BATTERY

• A battery is an Electrochemical cell or often several electrochemical cells which

are connected in series to produce a constant voltage to run portable goods

• It is a compact device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series

or parallel or both.

• It stores chemical energy in the form of active materials and on demand converts
it into electrical energy through redox reactions

Ex. Batteries are used in calculators, digital watches, pace makers, hearing
aids, portable computers, electronically controlled cameras, digital
watches, stand by power supplies, emergency lighting and electroplating,
telecommunication, military & space applications.

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PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF A BATTERY:
1. An anode where oxidation
2. A cathode where reduction occurs
3. An electrolyte , which is ironically conducting
4. A separator to separate anode and cathode compartments

Types: 3

1) Primary Battery is the one in which cell reactions are irreversible. (Single use)
E.g. Leclanche cell or Zn-Carbon Battery or Dry cell .

2) Secondary Battery is the one in which cell reactions can be reversed by passing external emf in
opposite direction. i.e. it can be used for many cycles of charging and discharging.
E.g. Lead – Acid battery, Ni-Cd etc.

3) Flow battery is the one in which all the constituents of the battery flow through out the battery
E.g. Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel cell.

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DRY CELL OR LECLANCHE CELL OR Zn CARBON BATTERY
Construction: It is a primary cell

It consists of Zinc can which acts as anode. A graphite rod is placed in the middle of the can (container)
acts as cathode. A mixture of MnO2, NH4Cl and ZnCl2 act as electrolyte. A small amount of starch is
added the electrolytic mixture to keep it in the form of a paste so that chance of undergoing to leakage
is less. When it supplies voltage the following cell reactions take place.

Working:
Anode: Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e- (oxidation)

Cathode: 2MnO2 + 2NH4+ + 2Cl- + Zn2+ + 2e- → Mn2O3 + [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2 + H2O (Reduction)

Net reaction: Zn + 2 MnO2 + 2 NH4+ + 2Cl- → Mn2O3 + [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2 + H2O + 1.5V

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The voltage supplied by the cell is 1.5 V.

In designing Zn-Carbon cells, corrosion and other undesirable reactions cause difficulties. Luckily,
the over potential for hydrogen evolution on zinc is quite high in mildly acidic or alkaline solutions.
Another source of corrosion is direct reaction of oxygen in air ingress to the cell. In order to protect
against this problem, the cell is sealed and access of air is restricted as far as possible.

Uses:
It is used in the areas where low voltages are required such as calculators, remotes, wall clocks,
etc.

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LEAD ACID BATTERY or STORAGE CELL OR CAR BATTERY
It is a secondary battery. It is the one which can act both as voltaic cell and electrolytic cell.
If it functions as voltaic cell, it supplies electric current and the process is known as discharging.
If it functions as electrolytic cell, it receives electric current and this process is known as charging.
So it can be used for a large no. of cycles of charging and discharging.
Ex. lead acid battery or lead acid accumulator

Construction:
Large number of anodes and
cathodes are arranged
alternatively in a series
separated by insulators as
shown above. The entire set
up is immersed in dilute
H2SO4solution.

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Working: It shows both charging and discharging processes.
Anode : lead plate
Cathode : lead dioxide plate
Electrolyte : (25-38%) H2SO4 solution
Discharging : Voltaic cell
Anode: Pb Pb2+ + 2 e- (oxidation)
Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4
Cathode:PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 e- Pb2+ + 2H2O (Reduction)
Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4
Net reaction: Pb + PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 SO42- 2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O + Energy (= 2 V)

 [H2SO4] decreases in course of reaction.

 Both electrodes covered with PbSO4.
 As PbSO4 is insoluble in H2SO4, it acts as a protective layer and prevents the further corrosion of
Pb.
As the PbSO4 deposited at both the electrodes is solid, the cell reactions can easily be reversed by
passing emf just above the voltage of the cell i.e., > 2 V

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Charging : Electrolytic cell

2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O + Energy (> 2 V)  Pb + PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 SO42-

Uses:
Car battery (A lead accumulator of car consists of 6 pairs of electrodes. So it gave 12 V of energy),
automobiles, power stations, UPS systems and railway mines

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NICAD BATTERY Or Ni-Cd BATTERY (It is a secondary cell)

Construction: A dry cell-like set up as alkaline solution as electrolyte with Cd as anode and NiO
as cathode. Cd is an expensive metal, and cannot be disposed easily due to its toxicity. Special care
must be taken to recycle Ni-Cd batteries.

Working:
Anode :
Cd (s) + 2 OH−(aq) → Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e- (Oxidation)
Cathode :
2NiO(OH)(s) + 2 H2O (l) + 2e− → 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + 2OH−(aq) (Reduction)
Ni-Cd Rechargeable Batteries has E°cell = 1.2 V.

Uses:
Electronic calculators, Cordless electronic shavers, flash lights and
transistors

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LITHIUM BATTERIES (LiB)
• Lithium is the lightest of metals and it can float on water.
• The electrochemical properties of Li are excellent and it is also a highly reactive
material. These properties give Li the potential to achieve very high energy and
power densities in high-density battery applications such as automotive and standby
power.
• Lithium batteries are primary batteries in which lithium metal (or) lithium compound acts as anode.
• A lithium cell can produce voltage from 1.5 - 3 V based on the types of materials used.

Types of LiB: Two

1. Simple Lithium batteries (Pure Li is used as anode, not rechargeable)
2. Lithium-ion batteries (Li based compounds used as anode, rechargeable)20

Therefore, Lithium ion batteries are considered as best than pure Lithium based batteries.

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SIMPLE LITHIUM BATTERY
• It is primary cell of lithium group of batteries and used in digital watches and calculators
• Anode: Pure lithium metal.
Lithium, the lightest of all metals, has the highest electrode potential and offers the greatest
ampere-hour capacity per-unit-weight.
• Cathode: Manganese oxide (MnO2).
Li/ MnO2 cells is a mixture of heat-treated electrolytic manganese dioxide and conductive
agents blended together for high conductivity material like poly- carbonmonofluoride.
Process: not rechargeable

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LITHIUM ION BATTERY (It is a secondary cell)
• A lithium-ion battery (Li-ion battery or LIB) is a family of rechargeable battery type
• Lithium ions move from the negative → positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging.

• negative electrode is graphite

• positive electrode is a layered oxide (such as
lithium manganese oxide)
• electrolyte is mixture of organic carbonates
such as ethylene carbonate containing
complexes of lithium ions or non-aqueous
electrolytes such as lithium hexa
fluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium perchlorate
(LiClO4)

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Construction:
• Li-ion cell has a four-layer structure.
• A positive electrode made with Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMnO2) has a current
collector made of thin aluminum foil - cathode
• A negative electrode made with specialty carbon (LiC6) has a current collector of thin copper foil –
anode
• A separator is a fine porous polymer film. An electrolyte made with lithium salt in an organic
solvent (Lithium perchlorate or Lithium hexaflouro phosphate, LiPF6).

Working:
o The traditional batteries are based on galvanic action but Lithium ion battery depends on an
"intercalation" mechanism.
o involves insertion of lithium ions into the crystalline lattice of the host electrode without changing
its crystal structure.
o These electrodes have two key properties. One is the open crystal structure, which allow the
insertion or extraction of lithium ions and the second is the ability to accept
compensating electrons at the same time. Such electrodes are called intercalation hosts.
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Discharging:
Charging:
Discharging process is spontaneous which
non spontaneous process and reactions as follows
means oxidation takes place at anode (LiC6)
and reduction at cathode (LiMnO2).
Anode: LiMnO2 → Li+ + MnO2 + e
Anode: LiC6 → Graphite (C6) + Li+ + e- Cathode: Graphite (C6) + Li+ + e- → LiC6
Cathode: Li+ + MnO2 + e- → LiMnO2
During charging, lithium in positive electrode material
During discharge Li ions are dissociated from is and inserted into the negative electrode ionized and
the anode and migrate across the electrolyte moves from layer to layer.
and are inserted into the crystal structure of the The lithium ion is inserted and exerted into the lattice
host compound of cathode. structure of anode and cathode during charging and
discharging. During discharge current flows through
external circuit and light glows. During charging,
the electrons flow does not take place in the opposite
direction

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Uses:

• It used in Mobile phones, Smart phones, Laptops, Tablets, Digital cameras.

• The Li-ion batteries are used in cameras, calculators
• They are used in cardiac pacemakers and other implantable device
• They are used in telecommunication equipment, instruments, portable radios and TVs, pagers
• They are used to operate laptop computers and mobile phones and aerospace application

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FUEL CELL or FLOW BATTERY

Fuel battery is the one in which all the constituents of the battery flow throughout the battery which
converts the chemical energy of fuels directly to electricity and not store chemical energy.
Fuel + Oxygen → Oxidation products + Electricity
 Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell
 Methyl Alcohol –Oxygen Fuel Cell
 Propane-Oxygen Fuel Cell

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METHYL ALCOHOL – OXYGEN FUEL
CELL
Construction:
• It consists of two electrodes made up of Pt in
between the electrodes H2SO4 is placed as a
electrolyte.
• Methanol and H2SO4 is supplied at the anode
and pure O2 gas is supplied at the cathode.
• Methanol is oxidized to CO2 & H2O with the
liberation of electrical energy.
• Cell delivers an EMF of 1.2 V. The cell
reactions are as follows

Uses:
Used in Military applications and also for large scale
power production stations.

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PROPANE– OXYGEN FUEL CELL
Construction:
• It consists of 2 electrodes made up of Pt in between electrodes H2SO4 is placed as a electrolyte.
• Propane and H2SO4 is supplied at the anode and pure O2 gas is supplied at the cathode.
• Propane is oxidized to CO2 & H2O with the liberation of electrical energy.
• Cell delivers an emf of 1.20 V. The cell reactions are as follows.

Working:
C3H8 (g) + 6H2O (l) → 3CO2 (g) + 20H+ + 20e-
5O2 + 20H+ + 20e- →10H2O

C3H8 (g) + 5O2 → 3CO2 (g) + 4 H2O

Uses:
Used in Military applications and also for large scale power production stations.

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NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
“Energy generated by using wind, solar, small hydro, tides,
geothermal heat and biomass”

SOLAR ENERGY
• The sun, an average star, has been burning for >4 billion
years supplies heat and light to the planets including
earth.
• The sun’s light looks white because it is made up of
different colours that, combined to produce a white light.
• Each visible and invisible radiations of the sun’s
spectrum has a different energy.
• The sun radiates about 8.33x1024 kilo-watt-hours (kWH)
of energy/day into space.
• Of this earth receives 4.14x1015 Kwh/day. About 99% of
this energy is spread out over a range of wave lengths of
electromagnetic spectrum from 2800 - 49,000 Å

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• Out of total radiation,
• 30%- reflected back into space,
• 47%-absorbed by atmosphere, water and land mass in the form of heat
• 23% causes evaporation and movement of wind.
• The intensity of the radiation reaching the earth’s surface is affected by several factors. viz
• 1) Angle of incidence of the radiation
• 2) O3 layer
• 3) dust particles & others.
However, not all areas of the earth surface get the same average amounts of sun energy
throughout the year.

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SOLAR CELL or PHOTOELECTRIC CELL or PHOTOVOLTOIC CELL

Photovoltaic cells:
Semiconductor devices which converts sunlight  direct current electricity on illumination.
Description of solar cell:
1. Glass cover occupied surface area of cell which
protects cell from attacks by atmosphere.
2. Antireflective coating which prevents reflection of sun
light and increase the rate of
absorption of sunlight.
3. Front and back contact are arranged for free movement
of electrons i.e., to allow electricity.

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P-type and n-type semi conductors:
a) Si has 4 valence e-s, all of which are normally part of bonds in a Si crystal
b) A pure Si crystal was doped with boron atom, posses 3 e-s , acts as acceptor and has
high number of +ve charges i.e. holes which are moving throughout the crystal lattice. This is
called P-type semiconductor, ‘P’ refers positive.
c) In case of n-type semiconductor, silicon was doped with an impurity phosphorous, has 5 e-s,
acts as donor and posses high number of –ve charges i.e. non-bonded electron as carriers where
‘n’ refers to negative.

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Working of photovoltaic cells:
• The Solar cells or Photovoltaic cells are made out of semiconductors which have the
capacity to absorb light.
• When n-type and p-type semiconductor are bought together a semiconductor diode is
formed. The semiconductor diode separates and collects the carriers and conducts the
generated electrical current preferentially in a specific direction.
• A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer
of phosphorus doped. (n-type) silicon on top of boron doped (p-type) silicon. Hence a p-n
junction is formed.
• A metallic grid forms one of the electrical current contacts of the diode and allows light to
fall on the semiconductor between the grid lines.
• Antireflective layer between the grid lines increases the amount of light transmitted to
the semiconductor. The cell’s other electrical contacts is formed by a metallic layer on
the back of the solar cell.
• When light radiation falls on the p-n junction diode, electron – hole pairs are generated
by the absorption of the radiation.

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• The electrons are drifted to and collected at the n-type end and the holes are drifted to p- type end.
• When these two ends are electrically connected through a conductor, there is a flow of current
between the two ends through the external circuit. Thus photoelectric current is produced.

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Importance of Photovoltaic cells:
• The conventional energy is exhaustible and depleting, whereas Solar energy being ultimate,
inexhaustible and renewable energy. There the photovoltaic cells are important means to utilize
this continuous energy source.
• The Photovoltaic cells can serve for both off-grid and on-grid applications. It can be used for
off-grid professional devices and supply systems such as telecommunication equipment, solar
home systems, etc.
• Photovoltaic energy conversion environmental friendly as there is no harmful emission of
pollutants. Use of or production of solar energy doesn’t produce noise pollution.
• Electricity obtained from solar energy is useful in minimizing global warming due to CO2.
• Photo voltaic can be used as roof integrated systems, providing power and also serving as
optical shading elements for the space below and preventing overheating in the summer.
• Photovoltaic cells provide power for spacecraft and satellites. Developments in the field of
photovoltaic cells will boost the semiconductor industry and storage battery industries

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WIND ENERGY

a) Definition:
1) Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by
the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth.
2) Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover.
This wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to
generate electricity
3) The terms "wind energy" or "wind power" describe the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind
into mechanical power.
4) This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping
water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity to power homes,
businesses, schools, and the like.

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b) Description about wind turbine and types:
i) Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, turn in the moving air and power an electric generator
that supplies an electric current.
ii) The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity.
iii) Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups;
• Horizontal-axis variety, like the traditional farm windmills used for pumping water,
• Vertical-axis design, like the egg beater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. Most
large modern wind turbines are horizontal-axis turbines.

c) Wind -Turbine Components

Horizontal turbine components include:
• blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy;
• a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator;
• a tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and
• Other equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment, and
interconnection equipment.

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Wind turbines are often grouped together into a single wind power plant, also known as a wind farm,
and generate bulk electrical power. Electricity from these turbines is fed into a utility grid and
distributed to customers, just as with conventional power plants.

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d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind-Generated Electricity

• Wind energy is a free, renewable resource, also a source of clean, non-polluting, electricity.
Unlike conventional power plants, wind plants emit no air pollutants or greenhouse gases.
• Wind costs are much more competitive with other generating technologies because there is no
fuel to purchase and minimal operating expenses.
• Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment compared to
fossil fuel power plants, there is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades,
aesthetic (visual) impacts, and birds and bats having been killed (avian/bat mortality) by flying
into the rotors.
• Wind cannot be stored (although wind-generated electricity can be stored, if batteries are
used), and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands

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