LECTURE 4: METAL FORMING PROCESSES

STRAIN RATE SENSITIVITY

What is Strain Rate?

1. Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of deformation

v
2. Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other movement
of the equipment
3. Strain rate is defined:
v
=
h
where  = true strain rate; v = deformation speed and
h = instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• Under hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on strain rate
• As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation
increases. This effect is known as strain-rate
sensitivity
Strain Rate Sensitivity

(a) Effect of strain

rate on flow
stress at an
elevated work
temperature

(b) Same
relationship
plotted on
log-log
coordinates
Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Yf = Cεm

where C = strength constant (analogous but not equal to strength

coefficient in flow curve equation), and
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent
Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress

The constant C, indicated by the

intersection of each plot with the
vertical dashed line at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases
And m (slope of each plot) increases
with increasing temperature
Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity

1. Increasing temperature decreases C and increases m

2. At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost negligible
3. Flow curve alone is a good representation of material
behavior
4. As temperature increases strain rate becomes increasingly
important in determining flow stress
1) A warm working operation is carried out at various speeds. The
strength constant of the work metal = 200 MPa and the strain rate
sensitivity exponent = 0.20 in the strain rate sensitivity equation.
Determine the flow stress if the strain rate is (a) 0.01/s, (b) 1.0/s,
and (c) 100/s.
Solution: (a) Yf = 79.6 MPa
•(b) Yf = 200(1.0)0.2 = 200 MPa
•(c) Yf = 200(100)0.2 = 502.4 MPa
Friction in Metal Forming

1. In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable as;
a) Metal flow is reduced
b) Forces and power are increased
c) Tools wear faster
2. Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot
working
Lubrication in Metal Forming

1. Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work

interface in many forming operations to reduce harmful
effects of friction
2. Benefits:
1. Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
2. Better surface finish
3. Removes heat from the tooling
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

1. Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet

metal drawing, etc.)
2. Hot working or cold working
3. Work material
4. Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
5. Ease of application
6. Cost
FORGING PROCESS
What is Forging ?

➢ It is defined as the deformation process in which work

is compressed between two opposing dies
➢ One of the oldest metal forming operations, which
dates from about 5000 BC
➢ Products: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears,
jet engine turbine parts
Classification of Forging Operations

1. Cold vs. hot forging:

a) Hot or warm forging – advantage: reduction in

strength and increase in ductility of work metal
b) Cold forging – advantage: increased strength due to
strain hardening

2. Impact vs. press forging:

a) Forge hammer - applies an impact force

b) Forge press - applies gradual force
Types of Forging Operations

1) Open-die forging – work is compressed between two flat

dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum
constraint
2) Impression-die forging – die contains cavity or impression
that is imparted to work part. Metal flow is loosely
constrained so that flash is created
3) Flashless forging – work part is completely constrained in
die, no excess flash is created
Types of Forging Operations

(a) Open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, (c) Flashless forging

Open-Die Forging

1) Compression of work part between two flat dies. Similar

to compression test when work part has cylindrical cross
section and is compressed along its axis

2) Deformation operation reduces height and increases

diameter of work

3) Common names include upsetting or upset forging

Open-Die Forging with No Friction

If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then

homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is
uniform throughout work part height, and true strain is
given by
ho
 = ln
h
where ho= starting height; and h = height at some point
during compression

At h = final value hf, true strain reaches maximum value

Open-Die Forging with No Friction

(1) Start of process with workpiece at its original length and

diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size
Open-Die Forging with Friction

1) Friction between work and die surfaces constrains

lateral flow of work. This results in barreling effect
2) In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced
due to heat transfer at die surfaces.
3) Die surfaces cool the metal and increase its resistance to
deformation
Open-Die Forging with Friction

Actual deformation of a cylindrical work part in open-die forging,

showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial
deformation, and (3) final shape
Shape factor in Forging Process
Shape factor in Forging Process

Kf is the forging shape factor to account for D/h ratio and

friction effects.

Kf is given by the equation ;

0.4 𝜇𝐷
𝐤𝑓 = 1 +
ℎ
where 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction
D = work piece diameter or contact length with die surface
h = work piece height

Forging Force = Kf x Yf x A
Yf = Flow stress of the material at the forging temperature,
A = projected area of the forging, including the flash.
1) A cold heading operation forms the head on a steel nail. The strength coefficient for the
steel = 550 MPa, and the strain-hardening exponent = 0.22. Coefficient of friction at the
die-work interface = 0.16. The diameter of the wire stock for the nail = 4.0 mm. The nail
head diameter = 10 mm, and its thickness = 2.0 mm. The final length of the nail = 60 mm.
(a) What length of stock must project out of the die in order to provide sufficient volume of
work material for this upsetting operation? (b) Compute the maximum force that the punch
must apply to form the head in this open-die operation.
2) A cylindrical part is upset-forged in an open die. The starting diameter = 50 mm and height
= 60 mm. Height after forging = 40 mm. Coefficient of friction at the die-work interface =
0.20. Yield strength of the low-carbon steel = 105 MPa; its strength coefficient = 500 MPa
and strain-hardening exponent = 0.25. Determine the force in the operation (a) just as the
yield point is reached (yield at strain = 0.002), (b) at a height of 50 mm.
FORGING Processes
Cogging Process (Drawing Out)

• Cogging (also called drawing out) is basically an open-die

forging operation in which the thickness of a bar is reduced
by successive forging steps (bites) at specific intervals.

• Also referred as incremental forging.

Impression Die Forging

• In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the shape of

the die cavity while being forged between two shaped dies.
• This process usually is carried out at elevated temperatures
to lower the required forces and attain enhanced ductility in
the workpiece.
• During deformation, some of the material flows outward
and forms a flash.
1) Flash must later be trimmed, but it serves an important
function during compression:
a) As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into
gap, constraining metal to fill die cavity
b) In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling
against die plates
Forging Dies..
Various Features of a Forging Die
Advantages and Limitations of Impression-Die Forging

1) Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:

a) Higher production rates
b) Less waste of metal
c) Greater strength
d) Favorable grain orientation in the metal

2) Limitations:
a) Not capable of close tolerances
b) Post processing - machining is often required to achieve
dimensional accuracies and required part features
Closed Die Forging
Precision Forging/ Flashless Forging

• In precision forging flash

does not form hence the
term (flashless forging),
and the workpiece
completely fills the die
cavity.
• The forging pressure is
very high, and accurate
control of the blank volume
and proper die design are
essential to produce a
forging with the desired
dimensional tolerances.