Manufacturing Technology II

Forming Processes
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 1. Overview of Metal Forming
Definition of Forming
Forming is a fabrication process for solid
substances by controlled plastic deformation
in order to obtain alterations of:
- the form,
- the material properties and/or
-the surface properties,
-.
Terms for Classifying Forming Processes

• Classification by Type of Raw Material

• Classification by State of Stress

• Classification by Forming Temperature
• Classification by Methods of Induction of
Forces into the Work-Piece
Forming Processes
 Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations and

massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets
and rectangular bars
Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling (b) forging (c) extrusion (d)
drawing
 Sheet Metalworking
• Forming and related operations performed on
metal sheets and strips
• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
• Often called pressworking because presses
perform these operations
- Parts are called stampings
- Usual tooling: punch and die
Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending (b) Deep drawing
(c) shearing
 Metal Forming

Large group of manufacturing processes in

which plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed yield strength of metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
 Stresses in Metal Forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually
compressive
- Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
- Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
- Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
- Still others apply shear stresses
 Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:
- Low yield strength and high ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature :
- Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
• Other factors:
- Strain rate and friction
Material Behavior in Metal Forming
Tensile Testing Machine
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest
because material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:

Yf = K e n

where Yf = flow stress, K = strength coefficient; and

n = strain hardening exponent

strain
l
dl l
e = ò
l0
l
= ln
l0
 Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required
to continue deforming the material

Yf = K e n

where Yf = flow stress, K = strength coefficient; and

n = strain hardening exponent
 Average Flow Stress
Determined by integrating the flow curve equation
between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest
e e

Yf =
ò0 Y f de
=
ò0 Ke n de
e e
Ke n+1 Ke n+1-1
Yf = =
e (n + 1) n +1
Ke n
Yf =
1+ n
where Y f = average flow stress; and e = maximum
strain during deformation process
Example (1)
A metal has a flow curve with parameters: K = 850 MPa and
strain hardening exponent n = 0.30. A tensile specimen of
the metal with gage length = 100 mm is stretched to a
length = 157 mm. Determine the flow stress at the new
length and the average flow stress that the metal has been
subjected to during the deformation.
Solution
Example (2)
For a certain metal. K = 700 MPa and n = 0.27.
Determine the average flow stress that the metal
experiences if it's subjected to a stress that is equal to its
strength coefficient K.
Solution

e =1
 Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve

depend on temperature
• Both strength and strain hardening are
reduced at higher temperatures
• In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
 Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished
with lower forces and power at elevated
temperature
• At elevated temperature
n=0
Yf = Yf = K
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
- Cold working
- Warm working
- Hot working
 Cold Working

• Performed at room temperature

• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
• These operations are near net shape or net
shape processes
 Advantages of Cold Forming vs.
Hot Working
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• No heating of work required
• Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required
• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of
scale and dirt
• In some operations, metal must be annealed
to allow further deformation
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
 Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room

temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
• Warm working: T/Tm from 0.3 to 0.5, where
Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal
 Advantages of Warm Working

• Lower forces and power than in cold working

• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
 Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization
temperature
• In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level
 Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold
Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be
hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
 Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal
energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
• Shorter tool life
 What is Strain Rate?
• Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed
of deformation v
• Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or
other movement of the equipment
Strain rate is defined:
v
e! =
h
where e! = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed
 Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Y f = Ce! m

where
C = strength constant (similar but not equal to
strength coefficient in flow curve equation),
and
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent
• Strain rate (related to elevated temperatures)
- Rate at which metal is strained in a forming process
- In the hot forming or warm forming, the strain rate can affect
the flow stress
Instantaneous
Speed of height of
deformation (could work-piece
Strain Rate be equal to velocity being
of ram)
hh deformed

e! = v / h

Flowhandout
stress7a
Y f = Ce! m
32
 Y f = Ce! m Strength
coefficient but not
the same as K
where
C à strength constant
m à strain-rate sensitivity exponent

Yf = Ke n

C and m are determined by the following figure

which is generated from the experiment

33
 Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• At hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on strain rate
• As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
• This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity
(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an
elevated work temperature. (b) Same relationship
plotted on log-log coordinates
Example (3) The gage length of a tensile test specimen
= 150 mm. It is subjected to a tensile test in which the
grips holding the end of the test specimen are moved
with a relative velocity = 0.1 m/s. Construct a plot of the
strain rate as a function of length as the specimen is
pulled to a length = 200 mm.
Solution
The following values are calculated for the plot:
At L = 150 mm, e! = 0.1/0.15 = 0.667 s-1 0.7

At L = 160 mm, e! = 0.1/0.16 = 0.625 s-1 0.65

At L = 170 mm, e! = 0.1/0.17 = 0.588 s-1 0.6

Strain rate
At L = 180 mm, e! = 0.1/0.18 = 0.555 s-1 0.55

At L = 190 mm, e! = 0.1/0.19 = 0.526 s-1

0.5

0.45
At L = 200 mm, e! = 0.1/0.20 = 0.500 s-1
0.4
150 160 170 180 190 200

Length
 Friction in Metal Forming

• In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable:
- Forces and power are increased
- Wears tooling faster
- Metal flow is retarded
• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot
working
 Lubrication in Metal Forming

• Metal working lubricants are applied to

tool-work interface in many forming
operations to reduce harmful effects of friction
• Benefits:
- Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
- Better surface finish
- Removes heat from the tooling
 Considerations in Choosing a
Lubricant
• Type of forming process (rolling, forging,
sheet metal drawing, etc.)
• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost
 Metal Forming Laws

Y f = Ke = Ce!n m

l
dl l
e = ò
l0
l
= ln
l0
v
e! =
h
Ke n
Yf =
1+ n