test conditions
42. Correct prediction on capacity
43. What experts say . . .
44. ADAC 2013 statistics . . .
45. Spectro™ Applications
46. Battery Monitoring - what we use today
47. Adding capacity to BMS
48. SoF by a Tri-state Fuel Gauge
49. Applications
50. HealthTest™ for Li-ion
51. Battery Health-Check™ in a Charger and Device
52. Applications
53. Testing larger Batteries
54. Smart Battery
55. Battery fuel gauge
56. Single-wire Bus & System Management Bus
57. State-of-charge by Coulomb Counter
58. Why Voltage Readings are not the Solution
59. Fuel Gauge
60. Tracking Error
61. How to calibrate
62. How accurate is the Battery Fuel Gauge?
63. Problems with Fuel Gauges
64. Myths about the Smart Battery
65. Making the “Smart Battery” user-friendly
66. Summary
67. Boost Confidence in Batteries
68. Facts about Batteries
69. Leaders in battery control technology
70. Batteries live longer with proper diagnostics
71. Take home

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Last updated 2014-10-07

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BU-1504: Battery Test & Analyzing Devices
Welcome to the Leaning Tools section of BatteryUniversity.com. Here you find practical experience and
gossip from many conferences and academic institutions summarized in entertaining and easy-to-read
presentations. Guys don’t want to read too much, so enjoy the engaging graphics as teaching tool.
Battery Test & Analyzing Devices
This presentation feature the programmable Cadex 7000 Series battery analyzers that tests and calibrates a
battery with a full discharge/charge cycle; the Cadex C8000 battery test system for lab use, chargers that
can be fed by a solar panel, and the Cadex C5100 to service mobile phone batteries at storefront. The
presentation also includes the Spectro Series to test lead acid batteries on the fly.
36 slides PowerPoint

1. Cover
2. About Cadex
3. Cadex C7000 Series Battery Analyzer
4. SnapLock™ Battery Adapter System
5. Universal Battery Adapter
6. Programmability
7. Custom Programs
8. PC-BatteryShop™
9. Cadex C8000 Battery Test System
10. Digital Advantage
11. Separate Battery and I/O Ports
12. Building a laboratory system
13. Load Capture
14. Setup of Load Capture Unit (LCU)
15. Dual Power Port Cable (DPPC)
16. External load bank
17. Lifecycle test & Load test
18. Monitoring individual cells
19. Battery interface made easy
20. Battery Chargers
21. UCC Series Charger
22. UCC Solar Charger
23. Safety and redundancy
24. Inactive batteries & Calibration Discharge
25. Butterfly Charger Module
26. Butterfly Charger Module cont.
27. Cadex C5100 Battery Analyzer
28. Automated Programs simplify service
29. QuickSort™
30. Testing larger Batteries
31. Spectro CA-12
32. Capacity and CCA of aging starter batteries
33. Test conditions
34. Applications
35. Summary
36. Take home

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Last updated 2014-10-07

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BU-1505: Short History of Cadex

Welcome to the Leaning Tools section of BatteryUniversity.com. Here you find practical experience and gossip
from many conferences and academic institutions summarized in entertaining and easy-to-read presentations.
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Short History of Cadex

Isidor Buchmann started the company that turned into Cadex Electronics in the back room of his house that he
built. One slide shows his young children jumping from the balcony above his workshop in the early 1980s. The
challenge of starting a company singlehandedly led to rapid growth in the 1990s and beyond.

14 slides PowerPoint

1. Cover
2. The duty of a Company
3. Humble beginnings
4. Rapid growth in the 1990s
5. Cadex today
6. Cadex devices are used in...
7. Certifications
8. Patents
9. Cadex manufacturing
10. Accomplishments
11. Capabilities
12. Quality system
13. Buchmann Family Trust
14. Take home

Download Short History of Cadex 21.0mb

Last updated 2014-10-07

Battery Univ - Learing About Batteries.Docx Page 446 of 453

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR THE BATTERY PROBLEM ON THE
BOEING 787
After fewer than 100,000 flight hours, two main batteries in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner failed. This
contradicts Boeing’s estimate as part of certification that a smoke event involving the new Li-ion battery
should only occur once in 10 million flight hours. More than a smoke event occurred, and one battery
disintegrated in a thermal runaway with fire and the spewing of electrolyte that caused damage to the
electronics bay (Figure 124). The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded the entire fleet of B-787
as a result.

Figure 124 - Damage in aft electronics bay caused by a burning battery in a Boeing 787

The incident happened after arriving at the gates in Boston from a flight from Narita, Japan. The fire was
difficult to extinguish; smoke and flames didn’t break with the dry chemical of a fire extinguisher and airport
firefighters used liquid Halotron (Image courtesy of the National Transportation Safety Board, Investigative
update of battery fire on Japan Airlines B-787, 7 January 2013).
Boeing chose lithium-ion to store more capacity at the same weight. The main battery is composed of eight
GS Yuasa LVP10 cells and provides roughly twice the energy density compared to the traditional flooded
nickel-cadmium (NiCd) that other aircraft use. The Dreamliner needs the extra capacity to run additional
electrical systems, including hydraulic functions that have been electrified. Another reason for selecting Li-
ion is low maintenance. Li-ion requires fewer scheduled services than NiCd, which needs regular full
discharges to remove memory, adjustment of electrolyte and cleaning corrosion buildup.
The Boeing 787 is the first commercial aircraft to use Li-ion as its main battery, and there are risks
associated with this. Hybrid vehicles only switched to Li-ion around 2010 with more stable chemistries.
When the Li-ion battery was selected in 2005, the choices were limited and what we know today, the picked
Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoC2) may not be the best technology for onboard aviation. It is the same
chemistry that triggered a major recall of computer and mobile phone batteries in 2006 when one-in-
200,000 cells caused a breakdown.
CT scans done on the failed main battery of the B-787 reveal a similar breakdown that prompted the 2006
recall: a damaged electrode in one of the eight Li-ion cells apparently caused an electrical short that
triggered a thermal runaway with fire. Lithium Cobalt Oxide (Li-cobalt) is known to be less stable than other
lithium-based systems. For consumer product wanting optimal runtime, Li-cobalt works well, but large
formats have additional challenges. Figure 125 illustrates the damaged main aircraft battery.

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 Figure 125 - JAL Event Battery

The charred remains of the failed B-787 main battery featuring 8 GS Yuasa LVP10 lithium-ion cells. The
safety circuit at the connector end of the battery is unable to stop a thermal runaway once in progress
(Courtesy of the National Transportation Safety Board, Investigative update of battery fire on Japan Airlines
B-787, 7 January 2013).
If the U.S. investigators fail to find the root cause of the battery fires, the technology could be deemed
insufficiently mature for onboard aviation. Possible solutions are the use of other lithium-based batteries or
moving back to NiCd. Table 59 lists the characteristics of four common lithium-ion systems.
Table 59 - Characteristics of the four most commonly used lithium-ion batteries

Li-cobalt Li-manganese Li-phosphate NMC1

Specifications
LiCoO2 (LCO) LiMn2O4 (LMO) LiFePO4 (LFP) LiNiMnCoO2
Voltage per cell 3.60 / 3.70V 3.80V 3.30V 3.60 / 3.70V
Charge limit 4.20V 4.20V 3.60V 4.20V
2
Cycle life 500–1,000 500–1,000 1,000–2,000 1,000–2,000
Operating temp. Average Average Good Good
Specific Energy 150–190Wh/kg 100–135Wh/kg 90–120Wh/kg 140-180Wh/kg
Specific Power 1C 10C, 40C pulse 35C continuous 10C
Safety Less safe Moderately safe Safest Li-ion Moderately safe
3
Thermal runaway 150°C (302°F) 250°C (482°F) 270°C (518°F) 210°C (410°F)
Cost Cobalt cost high Moderate High Moderate
In use since 1994 1996 1999 2003
Sanyo, GS Yuasa, LG Hitachi, Samsung, Sony, Sanyo, LG Chem,
Researchers, A123, GS Yuasa, BYD,
Chem Hitachi, Samsung, Sanyo, GS Yuasa, LG GS Yuasa, Hitachi,
manufacturers ATL, Lishen, JCI/Saft
Toshiba Chem, Toshiba Samsung

High power, good High specific energy,

High specific energy but High power, mod. high power; in tools,
specific energy; power
Notes limited power; laptops, energy, rugged and safe,
tools, EVs medical
mobile phones flat discharge curve
devices e-bikes, EVs

Specific energy refers to capacity (energy storage); specific power denotes load capability.
1 NMC stands for nickel-manganese-cobalt. NMC, NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN are similar.
2 Application and environment govern cycle life; the numbers do not always apply correctly.

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3 A fully charged battery raises the thermal runaway temperature, a partial charge lowers it.
The performance of the different Li-ion systems can best be illustrated with spider webs. The graphics
demonstrate specific energy (capacity); specific power, (current delivery); safety; performance (at hot and
cold temperatures); life span (cycle life); and cost. The values are estimated and may vary.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO2)
Li-cobalt is characterized by a high specific energy but moderate safety, life span and specific power. Li-
cobalt should not be charged and discharged at currents exceeding the Ah rating. Forcing a fast charge or
applying a load above 1C could cause overheating. The manufacturer recommends a charge C-rate of 0.8C,
and most battery protection circuits for this chemistry limit the charge and discharge currents to about 1C
(1A for a battery rated at 1Ah). The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite carbon anode.
Li-cobalt is one of the first lithium-ion batteries and is the preferred chemistry for laptops, mobile phones
and digital cameras. Figure 126 summarizes the performance of Li-cobalt.

Figure 126 - Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt battery

One of the first Li-ion chemistries; offers high specific energy (capacity) but provides moderate
performance in specific power, safety and life span. The relative high internal resistance causes the battery
to heat up during high load and rapid charge (Courtesy of Cadex)
Lithium Manganese Oxide(LiMn2O4)
Lithium manganese oxide as cathode material forms a three-dimensional spinel structure that improves ion
flow on the electrodes. This results in a low internal resistance for good current handling and solid thermal
stability. The negatives are low life span and a specific energy that is about one-third less than Li-cobalt.
Figure 127 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery.

Figure 127 - Snapshot of a typical Li-manganese battery

Moderate in overall performance; newer designs offer improvements in specific power, safety and life span
(Courtesy of BCG research)

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Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)
In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate as cathode material for
rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good electrochemical performance with low resistance.
This is made possible with nano-scale phosphate cathode material. The key benefits are excellent thermal
stability, tolerant to abuse, high current rating and long cycle life. On the negative, the lower voltage of
3.30V/cell reduces the specific energy. Although the flat voltage discharge provides enduring power
handling, it complicates state-of-charge measurement. Li-phosphate is not interchangeable with other
lithium-based systems; the lower cell voltage requires a different charger setting. Figure 128 summarizes
the attributes of Li-phosphate. Typical uses are power tools, electric powertrain and increasingly also large
energy storage systems (ESS).

Figure 128 - Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate battery

Li-phosphate is one of the most robust

Li-ion systems in terms of safety and life span, but offers moderate specific energy (capacity). The low
internal resistance keeps the battery cool during high load and fast charge conditions.
Courtesy of BCG research
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2)
The NMC uses nickel, manganese and cobalt as cathode material. Nickel is known for its high specific
energy but low stability, and manganese forms a spinel structure for low internal resistance but offers
limited specific energy. Combining the metals results in a winning formula delivering a specific energy that
is equal to Li-cobalt with improved safety and enhanced life span. Figure 129 summarizes these results.
NMC batteries are relatively new and are widely used in power tools, power tools and e-bikes.

Figure 129 - Snapshot of NMC

NMC offers good overall performance with high specific energy, low internal resistance and a moderate
price. This is the preferred battery for electric powertrains and industrial applications (Courtesy of BCG
research)
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The spider webs list only the most basic attributes of a battery and omits other important features, such as
toxicity, internal resistance, charge times, charge acceptance at cold temperatures, capacity loss during
storage, self-discharge and safety if abused and when getting old.
Safety considerations for lithium-ion batteries in aviation
Aviation has some of the most stringent demands and this causes challenges when introducing new
battery chemistries for onboard functions. Let’s look at these conditions in more detail.
A single safety breach with bad press can turn the public against the incumbent airplane. Two battery
incidents on a new airplane hint to a design flaw and Boeing must realize that Li-ion serving as the main
battery may not be as well understood as NiCd and lead acid systems.
Explaining the 2006 recall involving 6 million lithium-ion packs, Sony said that on rare occasions
microscopic metal particles may come into contact with other parts in a Li-ion cell, leading to a short circuit.
Battery manufacturers try to minimize the presence of such particles but admit that eliminating all metallic
dust is nearly impossible. Cells with ultra-thin separators of only 20–25µm are more susceptible to
impurities than older designs with lower Ah ratings.
According to a major Lithium-ion battery manufacturer, field failures occur randomly in roughly one of
every 4 to 5 million battery cells coming off the production line. Current technologies are nearing their
theoretical limit on specific energy using conventional metal oxides and battery manufacturers are
improving methods to enhance safety and increase the life span. But the problem persists in that on rare
occasions an electrical short can develop inside the cell. This is suspected on the B-787 batteries.
A mild short only causes elevated self-discharge and the heat buildup is minimal. However, if enough
microscopic metallic particles converge on one spot, a sizable current flow can develop with time between
the electrodes and the area heats up, causing further damage. An uneven separator can also trigger cell
failure. Poor conductivity caused by a dry spot increases resistance, which can generate local heat spots
that can weaken the integrity of the separator. When an electrical short occurs, the temperature quickly
reaches 500°C (932°F), leading to a thermal runaway. The failed battery on the Boeing 787 is reported to
have reached 260°C (500°F), a temperature that induces a thermal runaway.
During a thermal runaway, the elevated heat of the failing cell may propagate to neighboring cells, causing
them to become thermally unstable also. This appears to have happened on the Boeing 787 battery. A
chain reaction can occur when each cell disintegrates on its own timetable. A Li-ion battery can disintegrate
in a few seconds or over several hours as each cell is being consumed on its own accord. To increase
safety, batteries should include dividers to protect the failing cell from spreading to the neighboring one.
(The Tesla Roadster using Li-cobalt encases each cell in its own metal compartment.)
A flaming Li-ion battery is difficult to extinguish. Dowsing with water may not be effective and special
chemicals are required. If possible, remove the burning battery from flammable materials, place it into the
open and use water to cool the surrounding area. This is not possible with a burning aircraft battery and the
FAA may require that a Li-ion be allowed to burn out in the aircraft without causing damage. Containing a
thermal event would require a fire and explosion-safe battery enclosure and battery manufacturers are
working on such models.
The question asked is: “When should a battery be replaced to meet the mandated safety?” NiCd batteries in
avionics are retired when the capacity drops below a given threshold. Low capacity may also be used to
determine the end-of-life of an aging Li-ion, but it is possible that safety concerns require an earlier
replacement. Laboratory stress tests may not reveal this accurately, but field use will.
As the investigation of the battery fire continues, conspiracies arise of improper wiring, and this is very
unlikely. If it were true, the protection circuit would safeguard the battery from possible excess voltage and
loading conditions.
Incorrect charging is another suspect. There is suspect that the Li-ion battery was kept on trickle charge
once fully charged. Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge and the charge current must be cut off when fully
charged. A continuous trickle charge (maintenance charge) could cause plating of metallic lithium that can
lead an electrical short. To reduce stress, Li-ion should dwell slightly below the 100% state-of-charge after a
full charge. A recharge can be applied when the charge drops to say 80 to 90%.
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When a fault develops in the battery core, as is probable with the two failed B-787 packs, peripheral safety
circuits have limited effect; they only protect the battery from outside interference. Once in thermal
runaway condition, neither the charger, nor the protection circuit can stop the event; only containment can
in the form of a protective battery enclosure.
Life span reflects cycle count and longevity governed by environment conditions and usage pattern. This
includes temperature, depth of discharge and load currents. A shallow discharge is preferred over full
cycles, and a slow three-hour charge is better than a rapid charge, but most importantly the battery should
be kept cool. Aging manifests itself mainly through capacity loss; capacity is the leading health indicator of
most batteries.
Heat is the enemy of the battery; keeping a Li-ion in a fully charged state adds further stress. The worst
condition is retaining a fully charged Li-ion at high temperature. Table 60 estimates the recoverable
capacity of lead acid, nickel-based and Li-ion batteries after one year of storage at different temperatures.
Table 60 - Estimated recoverable capacity when storing a battery for one year
Lead acid Nickel-based Lithium-ion (Li-cobalt)
Temperature
40% charge 100% charge
at full charge at any charge
0°C 97% 99% 98% 94%
25°C 90% 97% 96% 80%
40°C 62% 95% 85% 65%
38% 60%
60°C 70% 75%
(after 6 months) (after 3 months)

Elevated temperature hastens permanent capacity loss. Li-ion is also sensitive to charge levels.
Performance manifests itself in the delivery of power during blistering summer heat and in freezing
temperatures. Li-ion does not perform as well as NiCd at low temperature. While NiCd can accept a slow
charge when cold, Li-ion should not be charged below freezing. Fast-charging is only permissible from 5 to
45°C (41 to 113°F). Although Li-ion appears to be charging, a plating of metallic lithium can occur on the
anode during cold temperature charging. Batteries affected by cold charging are more vulnerable to failure
if exposed to vibration or other stressful conditions. (Some Li-ion cells are made to charge down to –10°C
(14°F) but at a reduced rate.)
Specific energy demonstrates how much energy a battery can store. Li-ion can hold more energy by weight
and size than nickel and lead-based systems, however, Li-ion batteries for aviation (and other industrial
applications) are optimized for safety and longevity, not capacity. This reflects in a lower specific energy
than enjoyed on consumer products. In addition, the B-787 charges the LVP10 to only 4.025V/cell instead of
the traditional 4.20V. This prolongs battery life but reduces the capacity from the specified 100% to about
75%. Li-ion batteries in satellites and electric powertrains use similar practices by avoiding full charges and
limiting deep discharges.
Li-ion does not need deep discharge cycles to reverse memory as NiCd does; however, an occasional
deep discharge is advisable as a learn cycle to calibrate the battery management system (BMS). BMS is
known to lose accuracy over time.
Specific power demonstrates the ability to deliver current for an electrical load. According to Table 1 earlier,
Li-cobalt, the battery chosen for the B-787, only handles 1C, while Li-manganese and NMC can deliver
discharge currents at 10C and Li-phosphate at 35C; 10 and 35 times higher than their rated Ah. With low
internal resistance, these systems run cooler than Li-cobalt.
The Cost to manufacture Li-ion batteries is higher than NiCd; the most economical battery is lead acid.
Material costs are not the sole reason for the higher cost; complex assembly procedures boost the price.
The battery market has predicted lower Li-ion prices but this has not yet materialized. The protection circuit
required for all Li-ion to assure safety and longevity adds to the cost further.

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Conclusion
Boeing selected lithium-ion because the battery meets the performance and design objectives of the 787 in
providing added electrical function at reduced weight. “Nothing we learned during the design of the 787, or
since then, has led us to change our fundamental assessment of the technology,” a company spokesman
said. But with the 787 grounded worldwide, Boeing is struggling to understand why its multiple safety
systems failed to stop the damage to the battery.
Given that the battery serves only as start-and-backup system, which can be neglected when other power
sources become available on a running aircraft, an aircraft manufacturer may place more importance on
the propulsion system than the battery, but an uncontrollable battery fire is a concern. Here, Li-ion has a
disadvantage over the traditional NiCd. All batteries are subject to failure and there is also a reported
incident where the battery circuit breaker of a Boeing 777 had to be pulled because of an overheating NiCd
battery. In the early 1970s, the National Transportation Safety Board reported several battery incidents per
year involving the then new nickel-cadmium, but none let to casualties. A redesign eventually made NiCd
safe and it became a standard for airliners.
When Thales, the maker of the electrical system, decided on Li-cobalt for the B-787 battery in 2005, they
chose an available system that offered high capacity. Meanwhile more stable chemistries have been
developed, and it would have been advisable had Boeing considered one of these technologies before
releasing the plane. While Li-manganese, Li-phosphate and NMC can endure internal heat of 200°C (392°F)
and higher, Li-cobalt becomes unstable at 150°C (302°F).
Nor did the 2006 fire at Securaplane, the maker of the onboard chargers for the B-787, deter the use of the
chosen battery system. A Li-ion exploded during testing and burned the administrative building to the
ground. Securaplane, a unit of Britain's Meggitt Plc., said that they will “contribute to the investigation
process” by the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board and the FAA, but determined that the battery fire
involved prototypes that were not installed in Boeing 787 aircraft. Adding to this concern, a lithium-ion
battery also destroyed a Cessna Citation jet on the ground in 2011. Cessna is now very cautious.
There is the option to go back to NiCd, and the wide-body, long-range Airbus 350 in development by
European aircraft manufacturer Airbus may do that. It will require a different charging system and a
modified BMS. In addition, the lower specific energy of NiCd will double the battery numbers and weight,
but the Airbus 350 is said to be less dependent on electric power than the Dreamliner.
Lithium-ion batteries have not yet matured and it is advisable that aircraft manufacturers design planes that
allow updating to more advanced technologies as better batteries become available. Now a retro-fit on the
Boeing 787 is said to take two years. More flexible designs would allow moving with the time.
Aircraft are pressurized to an altitude of 6,000 feet (1830 meters) and thinner air may affect Li-ion batteries
differently than at sea levels. In addition, large-format Li-ion batteries have added mechanical strain
compared to smaller packs. Battery diagnostics has not advanced as rapidly as other technologies and
hidden anomalies can often go undetected until a disassembly develops. Cadex Electronics has made
critical progress in these areas but more development will be needed.
Battery testing is complex and no single measurement can capture all irregularities. As a doctor is trained
to use a wide selection of medical instruments to diagnose an illness, so also does a battery need different
technologies to detect anomalies that can develop. While a fading battery on a mobile phone simply
becomes a nuisance to the user, a malfunctioning aviation battery can have serious consequences.
References:
National Transportation Safety Board presentation “Investigative Update of Battery fire Japan Airlines B-787
– Jan 7, 2013 by Deborah A.P. Hersman, Chairman
Batteries in a Portable World, 3rd edition, by Isidor Buchmann
Last updated 2013-03-08

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