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Electronic Mechanic (NSQF) 3rd SEM Theory

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
694 views300 pages

Electronic Mechanic (NSQF) 3rd SEM Theory

Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ELECTRONIC MECHANIC

NSQF LEVEL - 5

2nd Year (Volume I of II)

TRADE THEORY

SECTOR: Electronics & Hardware

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING


MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Sector : Electronics & Hardware

Duration : 2 - Year

Trades : Electronic Mechanic 2nd Year (Volume I of II) - Trade Theory NSQF Level 5

First Edition: October, 2018 Copies:1,000


First Reprint: February 2019 Copies: 2,000

Rs. 295/-

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.

Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone: 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791
email : chennai-nimi@nic.in, nimi_bsnl@dataone.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
(ii)

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FOREWORD

The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.

The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under the Directorate
General of Training (DGT), Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing
producing and disseminating Instructional Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related
institutions.

The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Electronic 2nd
Year (Volume I of II) Trade Theory NSQF Level - 5 in Electronic & Hardware Sector under
Semester Pattern. The NSQF Level - 5 Trade Theory will help the trainees to get an international
equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the
globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also
get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF
Level - 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these
IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.

The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

Jai Hind

RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General / Addl.Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.

New Delhi - 110 001

(iii)

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PREFACE

The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.

The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.

The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.

IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.

The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.

The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.

NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.

R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

(iv)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and contribution
extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisation to bring out this IMP (Trade Theory)
for the trade of Electronic Mechanic under the Electronic & Hardware Sector for ITIs.

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. N.P Bannibagi - Assistant Director of Training


NSTI Ramanthapur campus
Hyderabad.
Smt. K. Arul Selvi - Training Officer
NSTI (W)
Trichy.
Shri. K. Hemalatha - Vocational Instructor
NSTI
Chennai.
Shri. C. Anand - Vocational Instructor
Govt. ITI for women,
Puducherry
Shri. A. Jayaraman - Training Officer (Rtd),
Govt. of India
CTI, Guindy
Chennai - 32.
Shri. R.N. Krishnasamy - Vocational Instructor (Rtd)
Govt. of India (VRC)
Guindy, Chennai -32.
NIMI COORDINATOR

Shri. K.Srinivasa Rao - General Manager,


NIMI, Chennai-32,

Shri. S. Gopalakrishnan - Assistant Manager,


NIMI, Chennai-32,

NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the
development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP.

(v)

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INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY

The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Fourth Semester course of the Electronic
Mechanic Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in the manual on
Trade practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theortical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise
to the extent possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities
for performing the skills.

The Trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indicating about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this
manual.

It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each
exercise.

The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.

TRADE PRACTICAL

The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercises
to be completed by the trainees during the Fourth Semester course of the Electronic Mechanic trade
supplemented and supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These
exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 5

The manual is divided into Eight modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the Eight modules are
given below.

Module 1 Digital Storage Oscilloscope 25 Hrs


Module 2 Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components) 125 Hrs
Module 3 Protective devices 25 Hrs
Module 4 Electrical control circuits 25 Hrs
Module 5 Electronics cables & connectors 50 Hrs
Module 6 Communication Electronics 75 Hrs
Module 7 Microcontroller (8051) 75 Hrs
Module 8 Sensors, Transducers and applications 75 Hrs
Projects - Analog IC application 50 Hrs
Projects - Digital IC application 50 Hrs

Total 575 Hrs

The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there
is a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.

(vi)

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CONTENTS

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

3.1.180 - 183 Module 1 : Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Operate the front panel controls of a digital storage oscilloscope 1

Capturing a single shot signal 8

Interface the DSO to external devices 9

Function generator using IC 8038 12

3.2.184 - 199 Module 2 : Basic SMD ( 2, 3, 4 terminal components )

Introduction to ESD, SMT & SMD IC packages 14

Surface Mount Technology (SMT) 21

Classification of SMD IC packages 30

Explanation about diffrent types of tools & equipments & raw materials
required for SMD soldering and desoldering work 43

Soldering guns and its types 52

Identification of Pin 1 marking in various SMD IC packages 54

Ball grid array and pin grid array components 58

Re-flow soldering 60

Introduction to non soldering interconnection and printed circuit boards 64

Types & conformal coating and its removal methods 65

Introduction to rework and repair concepts 69

3.3.200 - 202 Module 3 : Protection Devices

Fuses-terminology-types-uses 80

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)-types-construction- 84


working -specification

ELCB - types - working principle - specification 88

Contactors-parts-functions-troubleshooting-symbols 91

B.I.S symbols pertaining to contactor and machines 94

(vii)

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Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Relays-types-operating-specification-symbols 98

3.4.203 - 206 Module 4 : Electrical control circuits


Single-phase induction motors-types-resistance start induction
run motor, centrifugal switch-capacitor start, induction run motor-
capacitor start, capacitor run motor 106

3 Phase induction motors-principle-construction-characteristics-


insulation test- types 116

Starter for induction motors-D.O.L, manual star-delta starter,


semi automatic star-delta starter and automatic star/delta starter 129

3.5.207-211 Module 5 : Electronic cables and connectors

Types of audio and video connectors 135

Audio and Video/RF Cables 143

Termination of cable ends of crimping and soldering 147

Different types of c ables and connectors used in LAN 151

Cables and Connectors of a PC system 155

3.6.212 - 218 Module 6 : Communication Electronics

Radio wave propagation - principles, fading etc 169

Need for modulation & types of modulation 171

Fundamentals of antenna, various parameters, types & applications 175

Introduction to AM, FM & PM,SSB - SC, DCB - SC modulaion &


demodulation techniques 179

Block diagram of AM & FM transmitter, FM generation & detection 185

Types of radio receivers, superhetrodyne receiver, block diagram,


principles, characteristic advantages and disadvantages 193

Block diagram of FM Receivers, AM/FM-RF Aligment 200

Digital modulation and demodulation techniques, sampling,


quantization, encoding 206
3.7.219-227 Module 7 : Microcontroller ( 8051 )

Architecture of 8051 218

Pin details of 8051, Internal data memory, SFR and on-chip features 223

Instruction set of 8051, arithmatic and logical function 226

Timer on the microcontroller kit


Application of 8051 (motor, traffic control) 236

(viii)

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Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

3.8.228 - 232 Module 8 : Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Diffrent types of level sensors and their workings 242

Basic of passive and active transducers 243

Thermistors 247

Resistance temperature decetors (RTD) 251

Thermocouple 255

Strain gauges and load cell 258

Proximity sensors 262

Displacement measurement using LVDT 266

Different types of charts 268

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME


On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Measure the various parameters by DSO and execute the result
wiith standard one
• Rework on PCB after identifying defects from SMD soldering and
desoldering
• Construct different electrical control circuits and test for their
proper functioning with due care and safety
• Prepare, crimp, terminate and test various cables used in different
electronics industries
• Assemble and test a commercial AM/FM receiver and evaluate
performance
• Test, service and troubleshoot the various components of
different domestic/industrial programmable systems.
• Execute the operation of different process sensors, identify wire
& test various sensors of different industrial processes by
selecting appropriate test instruments.
• Plan and carry out the selection of a project, assembly the project
and evaluate performance for a domestic/commercial
applications.

(ix)

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SYLLABUS FOR ELECTRONIC MECHANIC TRADE
2nd Year (Volume I of II) Duration: 06 Months

Week Professional Skills


Learning
No. (Trade Practical) Professional Knowledge
Outcome Reference
with Indicative hrs. (Trade Practical)
• Measure the various
53 parameters by DSO and Digital Storage Oscilloscope
180. Identify the different front Advantages and features of
execute the result with DSO. Block diagram of Digital
standard one. panel control of a DSO. (5
hrs) storage oscilloscope (DSO)/
181. Measure the Amplitude, CRO and applications.
Frequency and time period Applications of digital CRO.
of typical electronic signals Block diagram of function
using DSO. (7 hrs) generator. Differentiate a CRO
182.Take a print of a signal from with DSO.
DSO by connecting it to a
printer and tally with applied
signal. (6 hrs)
183.Construct and test function
generator using IC 8038. (7
hrs)

Basic SMD (2, 3, 4 terminal


• Identify, place, solder Introduction to SMD
54 components)
and desolder and test technology Identification of 2,
184. Identification of 2, 3, 4
different SMD discrete 3, 4 terminal SMD
terminal SMD components.
components and IC,s components. Advantages of
(5 hrs)
package with due care SMD components over
185. De-solder the SMD
and following safety conventional lead
components from the given
norms using proper components. Soldering of SM
PCB. (5 hrs)
tools/setup. assemblies - Reflow soldering.
186. Solder the SMD
Tips for selection of hardware,
components in the same
Inspection of SM.
PCB. (5 hrs)
187. Check for cold continuity
of PCB. (3 hrs)
188. Identification of loose /dry
solder, broken tracks on
printed wired assemblies.
(7 hrs)

55-56 • Identify, place, solder SMD Soldering and De-soldering Introduction to Surface Mount
and desolder and test 189. Identify various connections Technology (SMT).
different SMD discrete and setup required for SMD Advantages, Surface Mount
components and IC,s Soldering station. (5 hrs) components and packages.
package with due care 190. Identify crimping tools for Introduction to solder paste
and following safety various IC packages. (3 hrs) (flux). Soldering of SM
norms using proper 191. Make the necessary settings assemblies, reflow soldering.
tools/setup. on SMD soldering station to Tips for selection of hardware,
de-solder various ICs of Inspection of SM. Identification
different packages (at least of Programmable Gate array
four) by choosing proper (PGA) packages. Specification
crimping tools (14 hrs) of various tracks, calculation of
192. Make the necessary settings track width for different current
on SMD soldering station to ratings. Cold/ Continuity check
solder various ICs of different of PCBs. Identification of lose
packages (at least four) by / dry solders, broken tracks on
choosing proper crimping tools printed wiring assemblies.

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(14 hrs) Introduction to Pick place
193. Make the necessary setting rework Machine, Reflow Oven, Preparing
of defective surface mount stencil,& stencil printer
component used soldering / de-
soldering method. (14 hrs)

PCB Rework Introduction to Static charges,


57-58
194.Checked and Repair Printed prevention, handling of static
• Rework on PCB
Circuit Boards single, Double sensitive devices, various
after identifying
layer, and important tests for standards for ESD. Introduction
defects from
PCBs. (12 hrs) to non soldering
SMD soldering
195. Inspect soldered joints, detect interconnections. Construction
and desoldering.
the defects and test the PCB for of Printed Circuit Boards
rework. (8 hrs) (single, Double, multilayer),
196. Remove the conformal coatings Important tests for PCBs.
by different methods. (8 hrs) Introduction to rework and
197.Perform replacement of coating. repair concepts. Repair of
(8 hrs) damaged track. Repair of
198.Perform baking and preheating. (8 damaged pad and plated
hrs) through hole. Repair of solder
199. Repair solder mask and damage mask.
pad. (6 hrs)

• Construct different Protection devices Necessity of fuse, fuse


59 electrical control 200. Identify different types of fuses ratings, types of fuses, fuse
circuits and test for along with fuse holders, overload bases. Single/ three phase
their proper (no volt coil), current adjust MCBs, single phase ELCBs.
functioning with due (Biometric strips to set the Types of contactors, relays
care and safety. current). (9 hrs) and working voltages. Contact
201. Test the given MCBs. (8 hrs) currents, protection to
202. Connect an ELCB and test the contactors and high current
leakage of an electrical motor applications.
control circuit. (8 hrs)

Electrical control circuits Fundamentals of single


• Construct different
60 203. Measure the coil winding phase Induction motors,
electrical control
resistance of the given motor. (6 synchronous speed, slip,
circuits and test for
hrs.) rotor frequency. Torque-
their proper functioning
204. Prepare the setup of DOL starter speed characteristics,
with due care and safety
and Control an induction motor. Starters used for Induction
(7 hrs) motors.
205. Construct a direction control
circuit to change direction of an
induction motor. (6 hrs.)
206. Connect an overload relay and
test for its proper functioning. (6
hrs)

Electronic Cables & Connectors Cable signal diagram


• Prepare, crimp, terminate 207. Identify various types of cables conventions Classification of
61-62 and test various cables viz. RF coxial feeder, screened electronic cables as per the
used in different cable, ribbon cable, RCA application w.r.t. insulation,
electronics industries. connector cable, digital optical gauge, current capacity,
audio, video cable, RJ45, RJ11, flexibility etc. Different types of

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Ethernet cable, fiber optic cable connector & their terminations
splicing, fiber optic cable to the cables. Male / Female
mechanical splices, insulation, type DB connectors. Ethernet
gauge, current capacity, flexibility 10 Base cross over cables and
etc. used in various electronics pin out assignments, UTP and
products, different input output STP, SCTP, TPC, coxoial,
sockets (15 hrs) types of fibre optical Cables
208.Identify suitable connectors, and Cable trays. Different
solder/crimp /terminate & test the types of connectors Servo 0.1”
cable sets. (10 hrs) connectors, FTP,
209. Check the continuity as per the RCA,BNC,HDMI Audio/video
marking on the connector for connectors like XLR, RCA
preparing the cable set. (10 hrs) (phono), 6.3 mm PHONO, 3.5
210. Identify and select various / 2.5 mm PHONO, BANTAM,
connectors and cables inside the SPEAKON, DIN, mini DIN, RF
CPU cabinet of PC. (10 hrs) connectors, USB, Fire wire,
211. Identify the suitable connector and SATA Connectors, VGA, DVI
cable to connect a computer with connectors, MIDI and
a network switch and prepare a RJ45,RJ11 etc.
cross over cable to connect two
network computers. (5 hrs)

63-65 • Assemble and test a Communication electronics Radio Wave Propagation –


commercial AM/ FM 212.Modulate and Demodulate principle, fading. Need for
receiver and evaluate various signals using AM and FM Modulation, types of
performance. on the trainer kit and observe modulation and
waveforms (10 hrs) demodulation. Fundamentals
213. Construct and test IC based AM of Antenna, various
Receiver (10 hrs) parameters, types of
214. Construct and test IC based FM Antennas & application.
transmitter (10 hrs) Introduction to AM, FM &
215. Construct and test IC based AM PM, SSB-SC & DSB-SC.
transmitter and test the Block diagram of AM and FM
transmitter power. Calculate the transmitter. FM Generation
modulation index. (10 hrs) & Detection. Digital
216. Dismantle the given FM receiver modulation and demodulation
set and identify different stages techniques, sampling,
(AM section, audio amplifier quantization & encoding.
section etc) (10 hrs) Concept of multiplexing and
217. Modulate two signals using AM de multiplexing of AM/ FM/
kit draw the way from and PAM/ PPM /PWM signals.
calculate percent (%) of A simple block diagram
modulation. (10 hrs) approach to be adopted for
218.Modulate and Demodulate a explaining the above mod/
signal using PAM, PPM, PWM demod. techniques
Techniques (15 hrs)

66-68 • Test, service and Microcontroller (8051) Introduction Microprocessor


troubleshoot the 219.Identify various ICs & their & 8051Microcontroller,
various components of functions on the given architecture, pin details & the
different domestic/ Microcontroller Kit. (5 hrs) bus system. Function of
i n d u s t r i a l 220.Identify the address range of different ICs used in the
programmable RAM & ROM. (5 hrs) Microcontroller Kit.
systems. 221. Measure the crystal frequency, Differentiate microcontroller
connect it to the controller. (5 with microprocessor.
hrs) Interfacing of memory to the

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222.Identify the port pins of the microcontroller. Internal
controller & configure the ports hardware resources of
for Input & Output operation. microcontroller. I/O port pin
(7 hrs) configuration. Different
223.Use 8051 microcontroller, variants of 8051 & their
connect 8 LED to the port, resources. Register banks &
blink the LED with a switch. their functioning. SFRs & their
(10 hrs) configuration for different
224. Perform the initialization, load applications.
& turn on a LED with delay Comparative study of 8051
using Timer. (8 hrs) with 8052. Introduction to PIC
225. Perform the use of a Timer as Architecture.
an Event counter to count
external events. (10 hrs)
226. Demonstrate entering of
simple programs, execute &
monitor the results. (10 hrs)
227. Perform with 8051
microcontroller assembling
language program, check the
reading of an input port and
sending the received bytes to
the output port of the
microcontroller, used switches
and LCD for the input and
output. (15 hrs)

• Execute the operation Sensors, Transducers and


69-71 Basics of passive and active
of different process Applications
transducers. Role, selection
sensors, identify, wire 228. Identify sensors used in
and characteristics. Sensor
& test various sensors process industries such as
voltage and current formats.
of different industrial RTDs, Temperature ICs,
processes by Thermocouples, proximity Thermistors / Thermocouples -
selecting appropriate switches (inductive, capacitive Basic principle, salient
test instruments. and photo electric), load cells, features, operating range,
strain gauge. LVDT PT 100 composition, advantages and
(platinum resistance sensor), disadvantages.
water level sensor, thermostat
Strain gauges/ Load cell –
float switch, float valve by their
principle, gauge factor, types of
appearance (15 hrs)
strain gauges.
229. Measure temperature of a lit
fire using a Thermocouple and Inductive/ capacitive
record the readings referring to transducers - Principle of
data chart. (15 hrs) operation, advantages and
230.Measure temperature of a lit fire disadvantages.
using RTD and record the
Principle of operation of LVDT,
readings referring to data chart
advantages and disadvantages.
(15 hrs.)
231. Measure the DC voltage of a Proximity sensors –
LVDT (15 hrs) applications, working principles
232. Detect different objectives of eddy current, capacitive and
using capacitive, inductive and inductive proximity sensors
photoelectric proximity sensors
(15 hrs)

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72-73 • Plan and carry out the Analog IC Applications Discussion on the
Selection of a project, 233-237 identified projects with
assemble the project Make simple projects/ Applications respect to data of the
and evaluate using ICs 741, 723, 555, 7106, concerned ICs.
performance for a 7107 Sample projects: Components used in the
domestic/commer cial • Laptop protector project.
applications. • Mobile cell phone charger
• Battery monitor
• Metal detector
• Mains detector
• Lead acid battery charger
• Smoke detector
• Solar charger
• Emergency light
• Water level controller
• Door watcher
(Instructor will pick up any five of the
projects for implementation) (50
Hrs)

74-75 • Plan and carry out the Digital IC Applications Discussion on the
Selection of a project, 238-242 identified projects with
assemble the project Make simple projects/Applications respect to data of the
and evaluate using various digital ICs (digital concerned ICs.
performance for a display, event counter, stepper Components used in the
domestic/commer cial motor driver etc) project.
applications Duty cycle selector
• Frequency Multiplier
• Digital Mains Resumption Alarm
• Digital Lucky Random number
generator
• Dancing LEDs
• Count down timer
• Clap switch
• Stepper motor control
• Digital clock
• Event counter
• Remote jammer
(Instructor will pick up any five of the
projects for implementation) (50
Hrs)

76-77 Revision

78 Examination

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.1.183
Electronic Mechanic - Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Operate the front panel controls of a digital storage oscilloscope


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define digital storage oscilloscope
• compare DSO and analog CRO
• draw the block diagram and explain the functions of each block
• list the functions of each control on the front panel.

Electronic equipments can be divided into two types: not have memory therefore the signal can be displayed
analog and digital. Analog equipment works with only instantaneously. The transient parts of the signal
continuously variable voltages, while digital equipment (which may vanish even in milliseconds or microseconds)
works with binary numbers (1 and 0's) that may represent can not be observed using an analog oscilloscope. The
voltage samples. For example, a conventional cassette DSO's are widely used in many applications in view of
player is an analog device; a compact disc player is a their flexibility and performance.
digital device.
Figure 1 shows the block diagram of DSO as consists of,
Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An
analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage 1 Data acquisition
being measured to an electron beam moving across the 2 Storage
oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up
3 Data display.
and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the
screen. This gives an immediate picture of the waveform. Data acquisition is earned out with the help of both analog
In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform to digital and digital to analog converters, which is used
and uses an analog-to-digital converter ( ADC) to convert for digitizing, storing and displaying analog waveforms.
the voltage being measured into digital information. Then Overall operation is controlled by control circuit which is
uses this digital information to reconstruct the waveform usually consists of microprocessor.
on the screen. Some of the advantages of a digital
Data acquisition portion of the system consist of a Sample-
oscilloscope over analog oscilloscope include the scope's
and-Hold (S/H) circuit and an analog to digital converter
ability to store digital data for later viewing, upload to a
(ADC) which continuously samples and digitizes the input
computer, generate a hard copy or store on a disk and its
signal at a rate determined by the sample clock and
capacity to instantly make measurements on the digital
transmit the digitized data to memory for storage. The
data.
control circuit determines whether the successive data
A digital oscilloscope also has the ability to examine points are stored in successive memory location or not,
digitized information stored in its memory and make which is done by continuously updating the memories.
automatic measurements based on the selected
When the memory is full, the next data point from the
parameters of the user, such as voltage excursion,
ADC is stored in the first memory location writing over
frequency and rise times.
the old data. The data acquisition and the storage process
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) is continues till the control circuit receive a trigger signal
from either the input waveform or an external trigger source.
Digital oscilloscopes are often referred to as digital storage
When the triggering occurs, the system stops and enters
oscilloscope (DSO) or digital sampling oscilloscopes
into the display mode of operation in which all or some
(DSO).
part of the memory data is repetitively displayed on the
The concept behind the digital oscilloscope is somewhat cathode ray tube.
different to an analog scope.
In display operation, two DACs are used which gives
Rather than processing the signals in an analog fashion, horizontal and vertical deflection voltage for the CRT Data
the DSO converts them into a digital format using an analog from the memory gives the vertical deflection of the electron
to digital converter (ADC), then it stores the digital data in beam, while the time base counter gives the horizontal
the memory, and then processes the signals digitally, deflection in the form of staircase sweep signal.
finally it converts the resulting signal in a picture format
The screen display consist of discrete dots representing
to be displayed on the screen of the scope.
the various data points but the number of dot is very large
Since the waveform is stored in a digital format, the data as 1000 or more that they tend to blend together and
can be processed either within the oscilloscope itself, or appear to be a smooth continuous waveform.
even by a PC connected to it. One advantage of using the
DSO is that the stored data can be used to visualize or
process the signal at any time. The analog scopes do

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The display operation ends when the operator presses a
front-panel button and commands the digital storage
oscilloscope to begin a new data acquisition cycle.

This chapter describes the menus and operating details Default Setup
associated with each front-panel menu button or control.
The oscilloscope is set up for normal operation when it is
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes are small, lightweight, bench shipped from the factory. This is the default setup. To
top packages that you can use to take ground-referenced recall this setup, push the DEFAULT SETUP button.
measurements.
Triggering
Understanding Oscilloscope Functions
The trigger determines when the oscilloscope starts to
This chapter contains information on what you need to acquire data and display a waveform. When a trigger is
understand before you use an oscilloscope. To use your set up properly, the oscilloscope converts unstable
oscilloscope effectively, you need to learn about the displays or blank screens into meaningful waveforms.
following oscilloscope functions:
When you push the RUN/STOP or SINGLE SEQ buttons
• Setting up the oscilloscope to start an acquisition, the oscilloscope goes through the
following steps:
• Triggering
• Acquires enough data to fill the portion of the waveform
• Acquiring signals (waveforms)
record to the left of the trigger point. This is also called
• Scaling and positioning waveforms the pretrigger.
• Measuring waveforms • Continues to acquire data while waiting for the trigger
Setting Up the Oscilloscope condition to occur.

You should become familiar with three functions that you • Detects the trigger condition..
may use often when operating your oscilloscope: Autoset, • Continues to acquire data until the waveform record is
saving a setup, and recalling a setup. Using Autoset the full.
function obtains a stable waveform display for you. It
• Displays the newly-acquired waveform.
automatically adjusts the vertical scale, horizontal scale
and trigger settings. Autoset also displays several For Edge and Pulse triggers, the oscilloscope counts the
automatic measurements in the graticule area, depending rate at which trigger events occur to determine trigger
on the signal type. frequency and displays the frequency in the lower right
corner of the screen.
Saving a Setup
Source
The oscilloscope saves the current setup if you wait five
seconds after the last change before you power off the You can use the Trigger Source options to select the
oscilloscope. The oscilloscope recalls this setup the next signal that the oscilloscope uses as a trigger. The source
time you apply power. You can use the SAVE/RECALL can be any signal connected to a channel BNC, to the
Menu to permanently save up to ten different setups. EXT TRIG BNC or the AC power line (available only with
Edge triggers).
Recalling a Setup
Types
The oscilloscope can recall the last setup before power
off, any of your saved setups or the default setup. The oscilloscope provides three types of triggers: Edge,
Video, and Pulse Width.

2 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183

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Modes this way, the oscilloscope can acquire and display narrow
pulses, which may have otherwise been missed in
You can select a Trigger Mode to define how the
Sample mode. Noise will appear to be higher in this mode.
oscilloscope acquires data when it does not detect a
trigger condition. The modes are Auto and Normal. To Average
perform a single sequence acquisition, push the SINGLE
In this acquisition mode, the oscilloscope acquires several
SEQ button.
waveforms, averages them, and displays the resulting
Coupling waveform. You can use this mode to reduce random noise.
You can use the Trigger Coupling option to determine Time Base
which part of the signal will pass to the trigger circuit.
The oscilloscope digitizes waveforms by acquiring the value
This can help you attain a stable display of the waveform.
of an input signal at discrete points. The time base allows
To use trigger coupling, push the TRIG MENU button, you to control how often the values are digitized. To adjust
select an Edge or Pulse trigger, and select a Coupling the time base to a horizontal scale that suits your purpose,
option. use the SEC/DIV knob.
Trigger coupling affects only the signal passed to the Scaling and Positioning Waveforms
trigger system. It does not affect the bandwidth or coupling
You can change the display of waveforms by adjusting
of the signal displayed on the screen.
their scale and position. When you change the scale, the
To view the conditioned signal being passed to the trigger waveform display will increase or decrease in size. When
circuit, push and hold down the TRIG VIEW button. Trigger you change the position, the waveform will move up, down,
coupling affects only the signal passed to the right, or left. The channel reference indicator (located on
triggersystem. It does not affect the bandwidth or coupling the left of the graticule) identifies each waveform on the
of the signal displayed on the screen. display. The indicator points to the ground level of the
waveform record.
Position
Vertical Scale and Position
The horizontal position control establishes the time
between the trigger and the screen center. You can change the vertical position of waveforms by
moving them up or down in the display. To compare data,
Slope and Level
you can align a waveform above another or you can align
The Slope and Level controls help to define the trigger. waveforms on top of each other.
The Slope option (Edge trigger type only) determines
You can change the vertical scale of a waveform. The
whether the oscilloscope finds the trigger point on the
waveform display will contract or expand about the ground
rising or the falling edge of a signal. The TRIGGER LEVEL
level.
knob controls where on the edge the trigger point occurs.
Horizontal Scale and Position;
Acquiring Signals
Pretrigger Information You can adjust the HORIZONTAL
When you acquire a signal, the oscilloscope converts it
POSITION control to view waveform data before the trigger,
into a digital form and displays a waveform. The acquisition
after the trigger, or some of each. When you change the
mode defines how the signal is digitized and the time
horizontal position of a waveform, you are actually
base setting affects the time span and level of detail in
changing the time between the trigger and the center of
the acquisition.
the display. (This appears to move the waveform to the
Acquisition Modes right or left on the display.) For example, if you want to
There are three acquisition modes: Sample, Peak Detect, find the cause of a glitch in your test circuit, you might
and Average. trigger on the glitch and make the pretrigger period large
enough to capture data before the glitch. You can then
Sample analyze the pretrigger data and perhaps find the cause of
In this acquisition mode, the oscilloscope samples the the glitch. You change the horizontal scale of all the
signal evenly spaced intervals to construct the waveform. waveforms by turning the SEC/DIV knob. For example,
This mode accurately represents signals most of the time. you might want to see just one cycle of a waveform to
However, this mode does not acquire rapid variations in measure the overshoot on its rising edge.
the signal that may occur between samples. This can The oscilloscope shows the horizontal scale as time per
result in aliasing and may cause narrow pulses to be division in the scale readout. Since all active waveforms
missed. In these cases, you should use the Peak Detect use the same time base, the oscilloscope only displays
mode to acquire data. one value for all the active channels, except when you
Peak Detect use Window Zone.

In this acquisition mode, the oscilloscope finds the highest


and lowest values of the input signal over each sample
interval and uses these values to display the waveform. In

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 3

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Taking Measurements Acquire
The oscilloscope displays graphs of voltage versus time Push the Acquire button to set acquisition parameters
as shown in fig. 2 and can help you to measure the
Options Settings Comments
displayed waveform. There are several ways to take
measurements. You can use the graticule, the cursors, Sample Use to acquire and
or an automated measurement. accurately display
most waveforms;
this is the default
mode
Peak Detect Use to detect
glitches and reduce
the possibility of
aliasing
Average Use to reduce
random or
uncorrelated noise
in the signal
display; the number
Graticule of averages is
This method allows you to make a quick, visual estimate. selectable
For example, you might look at a waveform amplitude Averages 4 Select number of
and determine that it is a little more than 100 mV. You 16 averages
can take simple measurements by counting the major 64
and minor graticule divisions involved and multiplying by 128
the scale factor. For example, if you counted five major
vertical graticule divisions between the minimum and
maximum values of a waveform and knew you had a scale RUN/STOP Button: Push the RUN/STOP button when
factor of 100 mV/division, then you could easily calculate you want the oscilloscope to continuously acquire
your peak-to-peak voltage as follows: 5 divisions x 100 waveforms. Push the button again to stop the acquisition.
mV/division = 500 mV.
SINGLE SEQ Button: Push the SINGLE SEQ button
Cursors when you want the oscilloscope to acquire a single
This method allows you to take measurements by moving waveform and then stop. Each time you push the SINGLE
the cursors, which always appear in pairs, and reading SEQ button, the oscilloscope begins to acquire another
their numeric values from the display readouts. There are waveform. After the oscilloscope detects a trigger it
two types of cursors: completes the acquisition and stop.

Voltage and Time Acquisition mode Single Seq button

When you use cursors, be sure to set the Source to the Sample, Peak Detect Sequence is complete
waveform on the display that you want to measure. To when one acquisition is
use cursors, push the CURSOR button. acquired

Voltage Cursors Average Sequence is complete


when the defined number
Voltage cursors appear as horizontal lines on the display of acquisitions is
and measure the vertical parameters. reached
Time Cursors
Time cursors appear as vertical lines on the display and Scan Mode Display: You can use the Horizontal Scan
measure the horizontal parameters. acquisition mode (also called Roll mode) to continuously
Automatic monitor signals that change slowly. The oscilloscope
displays waveform updates from the left to the right of the
The MEASURE Menu can take up to five automatic screen and erases old points as it displays new points.
measurements. When you take automatic
measurements, the oscilloscope does all the calculating A moving, one-division-wide blank section of the screen
for you. Because the measurements use the waveform separates the new waveform points from the old. The
record points, they are more accurate than the graticule oscilloscope changes to the Scan acquisition mode when
or cursor measurements. Automatic measurements use you turn the SEC/DIV knob to 100 ms/div or slower, and
readouts to show measurement results. These readouts select the Auto Mode option in the TRIGGER Menu.
are updated periodically as the oscilloscope acquires new
data.
4 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183

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To disable Scan mode, push the TRIG MENU button and positioned with the vertical and horizontal controls.
set the Mode option to Normal. Auto set
Stopping the Acquisition. While the acquisition is running, When you push the AUTOSET button, the oscilloscope
the waveform display is live. Stopping the acquisition (when identifies the type of waveform and adjusts controls to
you push the RUN/STOP button) freezes the display. In produce a usable display of the input signal.
either mode, the waveform display can be scaled or

Function Setting

Acquire mode Adjusted to sample to peak detect


Display format Set to YT
Display type Set to dots for a video signal, set to vectors for an FFT
spectrum; otherwise, unchanged
Horizontal position Adjusted
Trigger coupling Adjusted to DC, Noise reject , or HF reject
Trigger holdoff Minimum
Trigger level Set to 50%
Trigger mode Auto
Trigger source Adjusted; cannot use Autoset on the EXT TRIG signal
Trigger slope Adjusted
Trigger type Edge or Video
Trigger video sync Adjusted
Trigger video standard Adjusted
Vertical bandwidth Full
Vertical coupling DC (if GND was previously selected); AC for a video signal;
otherwise, unchanged

The Autoset function examines all channels for signals • No signals found and no channels displayed,
and displays corresponding waveforms. Autoset oscilloscope displays and uses channel 1
determines the trigger source based on the following
Cursor
conditions:
Push the CURSOR button to display the measurement
• If multiple channels have signals, channel with the
cursors and cursor menu.
lowest frequency signal
• No signals found, the lowest-numbered channel
displayed when Autoset was invoked

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 5

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Options Settings Comments

Type* Voltage Select and display the measurement cursors; voltage measures
Time amplitude and time measures time and frequency
Off
Source CH1 Choose the waveform on which to take the cursor measurements
CH2
CH3**
CH4** The readouts display this measurement
MATH
REFA
REFB
REFC**
REFD**
Delta Displays the difference (delta) between the cursors
Cursor 1 Displays cursor 1 location (time is referenced to the trigger position,
voltage is referenced to ground)
Coursor 2 Displays cursor 2 location (time is referenced to the trigger position,
voltage is referenced to ground)

*For a math FFT source, measures magnitude and Display


frequency.
Push the DISPLAY button to choose how waveforms are
presented and to change the appearance of the entire
display
Options Settings Comments
Type Vectors Vectors fills the space between adjacent sample points in the
display.
Dots displays only the sample points
Persist OFF
1 sec
2 sec
5 sec
Infinite Sets the length of time each displayed sample point remains
displayed
Format YT YT format displays the vertical voltage in relation to time (horizontal
scale )
XY format displays a dot each time a sample is acquired on channel
1 and channel 2
Channel 1 voltage determines the X coordinate of the dot (horizontal
and the channel 2 voltage determines the Y coordinate (vertical)
Contrast Increase Darkness the display; makes it easier to
distinguish a channel waveform from persistence.
Contrast Decrease Lightens the display

For a math FFT source, measures magnitude and Utility


frequency Push the UTILITY button to display the Utility Menu.

6 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183

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Options Settings Comments
Systems status Displays summaries of the oscilloscope settings

Options Display Style* Displays screen data as black on white, or as white on black

Printer Setup* Displays the setup for the printer; see page 131

RS232 Setup** Displays the setup for the RS-232 port; see page 134

GPIB Setup** Displays the setup for the GPIB port; see page 143

Do self cal Performs a self calibration

Error Log Displays a list of any errors logged This list is useful when
contacting a Tektronix service center for help

This list is useful when contacting a Tektronix Service Center for


help

Language English Selects the display language of the operating system


French
German
Italian
Spanish
Portuguese
Japanese
Korean
Simplified Chinese
Traditional Chinese

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 7

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.1.183
Electronic Mechanic - Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Capturing a single shot signal


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• capture a single shot signal
• optimizing the Acquisition
• measure the propagation delay.

Capturing Optimizing the Acquisition


Some events which do not occur frequently, but occurs The initial acquisition shows the relay contact beginning
very rarely for short duration of time can be viewed with to open at the trigger point. This is followed by a large
the help of digital storage oscilloscope. In other words, spike that indicates contact bounce and inductance in
the transient part of the signal which vanish even in few the circuit. The inductance can cause contact arcing and
milliseconds or microseconds can be observed using a premature relay failure. You can use the vertical,
digital oscilloscope. horizontal, and trigger controls to optimize the settings
before the next single-shot event is captured. When the
For example
next acquisition is captured with the new settings (when
The transient response of Rh, Rc circuits, A and E signal you push the SINGLE SEQ button again), you can see
in microprocessors, switch bouncing signal etc. more detail about the relay contact opening.
The DSO can display captured data in various ways. Measuring Propagation Delay
Capturing a Single-Shot Signal You suspect that the memory timing in a microprocessor
The reliability of a reed relay in a piece of equipment has circuit is marginal. Set up the oscilloscope to measure
been poor and you need to investigate the problem. You the propagation delay between the chip-select signal and
suspect that the relay contacts arc when the relay opens. the data output of the memory device.
The fastest you can open and close the relay is about
once second so you need to capture the voltage across
the relay as a single-shot acquisition.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.1.183
Electronic Mechanic - Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Interface the DSO to external devices


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the applications of USB rear and host port
• uses of save/recall menu
• state the advantages of using a USB flash drive
• interface the USB port to the external device
• understand the printer setups before printing the waveforms .

A typical DSO may come with two USB ports that allow • You can use the USB flash drive to copy the setup to
flexible communications with a number of devices. a different oscilloscope
The USB host port on the front of the oscilloscope can You can set the print button to do the following
transfer
• Send the current image to a Pictbridge compatible
• Wave form and setup data to and from a USB flash printer or computer to the rear USBport
drive
• Save the current screen image to a USB flash drive
• Screen images to a USB flash drive choosing among a number of formats.
The USB device port on the rear of the oscilloscope can • Save the current image, the waveform data points of
transfer each displayed waveform, and the current set up
• Waveform and setup data to and from a computer parameters to a USB flash drive, with a single button
push
• Screen images to a computer
You can also set the following options before printing
• Screen images directly to a PictBridge compatible
printer Ink saver: ON prints colour waveforms on a whites back
round. OFF prints colour waveforms on a black
The USB port Host port on the front of the oscilloscope is background, as they appear on the screen
designed to support a single USB flash drive. The port
will not support multiple USB flash drives by use of a Abort printing : select to stop sending data to the printer
USB hub. and to end printing

The USB device port on the rear of the oscilloscope can Layout: Select the orientation of the screen image to be
either be connected to a computer or to a PictBridge printed either portrait or landscape.
compatible printer, but not both simultaneously. Pape size: (Select from a lot for paper sizes supported
SAVE/RECALL waveforms by your printer.) The default choice allows the printer to
select its default paper size.
You can use the SAVE/RECALL menu, Save Waveform
options to save wave from data points and acquisition Image size: Select from a list of image sizes supported
parameters information to a USB flash drive. You can use by your printer. The default choice is generally the largest
the Recall Waveform menu option to display saved image size which will fit on the default to allow the printer
waveforms. Also called as reference waveforms. Reference to control paper type.
waveforms are displayed with a lower intensity than live Print quality: Select from a list of print qualities supported
waveforms by your printer. Select default to allow the printer to control
You can use Print button or SAVE /RECALL menu, Save print quality
option to save the current screen image to a file on a Data print : Select On to print the date and time on the
USB flash drive. The PRINT button is more versatile than hard copy. Some printer do not support this option.
the option button, because it can send to any menu
The selected printer options will be saved when you turn
Saving setups on a USB flash drive has several advantages off the oscilloscope power whenever you start a print, the
over savings setups in internal memory; oscilloscope compares your selected printer settings, and
• A USB flash drive has much greater capacity then it changes them to Default.
internal memory
• You can copy the setup into a word processing or
spreadsheet program on a computer
• You can give the setup file a meaningful name.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.1.183
Electronic Mechanic - Digital Storage Oscilloscope
• The analong to digital converter used in a digital storage
Differentiate a CRO with DSO oscilloscope also gives it a higher resolution than an
anlong oscilloscope(CRO). For example, a twelve bit
Diffrerence between Cathods Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) &
digitizer can resolve one part in 4096. A convertional
Digital storage Oscilloscope (DSO):
analong oscilloscope typically resolves to about one
The Following points will make you understand the basic part in 50, equivalnet to 6 bit resolution.
diffrent between cathode ray oscilloscope and digitalstor
• Digital storage oscilloscopes are also capable of operting
-age oscilloscope.
in a look back mode, as described for waveform recorders.
• The advantage of the analong storage oscilloscope An anlong oscilloscope(CRO) collects data after it has
(CRO) is that it has a higher bandwidth and writing speed been triggered.
than a digital storage oscilloscope, being capable of • A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is always collecting
operating speeds about 15 GHz. data, and trigger tells it when to stop. The oscilloscope
• The digital storage oscilloscope is primarily limited in can stop immediately on trigger, so that all the stored
speed by the digistising capability of the analog to digital information is pretrigger, if the delay is longer than the
converter. Aliasing effects also limit the useful storage storage capability of the oscilloscope, then all the
bandwith(usb) of the oscilloscope to a value given by the stored information is post trigger, as for an analog
ratio. oscilloscope.
• The Value of constant C is dependent on the interpolation • The digital storage oscilloscope is also able to operate
method used between the dots. For a dot diaplay C in a babysitting mode. When the scope is trigered it print
should be about25, to give an eligible display: for straight out the stored results onto a hard copy recorder ( or disc
line interpolation it should be about 10, and for sinusoidal storage), and then re-arms itself ready for another
interpolation C should be about 2.5. reading .
• The digital storage oscilloscope has a CRT which is Uses of Digital Storage Oscilloscope
much cheaper than an anlong storage oscilloscope,
making replacement, more economical. The digital • Used for testing signal voltage in circuit debugging.
storage time, using its digital memory. • Testing in manufacturing
• Furthermore, it can operate with a constant CRT refresh • Designing
time, so giving a bright image even at very fast signal • Testing of signals voltage in radio broadcasting
speeds. The digital storage oscilloscope is not, however, equipment.
capable of functioning in a variable persistance storage • In the field of research
mode. • Audio and video recording equipment.
• The time base in a digital storage oscilloscope is
generated by a crystal clock so that it is more accurate
and stable than a CRO, where the time base is generated
by a ramp circuit.

Analog oscilloscope Digital Oscilloscope

Directly reads voltage and displays its on screen. Its reads the analong and converts it into digital form before
being dispaly on the screen
Do not require ADC, microprocessor and acquision memory Require ADC, microprocessor and acquisition memory

Can only analyze signal in real time as there is no storage Can analyze signal in real time as well as can analyze
memory available. previously acquired large sample of data with facility of
storage available.

Can not analyze high frequency sharp rise time transients Can not analyze high frequency transients due to advanced
DSP algorithms available and ported on microprocessor
with can operate on stored samples of input voltage.

10

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Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 11

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.1.183
Electronic Mechanic - Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Function generator using IC 8038


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define features the IC 8038
• explain the working of IC 8038 as function generator
• draw the circuit of function generator and waveforms using IC 8038
• calculate the frequency of oscillation
• choose the values of R and C for a particular frequency.

The IC 8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated IC 8038 function generator (fig. 2)
circuit capable of producing high accuracy sine, square,
The levels of the current sources can, however, be selected
triangular, sawtooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum
over a wide range with two external resistors. Therefore,
of external components. The frequency (or repetition rate)
with the two currents set at values different from I and 2I,
can be selected externally from 0.001Hz to more than
an asymmetrical sawtooth appears at Terminal 3 and
300Hz using either resistors or capacitors, frequency
pulses with a duty cycle from less than 1% to greater
modulation and sweeping can be accomplished with an
than 99% are available at Terminal 9. The sine wave is
external voltage. The IC 8038 is fabricated with advanced
created by feeding the triangle wave into a nonlinear
monolithic technology, using Schottky barrier diodes and
network (sine converter). This network provides decreasing
thin film resistors, and the output is stable over a wide
shunt impedance as the potential of the triangle moves
range of temperature and supply variations.
toward the two extremes.
An external capacitor C is charged and discharged by
two current sources as shown in fig.1. Current source #2
is switched on and off by a flip-flop, while current source
#1 is continuously ON. Assuming that the flip-flop is in a
state such that current source #2 is off, and the capacitor
is charged with a current I, the voltage across the
capacitor rises linearly with time. When this voltage
reaches the level of comparator #1 (set at 2/3 of the supply
voltage), the flip-flop is triggered, changes states, and
releases current source #2. This current source normally
carries a current 2I, thus the capacitor is discharged with
a net-current I and the voltage across it drops linearly
with time.When it has reached the level of comparator #2
(set at 1/3 of the supply voltage), the flip-flop is triggered The figure.2 shows circuit diagram of function
into its original state and the cycle starts again. Four generator.Figure 3 and 4 shows the waveforms for 50%
waveforms are readily obtainable from this basic generator and 80 % duty cycles respectively.
circuit. With the current sources set at I and 2I respectively,
Waveform Timing
the charge and discharge times are equal. Thus a triangle
waveform is created across the capacitor and the flip-flop The symmetry of all waveforms can be adjusted with the
produces a square wave. Both waveforms are fed to buffer external timing resistors. Two possible ways to accomplish
stages and are available at pins 3 and 9. this are shown in Figure. 3 and 4. Best results are obtained
by keeping the timing resistors RA and RB separate (A).
RA controls the rising portion of the triangle and sine wave
and the 1 state of the square wave. The magnitude of the
triangle waveform is set at 1/ 3 voltage supply; therefore
the rising portion of the triangle is

C x V C x 1/ 3 xVsup ply x R A R A x C
t1 = = =
I 0.22 x Vsup ply 0.66

The failling portion of the triangle and sine wave and the 0
state of the square wave is.

CxV C x 1/3 xVsupply x R A R A x RBC


t2 = = =
I Vsupply Vsupply 0.66 (2R A − R B )
2(0.22) − 022
RB RA

12

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Thus a 50% duty cycle is achieved when RA = RB of less than 1μA are undesirable because circuit leakages
With two separate timing resistors, the frequency is given will contribute significant errors at high temperatures. At
by higher currents (I > 5mA), transistor betas and saturation
voltages will contribute increasingly larger errors. Optimum
performance will, therefore, be obtained with charging
1 1
f= = currents of 10μA to 1mA. If pins 7 and 8 are shorted
t1 + t 2 R A C ⎛ RB ⎞
⎜⎜1+ ⎟⎟ together, the magnitude of the charging current due to RA
0.66 ⎝ 2R A − RB ⎠ can be calculated from:

or, If RA = RB = R R1 x (V+ − V− ) 1 0.22 (V+ − V− )


I= x =
R1 + R 2 RA RA
0.33
f=
RC R1 and R2 are shown as 11K and 39 KΩ

Selecting RA, RB and C A similar calculation holds for RB.

For any given output frequency, there is a wide range of The capacitor value should be chosen at the
RC combinations that will work, however certain upper end of its possible range.
constraints are placed upon the magnitude of the charging
current for optimum performance. At the low end, currents

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 13

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 to 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - Basic SMD

Introduction to ESD, SMT & SMD IC packages


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• the trainees will be able to acquire the knowledge on genral safety precautions to be followed in a SMD
soldering lab
• the trainee will be able to acquire the knowledge about the precautions to be followed to avoid the damage
of SMD components due electrostatic discharge (ESD).

General safety precautions to be followed while • Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called
performing soldering and desoldering work in a 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip
laboratory or work place to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in
• Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to
They are very hot (above 300°C) and will give you a wipe the tip clean on the sponge.
nasty burn. • You are now ready to start soldering.
• Take great care to avoid touching the mains cable with ESD protection
the tip of the iron. The iron should have a heat proof
cable for extra protection. Ordinary plastic cable melts • Proper precautions in handling SMDs should also be
immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a risk observed to avoid ESD (Electrostatic - Discharge)
of burns and electric shock. • Electronics components are becoming smaller and
• Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not faster but they are also becoming more sensitive
in use. Never put it down on your workbench, even for towards ESD.
a moment. Normally the trainees used to follow the bad • Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is the release of static
practice of keeping the hot soldering iron on the top of electricity when two objects come into contact. Familiar
work bench and burn the work bench and burn the examples of ESD include the shock we receive when
power supply cable of CROs or function generator, and we walk across a carpet and touch a metal doork nob
other costly equipments. So instructor should train the and the static electricity we feel after drying clothes in
trainees from the beginning to follow the safe work a clothes dryer. A more extreme example of ESD is a
habits lightning bolt. Most ESD events are harmless, it can be
• Allow joints a minute or so to cool down before you an expensive problem in many industrial environments.
touch them. • ESD first requires a build - up of an electrostatic charge.
• Work in a well - ventilated area. The smoke formed as This occurs when two different materials rub together.
you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite One of the materials becomes positivity charged; the
irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the other becomes negatively charged. The positively -
side of, not above, your work. charged material now has an electrostatic charge.
When that charge comes into contact with the right
• Wash your hands after using solder. Solder contains material, it is transferred and we have an ESD event.
lead. The heat from the ESD event is extremely hot, although
Preparing the soldering iron we do not feel it when we are shocked. However, when
the charge is released onto an electronic device such
• Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron as an expansion card, the intense heat from the charge
will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature can melt or vaporize the tiny parts in the card causing
of above 300°C. the device to fail. Sometimes an ESD event can
• Dampen the sponge in the stand. The best way to do damage a device, but it continues to function. This is a
this is to lift it out the stand and wet it by using distilled called a latent defect, which is hard to detect and
water to avoid corrosion of soldering iron tip, and significantly shortens the life of the device.
squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, • Synthetic carpeting - one can hardly move without
not dripping wet. generating a charge - avoid carpeting in your work area.
• Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. • Cathode ray tubes (oscilloscopes or monitors) can be
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little dangerous sources of ESD- keep static sensitive
solder on the tip. components a safe distance away from the screen and
• Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will avoid touching the screen.
clean the tip.

14

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• Many electronic devices are susceptible to low voltage ESD safe workstation layout
ESD events. For example , hard drive components are
An ESD workstation is defined as work area with materials
sensitive to only 10 volts. For this reason, manufacturers
and equipment that limit electrostatic voltages and ESD
of electronics devices incorporate measures to prevent
(Electrostatic discharge) shown in fig.1.
ESD events throughout the manufacturing, testing,
shipping, and handling processes. For example, an
employee may wear a wrist strap when working with
devices or many wear ESD control footwear and work
on an ESD floor mat that causes the electrostatic
charge to go into the ground instead of into the device.
Sensitive devices can be packaged with materials that
shield the product from a charge.
• The rework station needs to be specifically designed to
minimise the effect of ESD, especially when various
studies around the world have revealed that 60-90
percent of defective devices are damaged due to ESD,
and 70 percent of these failures can be attributed to
damage caused by ungrounded workers. So it becomes
really important that you take ESD - control systems
seriously, or otherwise, the losses can be astonishingly
high.
• A basic ESD control rule is ground all conductors Table Mat
including workers at the rework station. Ground works A work surface that dissipates static from conductive items
very efficiently in ESD - control systems and reliably placed on it shown in fig. 2.
removes ESD to ground. For such a grounding system,
it is important that the electrical wiring system of our lab Fig 2
should be correct. All electrical outlets in our lab need
to be evaluated for correct wiring of live, neutral and
ground wires.
A wrist strap is an effective method for ground the workers.
The electrostatic discharge association's standard ANSI/
ESD SI.1-2006 defines a wrist strap as an assembled
device consisting of a wrist cuff and ground cord that
provides electrical connection of a pension's skin to the
ground. The standard document completely describe the
parameters for evaluation, acceptance and functional testing
of wrist straps. While the document describes the whole
set of mechanical and electrical parameters over which a
wrist strap needs to be evaluated and accepted, the most
important parameter amongst all is the wrist strap
continuity and resistance, which should be 1 meg - ohm
20 percent, for acceptance. The document also suggests
the testing procedure for the same. While you are buying
grounding materials, do check if they comply with the
above - mentioned standard and specification.
Common point ground cord
When you are working with sensitive electronics
components you should consider buying all the equipment A cable and connector that connect a table mat and one
for your workstation that is tagged as anti- static or ESD or two wrist straps to ground. shown in fig. 3 & 4.
- safe. The materials mentioned below are optional but can Fig 3
be used for better electrostatic protected area (EPA).
1 ESD- tables, chairs and stools
2 ESD- safe toll kit (cutter, plier, desoldering pump, etc)
3 ESD- safe equipment like soldering iron
4 ESD- safe brush
5 ESD -safe trays, bins and cabinets

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 15

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Fig 4 Floor Mat
A walking surface that dissipates static charge from
conductive items placed on it. shown in fig. 6

Fig 6

Wrist strap
A two part device including a wrist band and a coil cord
that connects a person's skin to ground. ESD wrist
straps, also known as anti static wrist straps as show in
fig.4, are used to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD) by
safety grounding a person working with electronics
equipment or at an electronic assembly facility. It consists
of a bend of fabric with fine conductive fibers woven into
it. The fibers are usually made of carbon or carbon - filled
rubber, and the strap is bound with a stainless steel clasp ESD anti fatigue floor mats are made of 3/8” thick closed
or plate. They are usually used in conjunction with an ESD - cell expnaded polyvinyl chloride designed to provide
table mat on the workbench, or a special static dissipating comfort and reduce worker fatigue when used in static
plastic laminate on the workbench surface. sensitive environment. Surface resistivity is 109-1010 Ohm.
ESD wrist strap testing using a multimeter The construction design of the ESD floor mat allows for
effective static charge removal at a non - damaging flow rate
Step 1 : Set the range of the multimeter to megohms and emboss pattern make slip resistatn. At the same time
(M ) the ESD anti fatigue mat is known to maintain a consistent
Step 2 : Plug the wrist strap's banana jack into the voltage discharge throughout the life of the mat with no noticeable
/ohm (V ) port on the multimeter. Connect a probe to the deterioration of effectiveness. Resistant to degradation by
COM port on the multimeter. inorganic acid, organic acids, detergent solutions, alcohol
and mineral oil. Suggested service temperature of -20°F to
Step 3 : Test the conductive metal button inside the wrist +160°F.
strap to verify that the resistance reading is between 0.9
M and 1.1 M as shown in fig. 5. Floor mat ground cord
A cable and connector that connect a floor mat to ground
Heel grounder
A device for connecting a walking or standing person to
ground by using the moisture in the shoe as a body
connection and a conductive rubber tread as a connection
to a grounded mat or floor.
ESD Heel grounders
ESD heel grounders provide a continous ground path
between the operator and properly grounded ESD protected
flooring. They are designed for use in applications where
user mobility is required, such as wave solder, kitting and
quality control. “ESD protective flooring used with approved
footwear, may be used as an alternative to the wrist strap
system for standing operations.” Heel grounders quickly
and effectivley drain the static charges that are collected by
the personnel during normal everyday activities. ESD heel
straps help protect your electronic assembly plant. shown
in fig. 7 & 8.

16 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Fig 7 ESD Finger cots
ESD finger cots or pink ESD finger cots are commonly
used in electronic assembly, photonics, medical and
pharmaceutical manufacturing. Anti static finger cots are
powder free and are made of 100% latex material. These
finger cots meet MIL -STD - 105E for holes, tear, stains and
electrostatic properties. Pink in color. Style is rolled.
shown in fig. 10 & 11.
Fig 10

Fig 8

Fig 11

Conductive gloves (shown in fig.12)


Conductive gloves are made of seamless knit nylon and
copper fiber yarns with urethane coating. The surface
Durable ESD slipper & Heel grounder resistivity is below 7.5 x 107. Electrostatic dissipative
Conductive shoe covers (ESD) fiber yarns blended with low lint nylon which reduces
static build - up onthe glove surface for improved performance
Conductive shoe covers also known as polypropylene shoe in electronics assembly.
covers, are non woven, spun bond fabric that helps filter
particulates. They have a conductive strip that protects Fig 12
electronic devices from static charge. Covers are extra
lightweight. For added safety, choose skid - free soles for
improved traction. They are packaged as 100 pieces per
bag and 3 bags per case. shown in fig.9
Fig 9

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 17

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ESD Aprons
ESD jackets, also known as ESD smocks, are lightweight
and provide durable static shielding for use where
electrostatic charge is a concern. It has a lapel style collar
and is 3/4 length with 3 pockets. New ECX -500 fabric gives
low cost static - shielding during electronics assembly
process. Available in blue and white color. shown in fig.13
Fig 13

To install ESD workstation


1 Lay the table mat flat on the workbench with the snaps
toward the operator. TIP. Mild heat (sun light) will
remove creases caused by shipping.
2 Connect the common point ground cord to the table mat
by snapping it to the left or right snap. shown in fig.14

7 Connect the common point ground cord and floor mat


ground cord to ground. Use the green wire building
ground point as specified in EOS/ESD standard 6.
Connection to this ground point most easily
accomplished by removing the center AC outlet plate
cover screw, placing the screw through the eyelets
from both ground cords, and replacing the screw. The
wires can be moved to the left and right sides of the
3 Connecting the coil cord to the common point ground screw so that they do not obstruct the outlet. shown in
cord by plugging the banana plug into one of the ground fig.18
cord’s banana nacks. shown in fig.15
Cautionary notices
4 Snap the wrist band to the coil cord. TIP : Make sure
that the operator wears the wrist band on bare skin and Warning : only qualified personnel should work with
tightens the band so that no gap exists between the exposed AC outlets. Consult with a qualified electrician to
skin and the band. shown in fig.16 make ground connection if necessary. AC voltage is
dangerous.
5 Lay the floor mat on the floor in front of the workbench
with the snaps toward the bench.
6 Connect the floor mat ground cord to one snap on the
floor mat. shown in fig.17

18 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Newly installed work stations should be tested for continuity.
A surface resistivity meter with a “resistance to ground”
founction can be used to test continuity from the ground
point to all part of the workstation.
Ionizers (shown in fig.21)

Fig 21

Caution : Exercise extreme care when using energized


equipment at an ESD workstation. Ground fault current
interrupters should be considered to avoid shock. Most
static controll equipment is not desinged to be used near
voltages greater than 250 volts.
Bench top Ionizers are used in many high tech
8 Mount the ESD awareness sign above the work area manufacturing programs to control ESD (Electro Static
where it is clearly visible to both the operator and Discharge) in the work environment. EDS ionizers neutralize
anyone approaching the work area. Before hanging the a static charge via balancing the ions between the
sign, clean any dust or oil from the wall before application molecules in the gasses of the surrounding air. They are
for better adhesion. Next, remove the cover tape from typiecally used to control static on isolated conductors
the back of the adhesive strips, place the sign on the that can’t be grounded and insulative objects (like standard
wall, and press firmly across the entire sign so that all plastics). ESD ionizers are perfect for removing contaminant
of the adhesive contacts the wall. shown in fig.19 attraction caused by static as well as neutralizing static
charges from wide, focused or hard to reach areas.
Ionization is ideal when working with delicate electronic
products or large more robust assemblies.
The required limit according to ANSI/ESD S20.20 is less
than ± 50V offset voltage (balance). In addition to that, the
discharge time to reduce + 1000V to +100 V and to reduce
-1000V to - 100 V should also be measured. Faster the
static elimination time, the better it is. Do look for one that
strictly complies with the ANSI /ESD S20.20 standard.
ESD bags ( as shown in fig. 22)
Fig 22
9 Heel grounders : Open the velcro strap. Remove foot
from shoe and insert tab. Trim excess tab material with
scissors if necessary. Place foot back into shoe and
slip rubber cup onto the shoe’s hell. Close velcro strap.
Repeat procedure for other shoe. shown in fig.20

ESD bags, also known as general purpose ESD bags or


static shielding bags, have buried metal shielding that
offers superior durability at a low cost. These ESD bags are
recognized as the consistently reliable, readily available
and most competitively priced static shielding bags in the
electronics industry. General purpose antistatic bags are
available in regular open top or zip lock. Light transmission
of better than 50% allows for easy identification of static
devices without removal.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 19

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ESD bags are constructed from an alloy electrostatic Fig 27
shield with a tough layer of polyester protection, providing
a level of abrasion and puncture resistance never before
possible in a transparent shielding bag.
ESD Bins and containers (shown in fig. 23 to 29)
Fig 23

ESD PICKING BINS

Fig 28

ESD SHELF BINS WITH CORRUGATED BASE

Fig 24

LARGE ESD STACKING BINS

Fig 29

ESD SHELF BIN

Fig 25

ESD STORAGE BOXES

ESD SMALL PARTS DRAWERS

Fig 26

ESD STACKING BINS

20 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 to 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - Basic SMD

Surface Mount Technology and Surface Mount Devices


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain briefly SMT & SMD
• state the need for SMD
• list the advantages of SMDs
• state the safety precautions required while handling SMDs
• list the tools and equipments used in SMT
• understand to perform test and measurement of the circuit.Introduction
• Keep surface mount components away from children and pets.
Introduction Advantages of SMDs are given below
Surface Mount Devices (SMDs) are used in a growing num- 1 PCBs area much smaller than by conventional through
ber of commercial and industrial products. Due to their - hole components
small size, prototype manufacturing, rework and repair can
2 Since the both layers of the PCB could be used for
be difficult and are best performed using specialized tech-
assembling, the final PCBs area for the same circuits
niques specific to this technology. Learning these tech-
could be decreased by 50%.
niques will help you succeed when working with these small
components. The SMT technique opens advantages and 3 Simple assembling-no bending and cutting of the wires.
new applications through miniaturizing of the components
4 Automatic assembling very easy. Low cost of the as-
and increasing of reliability.
sembling.
Surface Mounted Devices (SMD) are active and passive
5 Small size of components makes very high packing
electronic components without conventional connecting
density possible. For the same circuits a volume of a
wires.
module assembled with SMD could be reduced to 30%
In the conventional through - hole technology (THT) the of the device assembled with the conventional tech-
components are placed on the "components side" of the nique. Therefore a size of the whole instrument de-
printed circuit board (PCB), wires inserted into holes, and creases, too.
soldered to the copper pads on the opposite, "solder side"
6 Very high resistance to mechanical shock and vibra-
of the PCB.
tion.
The SMD components will be placed on the 'solder side' of
7 Low store and transport cost. Low store area and vol-
the PCB and their metal caps soldered to the copper pads
ume.
of the PCB. Therefore both layers of the PCB could be
used as active areas. A thickness of PCBs used for SMD 8 Lack of hole's drilling and metallization.
is between 0.8 and 1.00mm. Historically roots of SMD are
9 Thin pads.
hybrid circuits on the ceramic substrates (middle of sev-
enties) but a huge industrial applications of SMD started 10 For larger volumes, low manufacturing cost.
in the beginning of eighties. SMD safety precautions
The industrial standard unfortunately allows that most of Surface mount components are very small, and therefore
the SMD components do not have a clear description. Since special precautions (in addition to those required when
a tiny size of the components they are labeled with a code. working with through - hole components) must be taken
Therefore a sure identification of the components is im-
possible without appropriate technical documentation. More- • Do not eat or drink when working with surface mount
over the polarity and pin-outs of different components could components.
be not identified without data sheets. For these reasons
SMD for beginners became a very hard job. • Do not use cups, plates, or any food related items to
hold or store surface mount components.
Need of surface mount technology
• Keep surface mount components away from children
SMDs have improved performance over through-hole com-
and pets.
ponents due to their smaller size, shorter internal leads,
and smaller board layouts. These factors reduce the • Always wear safety goggles.
circuit's parasitic inductance and capacitance. SMDs can
also be more cost effective than traditional through - hole • Work away from the edge of a desk or workbench to
components due to the smaller board size, fewer board ensure that components will not fall on the floor.
layers, and fewer holes. SMDs can be challenging to sol-
• Keep a strong light and magnet available to search for
der, so it is best to learn general soldering skills on larger
components that have dropped on the floor.
components before attempting to work with SMDs.
21

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Work area for dealing with SMD SMD resistors
Because SMDs are very small, it is important to make SMD resistors are in shape of rectangle with metalized in
them "look" bigger. This can be accomplished by illumi- both ends of body for convenient to solder on PCBs.
nating the work surface with a very bright light. A swing -
SMD resistors are constructed with use of the thick film
arm desk lamp with a 100-watt frosted bulb positioned
technique on a ceramic substrate. They have metallic ar-
close to the work surface works very well. The lamp should
eas on the narrow ends of the chip, which allows solder-
be adjustable from 6 to 24 inches above the desktop. Regu-
ing. The resistive path is covered wtih a protective glaze.
lar room lighting or shop lights just are not bright enough.
Chip resistors could be soldered with all common solder-
The second trick is to work on an absolutely clean, bright
ing techniques:reflow, wave and solder iron. A sample of
white surface. The SMD work tray works very well. The
SMD resistor is shown in Fig 2.
white paper gives contrast to the components and the
small sides help prevent the SMDs from getting lost. Case forms of same SMD components ae tabulated table1.
Tools and Equipment required for SMD
The tools and equipment required for SMD used are self -
locking tweezers which work much better than regular
tweezers. Vacuum pick-up tools can also be used, but
are considerably more expensive. Select a low wattage
(15 or 25 watt) or temperature controlled (6000F) pencil
soldering iron with a pointed tip.
List of tools & equipments
1 Safety Goggles
2 Self locking tweezers (Fig.1)
3 600oF or low wattage soldering gun with sharply pointed
tip
4 Small diameter solders wire (63/37)
5 RMA solder paste
6 Desoldering braid
7 Plastic scouring pads
8 Deco cement
9 Magnet SMD resistor packages
10 Flexible neck lamp with 100w frosted bulb.
SMD resistors are available in different types of packages
11 Magnifying glass.
and they are mostly differ some part of specifications
from manufacturer to manufacturer. The size of resistors
are also reduced day by day due to technological en-
hancement. The most common packages and their sizes
are shown in table 1.

SMD resistor specifications

SMD resistor specifications differ from one manufacturer


To clean the circuit board before soldering you will need a to other. For selecting a SMD resistor, one needs to refer
nonconductive abrasive pad. Don't use steel wool or a steel to manufacturer ratings.
wool scouring pad, since they may leave small (almost
microscopic) steel wires behind. A strong magnet is Some most important specifications are shown below.
useful for finding dropped components. You will also need a. Power rating: The size of the resistor will increase by
a magnifying glass. Use this to read the component power rating and current drawn by it. The power rating
markings on chip resistors and electrolytic capacitors. of resistor should be always smaller than PCB layer
Types of SMD components current rating. Some power ratings are shown in table.

Now a days, almost all active components are available in b. Tolerance: SMD resistors are mostly metal oxide film
SMD packages for example diodes, transistors, FET, Triac resistor which are having more accurate values. So
etc. But in passive components only resistor and capaci- they mostly having tolerance of 1% to 5%. But in some
tors are available in different sizes and values. Due to size special applications they may available in less than
and mounting limitations -inductors and transformers are 1% tolerance.
not available in SMDs. In active devices, some power elec- c. Temperature coefficient: SMD are having very good
tronic components are available in limited varieties due to temperature coefficient than normal resistors due metal
large current drawing and problems for mounting heat oxide film material. Generally they may available in 25
sink on SMDs. Large surface space is required for mount- to 100 ppm/c.
ing the heat sinks whereas SMDs are in small size.
22 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Table 1 Advantages of SMD over a general capacitors
1. Due no leadless, manufacturers are using different tech-
Form Power (watt) Length (mm) Width (mm) niques and they are available in small in size.
2. Easy to assemble and mount in automated manufac-
0402 0.063 1.0 0.5 turing techniques.
0503 0.063 1.27 0.75 3. Less effected by static field and electro-magnetic ef-
fects.
0505 1.27 1.25
Types of SMD capacitors
0603 0.062 1.60 0.80
1. SMD Ceramic capacitors
0705 1.91 1.27
2. SMD tantalum capacitors
0805 0.1 2.00 1.25
3. SMD electrolytic capacitors
1005 0.125 2.55 1.25
1010 2.55 2.55 Ceramic multilayer chip capacitors

1206 0.25 3.2 1.6 Ceramic multilayer chip capacitors are available with a
very wide range of values, from 0.47pF to 1 F. This values
1210 0.25 3.2 2.6 are covered by seven cases forms. The forms depends of
1505 3.8 1.25 the capacitors values. The most popular case are 0805
and 1206.
2010 0.5 5.08 2.55
2208 5.72 1.90
2512 1.0 6.5 3.25
MELF 5.5 2.2
MINIMELF 3.6 1.4
MICROMELF 2.0 1.27

SMD capacitors
SMD capacitors are mostly used components after SMD
resistors in practical electronic circuits. SMD capacitors
are similar to general capacitors in construction and the
only difference is that instead of leads SMD capacitors
have metalized connections at their both ends.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 23

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Ceramic multilayer chip capacitors case forms.
Table 2

CASE FORM L (mm) B (mm) H (mm) A (mm)


0508 2.0 1.25 0.51 to 1.27 0.25 to 0.75
0603 1.6 0.8 0.80
1206 3.2 1.6 0.51 to 1.6 0.25 to 0.75
1210 3.2 2.5 0.51 to 1.9 0.3 to 1.0
1808 4.5 2.0 0.51 to 1.9 0.3 to 1.0
1812 4.5 3.5 0.51 to 1.9 0.3 to 1.0
2220 5.7 5.0 0.51 to 1.9 0.3 to 1.0

SMD tantalum capacitors


SMD tantalum capacitors are available in different case
forms, partly without printed values. The + polarity is
marked by white line, or white "M". The case forms de-
pend of capacitance value and nominal voltage.
SMD tantalum capacitors standard sizes are:
3.2 x 1.8 mm
3.5 x 2.8 mm
6.0 x 3.2 mm
7.3 x 4.3 mm
The values are coded with digits, or with alphanumerical SMD diodes and transistors
characters.
SMD diodes and transistors are available mostly in simi-
lar packages. Diodes are avilable in mainly two forms as
shown in below fig.
Those are
1. Single diode form
a. Simple diode
b. Dual anode
c. Dual cathode
2. Dual diode form
They are low cost and smaller size than general capaci-
a. Common anode
tors.
b. Common cathode
Electrolytic capacitors are now being used increasingly in c. Series diodes
SMD designs. SMD capacitors are available in two types d. Dual pair
are value marking
1. Direct value printing
2. Coding technique
Generally, SMD ceramic and tentalum capacitors are
having coding technique for reading values and they may
differ from one manufacturer to other. Most of Electrolytic
capacitors are having values with their working voltage
printed on their surface because of their large surface area.

24 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Almost all standard diodes and transistors are available
as SMD components in SOT - 23, SOT - 89 and SOT -
143 cases. In general electrical parameters of SMD di-
odes and transistors are the same as comparable stan-
dard types in conventional cases. SOT - 23, and SOT -
143 cases are used for components with power dissipa-
tion 200 to 400 mW. SOT - 89 cases are used for power
dissipation 500 mW to 1W. SMD LEDs are available in
SOT - 23 cases. All SMD transistors are marked with
codes.

SMD code Package Device name Manufacturer Data


A7 SOT-23 BAV99 National Switching diodes
A7 SOT-23 BAV99 Zowie Switching diodes
A7 SOT-323 BAV99WT1 Motorola Switching diodes
A7 SOT-523 MMBD4448H TC BL Galaxy Switching diodes
Electrical
A7 - SOT-23 BAV99 NXP Switching diodes
A7 SOT-23 BAV99 National Switching diodes
A7 SOT-23 BAV99 National Switching diodes
A7 SOT-23 BAV99 Zowie Switching diodes
A7 SOT-323 BAV99WT1 Motorola Switching diodes
A7 SOT-523 MMBD4448H TC BL Galaxy Switching diodes
Electrical
A7 SOT-23 BAV99 National Switching diodes

Similarly FET and MOSFET in SMD forms are shown in below figures.

25

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SMD Integrated circuits
The first SMD ICs were manufactured on begin 70' for hy-
brid technique. Nowadays (February 1999) are many of
new ICs design manufactured in SMD only.
ICs in SMD cases are electrically fully compatible to types
in DIL cases therefore both of them have the same mark-
ing. The different for SMD (SO-xx case )is only the last
character of the mark; i.e. LM 324 N (DIL) = LM 324 D
(SO).
SO cases are produced with two different pin forms:
1. pins bent outside of the case
2. pins bent under the case

Exmples of SMD transistors coding.


MARK COMPONENT CASE
1J BC848A SOT -23 Pin 1 is marked by a white line on atop of the case or a
cut on a front of the case.
4G BC860C SOT -23
Abbreviate the full form of term used in surface Mount
1F* MMBT5550 SOT -23 technology
1F* BC847B SOT -23 SMD Surface Mounted Devices
AA* BCW60A SOT -23 (active, passive and electromechanical
components)
AA* BCX51 SOT -89
SMT Surface Mounted Technology
* Hint (assembling and montage technology)

The same mark does not means the same component! SMA Surface Mounted Assembly.

If SMD transistors with the same marks have different case


forms their technical specifications are different as well!

Solder paste and its Application in SMT soldering material including solder wire, solder bar, solder
flux etc. Although the supplier is essentialy responsible
Solder paste or solder cream is simply a suspension of for providing the desired solder paste and screens or sten-
fine solder particles in a flux vehicle. In electronic indus- cils and the squeegee blades, the user must control pro-
try, solder paste is used in surface mount technology ( cess and equipment variables to achieve good print qual-
SMT ) to solder SMDs on to the printed circuit board, The ity. Even the best solder paste, equipment, and applica-
composition of the particles can be tailored to produce a tion methods are not sufficent by themselves to ensure
paste of the desired melting range. Additional metals can acceptable results.
be added to change paste compositions for specialized
applications. Particle size and shape, metal content and Using solder paste
flux type can be varied to produce pastes to varying vis- Start by applying flux to the circuit board pads. Then ap-
cosity. Availability of solder paste ply solder paste on the all pads of the components you
Solder paste is available in both leaded (with lead) and want to solder.
lead-free (with no lead) forms. It can be no-clean or water Using tweezers, place the component in its correct posi-
soluble. With no-clean solder paste, there is not need to tion and hold it there. Place the tip of the soldering iron
clean the board after soldering. Water soluble solder paste onto each of the pads so that the solder melts and makes
is easily soluble in water with no harm. good connections between the component and the board
How to Get the Best Solder Joints from Solder Paste Ap- Flood with solder
plication This method is for soldering chips.
1. In order to achieve good solder paste printing results, a As usual start by applying flux too the pads on the circuit
combination of the right solder paste material, the right board. Fasten one of the corner pins of the chip to its pad
tools and the right process are necessary. Kester is a by using a bit of solder. Make sure the chip is properly
trusted brand in manufacturing solder paste and other aligned on the pads.
26 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Hold the chip in place while touching the corner pad with C Appplication of heat to result in the eventual solder joint
the tip of the soldering iron so that the solder melts the pin must consists of the following discrete items:- Preheat
and the pad together. cycle is intended to drive off most of the volatile solvents
contained in the paste before the flux begains to work.
Check the alignment of the chip. if it is not in its place,
This assists in intiating fluxing action on the solder pow-
use your soldering iron to loosen the pin chip and align
der and the metal surface to be joined.- Additional preheat
the chip properly. Continue soldering on the opposite cor-
time to elevate the temperature of the PCB, Solder paste,
ner by putting a bit of solder on the soldering iron tip then
and terminations to a temperature near the melting point
touching the circuit board pad and pin at the same time.
of the solder.- Additional heat transfer to elevate the tem-
Do this for all the pins of the chip one by one.
perature over the liquidous point of the solder.- Tempera-
After all the pins have been soldered you should inspect ture to be achieved are the liquidous melting point of sol-
the solder joints carefully with microscope or loupe to der. Liquidous points for-60 Sn/40 Pb solder is... 188C 63
check for bad joints or solder bridges. Sn/37 Pb solder is... 183C 62 Sn/36 Pb/2 Ag solder is
179C Additional heat is reuired to insure activation of the
Reflow solder process Description
rosins. However, heat should be limited to minimize the
The basic reflow solder process consists of: Application time some parts are above critical temperature. As tem-
of a solder paste to the desired pads on a printed circuit perature cooldown to the solder solidification temperature,
board (PCB) Placement of the parts in the paste. Apply- followed by gradual (static) cooling to temperature near
ing heat to the assembly which causes the solder in the cleaning temperature.Equipment unique to surface mount-
paste to melt (reflow). wet to the PCB and the part termi- ing in electronics has not matured yet. There are two main
nation resulting in the desired solder fillet connection. types of automated inspection equipment on the market:
A Solder paste the solder paste mixes are improving as x-ray and laser. However, most electronic companies de-
the demands of reflow soldering of SMT increase. Selec- pend on visual inspection at 2 to 10x, using either micro-
tion and specification of the optimum paste is a key item scope of magnifying lamp.
in the reflow solder process.
B Placement of the parts in the paste is not difficult if the
pad design considers all the application tolerances. (see
KEMET Application Bulletin “Surface Mount- Mounting Pad
Dimensions and Considerations”). Care should be taken
during the transportaion of the PCB,s not to smear the
solder paste or move parts. Inspection of palcement ac-
curacies and subsequent to increase repair rates after
soldering.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 27

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Surface Mount Technology (SMT)
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain surface mount technology
• describe advantages and disadvantages surface mount components.

Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for circuit board construction. Rather than having leads placed
producing electronic circuits in which the components through holes, the components could be soldered onto
are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed pads on the board instead. This also saved creating the
circuit boards (PCBs). An electronic device so made is lead holes in the boards which added cost to the production
called a surface-mount device (SMD). In the industry it of the bare PCBs.
has largely replaced the through-hole technology
construction method of fitting components with wire leads As the components were mounted on the surface of the
into holes in the circuit board. Both technologies can be board, as shown in the fig. 2, rather than having
used on the same board for components not suited to connections that went through holes in the board, the
surface mounting such as large transformers and heat- new technology was called surface mount technology or
sinked power semiconductors. SMT and the devices used were surface mount devices,
SMDs. The idea for SMT was adopted very quickly
An SMT component as shown in fig.1 is usually smaller because it enabled greater levels of mechanisation to be
than its through-hole counterpart because it has either used, and it considerably saved on manufacturing costs.
smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or
Fig 2
leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder
balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the
component.
Virtually all of today's mass produced electronics hardware
is manufactured using surface mount technology, SMT.
The associated surface mount devices, and SMDs provide
many advantages over their leaded predecessors in terms
of manufacturability and often performance.
It was not until the 1980's that surface mount technology,
SMT became widely used. Once SMT started to be used,
the change from conventional leaded components to
surface mount devices, SMDs took place quickly in view
of the enormous gains that could be made using SMT. TYPICAL SMT BOARD WITH TRANSISTORS, AND
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig 1
To accommodate surface mount technology, SMT, a
completely new set of components was needed. New SMT
outlines were required, and often the same components,
e.g. ICs were sold as shown in fig. 3 in both traditional
leaded packages and SMT packages. Despite this, the
gains of using SMT proved to be so large that it was
adopted very quickly.
Fig 3

SMT COMPONENT

Mass produced electronic circuit boards need to be


manufactured in a highly mechanized manner to ensure
the lowest cost of manufacture. The traditional leaded
electronic components do not lend themselves to this
approach. Although some mechanisation was possible, ICS WERE SOLDERED IN PCB BOARD
component leads needed to be pre-formed. Also when
the leads were inserted into boards automatically problems SMT board with typical IC packages
were often encountered as wires would often not fit
properly slowing production rates considerably. SMT Components

It was reasoned that the wires that had traditionally been Surface mount devices, SMDs by their nature are very
used for connections were not actually needed for printed different to the traditional leaded components. They can

28 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


be split into a number of categories. can be used, the pitch of the connections is wider and it
Passive SMDs: There is quite a variety of different is found to be much more reliable.
packages used for passive SMDs. However the majority A smaller version of the BGA, known as the micro BGA is
of passive SMDs are either resistors or capacitors for also being used for some ICs. As the name suggests it is
which the package sizes are reasonably well standardized. a smaller version of the BGA.
Other components including coils, crystals and others
tend to have more individual requirements and hence their Advantages
own packages. The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole
Resistors and capacitors have a variety of package sizes. technique are:
These have designations that include: 1812, 1206, 0805, • Smaller components. As of 2012 smallest was 0.4 ×
0603, 0402, and 0201. In other words the 1206 measures 0.2 mm (0.016 × 0.008 in: 01005). Expected to sample
12 hundreds by 6 hundreds of an inch. The larger sizes in 2013 are 0.25 × 0.125 mm (0.010 × 0.005 in, size
such as 1812 and 1206 were some of the first that were not yet standardized)
used. They are not in widespread use now as much smaller
components are generally required. However they may • Much higher component density (components per unit
find use in applications where larger power levels are area) and many more connections per component.
needed or where other considerations require the larger • Lower initial cost and time of setting up for production.
size.
• Fewer holes need to be drilled.
The connections to the printed circuit board are made
through metallised areas at either end of the package. • Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some
placement machines are capable of placing more than
Transistors and diodes: These components are often 136,000 components per hour.
contained in a small plastic package. The connections
are made via leads which emanate from the package and • Small errors in component placement are corrected
are bent so that they touch the board. Three leads are automatically as the surface tension of molten solder
always used for these packages. In this way it is easy to pulls components into alignment with solder pads.
identify which way round the device must go. • Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit
Integrated circuits: There is a variety of packages which board.
are used for integrated circuits. The package used depends • Lower resistance and inductance at the connection;
upon the level of interconnectivity required. Many chips consequently, fewer unwanted RF signal effects and
like the simple logic chips may only require 14 or 16 pins, better and more predictable high-frequency
whereas other like the VLSI processors and associated performance.
chips can require up to 200 or more. In view of the wide
• Better mechanical performance under shake and
variation of requirements there is a number of different
vibration conditions.
packages available.
• Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-
For the smaller chips, packages such as the SOIC (Small
hole parts.
Outline Integrated Circuit) may be used. These are
effectively the SMT version of the familiar DIL (Dual In • Better EMC performance (lower radiated emissions)
Line) packages used for the familiar 74 series logic chips. due to the smaller radiation loop area (because of the
Additionally there are smaller versions including TSOP smaller package) and the smaller lead inductance
(Thin Small Outline Package) and SSOP (Shrink Small
Disadvantages
Outline Package).
• Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair
The VLSI chips require a different approach. Typically a
is more difficult and requires skilled operators and more
package known as a quad flat pack is used. This has a
expensive tools, due to the small sizes and lead
square or rectangular footprint and has pins emanating
spacings of many SMDs.
on all four sides. Pins again are bent out of the package
in what is termed a gull-wing formation so that they meet • SMDs cannot be used directly with plug-in breadboards
the board. The spacing of the pins is dependent upon the (a quick snap-and-play prototyping tool), requiring
number of pins required. For some chips it may be as either a custom PCB for every prototype or the
close as 20 thousandths of an inch. Great care is required mounting of the SMD upon a pin-leaded carrier. For
when packaging these chips and handling them as the prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-
pins are very easily bent. expensive breakout board may be used. Additionally,
Other packages are also available. One known as a BGA strip board style proto boards can be used, some of
(Ball Grid Array) is used in many applications. Instead of which include pads for standard sized SMD
having the connections on the side of the package, they components. For prototyping, "dead bug" bread
are underneath. The connection pads have balls of solder boarding can be used.
that melt during the soldering process, thereby making a • SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting
good connection with the board and mechanically compounds going through thermal cycling.
attaching it. As the whole of the underside of the package
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 29

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• Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much • SMT is unsuitable for large, high-power, or high-voltage
smaller as advances are made toward ultra-fine pitch parts, for example in power circuitry. It is common to
technology. The reliability of solder joints becomes combine SMT and through-hole construction, with
more of a concern, as less and less solder is allowed transformers, heat-sinked power semiconductors,
for each joint. Voiding is a fault commonly associated physically large capacitors, fuses, connectors, and
with solder joints, especially when re- flowing a solder so on mounted on one side of the PCB through holes.
paste in the SMT application. The presence of voids
• SMT is unsuitable as the sole attachment method for
can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead
components that are subject to frequent mechanical
to joint failure.
stress, such as connectors that are used to interface
with external devices that are frequently attached and
detached.

Classification of SMD IC packages


Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify different types SMD IC packages depends upon their size & pin details.

Package classifications Classification of ICS by the mounting method


Packaging trends Through - hole mount packages
Integrated circuits are classified into LSI, VLSI and ULSI Through hole packages have a structure in which the lead
is recent years pins are inserted and soldered into holes ( 0.8 to 1.0 mm
With increased functions and pin counts, IC packages in diameter) drilled through the printed circuit (PC) board,
have had to change significantly in the last few years in and find wide applications in elecrtronic equipment where
order to keep - up with the advancement in semiconductor board space is not at a premium or where costs are a
development. constraint.

Functions required for conventional IC packages are as DIPs, and PGAs (pin grid array) are typical packages in
follows. this group.

1 To protect IC chips from the external environment Surface mount packages

2 To facilitatge the packaging and handling of IC chips Surface mount packages have a flat structure in which
the lead pins are soldered directly to the soldered pattern
3 To dissipate heat generated by IC chips (called the mount pad) provided on the PC board, and are
4 To protect the electrical characteristics of the IC used in high - pin - density IC package situations because
devices can be mounted on both sides of the PC board.
Standard dual - in - line packages (DIP), which fulfill these QFPs and QFJs (PLCC) are typical packages in this
basic requirements, have enjoyed wide usage in the group.
electronics industry for a number of years
Custom packages
With increasing integration and higher speed ICs, and
with the miniaturization of electronic equipment, newer Memory modules are packages which have several
packages have been requested by the industry which memory ICs mounted on a PC board, Tape carrier
incorporate the functions listed below. packages (TCP ) using tape automated bonding (TAB)
techniques, chip on board (COB) packages, or IC cad
1 Multi- pin I/O packages. TCP and COB packages are custom designs
2 Ultra- miniature packages conforming to the customer’s specifications.
3 Packages suited to high density ICs Classication by package materials
4 Improved heat resistance for use with reflow soldering Packages are broadly classifed into ceramic and plastic
techniques. packages. Package materials can be selected according
to their application or operating environment.
5 High through put speed
Ceramic packages are known for thier high reliability, but
6 Improved heat dissipation plastic packages are becoming more popular due to their
7 Lower cost per pin low cost (when compared to ceramic packages). Reliability
has improved considerably in the last few years marking
plastic a very attractive alternative to ceramic.

30 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Type Package types Package symbol Pin count
Old New
Through hole
mounting type Ceramic Standard DIP AS AA 16, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24,
28, 40, 42, 48

CER- DIP AS AB 8, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24,,


28, 32, 40, 42

PGA AS BA 73 +2 , 88133 +2 ,177 +2 ,


209 + 2 , 257 ++12 , 301+ 2 ,
240, 365 + 2 , 400

The PGA pin count includes a pin for preventing incorrect


insertion.

Package Name Characteristics

Dual in - line package DIP packages are hermetic ceramic package. The lead pitch is
2.54mm (100 mil) and the package body is made of ceramics. Metal or
glass may be used as a sealing material.

Dual in - line package (Glass sealed) Dual in - line package are called “CER-DIP” package. The lead pitch is
2.54 mm ( 100 mil) and the package body is molded with powder
ceramics. The sealing materials is glass.

Pin grid array PGA packages are featured by the leads which are drawn out vertically
from each package body and arranged on the spcfied grid. The package
body is made of ceramic, and the standard lead pitch is 2.54 mm ( 100
mil). PGA packages are suited to multipin packaging.

SMD integrated circuits family


Packages type for surface mount integrated circuits can Each family has certain characteristics in common such
be grouped into families. as lead style, lead pitch, body size and case materials.
The flat pack is old technology. as shown in fig. 1 & 2

The QUAD flat pack and TSOP use newer technology.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 31

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SMD IC family overview Lead styles
SMD integrated circuits have three types of basic leads.
They have their name depends upon their shape.
Gull - wing leads are small and quite fragile. They can
easily be damaged and must be handled with great care.
Gull - wing leads are used to get th highest number of
leads onto an IC. It is possible to get 40 to 80 leads per
linear inch ( 15 to 33 leads per cm) onto an IC using gull-
wing leads. Gull - wing leads are easy to inspect after
soldeirng.
J - leads are more sturdy than gull - wing leads, however,
they take up more space. With J- leads, you can only
get 20 leads per linear inch (8 leads per cm) on an IC
package.
Flat leads are also used on ICs. Flat leads must be stored
in special carriers to prevent lead damage.
Just prior to use, IC’s with flat leads are cut and bent into
gull - wings by using lead forming equipment. Lead
forming equipment is an extra expenses. Therefore, flat
leads are the least popular type of IC lead.
The words lead pitch are synonymous with lead space
Leads styles
Package classifications

Heads system as shown in fig. 3.


Gull - wing
J- lead
Flat

32 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Small outline, Integrated circuit

Drawing Nomenclature Body width Lead type

8-16 PIN SO = Smal outline 156 mil

8-16 PIN SOM = Medium outline 220 mil* Gull 50 mil pitch

16-32 PIN SOL = “Large” outline


SOP = “Small” outline
package 300 mil

16-40 PIN SOJ or SOL - J = “J” -


Lead large outline 300 mil* J- Lead 50 mil

32-56 PIN VSOP = Very small


outline package 300 mil Gul wing 25 mil

8-30 PIN SSOP= Shrink small


outline package 208 mil Gull wing 25 mil

20-56 PIN QSOP = Quarter small


outline package 156 mil Gull wing 25 mil

Note : The length of the body is determined by the number


of leads.
SOIC packaging
13 inch (330 mm) reels are standard for SOICs. The carrier
tape is always plastic and measures 12 mm to 32 mm in
width depending on the IC package size.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 33

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SOIC’s are also readily available in plastic tubes. These Type 11 20 to 56 lead 0.5 mm pitch
tubes are sometimes called magazines or sticks. as
Type 12 20 leads 1.27 mm pitch
shown in fig. 4
PLCC leaded chip carrier
Tape & Reel 13” standard
The plastic body PLCC is the most popular leaded chip
Tube
carrier. Its J - leads are always 50 mil ( 1.27 mm ) pitch.
TSOP thin small outline package They are commonly available from 18 to 100 leads.
PLCC’s are usually supplied in tubes or on tape and reel.
As an alternative to the plastic case, leaded chip carriers
are available in ceramic, known as CLCC, and metal,
known as MLCC.
PLCCs fit into IC sockets and can be easily replaced in
the field.
PLCCs have been in use for over a decade and are now a
common item. as shown in fig.7

The TSOP (Thin small outline package ) combines a low


profile package (1.0 mm high) with fine - pitch 19.7 mils
( .5mm) leads.
The TSOP provides a package which accommodates a
large silicon chip in a high density package.
TSOP’s are usually shipped in trays; however, tape and
reel and tubes are available on special request.
The overall dimensions of TSOPs include the leads (total
footprint). as shown in fig. 5 & 6.

Fig 5 • Fits into IC sockets


• T & R or tubes
• Trends - PLCC is common item to new development
LCC (leadless chip carrier)
The ceramic LCC is one of the most rugged packages
since it has no leads. LCCs are soldered direclty to PC
boards by their solder pads, known as castellations. Most
LCCs come with 50 mil pitch gold castellations which
must be pre - coated with solder before mounting. as
shown in fig. 8
LCCs are usually designed for mill spc, aerospace and
high temperature applications.
Fig 6

34 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


LCC’s are shipped in either trays or tubes. • Up to 196 leads
Sometimes LCC’s are called LCCC (Leadless ceramic • Package options - Trays, tubes and T & R
chip carrier)
• True 25 mil (.636 mm) pitch
• LCC
TAPEPAK molded carrier ring
• Solderable castellation pads
Tapepak was invented by national semiconductor and is
• 16 Pin to 44 pin ( up to 124 pin)
now licensed for production by several manufacturers.
• Rugged, no leads to bend
Know for its molded carrier ring, the leads remain safe
• Ceramic body from damage. The molded carrier ring allows the device
• High temp & mil spec. applications to be tested before the need to cut and form the leads.
• Usually tubes or trays Leads up to 304 are now available with Tapepak. as shown
in fig.10.
Quad flat pack nomenclature
The main disadvantage with Tapepak is the added expense
There are many variations of quad flat packs depending
to provide lead forming equipment.
on package materials (plastic, ceramic or metal) and other
standards.
Nomenclature
• QFP - Quad Flat Pack
• PQFP - Plastic Quad Flat Pack
• CQFP - Ceramic Multilayer QFP
• CERQUAD - Ceramic Quad Flat Pack
• MQUAD - Metal Quad Flat Pack
• MQFP - Metric Quad Flat Pack • Molded crrier ring keeps leads flat prior to use
• TQFP - Thin Quad Flat Pack • Allows automated testing
• TAPEPAK - Molded Carrier Ring
• 120 pins to 304 pins
• BQFP - Bumpered Quad Flat Pack
• Coin stack in tubes
• LQFP - Low Quad Flat Pack
• Requires lead forming equipment
BQFP - Bumpered Quad Flat Pack
Flip chips
The bumpered quad flat pack is built to American JEDEC
standards using true inch measurements. This means Flip chips are bare die with small solder bumps on the
that 25 mil lead pitch is truly 5 mils (.636 mm not .65 bottom which serve as “leads”.
mm) as shown in fig. 9. The flip chip is soldered directly to a PC board (FR4 or
The purpose of the bumepred corners is to protect the ceramic) by placing the component on the board and
leads during shipping, handling and assembly. applying heat. The solder bumps melt to corresponding
pads on the PC board.
BQFPs are constructed in a plastic package; however,
they are also available with metal case, known as the The following solder type (Eutectic) is used for the bumps:
BMQUAD. FR4 boards 63% - 37% low melt ( 183°C)
BQFPs always have gull - wing leads and are shipped in Ceramic boards : 95% - 5% requires high temp.
trays, tubes or on tape and reel.
Bump on the die are around the perimeter and also in the
middle.
Since the parts are small, dimensions are specified in
“microns” not millimeters.
100μm = 1 millimeter
Important package specifiers
A Die size
B Number bumps
• JEDEC standard (USA)
C Diameter of bumps
• Bumpered corners - Protects leads
D Solder composition of bumps
• Gull - wing
E Bump pitch
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 35

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Number of Package Leads (Typical Example)

Code Package Name

0008 8
0014 14
0064 64
0144 144
0256 256

Package Material
Package symbols and codes
Code Material Applicable Package
1) Package code (New package code)
C Ceramic Multi-layer ceramic package
The package codes given onthe outline view are those
specfied in ED - 7303 (General rules for integrated circuits G Ceramic Hermetic ceramic package
package name and code) established by electronic sealed with glass
industries association of Japan (EIAJ) as shown below P Plastric Package molded with resin
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 QFN - Quad flat no leads
1 Package material The Quad flat no leads package, or QFN is a very small
square - shaped or rectangular surface - mount plastic
2 Package structure characteristics
package with no leads. It is basically a quad flat package,
3 Package name except for the absence of leads protruding from its sides.
Meta pads or lands around the periphery of the bottom of
4 Number of package leads
the QFN package service as electrical connection points
5 Reference package dimensions to the outside world. Because the QFN has no leads an
6 Lead pitches has shorter bond wire lengths, it exhibits less inductance
than leaded packages and therefore provides a higher
Examples electrical performance. The QFN package also includes
1 P-HQFP 208-40 x 40-0.65 - K (HQFP 208- P-4040- an exposed thermal pad at the package bottom to
0.65-K) this indicates a plastic QFP type package facilitate heat dissipation from the die. as shown in
with a heat sink, consistingof 208 leads with a package fig. 11a & 11b.
body size of 40 mm x 40 mm and a normal bending
Fig 11b
lead pitch of 0.65 mm.
2 P-DIP 42-13.7 x 51.98-2.54 (DIP42-P-600-2.54) This
indicates a plastic DIP type package consistingof 42
leads with package body width of 13.7mm package
body length of 51.98 mm and a lead pitch of 2.54 mm.
Package Names
Code Package Name

QFP Quad Flat Package


QFJ Quad Flat J-Leaded Package
DIP Dual in -line Package
SOP Small Out-Line Package Ceramic package, or cerpack

SOJ Small Out-line J-Leaded Package The ceramic package, or cerpack, is a hermetically sealed
rectangular ceramic package that has leads extending
ZIP Zigzag in- line Package from both of its longer sides, thus forming two sets of in -
PGA Pin Grid Array line pins. It is therefore a type of dual -in-line package
(DIP) like the CerDIP. as shown in fig.12.
BGA Ball Grid Array
LGA Land Grid Array

36 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Fig 12 PSOP - Power small outline package
The power small outline package, or PSOP is a rectangular
small outline IC package developed by amkor that
integrates a copper heat slug in its plastic body. The die
is attached to this heat slug, increasing the chip’s ability
to dissipate heat and thus handle more power. as shown
in fig. 15
Fig 15
QSOP Quarter size outline package
The quarter size outline package, or QSOP is a small
rectangular surface - mount plastic package with gull
wing leads protruding out of its longer sides. The QSOP
comes in two standard body widths; the narrow body
QSOP which has a nominal body thickness of 150 mils
and the wide body QSOP which has a nominal body
thickness of 300 mils. Typical QSOP lead counts range
from 16 to 28 leads for the narrow body and 36 to 44
leads for the wide body. The QSOP lead pitch is typically CLCC or LCC - Ceramic leadless chip carrier
25 mils. as shown in fig. 13. The ceramic leadless chip carrier, or CLCC or LCC, is a
Fig 13 square or rectangular surface mount ceramic package
that has no leads. For electrical connection to the outside
world, the LCC instead uses flat metal contacts (or
metallized castellations) known as pads around the four
sides of the package bottom. as shown in fig. 16

Fig 16

General notes on IC packages


Ceramic column grid array, or CCGA Sidebraze package

The Ceramic column grid array, or CCGA is a square - The sidebraze package, is one of the most mature IC
shaped or rectangular ceramic package that uses solder packages still in use today. It is a rectangular ceramic
columns for external electrical connection instead of leads package that has leads extending from both of its longer
or solder balls. These solder columns are arranged in a sides, thus forming two sets of in-line pins. It is therefore
grid or array at the bottom of the ceramic package body, a type of dual - in line package (DIP). Two other widely
hence the name ‘ceramic column grid array. The CCGA used DIP’s are the PDIP and the CerDIP. as shown in
is basically just a CBGA package that has solder fig. 17.
columns instead of solder balls. as shown in fig. 14 Fig 17
Fig 14

CPGA Ceramic pin grid array


The ceramic pin grid array, or CPGA is a square or
rectangular through- hole ceramic package whose pins
or leads are arranged in a square array at the bottom of
the package body. The CPGA can either have a first -
sealed ceramic lid or a solder - sealed metal lid. The
CPGA is just one of several types of the PGA package.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 37

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The PGA is a popular choice for devices with high I/O Fig 21
counts such as microprocessors because of its high pin
density. as shown in fig. 18.
Fig 18

TDFN- Thin Dual flat no leads


The thin dual flat no leads package, or TDFN, is a very
small and thin square - shaped or rectangular surface -
mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads, it
uses metal pads along two sides of the package body for
electrical connection to the outside world. It is basically
a thinner version of the dual flat no leads (DFN) package.
DFN- Dual flat no leads as shown in fig. 22.
The Dueal flat no leads package, or DNF is a very small Fig 22
square - shaped or rectangular surface - mount plastic
package with no leads. Metal pads or lands along two
sides of the bottom of the DFN package serve as electrical
connection points to the outside world. The DFN is similiar
to the QFN, except that the latter has lands all around
the periphery of the package instead of just two sides
like the DFN. as shown in fig. 19.
Fig 19
LFBGA - Low profile fine- pitch ball grid array
The low profile fine pitch ball grid array, or LFPBGA, is a
smaller version of the ball grid array (BGA) package. It is
basically an FBGA package that has a package height
ranging from 1.2 mm and 1.7 mm. It is therefore thicker
than the TFBGA and the VFBGA. as shown in fig. 23

Fig 23

DPAK - Decawatt package


The Decawatt package, or DPAK is an IC package
developed by motorola to encase discrete high - power
deviecs. The DPAK is also known as the TO-252. The
LGA - Land grid array (Fig.24)
acronym ‘DPAK’ can also stand for the term ‘Discrete
package’ DPAKs can have 3 or 5 terminals. as shown in Fig 24
fig. 20.
Fig 20

JLCC- J-Leaded ceramic chip carrier The land grid array or LGA is a package that uses metal
pads for external electrical connection instead of leads
The J-leaded ceramic chip carrier, or JLCC, is a square or
(as in the pin grid array) or solder balls ( as in the ball grid
rectangular surface - mount ceramic package that has J-
array). These metal pads, which are called ‘lands’ are
formed leads around its periphery. The plastic molded
arranged in a grid or array at the bottom of the package
equivalent of the JLCC is the PLCC. as shown in fig. 21.

38 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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body hence the name land grid array. The grid arrangement Fig 28
of the lands of the LGA package allows it to have a high
land count, making it a popular packaging option for
devices with high I/O requirements.
TQFP Thin quad flat pack
The thin quad flat pack, or TQFP is a surface - mount IC
package with gull wing leads on all foru sides of the
package body. It is basically a thinner version of the
MQFP and LQFP. as shown in fig. 25
Fig 25
TSOP -Thin small outline pacakge
The thin small outline package, or TSOP is a rectangular
IC package with a thickness of 1.0 mm. There are two
typs of TSOPs. The type I TSOP has its leads protruding
from the shorter edges of the package. The type II TSOP
has its leads protruding from the longer edges of the
LQFP - Low profile quad flat pack package. as shown in fig. 29

The low profile quad flat pack or LQFP, is a surface - Fig 29


mount IC package with leads extending from all four sides
of the package body. as shown in fig. s26.
Fig 26

MLP- Micro lead frame package


The micro lead frame package, or MLP is a JEDEC
compliant, very thin, near - CSP square - shaped or
TSSOP - Thin shrink small outline package rectangular surface - mount plastic package uses metal
padsinstead of leads for the electrical connection to the
The thin shrink small outline package, or TSSOP, is a outside world. The MLP belongs to the same ‘no leads’
rectangular surface mount plastic package with gull wing package family as the QFN and the DFN. as shown in
leads. It has a smaller body and smaller lead pitch than fig. 30
the standard SOIC package. It is also smaller and thinner
than a TSOP with the same lead count. as shown in Fig 30
fig. 27

Fig 27

UTDFN - Ultra thin dual flat no leads


The ultra thin dual flat no leads package, or UTDFN is a
MQFP- Metric quad flat pack very small and thin square - shaped or rectangular surface
- mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads,
The metric quad flat pack, or MQFP is a surface - mount it uses metal pad as long two sides of the package body
IC package with gull wing leads on all four sides of the for electrical connection to the outside world. It is basically
package body. as shown in fig. 28 a thinner version of the thin dual flat no leads (TDFN)
package. as shown in fig. 31.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 39

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Fig 31
VSOP- Very small outline package
The very small out line package, or VSOP is one of several
smaller versions of the SOIC package, having a
compressed body and a tightened pitch for its gull wing
leads. Another smaller version of the SOIC is the SSOP.
as shown in fig. 34
Fig 34

TFBGA - Thin profile fine ptich ball grid array


The thin profile fine pitch ball grid array or TFBGA, is a
thinner version of the FBGA package like all BGA
packages. TFBGA’s use solder balls that are arranged in
a grid or array at the bottom of the package body for
MSOP - Micro small out line package external electrical connection. The TFBGA is near - chip
The micro small outline package, or micro- SOP or MSOP, - scale in size and features ball pitch values that are
is a very small rectangular plastic package with guall wing even tighter than those of the FBGA. as shown in
leads protruding out of its longer sides. The MSOP is a fig. 35.
miniaturized version of the SSOP package, having a Fig 35
smaller footprint than the latter. as shown in fig. 32.
Fig 32

TQFN - Thin quad flat no leads


Fig 36

UTQFN- Ultra thin quad flat no leads


The ultra thin quad flat no leads package, or UTQFN is
avery small and thin square- shaped or rectangular surface
- mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads,
The thin quad flat no leads package, or TQFN is a very
it uses metal pads around the periphery of the package
small and thin square - shaped or rectangular surface
body for electrical connection to the outside world. It is
mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads, it
basically a thinner version of the thin quard flat no leads
uses metal pads around the periphery of the bottom of
(TQFN) package. as shown in fig.33.
the package body for electrical connection to the outside
Fig 33
world. It is basically a thinner version of the quad flat no
leads (QFN) package. as shown in fig. 36
FBGA- Fine pitch ball grid array
The fine pitch ball grid array, for FPBGA or FBGA is a
smaller version of the ball grid array (BGA) package. As
in all BGA packages, FBGA’s use solder balls that are
arranged in a grid or array at the bottom of the package
body for external electrical connection. However, the FBGA
is near chip -scale in size, with a smaller and thinner
body than the standard BGA package. As its name
implies, it also features a finer ball pitch (smaller distance
between balls) as shown in fig. 37.

40 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Fig 37 Fig 40

D2PAK or DDPAK- Double decawatt package


SSOP-Shrink small outline package
The Double decawatt package, or D2PAK or DDPAK is
The shrink small outline package or SSOP is a smaller the successor to the DPAK package which was designed
or ‘shrunk’ version of the SOIC package having a by Motorola to encase discrete high power devices. The
compressed body and a tightened lead pitch. as shown D2PAK is bigger than the DPAK and comes in several
in fig. 38. versions with different terminal counts. The D2PAK which
has a flat heat sink at the back is basically the surface -
Fig 38 mount equivalent of the TO-220 through- hole package
and its therefore sometimes referred to as ‘SMD-220’.
The D2PAK is also known as ‘TO-263’. as shown in
fig. 41.
Fig 41

D3PAK - Decawatt package 3


The decawatt package 3 or D3PAK is a bigger version of
the D2PAK package. Just like the D2PAK ( and the DPAK
the D2PAK’s predecessor) the D3PAK is a surface - mount
plastic - molded package intended for high - power discrete SOIC - Small outline integrated circuit
devices. The D3PAK is also known by other names such The small outline integrated circuit or SOIC is a small
as ‘TO-268’ and discrete package 3. as shown in fig. 39 rectangular surface mount plastic molded integrated circuit
package with gull wing leads. The leads protrude from
Fig 39 the longer edge of the package. It is one of the most
commonly used surface mount packages today as show
in fig. 42
Fig 42

SOJ : Small outline J- lead package


Small outline Transistor (SOT) package
The small outline J-lead package or SOJ is a small
Small outline transistor (SOT) packages are very small,
rectangular surface - mount plastic molded integrated
inexpensive surface mount plastic - modled packages
circuit package with J-formed leads. The leads protrude
with leads on their two long sides. Due to their low cost
from the longer edge of the package. The SOJ is also
and low profile. SOT’s are widely used in consumer
sometimes referred to as SOJ or J- leaded small outline
electronics. The SOT - 23 and the SC-70 packages are
IC package. as shown in fig. 40
two of the most widely used SOT packages today. Note
that a side from these two, there are many other SOT
package types used in the IC industry. as shown in
fig. 43
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 41

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Fig 43 Fig 45

CQFP - Ceramic quad flat pack


The ceramic quad flat pack, or CQFP is a ceramic IC
package with leads extending from all four sides of the Plastic quad flat package aka PQFP
package body. CQFP’s are predominantly square in
The plastic quad flat pack, or PQFP is an IC package
shape, although rectangualr variants do exist. The CQFP
with leads extending from all four sides of the package
is just one of the many types of the quad flat pack (QFP)
body. PQFP’s are predominantly square in shape,
package. as shown in fig. 44
although rectangular variants do exist. The PQFP is just
Fig 44 one of the many types of the quad flat pack (QFP) package.
as shown in fig. 46.
Fig 46

Ball grid array aka BGA


PLCC- Plastic leaded chip carrier
BGA packages are used to permanently surface mount
devices such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide The plastic leaded chip carrier, or PLCC is a four - sided
more interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in - plastic package that has “J” leads around its periphery.
line or flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device These “J” leads, occupy less board space than the gull -
can be used, instead of just the perimeter. The leads are wing leads that other packages like the SOIC have. PLCC
also one average shorter than with a perimeter only type, lead counts range from 18 to 84. PLCC packages can
leading to better performance at high speeds. soldering either be square or rectangular in shape. The ceramic
of BGA devices requires precise control and is usually equivalent of the PLCC is the JLCC. as shown in fig. 47
done by automated processes. A BGA device is never Fig 47
mounted in socket in use. as shown in fig.45

42 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 to 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - SMD soldering and desoldering

Explanation about different types of tools & equipments & raw materials
required for SMD soldering and desoldering work
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• trainees will be familiar to use the tools and raw materials used to avoid the damage of costly SMD devices
and components and ICs due to electrostatic discharge
• trainees will be familiar to use tools and equipments and raw materials required to do soldering and
desoldering work of SMD components and ICs.

Tools and equipments required for SMD soldering


SMD rework system with different temperature
Hot air station solder blower profiles and digital display
Fig 1 Fig 3

Fig 2
Fig 4

VARIOUS SOLDERING TIPS

Hot air gun soldering station iron tool solder


Fig 5
It is used to solder and de solder the fine and narrow
terminals of SMD components, by setting the suitable
temperature and air pressure of hot air blower as per the
pad size of the PCB and package size of SMD
components. shown in fig. 1 & 2.
Working of SMD Rework station
Rework station is an antistatic soldering station with
soldering iron and hot air gun. Rework station
recommended. Thermal sensitive electronic component
like (QFP, PLCC, SOP etc) Air complessior is located in
side the sttion etc.,) It is useful for the soldering and
desoldering the SMD components. shown in fig.3, 4, & 5 DIFFERENT SHAPES OF HOT AIR TIPS

43

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The hot air pencil has many advantages of the traditional Optional : 5 Distinct stainless steel air tip styles are
soldering iron : First and foremost, the hot air pencil is available for all SMD’s
completely non - invasive providing precision, pin- pointed,
non - contact, low- velocity hot air directly to the individual
components leads. as show in fig. 6

Heated Tweezers : (Optional) Monocle Magnifier -Illuminated


Heated tweeezers have more targeted heat transfer than This loop magnifier set itself apart in your eyes because
the hot - air rework stations. They provide a fast and efficient of the little LED on the side. Trying to view SMD
method to solder and de-solder SMDs such as chip connections is hard enough - the LED on the side is huge
resistors, chip capacitors, SOTs, flat packs and DIP ICs. help for those want to inspect the connections very closely
as shown in fig. 7 for proper solder connection. shown in fig. 9 & 10.
Fig 7 Fig 9

90° forming tool


Solder suckers de - soldering pumps
Fig 10
A ‘desoldering pump’ or more generically referred to as a
“solder sucket”, is a tool that vaccums molten solder from
circuit board assemblies during circuit repairs or
component removal. shown in fig. 8
Fig 8

Anti - Static Desoldering Pump / Solder Sucker

44 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Tool cut kink forming Fig 16

Fig 11

SMD probers & spudgers


Align, straighten chip leads or test solder joint. as shown
in fig.17
Fig 17

Special tool that cuts and pre-form the component wire in


one operation. Length setting is carried out by means of Integrated circuit (IC) extractor J - leaded, PLCC,
a sliding stop. as shown in fig.11 PLCC socket, connector & PGA extractors
90° SMD tweezer
Fig 18
Parallel blades ideal to lift & align chips. Also winding
coils & hairsprings. as shown in fig 12

Fig 12

Curved tweezer
Curved (eagle) tweezer for general assembly, permits
resting hand on bench. Fine points. as shown in 13

Fig 13 Removes IC’s PGA’s, thru- hole connectors after de-


soldering easily and quickly. Compression steel spring
with insulated, cushioned grips permits single handed
squeezingthe hooks up underneath the device for simple
lifting up and out of the PC board. as shown in fig. 18
Reverse action tweezer grips and hold parts with less PLCC socket extraction tool
pressure than traditional tweezers. shown in fig.14.
Fig 19
Fig 14

Parallel paddle tweezer


Smooth, tlat, angled parallel paddle tweezer. Great at
gripping and lifting IC’s & small parts. as shown in fig.15
Fig 15

ESD safe works with all JEDED, J- leaded, SOJ or PLCC


SMD packages and PLCC sockets. This helpful, universal
tool removes PLCC chips and sockets with as few as 18
Rounded points tweezer
leads / pins up to 124 leds /pin. Spring - loaded and self -
Round points prevent scratch to delicate parts silicon, opening, the tool reduces hand fatigue and permits single
crystal & germanium water chips. as shown in fig. 16 hand operation. Insert the hooks into the corner and lift.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 45

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Helps in preventing lead /pin damage. A PCB benchtop Fig 23
essential. as shown in fig.19
Micro shears, flush cutters and pliers

Fig 20

PCB LEADS FLUSH CUTTER & CLIP

Quard flat pack pin & lead straightening tool


SHORT SNUB NOSE PLIERS This is an essential quality control (QC) tool for pin
number verification along with body size and pitch of
Cuts cable and wire ties with 20° head angle. as shown unknown QFP components. as shown inf ig. 24 & 25.
in fig. 20 & 21. Fig 24
Fig 21

RESHAPES, RE-ALIGNS,
LONG REACH NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS
STRAIGHTENS QFP, TQFP & LQFP
PACKAGES TO ULTRA - FINE PITCH.
Shears PCB chip leads & wire to 20A WG, cables & wire
ties. as shown in fig. 22.
Fig 25
Fig 22

WIRE, CABLE, WIRE TIE CUTTER

Grip and hold while twisting or tugging. Good for wire


forming. Smooth jaws stop nicking/scoring tiny wires to
1 mil. Spring - loaded “return”. as shown in fig.23

46 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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It reworks and align bent pins of all sizes of QFP and Fig 28
TQFP’s and correct co-planarity problems. The lead
straightner handles chip with lead / pin pitches from 0.4
mm to 1.0 mm.
The template accommodates 46 different QPF patterns
and is ideal for component recovery or salvage of expensive
QPF, TQPF and LQPF packages /chips. Use standard
hand tools like dental picks and tweezers to adjust the
QPF pins to match recessed template slots.
Hobby knife
Fig 26
ESD - SAFE PEN VACUUM HANLDING TOOL THAT FEATURES

Fig 29

We use these extensively when working with PCBs.


These small knife work well for cutting traces, scraping
ground pours, and guiding hair - like wires into their proper
place. Excel knife comes with aluminum handle, one ultra
- sharp blade, and safety cap. as shown in fig. 26
PEN VAC KITS INCLUDE 6 OR 10 SUCTION CUPS
Pana vise junior clamp
PCB holder : (Opitonal) Fig 30

Fig 27

Digital multimeter
Smart tweezer (optional) : Measure accurately and easily
your SMT components. LCR measurement using smart
tweezers. Measure resistance from 0.05 ohm to 10 mega
ohm, capacitance 10pF to 5 mF and inductance 1 uH to
1H. It automatically recognize for LCR measure mode.
Continiuty or open test, Diode test. DC/AC voltae upto +/
- 8 volt, reading of main and parasitic impedance
components. Measurement of dissipation and quality
factors. as shown in fig. 31.
A small, sturdy clamp that can be rotated to almost any Fig 31
angle to hold work or tools. The jaws of this clamp are
heat - resistant, open to 2 7/8”, and have embedded
grooves to help hold circuit boards. For extra stability, it
can be secured to a work bench with mounting screws.
as shown in fig.27
ESD safe vacuum pen (optional)
Suction & vacuum lifting & halding SMD’s, glass
wafers & small parts
Vaccum handling tool that features with silicon vaccum
cups for lifting small parts and components. Vacuum
from the pen vac is generated by simply pressing and
releasing the vaccum release button. as shown in fig.28, SOLDERING & DESOLDERING TIP TEMPERUTE
29, 30. THERMOMETER (OPTIONAL)

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 47

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Soldering and desoldering tip temperature Fig 35
thermometer (Optional)
Measure tip temperature quickly, with high accuracy. as
shown in fig.32

Fig 32

Bench fume absorber (optional) as shown in fig.33


Fig 33

Damp sponge with a hole

Fig 36

Help to remove harmful fume in soldering area


Raw materials
SMD PCB board (single sided and double sided) as shown
fig. 34 & 35

Fig 34

A hole in the middle gives you an edge to wipe the iron tip
on, and also a place for the used solder to fall into so you
are not trying to clean the tip on older debris. We should
wet the sponge using distilled water to avoid corrosion of
This prototype board supports most kinds of SMD IC the soldering iron bit. as shown in fig.36
package.
Dry tip cleaner
TQFP 32 (0.65 mm)
A sponge replacement, these soft, metal coils are coated
TQFP 48 (0.5 mm) with flux and clean soldering iron tips without thermally
TQFP 64 (0.5 mm) shocking them like a wet sponge does. This helps to
prolong tip life. Also, this cleans more effectively than a
SOP 28, SO- 8, SO-14, SO- 16, SOT - 25 sponge. To clean, thrust the iron into the coils a few
QSOP - 28 (0.65 mm) times. as shown in fig. 37
DB 9 Do not scrape the tip on the coils because this can fling
molten solder.
MSOP - 8, etc
Size : 90 * 110* 1.5 mm
48 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Fig 37 Solder paste with lead
Fig 39

Zerolead - solder paste is your RoHs compliant, as shown


Flux : The key to surface mount soldering in fig. 39 lead - free solder paste perfectly harmonizing its
rich tin, silver and copper alloy with an effective no - clean
Flux removes oxides from metal that prevent solder from flux ‘carrier’ yielding simply superb wetting characteristics
bonding to it, and also helps to distribute heat. During and premium solder joints with an attractive satin finish.
typical soldering with flux - cored, solder wire, all the flux
you need is contained in the solder. When the wire touches Zero lead solder paste was developed specifically for the
a hot connection, the flux flows out, cleans the joint and electronic bench top and is ideal for rework, low volume
prevents further oxidation. However, in surface mount prodcution. This consists of tiny solder balls floating in
soldering, (brace yourself) oftentimes solder is melted on gel - like flux. Once paste is applied to the pads, chips
the iron, and then transferred to the joint. During this time, are placed on top, and the board is “reflowed” (paste
the flux quickly boils off and becomes useless, so melted) in a toaster oven or with hot air. Paste can be
additional flux is needed on the connection. If transferring applied using the syringes shown or with a squeegee and
solder in this manner sems questionable, bare in mind stencil. Note that paste in syringes usually has slightly
less metal content to help it flow through small needles.
that a common process in industry, called wave soldering,
Get paste in a air if you are using a stencil. The main
is similar. Fluxed boards are slowly passed over a giant
choice to make is between no - clean or water soluble
wave of moten solder that wicks into the connectios.
paste. No clean flux is recommended unless you have
Flux comes in a large variety of different types and reason to believe your components are difficult to solder
applicatiors. It is recommend using a rosinbased, RMA old and possibly corroded. The residues from water -
(Rosin Mildly activated), clean the flux soon afte soldering soluble paste are corrosive, so be sure to clean them
because the residues quickly harden. “No - clean” fluxes with warm water.
have very low activation levels, and are therefore less If you get a syringe, you will likely have to buy a needle
effective than activated fluxes, but will work fine on clean and plunger, too A 22 gauge needle is a good starting
parts. as shown in fig. 38. place, and you can always lay a thicker bead of paste
Use no - clean flux if you are making circuits space just by pushing more out.
applications or if you use water solube flux, the residues Alcohol dispensing pump bottle (optional)
are corrosive, and should be removed with warm water.
Fig 40
Fig 38

Solder wire spool holder, soldering wire rack, solder


wire dispenser This ESD safe bottle pumps a small amount of isopropyl
alcohol into a dish on the lid when pressed down by a
No clean solder wire has a no - clean flux core and is brush. as shown in fig. 40. It is designed to keep the rest
terrific for all your PCB soldering including both through- of the alcohol from evaporating, and helps conserve use.
hole and surface mount. Ideal for prototyping, low - volume If you want to clean flux residues, use an acid brush with
runs, and printed circuit board rework at the bench. isopropyl alcohol. Be sure two wipe up the residues with
a lint - free wipe (like kim wipes) and not just over them
around on the board.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 49

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Foam swabs, Anti - static Fig 44

Fig 41

Acid brushes, scrub brushes for PC board repair & rework


through- hole, plated through cleaner brushes, flux
brushes. as shown in fig. 41.

Fig 42

Fig 45

Applicator brushes ( acid brushes) are essential tools in


labs and at the bench for cleaning and scrubbing away CLEANING PC BOARDS SOLDER JOINTS AFTER REWORK

flux from the circuit board with solvents to remove flux,


especially with plated through - hole chips. as shown in Fig 46
fig. 42,43,44,45 &46.
Fig 43

SCRUBBING OLD FLUX AWAY WITH SOLVENT OFF I.C LEADS

CLEANING BGA CHIPS

50 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Desoldering braid Molten solder is drawn up by capillary action into the
braid. Careful not to overheat, or ‘drag whiskers’ of solder
De - soldering is required when electronic components
over the board, not let the braid solidity on the joint. Always
need to be removed from a circuit, usually because they
remove braid and solder iron together in a vertical motion.
are faulty. It may sometimes be necessary during testing
or assembly, if a wrong parts has been fitted or a Fig 48
modification has to be made. To professionally remove
solder from a circuit, you will need for the following
materials. as shown in fig. 47
1 De -soldering barid
2 Soldering iron
Fig 47

a) Heat up soldering iron


b) Place super wick on to solder bead
c) Place heated solder iron on to braid
• The desoldering braid is treated with a flux coating
Step 1 : Choosing the right braid that once used will no longer draw in the molten solder,
so you will need to unspool new braid as you desoder
• Choose a braid width the matches the size of the solder
several joints.
bead to be removed.
• Always hold the braid by the bobbin on which it is
• If there are many small beads, choosing a wider braid
spooled because the copper does conduct heat and
will also speed up the desoldering process.
can cause burns if handled directly.
Step 2 : Using the braid
a. Heat up soldering iron as shown in fig. 48
b. Place super wick on to solder bead
c. Place heated solder iron on to braid

Soldering guns and its types


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain soldering guns and its types
• describe the selection of soldering guns
• define tips and its types .
Soldering guns
A soldering gun is an approximately pistol-shaped, is energized, several hundred amperes of current flow
electrically powered tool for soldering metals using tin- through the secondary and very rapidly heat the copper
based solder to achieve a strong mechanical bond with tip. Since the tip has a much higher resistance than the
good electrical contact. The tool has a trigger-style switch rest of the tubular copper winding, the tip gets very hot
so it can be easily operated with one hand. The body of while the remainder of the secondary warms much less.
the tool contains a transformer with a primary winding A tap on the primary winding is often used to light a pilot
connected to mains electricity when the trigger is pressed, lamp which also lights the work piece.
and a single-turn secondary winding of thick copper with
Soldering iron types
very low resistance. A soldering tip, made of a loop of
thinner copper wire, is secured to the end of the • Simple iron
transformer secondary by screws, completing the
• Cordless iron
secondary circuit. When the primary of the transformer
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 51

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• Temperature-controlled soldering iron Temperature-controlled irons may be free-standing, or may
comprise a head with heating element and tip, controlled
• Soldering station
by a base called a soldering station, with control circuitry
• Soldering tweezers and temperature adjustment and sometimes display is
Simple iron as shown in the fig. 2.
Fig 2
For electrical and electronics work, a low-power iron, a
power rating between 15 and 35 watts, is used. Higher
ratings are available, but do not run at higher temperature;
instead there is more heat available for making soldered
connections to things with large thermal capacity, for
example, a metal chassis Some irons are temperature-
controlled, running at a fixed temperature in the same
way as a soldering station, with higher power available for
joints with large heat capacity. Simple irons run at an
uncontrolled temperature determined by thermal
equilibrium; when heating something large their
temperature drops a little, possibly too much to melt
solder.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED SOLDERING IRON
Cordless iron
A variety of means are used to control temperature. The
Small irons heated by a battery, or by combustion of a simplest of these is a variable power control, much like a
gas such as butane in a small self-contained tank, can light dimmer, which changes the equilibrium temperature
be used when electricity is unavailable or cordless of the iron without automatically measuring or regulating
operation is required. The operating temperature of these the temperature. Another type of system uses a
irons is not regulated directly; gas irons may change thermostat, often inside the iron's tip, which automatically
power by adjusting gas flow. Gas-powered irons may have switches power on and off to the element. A thermal sensor
interchangeable tips including different size soldering tips, such as a thermocouple may be used in conjunction with
hot knife for cutting plastics, miniature blow-torch with a circuitry to monitor the temperature of the tip and adjust
hot flame, and small hot air blower as shown in fig 1 for power delivered to the heating element to maintain a
such applications as shrinking heat shrink tubing. desired temperature.
Fig 1 Soldering station
A soldering station (fig. 3), invariably temperature-
controlled, consists of an electrical power supply, control
circuitry with provision for user adjustment of temperature
and display, and a soldering iron or soldering head with a
tip temperature sensor. The station will normally have a
stand for the hot iron when not in use, and a wet sponge
for cleaning. It is most commonly used for soldering
electronic components. Other functions may be combined;
for example a rework station, mainly for surface-mount
components may have a hot air gun, vacuum pickup tool,
and a soldering head; a desoldering station will have a
desoldering head with vacuum pump for desoldering
through-hole components, and a soldering iron head.
Fig 3
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GAS FLOW IRON

Temperature-controlled soldering iron


Simple irons reach a temperature determined by thermal
equilibrium, dependent upon power input and cooling by
the environment and the materials it comes into contact
with. The iron temperature will drop when in contact with
a large mass of metal such as a chassis; a small iron will
lose too much temperature to solder a large connection.
More advanced irons for use in electronics have a
mechanism with a temperature sensor and method of SOLDERING STATION

temperature control to keep the tip temperature steady;


more power is available if a connection is large.

52 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Soldering tweezers Tips and types
For soldering and desoldering small surface-mount Most soldering irons for electronics have interchangeable
components with two terminals, such as some links, tips, also known as bits that vary in size and shape for
resistors, capacitors, and diodes, soldering tweezers can different types of work. Pyramid tips with a triangular flat
be used; they can be either free-standing or controlled face and chisel tips with a wide flat face are useful for
from a soldering station. The tweezers (fig. 4) have two soldering sheet metal. Fine conical or tapered chisel tips
heated tips mounted on arms whose separation can be are typically used for electronics work. Tips may be
manually varied by squeezing gently against spring force, straight or have a bend. Concave or wicking tips with a
like simple tweezers; the tips are applied to the two ends chisel face with a concave well in the flat face to hold a
of the component. The main purpose of the soldering small amount of solder are available. Tip selection
tweezers is to melt solder in the correct place; components depends upon the type of work and access to the joint;
are usually moved by simple tweezers or vacuum pickup. soldering of 0.5mm pitch surface-mount ICs, for example,
is quite different from soldering a through-hole connection
Fig 4
to a large area. A concave tip well is said to help prevent
bridging of closely spaced leads; different shapes are
recommended to correct bridging that has occurred. Due
to patent restrictions not all manufacturers offer concave
tips everywhere; in particular there are restrictions in the
USA.
Older and very cheap irons typically use a bare copper
tip, which is shaped with a file or sandpaper. This dissolves
Soldering tweezers gradually into the solder, suffering pitting and erosion of
the shape. Copper tips are sometimes filed when worn
Selection of soldering guns down. Iron-plated copper tips have become increasingly
popular since the 1980s. Because iron is not readily
Most soldering "guns" are vastly overpowered for dissolved by molten solder, the plated tip is more durable
electronics soldering and can easily overheat components than a bare copper one, though it will eventually wear out
or expose them to harmful voltages. However, some and need replacing. This is especially important when
people cleverly use them to solder multiple leads on working at the higher temperatures needed for modern
surface mount devices. Soldering "guns" are for plumbing lead-free solders. Solid iron and steel tips are seldom
and much heavier duty applications, and are usually over used because they store less heat, and rusting can break
100 Watts. The "guns" work by passing high currents the heating element. (Fig.5)
through the tips, and these currents can generate voltages
that damage electronic components. Also, magnetic fields
from guns with transformers can damage some
electronics. By forming the heating element in the shape
of the chip, a soldering gun can be used to heat many
leads simultaneously.
Fig 5

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 53

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 to 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - SMD Soldering and Desoldering

Identification of Pin 1 marking in various SMD IC packages


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• to identify the pin 1 marking of various SMD IC packages which is indicated in different methods
• how to differentiate the orientation of IC package pin details in order to avoid wrong soldering and to avoid
economic loss without damaging costly IC package like motherboard ICs.

Pin 1 marking in a DIP SMD IC

Fig 1

In the above IC part number “THX1138D,” manufactured in


week 37 of 2013, and it has a mysterious lot or internal
code “OHAI” that may or may not be explained in the
datasheet. The polarity marks are a half - moon indentation
on the left hand side as well as a dot by pin 1. This device
has 20 pins, numbered counterclockwise along the two
edges from 1 to 20.
As well see, there are plenty of examples of this, or close
variations on it. But there are also cases where there are
“no” direct marks, but you can instead rely on the orientation
of the text to understand the numbering. The text orientation
Here is a basic rule that applies for most integrated
is consistant, and for chips of this shpae (with pins on two
circuits. There is a polarity mark somewhere. From that
opposite sides), you can reliably assume that the polarity
polarity mark, move counterclockwise around the chip,
mark goes to the left of the text.
and number the pins starting at 1. as shown in fig. 1
A common polarity marker is a half - moon shape at one
end of the chip. Another is a small dot by pin 1, or
sometimes a small triangle or tab instead. Sometimes
several of these marks can appear. as shown in fig. 2
Often pin 1 is in a corner of the chip, and its only that
corner - not the pin itself - that is marked by the small circle
or triangle.

54

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Fig 3

Here are some classic and beautiful examples of chips


with well - marked polarity. These are “ceramic DIP”
integrated circuit packages.
Fig 4

Each has a molded half - moon shape as well as a more Fig 5


subtile dot by pin 1. as shown in fig. 3
This is a modern higher - density variation on the same
design. It is a wide, low - profile plastic package called a
66-pin TSSOP ( and a 128 M bit DDR SDRAM, if you are
curious). The orientation is given by the half - moon shape
on the left hand side and by the dot in the lower left corner.
Now, that dot actually looks like it’s closer to pin 2 than
to pin 1 - Again, the makrer oten lables the corner where
pin 1 lives, not the individual pin. as shown in fig. 4 & 5.

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 55

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This 74 HC245D “ as shown in fig. 6 octal bus transceiver” Fig 8
chip from NXP has the half - moon shape on theleft hand
side, plus a slightly more unusual polarity marking feature.
The entire front edge of the chip - the edge containing pin
1 - is slightly beveled.
Fig 6

Here is one more variation. There is printed bar on the left


hand side of this chip to act as a polarity indicator, taking
the place of the half - moon shape.
Fig 9
And now here is a chip that has less of a “direct” indication
of its orientations - no dot or half moon shape. As we
discussed earlier, you can realy on the orientation of the
text in cases like this, and imagine an effective polarity
mark on theleft hand side of the chip. Pin 1 is on the power
left hand side.
If you look very closely, as shown in fig. 7 you will see that
there is one additional polarity marking feature, in that this
chip also has a very slightly beveled front edge.

Fig 7

Some times you will come across very different looking


chips with very obvious polarity markers. This chip from
agilent has a gold stripe on the upper left hand corner. as
shown in fig. 10
Fig 10

His is a some whatunusual seven - yes- seven pin DIP


chip. It is a neat little solid - state relay capable of
switching small loads on AC line voltage (0.9 A at up to 240
VAC) from a low - voltage digital input. Presumably, it has
seven pins so that you can not put in backwards. This chip
also relies on a combination of text orientation and level
at the side with pin 1. as shown in fig. 8
Care ful : That apparent “dot’ is not a polarity indicator ; pin
1 is still at the corner of the chip. as shown in fig. 9

56 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Pin 1 identification Here is another chip that is some what ambiguous. Pin 1
is clearly marked with an arrow on the circuit board. If the
Sometimes a chip has a notched corner to indicate where
chip were loose it would be a little less clear because not
pin 1 lives as shown in fig. 11. The white silkscreen on the
only is there a dot by pin 1, as shown in fig. 13 & 14 but
circuit board shows an exaggerated picture of this notching,
there is also apparently a dot by the opposite corner. It
by the lower - left corner.
may be just a coincidental mold mark, but it’s still
Fig 11 potentially confusing.
Fig 13

This is far from an exhaustive list, but is meant to show off


The 486 is agood example of a chip with a notched corner, some of the common ways that chip orientation is
while the 68030 has a gold stripe to indicate pin 1 differentiated.
This broadcom chip has a dot by the corner with pin 1, as Fig 14
shown in fig. 12 but that is a pretty suitable mark . If you
chip already mounted to a board, that can provide some
better information to verify the orientation. For example,
pin 1 of this chip is also marked by a white do on the circuit
board, and the other three corners have a mark, as though
those corners were un-noticed.
Fig 12

Ball grid array and pin grid array components


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• to study the structural details of ball grid array SMD ICs
• to study the advantages and disadvantages of BGA package
• to study the structrual details of pin grid array package.

A ball grid array (BGA) is a type of surface mount flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device can
packaging (a chip carrier ) used for integrated circuits. be used, instead of just the perimeter. The leads are also
BGA packages are used to permanently mount devices on average shorter than with a perimeter - only type,
such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide more leading to better performance at high speeds. as shown
interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in-line or in fig. 1
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 57

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Fig 1 Heat conduction
A further advantage of BGA packages over packages with
discrete leads (i.e packages with legs) is the lower thermal
resistance between the packge and the PCB. This allows
heat generated by the integrated circuit inside the
package to flow more easily to the PCB, preventing the
chip from overheating.
Low - inductance leads
The shorter an electrical conductor, the lower its unwanted
inductance, a propertty which causes unwanted
distortionof signals in high - speed electronic circuits.
BGAs with their very short distance between the package
and the PCB, have low lead inductances, giving them
superior electrical performance to pinned device.
Soldering of BGA devices requires precise control and is Improved PCB design as a result of lower track
usually done by automated processes. BGA devices are density : Track densities around many packages such
not suitable for socket mounting. as the quad flat pack become very high because of the
With the increasing component density of today’s very close proximity of the pins. A BGA spreads the
electronics printed circuit boards and the very high track contacts out over the full are of the package greatly
densities that result, connectivity on many boards has reducing the problem.
become a problem. Even migrating to greater numbers of The BGA package is robust :
layers for the PCB cannot overcome many of the problems.
Packages such as the quad flat pack have very fine pins,
To assist in resolving this problem an integrated circuit
and these are easily damaged by even the most careful
package known as the ball grid array, BGA was
handling. It is almost impossible to repair them once the
introduced. The BGA components provide a far better
pins are bent wing to their very fine pitch. BGAs do not
solution for many boards, but care is required when
suffer from this as the connections are provided by pads
soldering BGA components to ensure that the BGA solder
with the BGA solder balls on them which are very difficult
process is correct and that the reliability is at least
to damage.
maintained or preferably improved.
Lower thermal resistance : BGAs offer a lower thermal
The ball grid array of BGA, is a very different package to
resistance between the silicon chip itself then quad flat
those using pins, such as the quad flat pack. The pins of
pack devices. This allows heat generated by the integrated
the BGA package are arranged in a grid pattern and this
circuit inside the package to be conducted out of the
gives rise to the name. In addition to this, rather than
device onto the PCB faster and more effectively.
having the more traditional wire pins for the connections,
pads with balls of solder are used instead. On the printed Improved high speed performance : As the conductors
circuit board, PCB, on to wich the BGA components are are on the underside of the chip carrier. This means that
to be fitted there is a matching set of copper pads to the leads within the chip are shorter. Accordingly unwanted
provide the required connectivity. lead inductance levels are lower, and in this way, Ball grid
array devices are able to offer a higher level of performacne
BGA packages offer many advantages over their quad flat
than their QFP counterparts.
pack rivals and as a result they are being used increasingly
for the manufacture of electronic circuits. BGA solder process
Advantages of BGA One of the initial fears over the use of BGA components
was their solderability and whether traditional forms of
High density
connection. As the pads are under the device and not
The BGA is a solution to the problem of producing a visible it is necessary to ensure the correct process is
miniature package for an integrated circuit with many used and it is fully optimised. Inspection and rework were
hundreds of pins. Pin grid arrays and dual-in-line surface also concerns.
mount (SOIC) packages were being produced with more
Fortunately BGA solder techniques have proved to be
and more pins, and with decreasing spacing between
very reliable, and once the process is set up correctly
the pins, but this was casuing difficulties for the soldering
BGA solder reliability is normally higher than that for
process. As package pins got close together, the danger
quad flat pack. This means that any BGA assembly tends
of accidentally bridging adjacent pins with solder grew.
to be more reliable. Its use is therefore now widespread
BGAs do not have this problem if the solder is factory -
in both mass production PCB assembly and also
applied to the package.
prototype PCB assembly where circuits are being
developed.

58 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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For the BGA solder process, reflow techniques Fig 2
are used. The reason for this is that the whole
assembly needs to be brought up to a
temperature whereby the solder will melt
underneath the BGA componets themselves.
This can only be achieved using reflow
techniques.
For BGA soldering, the solder balls on the package have
a very carefully controlled amount of solder, and when
heated in the soldering process, the solder metls. Surface
tension causes the molten solder to hold the package in
the correct alignment with the circuit board, while the
solder cools and solidifies. The composition of the solder
alloy and the soldering temperature are carefully chosen
so that the solder does not completely melt, but stays
semi-liquid, allowing each ball to stay separate from its
neighbours.
BGA solder joint inspection
BGA inspection is one are of the manufacturing process
that has raised a considerable amount of interest since
the introduction of the first BGA components. BGA
inspection cannot be achieved in the normal way using
straight foreard optical techniques because, quite,
obviously the solder joints are underneath the BGA In the BGA rework process, the heating is often achieved
components and they are not visible. This creates in a specialized rework station. This comprises a jig fitted
problems for BGA inspection. It also created a with infrared heater, a thermocouple to monitor the
considerable degree of unease about the technology when temperature and a vacuum device for lifting the package.
it was first introduced and many manufactures undertook Great care is needed to ensure that only the BGA is heated
tests to ensure that they were able to solder the BGA and removed. Other devices nearby need to be affected
components satisfactorily satisfactorily. The main as little as possible otherwise they maybe damaged.
problem with soldering BGA components is that sufficient
heat must be applied to ensure that all the balls in the BGA technology in general and in particular the BGA
grid melt sufficiently for every BGA solder joint to be soldering process have proved themselves to be very
satisfactorily made. successful since they were first introdcued. They are now
an integral part of the PCB assembly process used in
The solder joints cannot be fully tested by checking the most companies for mass production and for prototype
electrical performance. While this form of test of the BGA PCB assembly.
solder process will reveal conductvity at that time, it does
not give a full picture of how the BGA solder process has Pin grid array package
succeeded. It is possible that the joint may not be A pin grid array, often abbreviated PGA, is a type of
adequately made and that over time if will fall. For this the integrated circuit packaging. In a PGA the package is
only satisfactory means of test is a form of BGA inspection square or rectangular, and the pins are arranged in a regualr
using x-rays. This form of BGA inspection is able to look array on the underside of the package. The pins are
through the device at the soldered joint beneath. commonly spaced 2.54 mm (0.1”) apart, and may to may
Fortunately,it is found that once the heat profile for the not cover the entire underside of the package. as shown
solder machine is set up correctly, the BGA components in fig. 3 & 4.
solder very well and few problems are encountered with
the BGA solder process.
BGA rework
As might be anticipated, it is not easy to rework BGA
assemblies unless the correct equipment available. If a
BGA componets is suspected as being faulty, then it is
possible to remove the device. This is achieved by locally
heating the BGA component to metl the solder undermeath
it. as shown in fig. 2

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 59

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Pin grid array and variations (PGA/SPGA/CPGA/
PPGA)
Pin grid array or PGA packaging is the standard used for
most fifth generation processors, starting with the intel
80286 over a decade ago. PGA packages are square or
rectangular and have two or more rows of pins going
around their perimeter. They are inserted into a special
socket on the mother board or daughtercard. PGA
packaging was invented because newer processors with
PGAs are often mounted on printed circuit boards using wider data and address buses required a large number of
the through hole method of inserted into a socket. PGAs interface pins to the motherboard, and DIP packaging just
allow for more pins per integrated circuit than older was not up to the task.
packages such as dual in line package (DIP)
PGA comes in two different main material types. The
The familiar dual in line (DIL) package can have up to 68 standard PGA used on most processors until recetnly is
leads with a spacing between pins of 2.54 mm. The chip made from a ceramic material, and is also called CPGA
carrier family has a pin count that ranges from 20 to 84, for that reason. Some newer processors use a plastic
with pin spacing of 1.274 mm; although pin counts above package, called PPGA. The plastic package is both less
84 can be produced, the problems of handling become expensive and thermally superior to the CPGA. It has a
severe above 84 pins ( the 84 pin chip carrier is raised metal square area on is surface for heat transfer to
approximately 30 x 30 mm). The PGA (Pin grid array) the heat sink that works better than the CPGA.
package allows up to 144 pins (spacing 2.54 mm). It has
Eventually, as the number of connections for Pentium and
an high power dissipation capability and it is now being
later processsors exceeded 200 and approahced 300,
extended to a low cost plastic version. However the route
intel needed to be able to pack even more pins into the
interconnection on the PC board is difficult and the
same amountof space. To do this, intel staggered the pin
connections are difficult to inspect. Surface mounting
layout so that they could be compressed more tightly.
technique also offers a large number of pins. The
(The idea is similar to how a wine rack stacks bottles.)
placement of the IC must be automatic and the soldering
This is sometimes called SPGA. Pentium and later chips
technique not conventional. However, the quad flat pack
are made with this design.
has from 36 to 128 pins with spacing from 1 mm to 0.65
mm. It has potentially a low cost but the number of Finally, the Pentium pro processor uses a pseical from of
suppliers is very limited. PGA called a “dual patttern PGA”. This is of course
becasue the pentium pro has a dual - chip package
containing both the chip itself and its miniaturized,
integrated secondary cache.
Re-flow soldering
Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the Reflow soldering and working principle.

Reflow soldering and working principle allows the wave soldering step to be eliminated from the
assembly process, potentially reducing assembly costs.
Reflow soldering is a process in which a solder paste (a
sticky mixture of powdered solder and flux) is used to
temporarily attach one or several electrical components
to their contact pads, after which the entire assembly is
subjected to controlled heat, which melts the solder,
permanently connecting the joint. Heating may be
accomplished by passing the assembly through a reflow
oven or under an infrared lamp or by soldering individual
joints with a hot air pencil as shown in fig. 1 reflow soldering
process.
Reflow soldering is the most common method of attaching
surface mount components to a circuit board, although it
can also be used for through-hole components by filling
the holes with solder paste and inserting the component The goal of the reflow process is to melt the solder and
leads through the paste. Because wave soldering can be heat the adjoining surfaces, without overheating and
simpler and cheaper, reflow is not generally used on pure damaging the electrical components. In the conventional
through-hole boards. When used on boards containing a reflow soldering process, there are usually four stages,
mix of SMT and THT components, through-hole reflow called "zones", each having a distinct thermal profile:

60 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


preheat, thermal soak (often shortened to just soak), reflow, component on the assembly with the lowest tolerance for
and cooling. high temperatures (the component most susceptible to
thermal damage). A standard guideline is to subtract 5 °C
Preheat zone
from the maximum temperature that the most valueable
Maximum slope is a temperature/time relationship that component can sustain to arrive at the maximum
measures how fast the temperature on the printed circuit temperature for process. It is important to monitor the
board changes. The preheat zone is often the lengthiest process temperature to keep it from exceeding this limit.
of the zones and often establishes the ramp-rate. The Additionally, high temperatures (beyond 260 °C) may
ramp-up rate is usually somewhere between 1.0 °C and cause damage to the internal dies of SMT components
3.0 °C per second, often falling between 2.0 °C and 3.0 as well as foster intermetallic growth. Conversely, a
°C (4 °F to 5 °F) per second. If the rate exceeds the temperature that isn't hot enough may prevent the paste
maximum slope, damage to components from thermal from reflowing adequately.
shock or cracking can occur. Solder paste can also have
Time above liquidus (TAL), or time above reflow, measures
a spattering effect. The preheat section is where the
how long the solder is a liquid. The flux reduces surface
solvent in the paste begins to evaporate, and if the rise
tension at the junction of the metals to accomplish
rate (or temperature level) is too low, evaporation of flux
metallurgical bonding, allowing the individual solder powder
volatiles is incomplete.
spheres to combine. If the profile time exceeds the
Thermal soak zone manufacturer's specification, the result may be premature
flux activation or consumption, effectively "drying" the
The second section, thermal soak, is typically a 60 to
paste before formation of the solder joint. An insufficient
120 second exposure for removal of solder paste volatiles
time/temperature relationship causes a decrease in the
and activation of the fluxes (see flux), where the flux
flux's cleaning action, resulting in poor wetting, inadequate
components begin oxide reduction on component leads
removal of the solvent and flux, and possibly defective
and pads. Too high a temperature can lead to solder
solder joints. Experts usually recommend the shortest
spattering or balling as well as oxidation of the paste, the
TAL possible; however, most pastes specify a minimum
attachment pads and the component terminations.
TAL of 30 seconds, although there appears to be no clear
Similarly, fluxes may not fully activate if the temperature
reason for that specific time. One possibility is that there
is too low. At the end of the soak zone a thermal
are places on the PCB as shown in fig. 2 that are not
equilibrium of the entire assembly is desired just before
measured during profiling, and therefore, setting the
the reflow zone. A soak profile is suggested to decrease
minimum allowable time to 30 seconds reduces the
any delta T between components of varying sizes or if the
chances of an unmeasured area not reflowing. A high
PCB assembly is very large. A soak profile is also
minimum reflow time also provides a margin of safety
recommended to diminish voiding in area array type
against oven temperature changes. The wetting time
packages.
ideally stays below 60 seconds above liquidus. Additional
Reflow zone time above liquidus may cause excessive intermetallic
growth, which can lead to joint brittleness. The board and
The third section, the reflow zone, is also referred to as
components may also be damaged at extended times
the "time above reflow" or "time above liquidus" (TAL),
over liquidus, and most components have a well-defined
and is the part of the process where the maximum
time limit for how long they may be exposed to
temperature is reached. An important consideration is peak
temperatures over a given maximum. Too little time above
temperature, which is the maximum allowable temperature
liquidus may trap solvents and flux and create the potential
of the entire process. A common peak temperature is 20-
for cold or dull joints as well as solder voids.
40 °C above liquidus. This limit is determined by the

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 61

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


Cooling zone up rate, the ramp-down rate is often ignored. It may be
that the ramp rate is less critical above certain
The last zone is a cooling zone to gradually cool the
temperatures; however, the maximum allowable slope for
processed board and solidify the solder joints. Proper
any component should apply whether the component is
cooling inhibits excess intermetallic formation or thermal
heating up or cooling down. A cooling rate of 4°C/s is
shock to the components. Typical temperatures in the
commonly suggested. It is a parameter to consider when
cooling zone range from 30-100 °C (86-212 °F). A fast
analyzing process results. Reflow solding thermal profile
cooling rate is chosen to create a fine grain structure that
as shown in fig. 3.
is most mechanically sound. Unlike the maximum ramp-

62 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 to 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - SMD Soldering and Desoldering

Introduction to non-soldering interconnection and printed circuit boards


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define crimping, wire wrapping, conductive adhesives, chip on board and tape automated bonding
• define printed circuit board and its types.

Crimping Conductive adhesives


A crimping tool is a device used to join two pieces of An electrically conductive adhesive is glue that is primarily
metal by deforming one or both of them in a way that used for electronics as shown in fig.3. The electric
causes them to hold each other. The result of the tool's conductivity is caused by a component that makes 80%
work is called a crimp. A good example of crimping is the of the total mass of an electrically conductive adhesive.
process of FRC connector to the end of a cable as shown This conductive component is suspended in a sticky
in the fig.1. component that holds the electrically conductive adhesive
Fig 1 together. The particles of the conductive component are
in contact to each other and in this way make electric
current possible.
Fig 3

FRC CRIMPING TOOLS

Wire wrapping
Wire wrap is a method to construct electronic circuit board
as shown in fig 2. Electronic components mounted on an
insulating board are interconnected by lengths of insulated
wire run between their terminals, with the connections
made by wrapping several turns around a component lead CONDUCTIVE ADHESIVES
or a socket pin. Wires can be wrapped by hand or by
machine, and can be hand-modified afterwards. It was Chip on Board
popular for large-scale manufacturing in the 60s and early Chipboard may refer to
70s, and continues to be used for short runs and
prototypes. The method eliminates the design and A type of paperboard generally made from reclaimed paper
fabrication of a printed circuit board. Wire wrapping is stock; as shown in the fig. 4
unusual among other prototyping technologies since it • White lined chipboard, a grade of paperboard
allows for complex assemblies to be produced by
• Particle board, a type of engineered wood known as
automated equipment, but than easily repaired or modified
"chipboard" in some countries
by hand.
Fig 4
Fig 2

WIRE WRAPPING AND TOOL CHIP ON BOARD

63

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The bare chip is adhered and wire bonded to the board, The thickness of the copper layer on the PCB measured
and an epoxy is poured over it to insulate and protect it. in ounces per square foot or ounces. It can also be given
For illustrative purposes only, this picture shows a clear in micrometers, inches or mils.
epoxy. This side view shows how the wires connect the
FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate upon
chip to the printed circuit board (PCB) as shown in fig.5.
which the vast majority of rigid PCBs are produced. A thin
Fig 5 layer of copper foil is laminated to one or both sides of an
FR-4 panel. Circuitry interconnections are etched into
copper layers to produce printed circuit boards. Complex
circuits are produced in multiple layers as shown in
fig. 7.
Fig 7

CHIP ON BOARD SIDE VIEW OF PCB

Tape automated bounding


Tape-automated bonding (TAB) is a process that places CONSTRUCTION OF MULTI LAYER PCB
bare integrated circuits onto a printed circuit board (PCB)
by attaching them to fine conductors in a polyamide or Printed circuit boards are used in all electronic products.
polyimide film, thus providing a to directly connect to Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point
external circuits as shown in fig.6. construction. PCBs require the additional design effort to
lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can
Process that places bare chips onto a printed circuit board
be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is
(PCB) by first attaching them to a polyimide film, the film
cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as
is moved to the target location, and the leads are cut and
components are mounted and wired with one single part.
soldered to the board. This is also called a "tape carrier
Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.
package" (TCP), the bare chip is then encapsulated ("glob
topped") with epoxy or plastic. Types of PCBs
Fig 6 • Single side PCB
• Double side PCB
• Multi layer PCB
Single side PCB
Single-sided printed circuit boards are easily designed
and quickly manufactured as shown in fig.8. Single sided
boards are available with surface finishes including Organic
surface protectant (OSP), Immersion Silver, Tin, and Gold
plating along with both leaded and lead-free Hot Air Solder
TAPE AUTOMATED BONDING
Level (HASL).
Printed Circuit Board Fig 8
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and
electrically connects electronic components using
conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from
copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided
(two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers).
Multi-layer PCBs allow much higher component density.
Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-
through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain
components - capacitors, resistors or active devices - SINGLE SIDE PCB
embedded in the substrate.
Ex: Power supplies, Relays (automotive and industrial),
The PCBs are manufactured with "1 oz copper" (~35μm Timing circuits, Sensor products
thick or 1.4 mils) on the outer layers. If there are inner
layers, they are almost always manufactured with "1/2
ounce copper"(~17.5μm thick or 0.7 mils)

64 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Double Side PCB Multilayer circuit boards were essential in the advancement
of modern computing. The multilayer PCB basic
Double Sided PCBs (also known as Double-Sided Plated
construction and fabrication are similar to micro chip
Thru or DSPT) as shown in fig. 9 circuits are the gateway
fabrication on a macro size. The range of material
to higher technology applications. DSPT the advantage
combinations is extensive from basic epoxy glass to
of the plated through-hole is quickly adapted and allowed
exotic ceramic fills. Multilayer can be built on ceramic,
electronic designs to expand in capability and shrink in
copper, and aluminum. Blind and buried vias are
physical size. Today the double sided printed circuit board
commonly produced, along with pad on via technology.
technology remains the workhorse of the assembly
industry. There are limitless applications for old and new EX: Computers, File servers, Cell phone
designs.
Test of PCB
Fig 9
In this blog some basic procedures for finding faults with
PCBs and fixing those faults. Though there are many
circuit testing programs and probes available in the market
for skilled technicians and test engineers there are no
general guidelines. If you face some problems like when
you end up removing an entire track (connection from
one component to another) on the PCB you can use a
simple piece of wire to imitate the connection. Solder the
two ends of the wire where you think the connection should
DOUBLE SIDE PCD BOARD
be present on the PCB as shown in fig. 11.
Ex: Industrial controls, Power supplies, Converters, Fig 11
Control relays
Multi- layer PCB
Multilayer printed circuit boards (PCBs) representes the
next major evolution in fabrication technology as shown
in fig. 10. From the base platform of double sided plated
thru came a very sophisticated and complex methodology
that would again allow circuit board designers a dynamic
range of interconnects and applications. TESTING OF PCB

Fig 10

MULTI LAYER PCB

Types of conformal coating and its removal methods


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define conformal coating & its types
• explain how to coat the conformal coating
• describe various method of removal of conformal coating.

Conformal coating is a protective chemical coating or Fig 1


polymer film 25-75μm thickness that is applied onto the
printed circuit board .It is used to protect PCB from
damages due to contamination, salt spray, moisture,
fungus, dust and corrosion and also a physical barrier.
When coated, it is clearly visible as a clear and shiny
material as shown in Fig. 1.
CONFORMAL
COATING
APPLIED
AREA IN PCB

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 65

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Types of Conformal Coating Fig.3b shows how to apply epoxy coating on SMD IC’s
Conformal coatings can be classified in to five main Fig 3b
categories by their chemical composition.
1 Silicone Resin (SR)
2 Epoxy Resin (ER)
3 Acrylic Resin (AR)
4 Poly para xylylene (XY).
5 Polyurethane(Urethene) Resin (UR)
Silicone
Fig 2 shows the silicon conformal coating pack
Fig. 4 Shows the epoxy applied COB (chip on board)
Fig 2
Fig 4

Acrylic
Acrylic coatings are solvent based. It provides Fair
elasticity and general protection.
They are low cost, easy to apply and remove. It exhibits
low moisture absorption and have short drying times.
Silicone conformal coatings provide excellent protection
in high temperature environments. It has good moisture These types of coating have high di-electric strength,
,humidity, chemical résistance and salt-spray resistance. abrasion resistance. It typical dielectric withstand is
It's typical temperature range is -65 °C to 200 °C. It is greater than 1500 volts and has a temperature range of -
very flexible. Removal of this coating requires specialized 59 °C to 132 °C.
solvents and long soak time. Fig. 5 Shows the acrylic type conformal coating.
Epoxy Fig 5
Epoxy coatings are available as a two part thermosetting
mixture. These conformal coatings are very hard and good
humidity resistance, chemical resistance and high
abrasion. Epoxy coating is quite easy to apply but
impossible to remove without damaging the components.
Fig.3a shows SMD IC on PCB
Fig 3a

Para - Xylylene
Paraxylene coatings are applied by chemical vapour
deposition (CVD). These coatings provide excellent di-
electric strength and resistance to solvents.
Poly Urethene
Urethene coatings are hard and durable which has
excellent resistance to solvents. It has similar moisture
resistance to acrylic and silicon. It is difficult to apply and
hard to be removed. Temperature range is quite similar to
acrylic.

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Fig. 6 Shows as urethane containers. Coating process

Fig 6
The coating material can be applied by various methods,
from brushing, spraying and dipping.
Before coating a printed circuit board must be cleaned
and de-moisturized.
The following steps are used for coating.
1 Board is cleaned.
2 Protected areas like terminal pins, connectors are
masked off or removed.
3 Coating is applied using a spray process on both sides
of the PCB and its edges.
4 Coating isto be cured according to the coating type.
( air dry, oven dry or UV light cure.)
5 Masking is removed and any removed parts are
reassembled.

Characteristics Conformal Coating Type

Characteristics Conformal Coating Type

Epoxy Acrylic Polyurethane Silicone Paraxylylene

Hard 9 9 9

Medium Hard 9 9

Soft 9 9

Heat Reaction 9 9 9

Surface Bond, Very Strong 9 9 9

Surface Bond, Strong 9 9

Surface Bond, Meduim 9 9


Surface Bond, Light 9
Solvent Reaction 9

Smooth Surface 9 9 9 9 9

Nonporous Surface 9 9 9 9

Glossy Surface 9 9 9

Semi glossy Surface 9


Dull Surface 9
Rubbery Surface 9

Brittle 9 9

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 67

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Conformal Coating Removal Methods be used to remove small areas of conformal coating. It is
most commonly used when removing Parylene and epoxy
On occasion it is necessary to remove a conformal
coatings.
coating from the circuit board to replace damaged
components. The methods and materials used to remove Grinding/Scraping : In this method the conformal coating
coatings are determined by the coating resins as well as is removed by abrading the circuit board. This method is
the size of the area. The basic methods are as follows. more effective with harder conformal coatings, sucha as
parylene, epoxy and polyurethane. This method is only
• Solvent
used as a method of last resort, as serious damage can
• Peeling be incurred.
• Thermal/Burn - through Thermal : The thermal removal technique (including using
• Micro Blasting a soldering iron to burn through the conformal coating) is
the least recommended technique of coating removal.
• Grinding /Scraping Most conformal coatings require a very high temperature
Solvent Removal : Most conformal coating are and /or long exposure times. Thermal removal can cause
suscepitble to solvent removal, however it must be the lifting of surface mount pads from boards also,
determined if the solvent will damage parts or components temperature - sensitive components may be damaged.
on the circuit board. Acrylics are the most sensitive to Extreme caution must be taken when burning through
solvents hence their easy removal; epoxies,urethanes and conformal coating because some coatings emit very toxic
silicones are the least sensitive. Parlylene cannot be vapors that are hazardous to the people doing the stripping
removal with solvent. and those around them.

Peeling : Some conformal coating can be peeled from Mechanical


the circuit board. Silicone conformal coating and some Mechanical removal techniques include cutting, picking,
flexible conformal coatings can be removed by peeling sanding or scraping the area of coating to be removed.
method. However, most of the conformal coating are very tough
Thermal/Burn - through : A common technique of and abrasion- resistant, making the probability of damage
coating removal is to simply burn through the coating with to the board very high.
a soldering iron as the board is reworked. The process Chemical : Chemical removal techniques were the most
can be used to remove small areas of conformal coating. popular techniques for the removal of conformal coatings
Micro blasting :Micro blasting removes the conformal without affectingthe board or its components. But there
coating by using a concentrated mix of soft abrasive and is no one perfect solvent for all applications, and in some
compressed air to abrade the coating. The process can cases no solvent will be suitable at all.

68 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 to 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - SMD Soldering and Desoldering

Introduction to rework and repair concepts


Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the solder mask, solder joints, tracks, pads and plated through hole.

Solder mask Fig 1b


Solder mask or solder stop mask or solder resist is a thin
layer of polymer applied to the copper traces of a printed
circuit board (PCB) for protection against oxidation short
circuits, corrosion, and other problems. Solder mask is
a thin layer of polymer and to prevent solder bridges from
closely spaced solder pads. A solder bridge is an
unintended electrical connection between two conductors
by means of a small blob of solder. Once applied, openings
must be made in the solder mask wherever components
to be soldered. This is done by photolithography. Solder
mask is mostly green in color, but is now available in
many colors.
• Green
• Matte Green
• Red
• Blue
• Yellow
• White
• Black
• Matte Black
Mostly Green colours used as solder mask as shown in
Fig.1a & 1b. Solder mask as shown in fig. 2a & 2b comes in different
Fig 1a media depending upon the demands of the application.
Fig 2a

Fig 2b

SOLDER MASK COVERS UP THE SIGNAL TRACES BUT LEAVES


THE PADS TO SOLDER.

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The lowest-cost solder mask is epoxy liquid that is Fig.4 Shows the method of solder joints on PCB
silkscreened through the pattern onto the PCB. Other
Fig 4
types are,
Liquid photoimageable solder mask (LPSM) inks.
Dry film photoimageable solder mask (DFSM).
LPSM are silkscreened and sprayed on the PCB, exposed
to the pattern and developed to provide openings in the
pattern for parts to be soldered to the copper pads.
DFSM is vacuum laminated on the PCB then exposed
and developed.
All three processes go through a thermal cure after the
pattern is defined.
Good solder joint
Solder joints
Most solder joints are good and do not cause any
The solder joints are very much important in construction problems. A good solder joint will have a shiny finish to it,
of PCB as shown in Fig.3a & 3b. and it should not have too much solder as shown in fig.5.
Fig 3a Fig 5

Fig 3b The contour of the solder around the joint should be slightly
concave.
Poor solder joints
Too much solder on a joint may lead to poor joints as
shown in fig. 6a, 6b, 6c
Fig 6a

• If the solder joints are poor


• It will cause the equipment to not to work.
• There is a possibility that the solder joint could fail
intermittently.
• It will introduce noise into the circuit.

70 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Fig 6b Fig 7b

Fig 6c
Dry joints
Dry joints are the main problem of solder joint. These
solder joints may be completely open circuit, or they may
be intermittent, high resistance or noisy. Therefore it is
essential that no dry solder joints are present in any
electronics equipment.
It is easy to identify dry joints as shown in fig.8a & 8b.
Good solder joints are shiny, where as dry joints have a
dull or matt finish.
Fig 8a

Excess solder on joints


On printed circuit boards if too much solder is used then
it could spill over onto another track, causing a short circuit
as shown in fig.7a & 7b.
Fig 8b
Fig 7a

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 71

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When a dry joint is found, the solder on the joint should Pads
be removed and care to be taken when re-soldering it, to
Fig. 11 shows the pads of PCB
ensure that a good joint is made.
Tracks Fig 11

Commonly there is no recommended standard for track


sizes. Size of track will depend upon the requirements of
the design, the routing space and clearance. Every design
will have a different set of electrical requirements which
can vary between tracks on the board. As a general rule
bigger the track width is better. Bigger tracks have lower
DC resistance, lower inductance, can be easier and
cheaper for the manufacturer to etch, and also easier to
inpsect and rework. The lower limit of track width will
depend upon the “track/space” resolution. For example,
a manufacturer may quote a 10/8 track /space. This
means that tracks can not be less than 10 thou wide,
and the spacing between tracks, or pads, or any part of
tracks are the copper, can not be less than 8 thou. Always
Pad sizes, shapes and dimensions will depend upon the
quoted in thou’s, with track width first and then spacing.
component used to assemble the board. There is an
IPC standard recommands 4 thou as being a lower limit.
important parameter known as the pad/hole ratio. This is
A “thou” is 1/1000th of an inch = 1 thou (0.001 inch) the ratio of the pad size to the hole size. The pad should
Fig.9 shows the tracks on the PCB. be at least 1.8 times the diameter of the hole, or at least
0.5 mm larger. This is to allow for alignment tolerances
Fig 9 on the drill and the artwork on top and bottom layers.
This ratio gets more important the smaller the pad and
hole become, and particularly relevant to vias. Pads for
components like resistors, capacitors and diodes should
be round, with around 70 thou. diameter being common.
Dual in line (DIL) components like IC’s are oval shaped
pads.
Pin.1 of the chip should be rectangular shape and other
pins are circular or oval.
Fig.12 shows the damaged pad which is to be reworked.
Fig 12

Fig. 10 shows the damaged track on PCB which is to be


repaired.
Fig 10

72 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Plated-Through Hole Plated-through holes are used to make the components
contact with required conductive layers and making
"Through-hole technology", refers the mounting system
interconnections between the layers called vias.
used for electronic components inserted into holes in PCBs
and soldered to pads on the opposite side either by manual In PTH electrolysis deposition are done after the holes
assembly or automated insertion mount machines. PCBs are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the
are initially had tracks printed on one side only. Later two thickness, Finally the boards are screened, and plated
sides are used, and then multi-layer boards are using with metal.The amount of plating used in the hole depends
now a days. Similarly, through holes became plated- on the number of layers in the printed circuit board, however
through holes (PTH), Fig.13. is a Plated-Through Hole in only the least amount of metal is used for this process.
a ten layer board. Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-
diameter, drill bits are made up of solid coated tungsten
Fig 13 carbide. Fig.14 shows the eyelets, which can be used to
repair if PTH or vias are damaged.
Fig 14

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 73

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 3.2.199
Electronic Mechanic - SMD

Desoldering & soldering of individual SMDs


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state methods of removing individuals SMDs
• state methods of soldering individuals SMDs
• list the surface Mount device assembly process (SMT)
• state the advantages & disadvantages of SMT over through - hole technique.
Desoldering of SMD components • Gently nudge the components sideways with a tooth-
SMDs can be removed using special soldering stations pick. If the component moves, try gluing it again.
employing custom desoldering tips or hot air jets. If these • Apply RMA type paste flux to the component termi-
are not available. Remove components using desoldering nals and pads using a toothpick. Apply the flux where
braid and flux. you want solder to flow. The function of the flux is to
To remove an SMD that is already mounted to a circuit conduct heat from the soldering tip uniformly to the
board, you will need a roll of fresh desoldering braid and pad and component. The flux also removes surface
RMA (rosin, mildly activated) flux (liquid or paste). oxides, which can prevent solder wetting.
Desoldering braid oxidizes over time, so if it looks dull,
• Touch the soldering tip (set to about 600oF) to the PAD.
replace it.
Never apply heat directly to the component (it may
In filtrate about one inch of the desoldering braid with flux crack).
(if it didn't come that way). Lay the braid over the solder
joint and gently press down with the tip of a soldering • Apply small diameter 63/37 solder (0.020" works well)
pencil. The solder will wick into the braid. Each area of to the pad adjacent to the component terminal. The
braid can only be used once, so trim it after each try. solder will flow to the component and will form a fillet
Repeat several times for each solder joint until all solder between the component and pad.
(except a very thin film) has been removed. • Let the solder cool and remove the flux with denatured
Grip the component with tweezers and gently twist to re- alcohol. Inspect with a 4x watchmakers loupe or mag-
lease the component(don't pull or you may lift the pads). If nifying glass. The solder joint should be a concave fil-
the component does not release from the pads, go back let, bright and mirror smooth with no pits as shown in
and try to remove more solder. Figure 1.
This technique takes practice, so try removing several
components from a surplus board before attempting it on
an important project.
Soldering of SMDs components
There are several ways to successfully solder SMD com- A good solder joint will have smooth, concave fillets as
ponents to a circuit board. Some are easier to learn than shown in this side view
other, and some require the use of special materials (like Conclusion
solder paste, which is a mixture of powdered solder and
flux) or special equipment (like SMD solder stations). Working with SMDs can be challenging, and mastering
this technology takes a little patience and practice. Like
One of the simplest ways to solder SMDs is to first glue the transition from point-to-point wiring to printed circuit
the components in position on a PC board, then solder boards, it is similar to traditional through-hole technology
the connections. The procedure is: but requires some new skills.
• Clean the copper side of the board with a nonconduc- Surface - Mount Assembly process
tive abrasive pad until it is shinny. Wipe off any residue
with a tissue and denatured alcohol. The MICRO FOOT products surface - mount assembly
operations include solder paste printing, component place-
• Glue the components into position using Duco cement. ment, and solder reflow. This is shown in the process flow
Apply the cement to the end of a toothpick, then use chart in figure.
the toothpick to apply a drop of cement to the circuit
board. Do not get any glue on the pads or any place
where you want the solder to flow.
• Using self-locking tweezers, position the components
on the board. Let the adhesive dry.

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SMT Assembly process flow chart

Incoming tape and reel inspection

Solder paste printing

Component pick and placement

Reflow

Flux cleaning (optional)

Solder joint inspection It is very important to clean the stencil frequently during
printing operations, preferably after every application or
every other application. Dry clean the stencils as often as
possible; wet cleaning should be avoided if possible. This
Board Test
will help to minimize printing defects, especially from the
Surface - Mount Assembly Process Flow paste or residue at the bottom of the stencil.
Chip Pick and Placement
Fig 2
MICRO FOOT parts can be picked up from pocketed car-
rier tape reels and placed directly onto PCBs with stan-
dard pick-and-process equipment. A non-metallic pickup
tool (nozzle) should be used to avoid scratching the top
surface of the device, which could result in nucleation sites
for microcracking. The side-lighting option on the pick-
and-place machine's vision system should be used when
attempting to use an individual bump recognition approach
Stencil design: Stencil design is the key to ensuring to ensure greater clarity in bump recognition. Feeders
maximum solder paste deposition without compromising should be well maintained to eliminate any sources of
the assembly yield from solder joint defects (such as bridg- vibration since feed vibration can cause misalignment or
ing and extraneous solder spheres). The stencil aperture complete dislocation of the devices within the pocket after
is dependent on the copper pad size, the solder mask the cover tape has been peeled back.
opening, and the quantity of solder paste. Extreme care should be used when any tool comes into
The optimum stencil thickness is 0.125mm (5 mils) for contact with the devices. The silicon chip is made of glass,
MICRO FOOT 0.80mm pitch products, 0.1mm (4 mils) for and can easily be subject to damage. To prevent die crack-
MICRO FOOT 0.5mm pitch MOSFETs, analog switches, ing during pickup and placement, the pick-and-place force
UCSP analog switches, and 0.4mm pitch MOSFET prod- should be less than 150 g during pickup. No force needs
ucts. to be exerted during placement. It is recommended that
bumps be dipped into solder paste on the PCB to greater
Solder Paste Printing
than 20 % of the paste block height. Though the part will
The solder paste printing process involves transferring self-center during solder reflow, the maximum placement
solder paste through pre-defined apertures via the appli- offset is 0.02 mm.
cation of pressure. The solder paste recommended is eu-
tectic 63Sn/37Pb non clean solder paste or lead (Pb)-free
95.5Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu non clean solder paste. Stencil align-
ment accuracy should be ± 50μm. It is recommended to
use type 3 (25 μm to 45 μm particle size range) or fine
solder paste for printing. Solder paste printing parameters
should be optimized using standard procedures for spe-
cific printing machines to ensure repeatable deposits for
all the pads on the entire board.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 75

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Reflow Process 3. Resurface the pads using a temperature-controlled sol-
dering iron.
MICRO FOOT products are compatible with all industry
solder reflow processes for both Eutectic and Pb-free 4. Apply gel flux to the pad.
processes. Nitrogen purge is recommended during reflow
5. Use a vacuum needle pick-up tip to pick up the replace-
operation to ensure optimum solderability. It is comprised
ment part, and use a placement jig to place it accu-
of four stages:
rately.
• Preheat: From ambient through the first thermal ex- 6. Reflow the part using the same convection nozzle and
cursion preheat from the bottom, matching the original reflow
• Preflow: This portion determines the ramp-up time from profile.
the preheat temperature to the reflow temperature Advantage and disadvantage of SMT over older
through - hole technique
• Reflow (wetting): This portion determines the time of
the actual reflow. The minimum peak temperature (TP) Semiconductor packaging has evolved with the increased
needs to exceed the melting point of the alloy demand for greater functionality, smaller size, and added
utility. In modern PCBA design there are two main meth-
• Cooldown: After the peak temperatures are attained, ods of mounting components onto a PCB: Through Hole
the PCB passes out of the heated portion of the reflow Mounting and Surface Mounting.
oven. The cooling rates should not exceed - 4 °C/s.
Through Hole Mounting (THM):
In through hole mounting the components' leads are placed
Flux Cleaning into holes drilled through the bare PCB board. THM was
MICRO FOOT products are compatible with all standard the original technology to produce printed circuit board
post-solder cleaning processes, including heated water, assemblies, but this has been almost completely replaced
saponifiers, and solvents. No special cleaning techniques
are required due to the small area and large standoff of
these devices.
Solder Joint Inspection
Visual inspection or microscope checks can confirm the
ball alignment and tilting. X-ray inspection may be used to
detect non-visible solder joints defects such as voiding,
ball bridging, and missing balls. Die shear testing may be
used to verify the solder joint quality. Table 7 shows the by surface mount except in special circumstances.
die shear specifications for MICRO FOOT products. Advantages: THM provides stronger mechanical bonds
versus SMT techniques, making through hole ideal for
components that might undergo mechanical stress - for
example, connectors or heavy components such as trans-
formers. In a modern assembly facility, through hole is
considered a secondary operation, not part of the primary
assembly process.
Disadvantages: On the bare PCB side, THM requires
the drilling the holes, which makes it more time-consum-
ing and expensive to produce. THM also limits the avail-
able routing area on any multilayer boards, because the
drilled holes must pass through all the PCB's layers. On
Rework the assembly side, component placement rates for THM
To replace MICRO FOOT products on the PCB, the re- are a fraction of surface mount placement rates, making
work procedure is much like the rework process for a stan- THM prohibitively expensive. Further, THM requires the
dard BGA or CSP, as long as the rework process dupli- use of wave, selective, or hand-soldering techniques, which
cates the original reflow profile. The key steps are as fol- are much less reliable and repeatable than reflow ovens
lows: used for surface mount.

1. Remove the MICRO FOOT device using a convection


nozzle to create localized heating similar to the origi-
nal reflow profile. Preheat from the bottom.
2. Once the nozzle temperature is + 190 °C, use twee-
zers to remove the part to be replaced.

76 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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Surface Mount Technology (SMT): SMT is a technique has been shown to be more stable and perform better in
that involves mounting the components directly onto the shake and vibration conditions.
surface of the PCB. Disadvantages: SMT can be unreliable when used as
Advantages: SMT allows for smaller PCB size, higher the sole attachment method for components subject to
component density, and more real estate to work with. mechanical stress (i.e. external devices that are frequently
Because there are fewer drilling holes required, SMT al- attached or detached).
lows for lower cost and faster production time. During as- Overall, surface mounting will almost always prove more
sembly, SMT components can be place at rates of thou- efficient and cost-effective over through hole mounting. It
sands, even tens of thousands, of placements per hour, is used in over 90 percent of PCBAs today. However, spe-
versus less than a thousand for THM. Solder joint forma- cial mechanical, electrical, and thermal considerations will
tion is much more reliable and repeatable using pro- continue to require THM, keeping it relevant well into the
grammed reflow ovens versus through techniques. SMT future.

Solder Paste and Its Application in SMT


Reflow Solder Process Description Solder paste or solder cream is simply a suspension of
fine solder particles in a flux vehicle. In electronics indutry,
The basic reflow solder process consists of: Application
solder paste is used in surface mount technology (SMT)
of a solder paste to the desired pads on a printed circuit
to solder SMDs on to the printed circuit board. The
board (PCB) Placement of the parts in the paste. Applying
composition of the particles can be tailored to produce a
heat to the assembly which causes the solder in the paste
paste of the desired melting range. Additional metals can
to melt (reflow), Wet to the PCB and the part termination
be added to change paste compositions for specialized
resulting in the desired solder fillet connection.
applications. Praticle size and shape, metal content and
A) Solder paste the solder paste mixes are improving as flux type can be varied to produce pastes to varying
the demands of reflow soldering of SMT increase. Selection viscosity. Availability of solder paste
and specification of the optimum paste id a key item in
Solder paste is available in both leaded (with lead) and
the reflow solder process.
lead-free ( with no lead) forms. It can be no-clear or water
B) Placement of the parts in the paste is not difficult if the soluble. with no-clean solder paste, there is not need to
pad design considers all the applicable tolerances. (see clean the board after soldering, Water soluble solder paste
KEMET Application Bulletin “Surface Mount- Mounting is easily soluble in water with no harm.
Pad Dimensions and Considerations”). Care should be
How to get the best solder joints from solder paste
taken during the transporation of the PCB’s not to smear
application
the solder paste or move parts. Inspection of palcement
accuracies and subsequent manul movement of parts in 1 In order to achieve good solder paste printing results,
wet paste has been shown to increase repair rates after a combination of the right solder paste material, the right
soldering. tools and the right process are necessary. Kester is a
trusted brand in manufacturing solder paste and other
C) Application of heat to result in the eventual solder joint
soldering material including solder wire, solder bar, solder
must consists of the following discreate items: Preheat
flux etc. Although the supplier is essentially responsible
cycle is intened to drive off most of the volaties solvents
for providing the desired solder paste and screens or
contained in the paste before the flux begains to work.
stencils and the squeegee blades, the user must control
This assists in initiating fluxing action on the solder powder
process and equiment variables to achieve good print
and the metal surface to be joined. Additional preheat time
quality. Even the best solder paste, equipment, and
to elevate the temperature of the PCB, solder paste, and
application methods are not sufficient by themselves to
terminations to a temperature near the melting point of
ensure acceptable results.
the solder. Additional heat transfer to elevate the
temperature over the liquids points of the solder Using Solder Paste:
Temperatures to be achieved are the liquids melting point Start by applying flux to the circuit boards pads. The apply
of solder. Liquidous points for-60 Sn/36 Pb/2 Ag solder is solder paste on the all the pads of the components you
179 C Additional heat should be limited to minimize the want tosolder.
time some parts are above critical temperature Assited
temperature, cool down to the solidification temperature Using tweezers, place the component in its correct
near cleaning temperature. position and hold it three. Place the tip of the soldering
iron onto each of the pads so that the solder melts and
Equipment unique to surface mounting includes inspection makes good connections between the component and
and repair/ rework equipment. Inspection equipment for the board.
surface mounting in electronics has not matured yet.
There are two main types of automated inspection Flood with solder:
equipmnet on the market x-ray and laser. However, most This methods is for soldering chips.
electronic companies depends on visual inspection at 2
to 10X, using either microscope of magnifying lamp.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 77

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As usual start by applying flux to the pads on the circuit For most purpose, selecting pick and place machine can
board. Fasten one of the corner pins of the chip to its pad be broken down into three simple steps:
by using a bit of solder. Make sure the chip is properly
1 Understanding how equipment is specified by
aligned on the pads.
manufactures.
Hold the chip in place while touching the corner pad with
2 Calculating your product requirements:
the tip of the soldering iron so that the solder melts the
pin and the pad together. • Speed/capacity
• Maximum and minimum component sizes
Check the aligment of the chip. If it is not in its place, use
• Precision and accuracy
your soldering iron to loosen the pin chip and align the
• Board or panel size
chip properly. Continues soldering on the opposite corner
• Number and types of component feeders
by putting a bit of solder on the soldering iron tip then
3 Benchmarking machines from various manufactures
touching the circuit board pad and pins at the same time.
against your requirements.
Do this for all the pins of the chip one by one.
After all the pins have been soldered you should inspect
the solder joints carefully with a microscope or loupe to
check for bad joints or solder bridges.

Baking and Preheating

This proedure covers baking and preheating of printed


circuit boards and PCB assemblies to prepare the product
for the subseqequent operations.
1 Baking
Baking is used to eleminate the absorbed moisture. When
ever possible printed circuit boards and PCB assemblies
should be baked proir to soldering. Desoldring and coating
operation to prevent blistering, measling or other laminate SMD Reflow Oven
degradation.
The reflow oven is a machine used primarily for reflow
2 Preheating soldering of surface mount electronic components to
Preheating is used to promote the adhesion of subsequent printed circuit boards (PCB)
materials to the board surface and to raise the temperature The reflow oven process principle and introduction
of the circuit board to allow soldering and desoldering
operations to be completed more quickly. The reflow oven is the most important welding technology
in surface mount technology. It has been widely used in
3 Auxiliary Heating many industries including mobile phones, computer,
Auxiliary heating is the addition of a second source of automotive electronics, control circuits, communications,
heat. This can be from a hot air tool, or from a second LED lighting and many other industries. More and more
soldering station. A common application is to provide electronic devices are converted from through hole to
additional heat when removing through hole components surface mount, and reflow oven replaces wave soldering
that my have connections to internal power or ground is a obvious trend in welding industry.
planes. The whole SMT surface mounting line consists of three
4 Thermal Profiles parts, such as steel mesh solder paste printing machine,
SMT machine and reflow oven furnace. For the machine,
Ball grid array, chip scale packages, and flip chi[ packages
and compared with lead free, and no new demands on
may require the development of “Time Temperature
the equipment itself: for screen printing machine, and a
Profiles” to remove or install these devices.
lead-free solder paste in the physical properties there are
Cation some diffrences, so put forword some improvement on
the devices itself, but there is no qualitative change. the
Baking and preheating procedures must be carefully
key of lead-free is in reflow oven.
selected to ensure that temperature and time cycles used
do not degrade the product. Enviroment conditions must The lead paste (Sn63Pb37) melting points of 183 dgrees,
also be carefully considered to ensure that vapors, gases, if you want to form a good weld must have the thickness
etc.., generated during the heating process do not of 0.5-3. 5um intermetallic compounds in welding,
contaminate the product’s surfaces. intermetallic compound formation temperature is above
the melting point of 10-15, the lead welding is 195-200.
Selection of Haedware Tools:
Introducing to Pick and Place Equipment Selection:

78 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199

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The maximum withstand temperature of the electronic equipment itself is coupled with the electronic device
devices on the circuit board is generally 240 degrees. transverse temperature diffrence, due to diffrences in size
Therefore, for lead welding, the ideal welding process of heat capacity will produce temperature diffrences in
window is 195-240 degrees the heating process, so in the process control of lead-
Because of the change of melting point of lead-free solder free reflow oven can be adjusted in the process of welding
paste, lead-free welding has brought great changes for temperature window becomes very small, this is the real
welding process. At present, the lead-free solder paste is lead-free reflow to the difficulty.
Sn96Ag0.5Cu3.5 and the melting points is 217-221
degrees. Good lead-free solder must also be formed 0.5-
3.5um thickness intermetallic compounds, intermetllic
compound formation temperature is also above the melting
point of 10-15 degrees, for lead-free welding, that is, 230-
235 degrees. Since the highest temperature of lead-free
solder electronic devices will not change, therefore, for
lead free soldering, ideal welding process window is 230-
245 degrees. The substantial reduction of process window
brings great challanges to ensure welding quality, and
also brings higher requirements to stability and reliability
of lead-free wave soldering equipment. Becuase the

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
79

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 3.3.202
Electronic Mechanic - Protection Devices

Fuses-terminology-types-uses
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the purpose of the fuse in a circuit
• explain the types of fuse bases
• classify the different types of fuses and their uses.

Purpose of fuses : A fuse is a safety device used for the Cut - off factor : Time (period ) taken for a fuse to interrupt
purpose of protecting a circuit against excess current. In the circuit in the event of a fault.
the event of excessive current, the fuse element melts
and opens up the circuit thereby protecting it from damage. Fusing factor : Ratio between minimum fusing current
and current rating.
Symbols : These are the graphical symbols used to
illustrate an electrical fuse in electro - technical diagrams. Minimum fu sin g current
Fusing factor = Rated current
General symbols of a fuse (Fig. 1a)
Fuse with terminals and protective housing (Fig. 1b) The fusing factor for a re-wireable fuse varies between 1.4
to 1.7 and may go up to 2.0, but for a HRC fuse it is 1.1
However, a fuse selected for over - current protection
should not have a fusing factor of more than 1.4.
The fusing factor for a re-wirable fuse varies between 1.4
to 1.7 and may go up to 2.0, but for a HRC fuse it is 1.1
However, a fuse selected for over-current protection should
not have a fusing factor of more than 1.4.

Placement of fuses : In electrical installations, the fuses Types of fuses used in domestic wiring:
are always connected into the live wires (L1, L2 and L3 as • Re-wirable type (up to 200A)
shown in fig. 2) and never into the neutral N or the protective
earth line (PE). • Cartridge type (up to 1250A)
Rewirable type fuse (Fig. 3): The fuse element in this
type of fuse consists of a wire which may be replaced when
necessary. These fuses are simple in construction and
the initial cost as well as the renewal cost is very low.

Terminology
Fuse element : The part of the fuse which is designed
to melt and open up a circuit.
Fuse - carrier : The removable portion for carrying the
fuse element.
Fuse base : The fixed part of the fuse provided with
terminals for connection to the circuit which is suitable
for the receptacle of the fuse - carrier. The fuse elements used in this type are tinned copper wire,
lead and tin alloy. Approximate sizes of fuse elements of
Current rating : Safe maximum current that can pass tinned copper wire or aluminium wire for use in semi-
continuously without overheating. enclosed fuses are shown in Table 1.
Fusing current : The current at which the fuse element The fuse element will melt after approximately 2 minutes
melts when carrying a current equal to twice the current rating.
However, the cut-off time factor varies in rewirable fuses
due to:
80

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• the construction of the carrier (design of fuse-carrier/ 29.0 58 21 .8128 --
base)
30.0 60 -- ---- 1.00
• the manner in which the fuse wire has been fitted 34.0 70 20 .9144 1.22
• the length of time the fuse was in service 37.5 80 -- ---- 1.25
38.0 81 19 1.016 --
• ambient temperature
40.0 90 -- ---- 1.32
• the amount of current etc.
43.0 98 -- 1.1176 --
Small fuse wires in parallel in a carrier to carry a large 43.5 100 -- ---- 1.40
current should be avoided, as far as possible. The actual 45.0 106 18 1.2192 --
rating becomes less than the sum of the ratings of the
55.0 120 -- ---- 1.60
individual strands. A paralleling factor of 0.7 to 0.8 is used
to multiply the sum of the rating of individual strands to get 62.0 130 -- ---- 1.70
the actual current rating. 65.0 135 17 1.4224 --
Example: 35 SWG - copper wire has a fuse rating of 5 66.0 140 -- ---- 1.80
amps, and 3 strands in parallel together will a have current 69.0 150 -- ---- 1.85
rating equal to 5x3x0.8=12 amps when 0.8 is taken as the 73.0 166 16 1.6256 --
paralleling factor. 75.0 175 -- --- 2.06
Disadvantages of rewirable type fuse: 78.0 197 15 1.8288 --
• Deterioration of the fuse element by oxidation due to 80.0 200 -- ---- 2.24
heating. 102.0 230 14 2.032 --
130.0 295 13 2.3368 --
• Lack of discrimination.
Table 1
• Effected by the fluctuation of the ambient temperature.
Approxi- Alumi-
Tinned copper wire • Premature failure due to deterioration under normal
Current m ate nium load.
rating f u sing wire
for c u rrent S.W.G.
Diameter dia. in • Low speed operation (poor cut-off factor)
Amp. in mm mm • External flash or arc on blowing.
1.5 3 40 .12192 -- • Poor rupturing capacity (under short-circuit condition).
2.5 4 39 .13208 -- • Wrong rating possible by human error.
3.0 5 38 .1524 .195
Rewirable-type fuses up to 16A rated current should not be
4.0 6 37 .17272 -- used in locations where short circuit level exceeds 2 KA,
5.0 8 35 .21336 -- and those of higher ratings in locations where the S.C. level
5.5 9 34 .23368 -- exceeds 4 KA. (I.S. 2086-963)
6.0 10 33 .254 .307 Cartridge fuses: Cartridge fuses are developed to overcome
7.0 11 32 .27432 -- the disadvantages of the rewirable fuses. Due to high
8.0 12 31 .29464 -- temperature, prolonged use and oxidation, rewirable fuses
8.5 13 30 .31496 -- deteriorate and interrupt the supply even when carrying
normal current. As cartridge fuse elements are enclosed in
9.5 15 -- ---- .400
an air tight chamber, deterioration does not take place.
10.0 16 29 .34544 -- Further the rating of a cartridge fuse could be accurately
12.0 18 28 .37592 -- determined from its marking. However, the cost of replacement
13.0 20 -- ---- .475 of cartridge fuses is more than that of rewirable fuses.
13.5 25 -- ---- .560 Cartridge fuses can be grouped as those with a:
14.0 28 26 .4572 --
• low rupturing capacity (Say rupturing capacity up to 50
15.0 30 25 .508 .630 KA.)
17.0 33 24 .5588 --
• high rupturing capacity. (Say rupturing capacity above
18.0 35 -- ---- .710 80 KA.)
20.0 38 23 .6096 --
Rupturing capacity is the ability of a fuse to open the faulty
21.0 40 -- ---- --
circuit without much arcing or damage to itself. For
22.0 45 -- ---- .750 domestic installations, low rupturing capacity fuses are
24.0 48 22 .7112 .850 used whereas for high power factory installations, and for
25.0 50 -- ---- .90installations connected from high power sources, high
rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses are used.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 - 202 81

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Low rupturing capacity cartridge fuses can be further is connected between two metallic caps.
divided into:
This fuse can be plugged into the fuse socket as shown in
• Ferrule-contact cartridge fuses.(Fig. 4) Fig 4a or it can be fitted into a fuse base with a screw, in
a fuse- holder of the type shown in Fig. 4b.
Diazed screw-type cartridge fuses: This is shown in Fig. 5.
It is also not of a rewirable type. This type of fuse is
commonly used in domestic and industrial electrical
installations in many countries. It consists of the following
parts as shown in Fig. 5.
• Screw cap or fuse cartridge-holder (1)
• Fuse cartridge (2)
• Fitting screw or contact screw (3)
• Protective plastic or ceramic ring (4)
• Fuse base or fuse socket (5)
Fuse cartridges are available for rated electric currents of: 2,
4, 6, 10, 16, 20, 25, 35, 50 and 63 amperes. To prevent the
insertion of a fuse cartridge having a larger current rating than
intended, the foot contacts of the fuse cartridges have
different diameters for each rated current(the smaller the
current the smaller the diameter of the foot contact). As there
is also a separate fitting screw for each type of cartridge, it
is not possible to insert, let's say, a 35 amp. fuse cartridge
• diazed screw-type cartridge fuses.(Fig. 5) into the fitting screw of a 25 amp fuse cartridge.
Fig. 6 shows the inside of one of the afore-mentioned fuse
cartridges. It shows the ceramic body of the cartridge with
its foot and head contacts. The two contacts are linked by
a fuse wire which is embedded in sand. Each cartridge has
a break indicator which will be ejected from the cartridge if
the fuse wire is burnt out. The parts of this cartridge, shown
in Fig. 6, are:

• head contact(1)
• break indicator(2)
• fuse wire(3)
• sand filling(4)
• ceramic fuse body(5)
• foot contact. (6)
Ferrule-contact cartridge fuses: This type, shown in Fig. 4,
is used for protecting electrical and electronic circuits. For easy identification of the fuse cartridges and the
These are available in 25, 50, 100, 200, 250, 500 corresponding fitting screws, they are marked with various
milliamperes, and also in 1,2,5,6,10,16 & 32 amperes colours at the places shown in Fig. 7. For each current
capacity. Normally the current rating is written on one side rating, a different colour is used.
of the cap, and while replacing, the same capacity fuse
should be used. Its body is made of glass and the fuse wire

82 Electronic Mechanic - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 3.3.202

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Fault current × Circuit
in amperes voltage
Rupturing capacityin MVA =
10 6

As HRC fuses are capable of opening circuits having very


high faulty currents, these are preferred in high power
circuits even though the replacement cost is high.

Pink - 2 amperes Blue - 20 amperes Comparison between H.R.C. & Rewirable fuses

Brown - 4 amperes Yellow - 25 amperes Rewirable HRC fuse

Green - 6 amperes Black - 35 amperes Rupturing Not recommended for Normal types
capacity currents exceeding cater to fault
Red - 10 amperes White - 50 amperes 200 A or for more than loads up to
Grey - 16 amperes Copper - 63 amperes 600V or where there 2500 KVA. For
is a possibility of S.C. certain appli-
Fig 8 shows the flow of the electric current through the fuse fault of more than 5 MVA. tions, fuses up
base and the fuse. In order to prevent the accidental to 50 MVA are
touching of a live line, the electrical supply must be obtainable.
connected to the terminal which is connected to the fixing
screw at the bottom of the base. Rupturing Rating and cut-off are Very rapid.
speed(Cut- not absolutely Usually AC
off factor) reliable. supply current
is cut off within
the first half
cycle.
Discrimi- Poor. Accurate.
nation
Safety in Risk of flash-over No external
operation under heavy fault flame.
condition.
Deterio- Oxidation and conse- No oxidation
ration quent scaling causes is the element
Diazed type fuses are available in two categories, reduction in the cross- is completely
sectional area, thus sealed.
a)quick-response type and b) delayed-action type.
increasing resistance,
The quick-response type is used for heating circuits
and leading to over-
and normal loads whereas the delayed- action type is used for
heating and premature
motor circuits and highly inductive circuits.
rupturing.
High rupturing capacity fuses (Fig. 9): They are cylindrical
Fusing Copper wire upto As low as 1.1.
in shape and are made of a ceramic body filled in with a
factor 20A 1.7 over 20A 2.0.
chemically treated filling powder or silica to quench the
arcing quickly without any fire hazard.

Normally a silver alloy is used as the fusing element and


when it melts due to the excessive current, it combines
with the surrounded sand/powder, and forms small globules
without making an arc, spark or gas. HRC fuses can open
a short-circuited circuit within 0.013 second. It has an
indicator to show the fuse has blown. The rupturing
capacity of the fuse could be calculated from the following
formula.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 83

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 & 3.3.202
Electronic Mechanic - Protection Devices

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)- types- construction- working- specification


Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the types, working principle and parts of a miniature circuit breaker.
• state the advantages and disadvantages of MCB
• explain the working of combination circuit breaker (ELCB + MCB)
• state the categories of MCB’s
• state the applications of MCBs.

Circuit Breaker The electric current gets through two contact tips one
each on moving and fixed contact of silver graphite.
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable
of making, and breaking currents under normal circuit An arcing chamber incorporating de-ionising arc chutes
condition and also making, carrying current under normal for control and quick suppression of the arc is provided in
condition and breaking currents under abnormal circuit the gap between two contacts. It has a ribbed opening
conditions like a short circuit. closed by metal grid which allows ventilation and escape
of gases.
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
For protection against over-load and short circuit, MCB’s
A miniature circuit breaker is a compact mechanical
have thermal magnetic release unit. The overload is taken
device for making and breaking a circuit both in normal
care of by bimetallic strip, short circuit currents and over
condition and in abnormal conditions such as those of over
loads of more than 100% are taken care by solenoid.
current and short circuit.
Working
Types of MCB’s
The bimetallic strip when flexing due to temperature rise
MCBs are manufactured with three different principles of
caused by increasing normal rated current beyond 130%
operation namely
rotates a trip lever carrying an armature to which it is to
a Thermal Magnetic brought into field of a solenoid. The solenoid is designed
to attract the armature to full position at about 700%
b Magnetic hydraulic and
overload or instantaneous short circuit current.
c Assisted bimetallic
For initial portion of current wise (130% to 400%) tripping
Thermal magnetic MCB of circuit breaker is due to thermal action, between 400 to
700% tripping is due to combined thermal and magnetic
As shown in Fig. 1, the switching mechanism is housed
action and beyond 700% due to fully magnetic action.
in a moulded housing with phenolic moulded high
mechanically strong switching dolly. This type of MCB is Magnetic hydraulic MCB
also provided with bimetallic over load release.
Magnetic hydraulic circuit breaker operates on the principle
of a solenoid and hydraulically damped plunger.
Construction and working
A movable ferrous plunger is held against a non-ferrous
tube containing polysiloxane liquid which have flat
temperature viscosity characteristic in temperature range
of 20 to 60°C. The solenoid is a series coil in the circuit
of MCB. As the plunger moves towards a pole piece, the
reluctance of magnetic path.
Containing the armature is cumulatively reduced leading
to some magneto motive force producing a progressively
increasing flux. The armature is then attracted causing
the mechanism to trip and open the controls on overload
or short circuit. Instantaneous tripping occurs on very
large currents 7 to 8 times the full load current. The
construction of magnetic hydraulic tripping mechanism is
as shown in Fig. 2.

84

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the magnetic field associated with current flowing in the
bimetal will cause a sideways pull to be applied to the
Assisted Bimetal Tripping MCB (Fig. 3) bimetal element, attracting the bimetal towards the ferrous
material. This sideways pull is arranged to coincide in
direction with the normal direction of movement of the
bimetal, which is powerful enough to deflect the bimetal (in
heavy over load or short circuit condition) sufficiently to trip
the breaker.
Design and rating of MCBs
MCBs are normally rated for 25°C ambient temperature
and are available in the following various combination of
poles and current ratings. (Fig. 5)
Sl.No. No. of poles Current
1 Single pole MCB 0.5 to 60A
2 Double pole MCB 5 to 60A
(ie. 2 MCBs with
common trip bar)
In the assisted bimetal form of construction, the time delay
characteristic is provided by a thermally operated bimetal 3 Triple pole MCB 5 to 60A
element which may be either directly or indirectly heated.
4 Four pole MCB 5 to 60A
Instantaneous tripping in short circuit condition is achieved
by arranging a powerful magnetic pull to deflect the bimetal Isolators
as shown in Fig. 4.
An isolator is a switch only. These cannot be used for
This method utilises the magnetic field which is produced automatic tripping. Isolators are not meant for either
when a current flows through the conductor. By locating closing or breaking the circuit on load or short circuit.
the bimetal near to a substantial section of ferrous material, Isolators have the same physical dimensions of MCBs

Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 85

Copyright Free Under CC BY Licence


and are available in the following configurations and transformer is fed to a super sensitive permanent relay.
ratings. This relay is calibrated to operate at about 100 micro volt
Amp directly on the residual current energy. The relay
No. of poles Current rating
operates when the leakage power threshold is crossed
Single pole 30, 60, and 100A and activates the MCB tripping mechanism internally. All
Single pole and Neutral 30, 60, and 100A tripping mechanisms are truly current operated. They do
not require any auxiliary power source other than the fault
Double pole 60, and 100A leakage current energy itself.
Triple pole 60, and 100A The rated load currents of the RC + MCB combination are
Four pole 60 and 100A 6A, 10A, 16A, 20A, 25A, 32A and 35A. The bimetal trip is
so adjusted that no tripping will occur upto 1.3 times the
Breakers with neutral rated current.
Breakers are available with switched neutral for applications Categories of MCBs
where the neutral is to be disconnected when the mains
are switched off. They are available in current ratings from Certain manufacturers like Indo Kopp manufacture MCBs
5 to 60 amp and in the following configurations. in three different categories namely ‘L’ series, ‘G’ series,
and ‘DC’ series.
1 Single pole and neutral
‘L’ series MCBs
2 Double pole and neutral
‘L’ series MCBs are designed to protect circuits with
3 Triple pole and neutral resistive loads. The tripping factor for current ratings upto
ELCB + MCB combination circuit breaker 10 A is 1.6 In and for current ratings above 10 A is 1.35 In.
They are ideal for protection of equipment like Geysers,
Now a days some manufacturers have introduced an ovens and general lighting systems.
ELCB + MCB combination circuit breaker which can be
used instead of using separate MCB and ELCB (earth ‘G’ series MCBs
leakage circuit breaker). This combination not only allows ‘G’ series MCBs are designed to protect circuits with
reduction in costs, but also ensures extremely efficient inductive loads. The over load tripping factor for all current
protection from all low voltage and medium voltage electrical ratings is above 1.1 In. The magnetic tripping commences
hazard of shock and fire caused by above 7 times the rated current. G series MCBs are
1 over current suitable for protection of motors, air conditioners, hand
tools, halogen lamps etc.,
2 short circuit
‘DC’ series MCBs
3 earth leakage
‘DC’ series MCBs are suitable for voltage upto 220V DC
4 earth fault. and have a breaking capacity up to 6kA.
Earth leakage circuit breakers are now The tripping characteristics are similar to ‘L’ an ‘G’ series.
generally called Residual Current (RC) circuit They find extensive application in DC controls, locomotives,
breakers. diesel generator sets etc.,
Working Advantages of MCB
The RC + MCB combination employs a modular concept 1 Tripping characteristic setting can be done during
for efficient operation. The MCB module consists of a manufacture and it cannot be altered.
thermal trip (bimetallic) for overload protection and a
hammer trip (magnetic) for short circuit. 2 They will trip for a sustained overload but not for
transient overload.
Operating system
3 Faulty circuit is easily identified
The thermostatic bimetal has close calibration to provide
reliable protection without nuisance tripping. 4 Supply can be quickly restored

The hammer trip active current limiting system provides 5 Tamper proof
high rupturing capacity during short circuits. The typical 6 Multiple units are available.
trip time for clearing short circuits is only 2 to 3 millisecond.
Specially designed arc chutes, arc runner and silver Disadvantages
graphite contact system ensures high reliability and a long 1 Expensive
maintenance free operating life.
2 More mechanically moving parts
The residual current module works on the core balance
3 They require regular testing to ensure satisfactory
transformer principle. It includes high permeability magnetic
operation.
core and temperature resistant insulated copper wire
wound with high degree of symmetry to eliminate nuisance 4 Their characteristics are affected by the ambient
tripping. The residual current signal from the core balance temperature.
86 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202

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Moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB) 2 All domestic equipments like water heaters, washing
machines, electric iron, pump sets etc.,
Moulded case circuit breakers are similar to thermo
magnetic type MCBs except that these are available in 3 All construction and outdoor electrical equipments
higher ratings of 100 to 800amp at 500V 3-phase. such as lifts, hosts, vibrators, polishing machines
etc.,
In MCCB, thermal and magnetic releases are adjustable.
A shunt release is also incorporated for remote tripping 4 All industrial distribution and equipments
and interlocking at MCCB. MCCBs are provided with
5 All agriculture pump sets.
under voltages release. There are two types of MCCB.
6 Operation theaters and electrically operated medical
1 Thermal magnetic type
equipment such as X-ray machines.
2 Fully magnetic type
7 All neon sign installations
The constructional feature of a fully magnetic MCCB
8 All low and medium voltage electrical distributions.
design is shown in Fig. 6.
Technical specification of MCBs
Related voltage 240/ 415V AC 50Hz
Up to 220V DC
Current rating 0.5, 1, 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.5,
10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 35, 40 and 63A.
No. of poles 1,2,3
Types ‘L’ ‘G’ and ‘DC’ series
Breaking capacity Upto to 9kA
Mechanical life 1,00, 000 operations
Electrical life 50,000 operations
Overload capacity 15% over load
Advantages of MCCB
Housing Glass fiber reinforced polyester
1 MCCBs occupy much less space in comparison to
fuse switch units or switch fuse units. Fixing Snap fixing on 35 mm DIN channel
2 MCCBs provide equal amount of protection against Types of terminals 25mm² box type terminal at the
high faults as switch gears having HRC fuses. incoming and outgoing.
Disadvantages Definition of Breaking capacity of MCB
1 MCCBs are much costlier.
The short circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breaker is
Application of (RC + MCB) combination circuit the current more than the prospective fault current at the
breakers point of installation of circuit breaker. Prospective fault
current is the maximum fault current which may have to be
1 All residential premises can have incoming protection
interrupted by the circuit breaker.
after energy meter instead of fixing fuse and main
switch.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 3.3.202
Electronic Mechanic - Protection Devices

ELCB-types-working principle-specification
Objectives : At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• explain the working principle, different types and construction of an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
• explain the technical specifications of ELCB’s.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers


The sensation of electric shock is caused by the flow of
electric current through the human body to earth. When
a person comes in contact with electrically live objects like
water heaters, washing machines electric iron etc., the
extent of damages caused by this current depends on its
magnitude and duration.
This kind of current is called the leakage current which
comes in milli-amps. These leakage current being very
small in magnitude go undetected by the fuses/MCBs are
the major cause for the fires due to electricity.
The leakage current to earth also results in the wastage of
energy and excessive billing for electricity not actually
used.
Residual current operated circuit breakers are inter-
nationally accepted means of providing maximum protection
from electric shocks and fires caused due to earth leakage
current and also prevents the waste of electrical energy.
These residual current circuit breakers (RCCB) are
popularly called as Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB).
Fig 1 shows the effect of electric current on human body
in various levels represented in graph.
Basically ELCBs are of two types namely voltage operated
ELCBs and the current operated ELCBs.
Voltage operated ELCB (Fig. 2)
This device is used for making and breaking a circuit. It
automatically trips or breaks the circuit when the potential
difference between the protected metal work of the
installation and the general mass of earth exceeds 24V.
This voltage signal will cause the relay to operate. Voltage
operated ELCBs are meant to be used where it is not The above circuit shows the principle of operation of a
practicable to meet the requirements of IEE wiring voltage operated ELCB.
regulation by direct earthing or where additional protection
is desirable. (Fig. 2) Current operated ELCB
This device is used for making and breaking a circuit and
for breaking a circuit automatically when the vector sum of
current in all conductors feeding the circuit controlled by
the circuit breaker differs from zero by a predetermined
amount. Current operated ELCBs are much more reliable
in operation, easier to install and maintain.
Construction of ELCB
It consists of a Torroid ring made of high permeability
magnetic material. It has two primary windings each
carrying the current flowing through phase and neutral of
the installation. The secondary winding is connected to a
highly sensitive electron magnetic trip relay which operates
the trip mechanism.
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Working principle of ELCB (RCD breaker)
The residual current device is a circuit breaker which
continuously compares the current in the phase with that
in the neutral. The difference between the two is called as
the residual current which is flowing to earth.
The purpose of the residual current device is to monitor the
residual current and to switch off the circuit if it rises from
a preset level. The arrangement of RCD is shown in
Fig. 3.

The main contacts are closed against the pressure of a


spring which, provides the energy to open them when the
device trips. Phase and neutral current pass through
identical coils wound in opposing direction on a magnetic
circuit, so that each coil will provide equal but opposing
numbers of ampere turns when there is no residual
current. The opposing ampere turns will cancel and no
magnetic flux will be set up in the magnetic circuit.
In a healthy circuit the sum of the current in phases is
equal to the current in the neutral and vector sum of all the
current is equal to zero. If there is any insulation fault in
the circuit then leakage current flows to earth. This
residual current passes to the circuit through the phase
coil but returns through the earth path and avoids the
neutral coil, which will therefore carry less current. So the
phase ampere turns exceeds neutral ampere turns and an
alternating magnetic flux results in the core. The flux links
with the secondary coil wound on the same magnetic
circuit inducing an emf into it. The value of this emf
depends on the residual current, so it drives a current to
the tripping system which depends on the difference
between them and neutral current.
When tripping current reaches a predetermined level the
circuit breaker trips and open the main contacts and thus
interrupts the circuit.
Fig 4 shows a 4 pole Residual current circuit breaker being Technical specification
connected in a 3-phase 4 wire system load circuit.
The current ratings of ELCB are 25A, 40A and 63A.
Test Switch
No. of poles - 2 and 4
As shown in Fig 5 test switch is a requirement of BS842.
Nominal voltage - 240/415V 50Hz.
It is used to test the functioning of ELCB. When the test
button is pressed it circulates additional current through Sensitivities: ELCBs are designed to trip at leakage
neutral coil which is determined by the value of current currents of 30mA, 100mA, and 300mA.
limiting resistor R. As a result there exists a difference in
Electrical life: More then 10,000 operations.
current flowing through phase and neutral coils and hence
the ELCB trips off. Mechanical life: 20000 to 100000 operations.

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trip. It does not follow, that the device with smaller
operating current will trip first. This is a lack of discrimination
between the two devices. To ensure proper discrimination,
the device with a larger operating current, has a deliberate
time delay built into its operation. It is called time-delayed
RCCB.
Calculation of Earth fault loop impedance
Earth wire from an equipment to the earth electrode is
called earth loop. Its impedance should not be more than
50 earth fault loop impedance in ohm, multiplied by the
rated tripping current of the R.C.C.B.(ELCB) in ampere
should not exceed 50 (i.e) ZE x It < 50.
Where Z = Earth wire loop impedance
It = Rated tripping current in Ampere
Tripping time - < 30ms.
Example
Time delayed RCCB
An ELCB with a rated tripping current of 30mA, the
There are cases, where more than one RCCB is used in an maximum possible Earth fault loop impedance will be
installation, for example a complete installation may be
protected by an RCCB rated at 100mA, while a socket 50
intended for equipment may be protected by 30mA device. ZE (max)= 50/It = = 1666 ohm
0.03
Discrimination of the two devices then becomes important.
For example an earth fault occurs in the equipment giving
an earth fault current of 250mA. Since the fault current is
higher, than the operating current of both devices both will

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 3.3.202
Electronic Mechanic - Protection Devices

Contactors-parts-functions-troubleshooting-symbols
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the basic contactor circuit with a single push-button station for start and stop
• state the function of a no-volt coil, its rated voltage, position of operation, its common troubles, their causes
and remedies.

i) Contactors: The contactor forms the main part in all the The main parts of a magnetic contactor are shown in
starters. A contactor is defined as a switching device Fig. 1, and Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagram of the
capable of making, carrying and breaking a load circuit at contactor when used along with fused switches (ICTP),
a frequency of 60 cycles per hour or more. It may be push-button stations and OL relay for connecting a squirrel
operated by hand (mechanical), electromagnetic, pneumatic cage motor for starting directly from the main supply. In the
or electro-pneumatic relays. same way the direct on-line starter consists of a contactor,
The contactors shown in Fig. 1 consist of main contacts, OL relay and push-button station in an enclosure.
auxiliary contacts and no-volt coil. As per Fig 1, there are Functional description
three sets of normally open, main contacts between
terminals 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, two sets of normally Power circuit: As shown in Fig.2, when the main ICTP
open auxiliary contacts between terminals 23 and 24, 13 switch is closed and the contactor K1 is operated, all the
and 14, and one set of normally closed auxiliary contact three windings U V & W of the motor are connected to the
between terminals 21 and 22. Auxiliary contacts carry less supply terminals R Y B via the ICTP switch, contactor and
current than main contacts. Normally contactors will not OL relay.
have the push-button stations and O.L. relay as an integrated
part, but will have to be used as separate accessories
along with the contactor to form the starter function.

The overload current relay (bimetallic relay) protects the


motor from overload (`motor protection'), while the fuses
F1/F2/F3 protect the motor circuit in the event of
phase-to-phase or phase-to-frame short circuits.
Control circuits
Push-button actuation from one operating location:
As shown in the complete circuit Fig. 3, and the control
circuit Fig. 3, when the `ON' push-button S3 is pressed, the
control circuit closes, the contactor coil is energised and
the contactor K1 closes. An auxiliary, a normally open

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contact 13,14 is also actuated together with the main
contacts of K1. If this normally open contact is connected
in parallel with S3, it is called a self-holding auxiliary
contact.

If either of the two ON push-buttons is actuated, K1 is


energised and holds itself closed with the help of
normally-open contact 13 & 14 which is closed by contactor
K1. If either of the two OFF push -buttons is actuated, the
contactor opens.
After S3 is released, the current flows via this self-holding
Purpose of overload relays: The overload relays protect the
contact 13,14, and the contactor remains closed. In order
motor against repeated, excessive momentary surges or
to open the contactor, S2 must be actuated. If S3 and S2 are
normal overloads existing for long periods, or high currents
actuated simultaneously, the contactor is unaffected.
caused in two phases by the single-phasing effect. These
In the event of overloads in the power circuit, the normally relays have characteristics which help the relay to open the
closed contact 95 and 96 of overload relay `O' opens, and contactor in 10 seconds if the motor current is 500 percent
switches off the control circuit. Thereby K1 switches `OFF' of the full load current, or in 4 minutes if the current is 150
the motor circuit. percent of the full load current.
Once the contact between 95 and 96, is opened due to the Tripping of starters: A starter may trip due to the following
activation of the overload relay `O', the contacts stay open reasons.
and the motor cannot be started again by pushing the `ON'
– Low voltage or failure of power supply
button S3. It has to be reset to normally closed position by
pushing the reset button. In certain starters, the reset – Persistent overload on the motor
could be done by pushing the `OFF' button which is in line
In the first instance, the tripping occurs through the coil
with the overload relay `O'.
which opens the contacts when the voltage falls below a
Push-button actuation from two operating locations: certain level. The starter can be restarted as soon as the
If it is desired to switch a contactor off and on from either supply is back to normal.
of the two locations, the corresponding OFF push-buttons
The relay trips the starter when there is an overload. It can
should be connected in series, and the ON push-buttons
be restarted only after the relay is reset and the load
in parallel, as shown in the complete diagram Fig 4 and the
becomes normal.
control diagram Fig. 5.
No-volt coil: A no-volt coil consists of generally more
number of turns of thin gauge of wire.
Coil voltages: Selection of coils depends on the actual
supply voltage available. A wide variety of coil voltages like
24V, 40V, 110V, 220 V 230/250 V, 380V 400/440V AC or
DC are available as standard for contactors and starters.
Troubleshooting in contactor: Table 1 gives the common
symptoms their causes and remedies.

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Table 1
Symptoms Causes Remedies
Motor does not start when the Open in no-volt coil circuit. Check the main voltage for lower
'start' button is pressed. However on than acceptable value. Rectify the
pressing the armature of the main voltage. Check the control
contactor manually, motor starts circuit wiring for loose connection.
and runs. Check the resistance of the no-volt
coil winding. If found incorrect
replace the coil.

Motor starts when `ON' button is Auxiliary contact in Check the parallel connection from
pressed. It however stops parallel with the start-button `ON' button terminals to the auxiliary
immediately when `ON' button is is not closing. contact of the contactor.
released. Rectify the defect.
Check the auxiliary contact points of
the contactor for erosion and pittings.
Replace, if found defective.

Motor does start when the start- Movable armature and fixed Dust or dirt or grit between the mating
button is pressed. However, a limb of electromagnet are surfaces of the electromagnetic core.
humming or chattering noise comes not stably attracted. Clean them.
from the starter. Low voltage supply. Find the cause
and rectify the defect.
Break in the shading ring in the case
of AC magnet.

Failure of contactor due to too much Higher incoming supply rating. Higher supply voltage than normal.
heating of the `No' volt coil. No-volt coil rating is not high. Reduce the incoming voltage.

Voltage rating of the no-volt coil is


less. Replace with standard rating,
according to the main supply.

Motor does not restart immediately It takes a little time for the thermal Wait for 2 to 4 minutes before re-
after tripping of OL relay even bimetal to cool and reset. starting.
though OL relay was reset.
Coil does not get energised even Open-circuited NVC. Check the nylon strip on relay.
though supply voltage is found NVC burnt out.
across the no-volt coil terminals. Check the nylon button below the
start button
Replace, if necessary.

Relay coil has been changed. Control circuit of relay open. Check the control circuit for open.
However motor does not start
when the start-button is pressed. Clean the control station contacts.

Overload relay not reset.

Humming or chattering noise. Low voltage. Feed the rated voltage.

Magnetic face between yoke Clean the surfaces of yoke and


and armature is not clean. armature.
Shading ring on iron core missing. Provide shading ring in the iron core

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ii) B.I.S. symbols pertaining to contactor and machines
Identify and draw B.I.S. symbols pertaining to rotating machines and transformers (BIS 2032 Part IV), contactors, switch,
gear and mechanical controls (BIS 2032 Part VII, 2032 Part XXV and XXVII).

The table given below contains most of the important symbols used by an electrician. However, you are
advised to refer to the quoted B.I.S. standards for further additional information.
Table
S.No. BIS Description Symbol Remarks
Code No.

BIS 2032
(Part XXV)-
1980
1 9.3 Pressure switch

2 9.4 Thermostat

3 9.5 Circuit-breaker

4 9.5.1 Alternate symbol of circuit-breaker.


Note : The rectangle of symbol 9.5 should
contain some indication that a
circuit-breaker is concerned.

5 9.5.2 Alternate symbol for circuit breaker.

6 9.9 Contactor, normally open.

7 9.9.1 Contactor, normally closed.

8 9.10 Push-button with normally open contact.

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S.No. BIS Description Symbol Remarks
Code No.

9 9.10.1 Push-button with normally closed contact.

10 9.11 Isolator.

11 9.16 Thermal overload contact.

12 9.17 Socket(female).

13 9.17.2 Socket with switch.

14 9.18 Plug (male).

15 9.19 Plug and socket (male and female).

16 9.20 Starter, general symbol.

17 9.22 Star- delta starter.

18 9.23 Auto-transformer starter.

19 9.24 Pole-changing starter (Example, 8/4 poles).

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20 9.25 Rheostatic starter.

21 9.26 Direct on-line starter.

22 9.27.1 Resistor with moving contact, general symbol.

23 9.29 Fuse.

24 9.29.1 Alternate symbol for fuse.

25 9.31 Isolating fuse-switch.

BIS 2032 Contactors


Part(XXV11)
1932

3.2 Qualifying symbols

26 3.2.2 Circuit-breaker function.

27 3.2.4 Switch-disconnector (isolator switch) function.

28 3.14 Winding
Note: The number of half circles is not fixed,
but if desired a distinction might be made for
the different windings of a machine as specified
in 3.2,3.3 and 3.4.

29 3.24 Commutating or compensating winding.

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30 3.34 Series winding.

31 3.44 Shunt winding or separate winding.

32 3.54 Brush or slip-ring.

33 3.64 Brush on commutator.

34 4.2.1 Direct current generator, general symbol.

35 4.2.2 Direct current motor, general symbol.

36 4.3.1 AC generator, general symbol.

37 4.3.2 AC motor, general symbol

5.1 General Symbols

38 5.1.1 Transformer with two separate windings.

Simplified Complete
multiline multiline
representation representation

39 5.1.2 Transformer with three separate windings.

40 5.1.3 Auto-transformers

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 3.3.202
Electronic Mechanic - Protection Devices

Relays-types-operations-specification-symbols
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define a realy
• classify relays according to the operating force and function
• state the common codes used for specifying contacts and poles
• specify a relay
• explain the function of the shading coil in an AC relay
• state the causes of the failure of the relay
• identify the symbols used in relay as per I.S.2032 (Part XXVII).

Relay: A relay is a device which opens or closes an Under-current relay: Under-current relay is an alarm or
auxiliary circuit under predetermined conditions in the protective relay. It is specifically designed to operate when
main circuit. the current falls below a predetermined value.
Relays are extensively used in electronics, electrical Voltage sensing relay: A voltage sensing relay is used
engineering and many other fields. where a condition of under-voltage or over-voltage may
There are relays that are sensitive to conditions of voltage, cause a damage to the equipment. For example, these
current, temperature, frequency or some combination of types of relays are used in voltage stabilizers. Either a
these conditions. proportional AC voltage derived from a transformer or a
proportional DC derived from a transformer and rectifier is
Relays are also classified according to their main operating used for this purpose.
force as stated under.
Latching relays
– Electromagnetic relays
Latching relays are capable of maintaining their contacts
– Thermal relays in the last assumed position without the maintained
Electromagnetic relay: A relay switch assembly is a current in the coil. These relays hold their contacts in
combination of movable and fixed low-resistance contacts position after power is cut off.
that open or close a circuit. The fixed contacts are There are two basic kinds of latching relays called
mounted on springs or brackets, which have some mechanical reset and electrical reset.
flexibility. The movable contacts are mounted on a spring
or a hinged arm that is moved by the electromagnet in the Mechanical re-set relays: Mechanical re-set relays
relay as shown in Fig. 1. have a coil, an armature mechanism, and a mechanical
latching device that locks the armature in the operated
position after the coil has been de-energised. Manual
tripping of the locking mechanism, re-sets the relay.
Electrical reset relays: An electrical re-set relay shown
in Fig. 2 has the same operating mechanism, but it
includes a second coil and armature to trip the latching
mechanism. This system allows remote re-setting of the
relays to their original position.

The other types of relays coming under this group are as


follows.
Current sensing relay: A current sensing relay functions
whenever the current in the coil reaches an upper limit. The
difference between the current specified for pick up (must
operate) and non-pick up (must not operate) is usually
closely controlled. The difference in current may also be Reed relays
closely controlled for drop out (must release) and non-drop
Reed relays physically look different than other kinds of
out (must not release).
relays. They consist of essentially magnetically actuated
reed switches, with actuating solenoids or coils.
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In the reed relay, freedom from contamination and the
limited number of moving parts, avoid many disadvantages
of the conventional electromechanical relays. In addition
to the above, the contact resistance is kept to minimum
due to the fact the contact points are made either with gold
or rhodium. Further, these relays need very low power to
operate and can handle a 250 watt solenoid load on their
contacts.
There are three types of reed relays namely
– dry-reed relay
– ferreed relay
Impulse relay: The impulse relay shown in Fig. 6 is a
– mercury wetted contact relay special single-coil relay. It has an armature-driven
Dry reed relay: Fig.3 shows this type of relay. Two mechanism that alternatively assumes one of two positions
opposing reeds are sealed in to a narrow glass tube. The as the coil is pulsed. This mechanism moves the contact
reeds overlap at their free ends. At the contact area, they from one position to the other and back again as electrical
are usually plated with gold or rhodium to produce a low pulses are received. The relay can operate on AC or DC
contact resistance. They may have multipole multicontact power.
designs.

Ferreed relay: The word ferreed denotes a reed relay in


which the dry-reed switch is contained with one or more
magnetic members. The magnetisation can be changed
by current pulses in associated coils. Clapper-type armature relay: The simplest contact
As shown in Fig. 4 in the magnetised state the magnetic arrangement used in armature relays is the break-make or
members supply a field strong enough to close the transfer-contact combination. A clapper-type armature,
contacts. In the other magnetised state, the field is too shown in Fig. 7 opens or closes the contacts. A movable
weak to hold the contacts closed. An operating pulse contact is attached directly to the armature by means of
through the coil produces the first state. A release pulse a flexible strip of metal. When the electromagnet operates,
produces the second state. The contacts can break or the armature moves this contact, opening and closing the
make within 5 micro-seconds duration. two sets of contacts.

Mercury wetted contact relay: As shown in Fig. 5 this


relay consists of a glass enclosed reed with its base
immersed in a pool of mercury. When the coil surrounding Thermal relay: A thermal relay shown in Fig. 8 is one that
the capsule is activated, mercury makes the contact operates by changes in temperature. Most of the bimetallic
between fixed and movable contacts. relays where the bimetallic element changes its shape, in
response to changes in temperature comes under this
group. It takes time for the heating element to reach the
necessary temperature and more time to raise the
temperature of the bimetallic element. Therefore, thermal
relays are often used as time-delay relays.

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NO indicates the contacts are open in the unoperated
position of the relay and they are called as normally open
(NO) contacts.
NC indicates the contacts are closed in the unoperated
position of the relay and they are called normally closed
(NC) contacts.
Table 1 given below lists some of the relay contact
combinations.
Enclosures and mounts: Relays are normally enclosed
in plastic or metal caps to protect the operating parts
Poles and contacts: Relays may operate single or as
against dust and environment. Relays can be mounted to
multi-poles and may open or close specified contacts. In
the circuit direct by plug-in system, PCB mounting or may
writing specifications certain abbreviations as stated below
be wired separately using screws terminals. These types
are commonly used.
are shown in Fig. 9.
SP - Single pole
SB - Single break
ST - Single throw
DB - Double break
DP - Double pole
DM - Double make
DT - Double throw
NO - Normally open
3P - Three pole
NC - Normally closed AC relay: In an AC relay magnet, the magnetic field
continually changes direction. With a 50 Hz supply the
4P - Four pole
magnetic field passes through zero 100 times per second.
For example a 4PDT has a four-pole, double throw contact At the time of zero field, the armature starts to release.
arrangement. Although the field quickly builds up in the reverse direction,
a noisy chatter can result.

Table 1
Design Sequence Symbol

1 SPST-NO Make 1

2 SPST-NC Break 1
SPDT Break1 before make 2

3 SPDT Make 1 before break 2

4 SPDT Break 1 before make 2 before


(B-M-B) break 3

5 SPDT-NO Center OFF

6 SPDT-NC-NO Double break 1


(DB-DM) double make 2

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Design Sequence Symbol

7 SPST-NO Double make 1


(DM)

8 SPST-NC Double break 1


(DB)

9 SPDT-NC Double break 1


(DB-DM) double make 2

To eliminate chatter, a shading coil as shown in Fig. 10 is 4 Bending of moving parts.


placed near the tip of the magnet pole face. This shading
coil establishes a magnetic field that lags the main 5 Corrosion or deposits on metal parts.
magnetic field slightly and aids in keeping the magnet 6 Excessive wear on moving parts.
sealed when the main field passes through zero.
7 Loose connections.
8 Improper spring tension.
9 Improper control pressure.
10 Improper functioning of the time delay device.
While specifying relays the following particulars are
necessary.
Type of operating voltage

An AC relay should not be used in DC supply. AC or DC


The AC relay when connected to DC supply, Sequence of operation
will draw more current in the absence of
Operating voltage volts
inductive reactance and result in burning out
the coil. Current rating amps
Causes of relay failures: Relay failures are usually caused Coil resistance ohms
by the gradual deterioration of the parts. This deterioration Number of contacts NO NC
can be electrical, mechanical or chemical in nature.
Number of poles
The environmental shirks that contribute to physical
breakdown include large temperature changes, shock, Type of mount
vibration and voltage or current changes. Therefore, it is Type of enclosure
important that these factors are taken into consideration
to ensure reliable performance of relays. Symbols used in relay circuit: Following are the I.S.
symbols connected with the relays as per I.S.2032(Part
In general, when a relay fails, look for the following. XXVII). These may be used along with the contact symbols
1 Improper control voltage. for illustrating the function of the relay.
2 Dirt, grease or gum on contacts or moving parts.
3 Excessive heating of parts: discolouration or charred
insulation on coil or base.

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Elements of electro-mechanical relays
(Except measuring and protective relays)
Relay coils
1 Relay coil (General symbol)

2 Relay coil of a slow-releasing relay

3 Relay coil of a slow operating relay

4 Relay coil of a slow-operating and slow-releasing relay

5 Relay coil of a high speed relay (fast-operating and fast-releasing)


Note: This symbol should be used only if it is desirable to
emphasize that a certain relay is essentially more rapid
than other relays and that use is made thereof.

6 Relay coil of an AC relay

7 Relay coil of a mechanically latched relay

8 Note: The two windings of the relay coil are to be marked by the
same sign, for example, the letter A.

9 Actuating device for a thermal relay

Windings
10 Winding of a slow releasing relay

11 Winding of a slow operating relay

12 Winding of a polarised relay

13 Winding of a permanent relay

14 Energy flow from the bus-bars

15 Energy flow towards the bus-bars

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Purpose of overload relays:The overload relays protect Bimetallic overload relays: Most bimetallic relays can
the motor against repeated, excessive momentary surges be adjusted to trip within a range of 85 to 115 per cent of
or normal overloads existing for long periods, or high the nominal trip rating of the heater unit. This feature is
currents caused in two phases by the single-phasing useful when the recommended heater size may result in
effect. These relays have characteristics which help the unnecessary tripping, while the next larger size will not
relay to open the contactor in 10 seconds if the motor give adequate protection. Ambient temperatures affect
current is 500 percent of the full load current or in 4 minute thermally-operated overload relays.

Types of overload relay The tripping of the control circuit in the bimetallic relay
results from the difference of expansion of two dissimilar
There are two types of overload relays. They are : metals fused together. Movement occurs if one of the
– magnetic overload relay metal expands more than the other when subjected to
heat. A U-shaped bimetallic strip is used in the relay as
– thermal (bimetallic) overload relay. shown in Fig. 12. The U-shaped strip and a heater element
Normally there are 3 coils in a magnetic relay and 3 sets inserted in the centre of the U compartments for avoiding
of heater coils in a bimetallic relay so that two coils will possible uneven heating due to variations in the mounting
operate in case of single phasing which help in avoiding the location of the heater element.
burning out of the motor. As shown in Fig 12, under normal conditions, the bimetallic
Magnetic overload relay: The magnetic overload relay strip pushes the pin against the leaf-spring tension, and
coil is connected in series with the motor circuits. The coil the point contacts 95 and 96 are in a closed position, and
of the magnetic relay must be wound with a wire, large hence the no-volt coil circuit is completed while the motor
enough in size to pass the motor current. As these is running. When a higher current passes through the
overload relays operate by current intensity and not by heater coil connected to terminals 2 and 2', the heat
heat, they are faster than bimetal relays. generated in the coil heats up the bimetal strip which
bends inward. Hence the pin retracts in the right hand
As shown in Fig. 11, the magnetic coil carries the motor direction and the leaf-spring opens the contact between 95
current through terminals 2 and 2' which is in series with and 96 to open the contactor. The relay cannot be reset
the power circuit. The relay contacts, 95 and 96, are in immediately as the heat in the bimetallic strips require
series with the control circuit. When a current more than some time for cooling.
a certain stipulated value, as set by the relay set scale,
passes through the power circuit, the magnetic flux
produced by the coil will lift the plunger in an upward
direction. This upward movement makes the plunger tip to
push the relay contact lever, and the contact between
terminals 95 and 96 opens. This breaks the no volt coil
circuit and the contactor opens the power circuit to the
motor. The relay contacts between terminals 95 and 96
stay open till the rest-button (not shown in the figure) is
pressed.

Relay setting: The overload relay unit is the protection


centre of the motor starter. Relays come in a number of
ranges. Selection of a relay for a starter depends upon the
motor type, rating and duty.
For all direct on-line starters, relays should be set to the
actual load current of the motor. This value should be equal
to or lower than the full load current indicated on the
name-plate of the motor. Described here is a simple
procedure for setting the relay to the actual load current.
Set the relay to about 80% of the full load current. If it trips,
increase the setting to 85% or more till the relay holds. The
relay should never be set at more than the actual current
drawn by the motor. (The actual current drawn by a motor
will be less than the full load current in most cases, as
motors may not be loaded to capacity.)
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
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Thermal overload is used for motor protection basically
thermal overload relay overload relay is an overcurrent
protection of the simplest type. The working principle of
thermal overload relay is very simple thermal overload
relay is shown in Fig .13. An adjustment dial located on the
unit allows the ampere trip setting. A manual test button
is provided to test the operation of the relay control
contacts
It is known that diffrent material have diffrent coefficient of when the recommended heater unit. This feature is useful
thermal expansion. So if two diffrent metals joined together when the recommended heater size may result in
are heated, then the metal having the greater value of unnecessary tripping, while the next larger size will not
give adequate protection. Ambient temperatures effect
thermally-operated overload relays.
The tripping of control circuit in the bimetallic realy results
form the diffrence of exapnstion of two dissimilar metals
fused together. Movement occurs if one of the metal
expands more than the other when subjected to heat. A U-
shaped bimetallic strip is used in the relay as shown in fig.
12 . The U-shaped strip and a heater element inserted in
the center of the U compartments for avoiding possible
uneven heating due to variations in the mounting location
of the heater element.
As shown in fig 12, under normal conditions, the bimetallic
strip pushes the pin against the leaf- spring tension, and
the point contacts 95 are in a positions, and hence the no-
coefficient of thermal expansion will expand more as volt coil circuit is completed while the motor heater coil
compared to the other and this will cause a bend in the connected to terminal 2 and 2”, the heat generated in the
bimetallic strip as shown in Fig 14 a and 14 b. This coil heats up the bimetal strip which direction and the leaf
phenomenon is used in thermal overload relay. spring open the contractor. The relay contact between 95
and 96 to open the contractor. The relay cannot be reset
Thermal overload relays: most bimetallic relays can be immediately as the heat in the bimetallic strips require
adjusted to trip within a range of 85 to 115 per cent of the some time for cooling.
normal trip rating of the heater unit. This feature is useful

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Relay setting: The overload relay unit is the protection
An overload or phase failure results in an increase of the
centre of the motor starter. Relays come in a number of
motor current beyond the set motor rated cuurent via
ranges. Selection of a relay for a starter depends upon the
heating elements inside the device this current rise heats
motor type, rating and duty.
up the bimetallic which then bend and as a result trigger
For all direct on-line starters, relays should be set to the the auxiliary contacts by means of a tripping mechanism.
actual load current of the motor. This value should be equal The auxiliary contacts then switch off the load by means
to or lower than the full load current indicated on the name- of the contactor.
plate of the motor. Described here is a simple procedure
The break time depends on the ratio between the tripping
for setting the relay to the actual load current.
current and operating current the “tripped” status is signalloo
Set the relay to about 80% of the full load current. if it trips,
ed by means of a switch position indicator. The contactor
increase the setting to 85% or more till the realy holds. The
is either reset manually or automatically after the recovery
realy should never be set at more than the actual current
time has elapsed they comply with important worldwide
drawn by the motor. ( The actual current drawn by a motor
standrads and approvals.
will be less than the full load current in most cases, as
motors may not be loaded to capacity.)
The thermal overload relay shown in Fig-15 is designed for
current-depending protection of loads upto 100A with
normal starting (see Functions) against excessive
temperature rises due to overload or phase failure.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 3.4.206
Electronic Mechanic - Electrical Control Circuits

Single phase induction motors-types- resistance start-induction run motor,


centrifugal switch-capacitor start, induction run motor-capacitor start,
capacitor run motor
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain briefly the types of AC single phase motors
• explain the necessity and methods of split-phasing the single phase to obtain a rotating magnetic field
• explain the principle, construction, operation characteristic and application of single phase resistance /
induction-start / induction-run motors.

i) Single phase induction motors by the lower rotor conductors; hence no rotation results.
In the next instant, as shown in Fig 1b, the voltage in the
Single phase motors perform a great variety of useful
input supply changes its polarity, creating a main field with
services at home, office, farm, factory, and in business
a change in direction. This main field produces a torque,
establishments. These motors are generally referred to as
downward in upper conductors, and upwards in bottom
fractional horsepower motors with a rating of less than 1
conductors resulting in the cancellation of torque with no
H.P. Most single phase motors fall into this category.
movement of the rotor, in this case also. Since the field is
Single phase motors are also manufactured in 1.5,2,3 and
pulsating, the torque is pulsating although no net torque is
up to 10 H.P. as a special requirement.
produced over a full cycle.
Single phase motors may be broadly classified as
split-phase induction motors and commutator motors
according to their construction and method of starting.
Split-phase induction motors can be further classified as:
– resistance-start, induction-run motors
– induction-start, induction-run motors
– permanent capacitor motors
– capacitor-start, induction-run motors
– capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors
– shaded pole motors.
Commutator motors can be classified as:
– repulsion motors
– series motors.
The basic principle of operation of a split-phase induction
motor is similar to that of a polyphase induction motor. The
main difference is that the single phase motor does not
produce a rotating magnetic field but produces only a
pulsating field. Hence to produce the rotating magnetic
field, phase-spliting is to be done to make the motor to
work as a two-phase motor for starting.
First, let us examine the behaviour of the magnetic field as
set up by an AC current in a sinlge-phase field winding.
With reference to Fig 1, at a particular instant, the current
flowing in the field winding produces the magnetic field as
shown in Fig 1a. Since the produced magnetic field is If the rotor is given a small jerk in any direction in the above
varying, it will induce currents in the rotor bars which in turn mentioned cases, it will go on revolving, and will develop
will create a rotor flux. This stator-induced flux, according a torque in that particular direction due to interaction
to Lenz's law, opposes that of the main field. By applying between the rotor and stator fluxes. Because of this effect,
this principle, the current direction in the rotor bars can be the split-phase motor, once started, needs only one
determined as shown in Fig 1a, as well as the torque winding to be connected to the supply for running. It is
created between the field and rotor currents. It is apparent clear that a single phase induction motor, when having
that the downward torque produced by the upper rotor only one winding, is not self-starting. If the main field is
conductors is counteracted by the upward torque produced made revolving instead of pulsating, a rotational torque
could be produced in the rotor.
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Producing a rotating field from two 90° out-of-phase direction of the rotating magnetic field as in the case of a
fields:: One of the methods of producing a rotating magnetic squirrel cage induction motor, which was explained earlier.
field is by split-phasing. This could be done by providing a
Hence, once the rotor starts rotating, the starting winding
second set of winding in the stator called the starting
can be disconnected from the supply by some mechanical
winding. This winding should be kept physically at 90
means as the rotor and stator fields form a revolving
electrical degrees from the main winding, and should carry
magnetic field.
a current out of phase from the main winding. This, out of
phase current, could be achieved by making the reactance Resistance-start, induction-run motor: As the starting
of the starting winding being different from that of the main torque of this type of motor is relatively small and its
winding. In case both the windings have similar reactance starting current is high, these motors are most commonly
and impedance, the resulting field, created by the main used for rating up to 0.5 HP where the load could be started
and starting windings, will alternate but will not revolve and easily.
the motor will not start. The essential parts are as shown in Fig 3a.
By split-phasing, the two (main and starting) fields would – Main winding or running winding
combine to produce a rotating magnetic field as stated
below. – Auxiliary winding or starting winding
Fig 2 shows that the main (1,1') and starting (2,2') windings – Squirrel cage type rotor
are kept in the stator at 90° to each other. For consideration, – Centrifugal switch
only, one half cycle is shown with the effects at 450
increments.

At position `A', only the main winding is producing flux, and


the net flux will be in a vertical direction, as shown in the
stator diagram. At instant `B', 45° later, both windings are
producing flux, and the net flux direction will also have
rotated 45°. At position `C', the maximum flux is now in a
horizontal direction because only the starting winding is
producing flux. At instant `D', the current from the main The starting winding is designed to have a higher resistance
winding is building up again, but in a new direction, while and lower reactance than the main winding. This is
that from starting winding is now decreasing. Therefore, achieved by using smaller conductors in the auxiliary
the net flux at this instant will be as shown in position D. winding than in the main winding. The main winding will
At position `E', the maximum flux is just the opposite of have higher inductance when surrounded by more iron,
what it was at instant `A'. It should now be evident that the which could be made possible by placing it deeper into the
two out-of-phase fields are combining to produce a net stator slots. It is obvious that the current would split as
rotating field effect. shown in Fig 3b. The starting current `I start' will lag the
Working of split-phase motor: At the time of starting, main supply voltage `V' line' by 15° and the main winding
both the main and starting windings should be connected current. `I main' lags the main voltage by about 40°.
across the supply to produce the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, these currents will differ in time phase and their
The rotor is of a squirrel cage type, and the revolving magnetic fields will combine to produce a rotating magnetic
magnetic field sweeps past the stationary rotor, inducing field.
an emf in the rotor. As the rotor bars are short-circuited, When the motor has come up to about 75 to 80% of
a current flows through them producing a magnetic field. synchronous speed, the starting winding is opened by a
This magnetic field opposes the revolving magnetic field centrifugal switch, and the motor will continue to operate
and will combine with the main field to produce a revolving as a single phase motor. At the point where the starting
field. By this action, the rotor starts revolving in the same winding is disconnected, the motor develops nearly as

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much torque with the main winding alone as with both starting winding in the case of capacitor-start, induction-run
windings connected. This can be onserved from the typical motors, and for disconnecting the starting capacitor in the
torque-speed characteristics of this motor, as shown in case of a two value, capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor.
Fig 4. Its function is to disconnect the starting winding after the
rotor has reached 75 to 80% of the rated speed. The usual
type consists of two main parts. Namely, a stationary part
as shown in Fig 1, and a rotating part as shown in Fig 2.
The stationary part is usually located on the front-end plate
of the motor and has two contacts, so that it is similar in
action to a single-pole, single-throw switch. When the
rotating part is fitted in the rotor, it rotates along with it.
When the rotor is stationary, the insulator ring of the
rotating part is in an inward position due to spring tension.
This inward movement of the insulator ring allows the
stationary switch contacts to be closed which is due to the
movable lever pressure against the leaf-spring tension in
the switch.
The direction of rotation of a split-phase motor is determined
by the way the main and auxiliary windings are connected.
Hence, either by changing the main winding terminals or
by changing the starting winding terminals, the reversal of
direction of rotation could be obtained. Rotation will be,
say counter-clockwise, if Z1 is joined to U1 and Z2 is joined
to U2 as per Fig 5a. If Z1 is joined to U2 and Z2 is joined to
U1, then the rotation will be clockwise, as shown in Fig 5b.

Application of resistance-start, induction-run motor: As


the starting torque of this type of motors is relatively small
and its starting current is high, these are manufactured for
a rating up to 0.5 HP where the starting load is light. These
motors are used for driving fans, grinders, washing machines
and wood working tools.
Induction-start, induction-run motor: Instead of resistance
start, inductance can be used to start the motor through
When the rotor attains about 75% of the rated speed, due
a highly inductive starting winding. In such a case, the
to centrifugal force, the governor weights fly out, and this
starting winding will have more number of turns, and will be
makes the insulator ring to come outward. Due to this
imbedded in the inner areas of the stator slots so as to
forward movement of the insulated ring, it presses the
have high inductance due to more number of turns, and the
movable lever, and the contacts connected through
area will be surrounded by more iron. As the starting and
terminals CS1 and CS2 open the starting winding.
main windings in most of the cases are made from the
same gauge winding wire, resistance measurement has to In older types of centrifugal switches, the stationary part
be done to identify the windings. This motor will have a low consists of two copper, semicircular segments. These are
starting torque, higher starting current and lower power insulated from each other and mounted inside the front-end
factor. plate. The centrifugal switch connections are given to
these segments. The rotating part is composed of three
ii) Centrifugal switch
copper fingers that ride around the stationary segments,
The centrifugal switch: The centrifugal switch is located while the motor is at rest or running at lower than 75% of
inside the motor and is connected in series with the the rated speed. These parts are illustrated in Fig 3.

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about 75% of the rated value, the centrifugal switch, if it
operates correctly, will open its contacts which could be
observed from the lamp going `off'. Soon after switching
`on' the main supply, if the lamp is not lighted, or if it lights
up but does not go out after 30-40 seconds (75 % of the
rated speed) then the centrifugal switch is deemed to be
not working, and should be repaired or replaced.
Manual D.O.L. starter: A starter is necessary for starting
and stopping the motor, and for providing overload
protection.
A manual starter, as it appears, is shown in Fig 5, an open
view of the starter is shown in Fig 6, and the internal parts
At the time of starting, the segments are shorted by the are shown in Fig 7, as a schematic diagram. A manual
copper fingers, thus causing the starting winding to be starter is a motor controller with a contact mechanism
included in the motor circuit. At approximately 75 percent operated by hand. A push-button operates the mechanism
of the full speed, the centrifugal force causes the fingers through a mechanical linkage. As shown in Figs 6 & 7, the
to be lifted from the segments, thereby disconnecting the starter may have both a thermal overload relay and a
starting winding from the circuit. magnetic overload relay for overload protection and short
circuit protection respectively. Both the relays are made
Maintenance of centrifugal switch: Access to the to operate independently, in case of overload or short
centrifugal switch could be had by removing the inspection circuit, to release the start-button for disconnecting the
plate, located in the end covers of the motor. In very many motor from supply. Most of the present day, manual
cases, the switch is accessible only when the end plate starters have either of the two relays only. Basically, a
is removed. These switches need to be checked atleast manual starter is an ON-OFF switch with overload relay
once in six months to ensure their proper operation. Look only.
for broken or weak springs, for improper movement, for dirt
or corrosion or pittings in the contact points. Make sure all
parts work freely without binding. Replace the switch, if
found defective.
Testing the operation of a centrifugal switch: Though
the centrifugal switch could be tested in a static condition,
it will be very difficult to assess its operation at dynamic
condition. As most of these switches cannot be checked
without opening the end plate, the procedure becomes
lengthy and cumbersome. To check the dynamic operation
of the switch the following method is suggested. Disconnect
the interconnecting terminals of the centrifugal switch
from the supply and the starting winding. Connect the
starting (auxiliary) winding through a 15 amps, single-pole,
tumbler switch to the rated supply as shown in Fig 4, and
keep the trumbler switch in the `ON' position.

Connect the terminals of the centrifugal switch, through a


lamp as shown in Fig 4. Switch `ON' the motor. When the
centrifugal switch is in the closed position, the lamp will
light. As the motor picks up speed, say in about 20
seconds, open the tumbler switch to disconnect the
starting winding. When the speed of the motor attains
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The current setting of the thermal overload relay can be
changed by adjusting the setting screw, provided for this
purpose (not shown in the figure.)
Operation of short-circuit relay: In the case of a short
circuit in the motor circuit, the short circuit current will be
very high in value. Though the thermal overload relay is
also in series with such a short circuit current, it is
sluggish in operation and takes considerable time to
operate. On the other hand, the short circuit current within
such time of delayed operation, will sufficiently damage
the motor winding, power cables or the connected supply
line.
The magnetic relay will operate faster than the thermal
overload relay in such cases.
During normal load current the magnetic field produced by
the coil will not have sufficient pull to attract the armature.
But in case of short circuit, the current will be very high and
the coil produces sufficient magnetism to attract the
armature. Downward movement of the armature activates
the mechacnical lever mechanism as shown by the arrow
in Fig 9 and the switching contact opens. These contacts
cannot be reclosed until the starter mechanism has been
reset by pressing the Stop button.

Manual starters are simple and they provide quiet operation.


Operation: Pushing the `ON' button closes the contacts.
The contacts remain closed until the STOP button is
pushed or the overload relay or the short circuit relay trips
the starter.
As shown in Fig 7, when the `ON' push-button (6) is
pressed, the switching contact (10) gets closed, and
remains in a closed position, as the mechanical lever
system (5) holds the stem of the `ON' button by the cavity
(11) against the spring tension. By operating the stop
button (7), the mechanical lever system (5) gets disengaged
from the stem cavity, making the stem of the `ON' button
to spring back, thereby opening the switching contacts Manual starters are used for fractional horsepower motors.
(10). They usually provide across-the-line starting. Manual
Operation of overload relay: In the case of sustained starters cannot provide low-voltage protection or no-volt
overloads, the heavy currents passing through the heating release. If power fails, the contacts remain closed, and the
element of the thermal overload relay heats up the bimetallic motor will restart when the power returns. This may be an
strip, making it to bend as shown by the arrow in Fig 8, advantage for pumps, fans, compressors, and oil burners.
thereby activating the mechanical lever system to open But in the case of machinery it can be dangerous to people
the switching contacts. operating the equipment, and hence, such manual starters
are not recommended to be used in these places.
Electromagnetic relay: Single phase induction motors,
like poly phase induction motors takes heavy current from
the time during starting when started direct on line
Advantage of this high starting current is taken to operate
electromagnetic type relay which performs the same
function as the centrifugal device. Connection diagram for
such a relay is shown in Fig 10.

110 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206

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On the other hand, the current in the starting winding due
to its capacitor will lead the applied voltage, by say 20°
degrees.
Hence, the phase difference between the main and starting
winding becomes near to 90 degrees. This in turn makes

The relay has a coil which is connected in series with the


main winding. The auxiliary winding is connected across
the supply through a normally open contact of the relay.
Since split-phase motors are usually started direct on line,
the initial current inrush may be as high a five to six times
the rated current. During the starting period, when the
main winding current is high, the armature of the relay will
be drawn upwards, thereby closing the relay contacts.
The auxiliary winding will, therefore, get connected across
the supply, thus helping the motor to start rotating. As the the line current to be more or less in phase with its applied
rotor starts rotating, the line current gradually goes on voltage, making the power factor to be high, thereby
decreasing. After the motor reaches proper speed, the creating an excellent starting torque.
main winding current drops to a low value and causes the However, after attaining 75% of the rated speed, the
armature of the relay to fall downwards and open the centrifugal switch operates opening the starting winding,
contacts, thereby cutting out the auxiliary winding from and the motor then operates as an induction motor, with
the supply. Such relays are located outside the motor so only the main winding connected to the supply.
that they can be easily serviced or replaced. As centrifugal
switches are mounted internally, their servicing or Reversing the direction of rotation: In order to reverse
replacement is not as simple as an externally mounted the direction of rotation of the capacitor start, induction-run
over-current relay. motor, either the starting or the main winding terminals
should be changed. This is due to the fact that the direction
iii) Capacitor-start, induction-run motor of rotation depends upon the instantaneous polarities of
the main field flux and the flux produced by the starting
A drive which requires a higher starting torque may be
winding. Therefore, reversing the polarity of any one of the
fitted with a capacitor-start, induction-run motor as it has
fields will reverse the torque.
excellent starting torque as compared to the
resistance-start, induction-run motor. Characteristic: As shown in Fig 2, the displacement of
current in the main and starting winding is about 80/90
Construction and working: Fig 1 shows the schematic
degrees, and the power factor angle between the applied
diagram of a capacitor-start, induction-run motor. As
voltage and line current is very small. This results in
shown, the main winding is connected across the main
producing a higher power factor and an excellent starting
supply, whereas the starting winding is connected across
torque, several times higher than the normal running
the main supply through a capacitor and a centrifugal
torque, as shown in Fig 3. The running torque adjusts itself
switch. Both these windings are placed in a stator slot at
with load by varying inversely with respect to speed as
90° electrical degrees apart, and a squirrel cage type rotor
shown in the characteristic curve in Fig 3.
is used.
Application: Due to the excellent starting torque and easy
direction-reversal characteristic, these machines are used

As shown in Fig 2, at the time of starting, the current in the


main winding lags the supply voltages by about 70°
degrees, depending upon its inductance and resistance.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 111

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in belted fans, blowers, dryers, washing machines, several days, and when touched, may give a severe shock.
pumps and compressors. Hence, before touching any terminal of the capacitor,
which is in use, the electrical charge should be discharged
iv) Capacitors used in single phase capacitor motors
through a test lamp or through a 100 ohms 10 watts
A capacitor is a device which can store electrical energy resistor as shown in Fig 1. Direct shorting of the capacitor
in the form of electrostatic charge. However the main terminals for discharging should be avoided as far as
purpose of the capacitor in the single phase motors is to possible as this results in creating an enormous strain to
split the phase for producing the rotating magnetic field. In the inner parts of the capacitor and it may fail.
addition, they also draw the leading current, thereby
Method of testing capacitors: Before removing a capacitor
improving the power factor.
from the motor connection for testing, it should be discharged
Precautions to be followed while using a capacitor in
a single phase capacitor motor: Paper or electrolytic
capacitors of non-polarized types are used for starting AC
capacitor type motors. These capacitors have special
marking for use in AC circuits, and will not have polarity
marking. Paper or electrolytic capacitors for use in DC
circuits have polarity markings. They must not be used in
AC circuits as the reversal of AC voltage will heat up the
capacitor, producing enormous gas inside the can, thereby
blowing it into pieces.
The AC voltage rating inscribed on the capacitor will have
two ratings. One for working voltage and another for the
maximum value of voltage. Working voltage refers to the
normal R.M.S. rating of the supply mains while the
to avoid fatal shocks. The following methods are
maximum rating will be AC peak voltage which will be 2
recommended for testing the large value paper, electrolytic
times the rated R.M.S. voltage. Hence, while replacing a or oil-filled capacitors.
capacitor, a careful scrutiny of voltage rating is essential,
as otherwise the capacitor may fail and may also explode. Charge-discharge test: Check the working voltage
indicated on the capacitor. If the value is equal or more
The duty cycle is another important point to be checked. than that of the usual, single phase voltge, say 230V AC
In most of the capacitors, the marking will indicate whether 50 Hz, we can connect it to the supply through a 100
it is for intermittant (short duty) or continuous (long duty) ohms, 25 watts resistor as shown in Fig 2. Preferably,
rating. Though continuous rated capacitors can be used keep the capacitor, while testing on line voltage, inside a
for intermittant rating, never an intermittant (short duty) covered cardboard box or in a wooden box. Sometimes, if
rating capacitor should be used for continuous rating. This the capacitor is defective, it may explode and cause injury
has some relation with the centrifugal switch operation, to you. Switch on the circuit for about 3-4 seconds. Then
frequency of starting and stopping and load. When the switch `OFF' the supply, and remove the supply terminals
load is heavy or the centrifugal switch is not proper, there carefully with the help of an insulated pliers, without
will be a chance for the starting winding, along with the touching the capacitor terminals. Then, short the capacitor
capacitor, to be in the main circuit for a long time. In such terminals with the help of a screwdriver. A bright spark is
cases the capacitor, which is intermittant rated, will fail an indication that the capacitor is working. A dull spark or
due to overheating. This should be checked when the no spark indicates the capacitor is weak or open. On the
capacitor fails often in a specified capacitor-start motor. other hand, no sparks while touching with the supply
The capacity of the capacitor, which is given in microfarads, terminals indicate that the capacitor is opened. In the case
should be the same as is specifed by the manufacturer of of low capacity capacitors, the spark will be very feeble
the motor. A lower value will result in poorer starting torque even if the capacitor is in good condition. Further, this
and high starting currents, whereas a higher rating may check or the ohmmeter test described in the next para,
not allow the speed to reach the rated value resulting in the does not indicate the de-rated value of the capacitor.
starting winding to be in main line for a long time there by Hence a capacity check is necessary as will be explained
ending in poor operation and efficiency. In capacitor-start, later.
capacitor-run motors, there will be two capacitors. As the Ohmmeter test: Before using the ohmmeter, the capacitor
starting capacitor will be 5 to 15 times of the rating of the should be thoroughly discharged to avoid damage to the
running capacitor, and will also be of intermittant-rated ohmmeter. Set the range of the ohmmeter to resistance
electrolytic type, when compared to the running capacitor, and adjust to zero ohms. Touch the terminals of the
which will be of continuous-rated, oil-filled type. Due care capacitor and watch the deflection of the meter. If the
should be taken while connecting these capacitors in the needle deflects towards zero and then moves towards
motor, avoiding wrong selection and connection. infinity, the capacitor is working. Reverse the test leads
While handling a capacitor, due care should be taken to and test it again, the needle will do the same thing again
avoid shocks. A good capacitor can hold its charge for in a good capacitor. If the capacitor is open, the needle will

112 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206

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material, the measurement could be made between the
capacitor terminals and the metal strap holding the can.

not go to zero position but will remain in infinity side. On


the other hand, in a shorted capacitor, the needle will be
in zero position but will not go to infinity side at all. These
results are illustrated in Fig 3. v) Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor
Capacity test: Connection should be as shown in Fig 4.
Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors are of two types as
Keep the resistance value maximum at the time of
stated below.
switching `on' to protect the ammeter. Keep the capacitor
inside a cardboard or wooden box to avoid injury in case – Permanent capacitor motor (Single value capacitor
of explosion. The ammeter (I) and voltmeter (V) readings motor)
are to be taken when the resistor is completely cut out
– Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor (Two-value
from the circuit. From the meter readings, the capacity
capacitor motor)
rating of the capacitor in microfarads can be calculated.
Permanent capacitor motor: This type of motor is
shown in Fig 1 which is most commonly used in fans. This
motor is preferred in drives where the starting torque is not
required to be high, while at the same time elimination of
the centrifugal switch in the motor is necessary for easy
maintenance. The capacitor is connected in series with
the auxiliary winding, and remains so throughout the
operation. These capacitors should be of oil-type
construction and have continuous duty rating.
To avoid low efficiency, the capacity of the condensers is
kept low, which, in turn, brings down the starting torque to
about 50 to 80% of the full-load torque.
The torque-speed characteristic of the motor is shown in
Fig 2. This motor works on the same principle as the
capacitor-start, induction-run motor with low starting torque

I
Capacity of capacitor in CF Farad =
2 π FV

6
I × 10
Capacity in microfarad C mf =
2 π FV

3182 × I
= microfarad
V
If the capacity is 20 percent more or less than the notified
value, replace it.
Insulation test on capacitors: According to BIS 1709-1984
recommendations, the insulation test conducted between but with higher power factor, during starting as well as in
the shorted capacitor terminals and the metal can, when running.
measured by a 500V megger/insulation tester, should not
be less than 100 megohms. If the can is of insulating

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Fig 5. This motor has the following advantages.
– The starting torque is 300% of the full load torque.
This motor is most suitable for drives, which require a lower – The starting current is low, say 2 to 3 times of the
torque during start, easy changes in the direction of running current.
rotation, stable load operation and higher power factor – Starting and running P.F. are good.
during operation. Examples - fans, variable rheostats,
induction regulators, furnace control and arc welding – Highly efficient running.
controls. This motor is cheaper than the capacitor-start,
induction-run motor of the same rating.
Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors: As discussed
earlier capacitor-start, induction-run motors have excellent
starting torque, say about 300% of the full load torque, and
their power factor during starting is high. However, their
running torque is not good, and their power factor, while
running, is low. They also have lesser efficiency and
cannot take overloads.
These problems are eliminated by the use of a two-value
capacitor motor in which one larger capacitor of electrolytic
(short duty) type is used for starting, whereas a smaller
capacitor of oil-filled (continuous duty) type is used for
running, by connecting them with the starting winding as
shown in Fig 3. A general view of such a two-value – Extremely noiseless operation.
capacitor motor is shown in Fig 4. This motor also works
in the same way as a capacitor-start induction-run motor, – Can be loaded up to 125% of the full-load capacity.
with the exception, that the capacitor C1 is always in the Application
circuit, altering the running performance to a great extent.
These motors are used for compressors, refrigerators,
The starting capacitor which is of short-duty rating will be air-conditioners etc. where the duty demands a higher
starting torque, higher efficiency, higher power factor and
overloading. These motors are costlier than the
capacitor-start, induction- run motors of the same capacity.
vi) Maintain, service and troubleshoot the single
phase (Split phase) motors
General maintenance and sesrvicing of single phase(split
phase) motor incorporates checking the following area.
– Incoming cables
– Main switch I.C.D.P.
– Starter
– Motor.
disconnected from the starting winding with the help of a
Checking the incoming cables should be started from the
centrifugal switch, when the starting speed attains about
main distribution board. A visual check of the colour of
75% of the rated speed.
cables would indicate whether the cables are underrated
Characteristic and need replacement. While discolouring of cables,
The torque-speed characteristic of this motor is shown in throughout the circuit indicate under rating of the cables,

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the discolouring at ends near the terminal connections the growler on the core of the stator, place a metal blade
indicate loose connections. in the core and move it around. Rapid vibration of the metal
blade held at the other side of the coil will indicate shorted
A thorough check up of the tightness of termination
coil.
screws is necessary at the distribution board, main switch
of the motor, starter and the motor. The procedure may be followed by moving the internal
growler slot to slot and at the same time moving the blade
Checking the main switch: Normally visual inspection of
inside the core. Alternatively shorted winding could be
the inner parts of the main switch will indicate loose
checked by the use of low voltage DC supply. Connect the
connections, improper capacity fuses and badly positioned
suspected winding to a low voltage DC supply. Measure
baffles of contact. Rectify the defects after proper shut
the voltage drop across each coil. Shorted coil will register
down.
low voltage drop.
Checking the starter: Before opening the starter switch
Shorted winding may blow the fuse or in some cases it will
off the power supply. Starter contacts should be checked
result in smoke in the winding without blowing the fuse. In
for perfect closing with proper tension. Most of the present
either case dismantle the motor and visually inspect the
days starter contacts could be checked by placing a small
winding. A burnt winding is easy to recognize by its smell
thin card board in between the movable and fixed contacts
and appearance.
and closing the contactor manually. Holding the contactor
movable mechanism by hand try to pull the paper board. If a short circuit exists between the main and starting
Sufficient grip of the paper board will indicate proper winding it may result ultimately in a burnt out motor. To
contact. Move the paper board to other contacts and locate the short circuited section, connect one lead of
check similarly. main winding to the supply line through the test lamp.
Connect the next lead of supply to one lead of starting
Check the contact points for perfect smooth surface.
winding. Glowing of the test lamp indicates short between
According to the manufacturer’s instructions the contact
the windings.
points could be either cleaned with cloth or with the help
of a smooth sandpaper. Badly pitted or welded contacts To detect the place of short, push the starting or main
need replacement. winding away from each other using a fibre wedge at
various places of the winding. If the lamp goes out at a
Check the overload mechanism whether the setting is
particular stage, the short is indicated at that place.
tallying with the motor current rating. If necessary set
Inserting a leatheroid paper between the windings will
them correctly.
solve the problem.
Check the no-volt coil mechanism for smooth functioning.
If the centrifugal switch appears to be in good condition,
No volt coil resistance could be measured and compared
but the contacts are found open, it is necessary to position
with the earlier measurement. Variation in resistance
the switch properly in the shaft or adjust and dress the
value or discolouring of the coil indicate the coil needs to
contact points. Construction and operation of one type of
be replaced with a similar one.
centrifugal switch is shown in Fig 1.
Checking the motor: First the motor should be visually
inspected for broken parts. Observe the noise while
running. The resistance values of winding and insulation
value between the winding and frame should be taken
before dismantling. These values, when compared with
the earlier values found in the maintenance history cards,
will give sufficient idea to the technician regarding the
expected trouble area.
Make it a point to draw the connection diagram of the
terminal plate before disconnecting any lead for testing.
While checking the motor continuity (open circuit) checks
must be done for both main and starting winding and also
in the centrifugal switch. Open circuits in split phase
motors are often caused by loose or dirty connections or
broken wires.
Once the open winding is detected, dismantle the motor
and check the end leads and winding interconnection
leads. Most of the faults could be rectified at this stage. In
case the open is detected inside the coils of the winding.
It is better to rewind the motor.
While checking the motor winding for shorts, use of an
internal growler is a most handy equipment. Proceed as
follows:- Dismantle the motor and remove the rotor. Place

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 3.4.206
Electronic Mechanic - Electrical Control Circuits

Three phase induction motors-principle-construction-characteristics -


insulation test-types
Objectives : At the end of this sexercise you shall be able to
• state the principle of a 3-phase induction motor
• explain briefly the method of producing a rotating field.

The three-phase induction motor is used more extensively a force to move the rotor in the same direction as that of
than any other form of electrical motor, due to its simple the rotating magnetic field of the stator, as shown in
construction, trouble-free operation, lower cost and a fairly Fig. 3. As such the rotor follows the stator field in the same
good torque speed characteristic. direction by rotating at a speed lesser than the synchronous
i) Principle of 3-phase induction motor: It works on the speed of the stator rotating magneticfield.
same principle as a DC motor, that is, the current-carrying
conductors kept in a magnetic field will tend to create a
force. However, the induction motor differs from the DC
motor in fact that the rotor of the induction motor is not
electrically connected to the stator, but induces a voltage/
current in the rotor by the transformer action, as the stator
magnetic field sweeps across the rotor. The induction
motor derives its name from the fact that the current in the
rotor is not drawn directly from the supply, but is induced
by the relative motion of the rotor conductors and the
magnetic field produced by the stator currents.
The stator of the 3-phase induction motor is similar to that
of a 3-phase alternator, of revolving field type. The
three-phase winding in the stator produces a rotating
magnetic field in the stator core as it will be explained later.
The rotor of the induction motor may have either shorted
rotor conductors in the form of a squirrel cage or in the form
of a 3-phase winding to facilitate the circulation of current
through a closed circuit.
Let us assume that the stator field of the induction motor
is rotating in a clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 1. This
makes for the relative motion of the rotor in an anticlockwise
direction as shown in Fig. 1. Applying Fleming's right hand
rule, the direction of emf induced in the rotor will be towards
the observer as shown in Fig. 2. As the rotor conductors At higher speeds of the rotor nearing to synchronous
have a closed electric path, due to their shorting, a current speeds, the relative speed between the rotor and the
will flow through them as in a short-circuited secondary of rotating magnetic field of the stator reduces and results in
a transformer. a smaller induced emf in the rotor. Theoretically, if we
assume that the rotor attains a speed equal to the
synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of the
stator, there will be no relative motion between the stator
field and the rotor, and thereby no induced emf or current
will be there in the rotor. Consequently there will not be any
torque in the rotor. Hence the rotor of the induction motor
cannot run at a synchronous speed at all. As the motor is
loaded, the rotor speed has to fall to cope up with the
mechanical force; thereby the relative speed increases,
and the induced emf and current increase in the rotor
resulting in an increased torque.
The magnetic field produced by the rotor currents will be
in a counter-clockwise direction as shown in Fig 2 according To reverse the direction of rotation of a rotor: The
to Maxwell's Corkscrew rule. The interaction between the direction of rotation of the stator magnetic field depends
stator magnetic field and the rotor magnetic field results in upon the phase sequence of the supply. To reverse the
direction of rotation of the stator as well as the rotor, the
116

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phase sequence of the supply is to be changed by
changing any two leads connected to the stator.
Rotating magnetic field from a three-phase stator:
The operation of the induction motor is dependent on the
presence of a rotating magnetic field in the stator. The
stator of the induction motor contains three-phase windings
placed at 120 electrical degrees apart from each other.
These windings are placed on the stator core to form
non-salient stator field poles. When the stator is energized
from a three-phase voltage supply, in each phase winding
will set up a pulsating field. However, by virtue of the
spacing between the windings, and the phase difference,
the magnetic fields combine to produce a field rotating at
a constant speed around the inside surface of the stator
core. This resultant movement of the flux is called the
`rotating magnetic field', and its speed is called the
`synchronous speed'.
The manner, in which the rotating field is set up, may be
described by considering the direction of the phase
currents at successive instants during a cycle. Fig. 4a
shows a simplified star-connected, three-phase stator
winding. The winding shown is for a two-pole induction
motor. Fig .4b shows the phase currents for the three-phase
windings. The phase currents will be 120 electrical
degrees apart as shown in Fig. 4b. The resultant magnetic
field produced by the combined effect of the three currents
is shown at increments of 60° for one cycle of the current.

For convenience the +ve current is shown as +ve sign, and


the -ve current is shown as dot (•) sign. Accordingly Y2 and
B1 are shown as positive and Y1 and B2 are shown as
negative. Using Maxwell's corkscrew rule, the resulting
flux by these currents will produce a flux as shown in Fig
5(1). The arrow shows the direction of the magnetic field
and the magnetic poles in the stator core.
At position 2, as shown by Fig. 5(2), 60 electrical degrees
later, the phase current IB is zero, the current IR is positive
and the current IY is negative. In Fig 5a the current is now
observed to be flowing into the conductors at the coil ends
R1 and Y2, and out of the conductors at coil R2 and Y1.
Therefore, as shown in Fig. 5c(2), the resultant magnetic
poles are now at a new position in the stator core. In fact
the poles in position 2 have also rotated 60° from position
(1).
At position (1) in Fig 4b, the phase current IR is zero, and
Using the same reasoning as above for the current wave
hence coil R will be producing zero flux. However, the
positions 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, it will be seen that for each
phase current IB is positive and Iy is negative.
successive increment of 60 electrical degrees, the resultant
Considering the instantaneous current directions of these stator field will rotate a further 60° as shown in Fig. 5. Note
three phase windings, as shown in Fig 4b at position 1, we that from the resultant flux from position (1) to position (7),
can indicate the current direction in Fig. 5(1). it is obvious that for each cycle of applied voltage the field
of the two-pole stator will also rotate one revolution around
its core.
From what is stated above it will be clear that the rotating
magnetic field could be produced by a set of 3-phase
stationary windings, placed at 120° electrical degrees
apart, and supplied with a 3-phase voltage.

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The speed at which the field rotates is called synchronous produce a rotating magnetic field in the stator core.
speed, and, it depends upon the frequency of supply and
the number of poles for which the stator is wound.
Hence
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
120F
= P

where `P' is the number of poles in the stator, and `F' is the
frequency of the supply.
ii) Construction of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction
motor - relation between slip, speed, rotor frequency,
copper loss and torque
Three-phase induction motors are classified according to Rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor: The rotor of
their rotor construction. Accordingly, we have two major the squirrel cage induction motor shown in Fig. 2 contains
types. no windings. Instead it is a cylindrical core constructed of
steel laminations with conductor bars mounted parallel to
– Squirrel cage induction motors
the shaft and embedded near the surface of the rotor core.
– Slip ring induction motors. These conductor bars are short circuited by an end-ring at
Squirrel cage motors have a rotor with short-circuited bars either end of the rotor core. On large machines, these
whereas slip ring motors have wound rotors having three conductor bars and the end-rings are made up of copper
windings, either connected in star or delta. The terminals with the bars brazed or welded to the end rings as shown
of the rotor windings of the slip ring motors are brought out in Fig.3. On small machines the conductor bars and
through slip-rings which are in contact with stationary end-rings are sometimes made of aluminium with the bars
brushes. and rings cast in as part of the rotor core.

Development of these two types of induction motors is due


to the fact that the torque of the induction motor depends
upon the rotor resistance. Higher rotor resistance offers
higher starting torque but the running torque will be low
with increased losses and poor efficiency. For certain
applications of loads where high starting torque and
sufficient running torque are the only requirements, the
rotor resistance should be high at the time of starting, and
low while the motor is running. If the motor circuit is left with
high resistance, the rotor copper loss will be more,
resulting in low speed and poor efficiency. Hence it is
advisable to have low resistance in the rotor while in
operation.
Both these requirements are possible in slip-ring motors
by adding external resistance at the start and cutting it off The rotor or rotating part is not connected electrically to
while the motor runs. As this is not possible in squirrel the power supply but has voltage induced in it by transformer
cage motors, the above requirements are met by developing action from the stator. For this reason, the stator is
a rotor called double squirrel cage rotor where there will be sometimes called the primary, and the rotor is referred to
two sets of short circuited bars in the rotor. as the secondary of the motor. Since the motor operates
on the principle of induction; and as the construction of the
Stator of an induction motor: There is no difference rotor, with the bars and end-rings resembles a squirrel
between squirrel cage and slip-ring motor stators. cage, the name squirrel cage induction motor is used.
The induction motor stator resembles the stator of a (Fig. 3)
revolving field, three-phase alternator. The stator or the The rotor bars are not insulated from the rotor core
stationary part consists of three-phase winding held in because they are made of metals having less resistance
place in the slots of a laminated steel core which is than the core. The induced current will flow mainly in them.
enclosed and supported by a cast iron or a steel frame as Also, the bars are usually not quite parallel to the rotor
shown in Fig.1. The phase windings are placed 120 shaft but are mounted in a slightly skewed position. This
electrical degrees apart, and may be connected in either feature tends to produce a more uniform rotor field and
star or delta externally, for which six leads are brought out torque; also it helps to reduce some of the internal
to a terminal box mounted on the frame of the motor. When magnetic noise when the motor is running.
the stator is energised from a three-phase voltage it will
118 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206

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The major part of the rotor current at the time of starting
could flow through the outer ring which has high resistance.
This high resistance enables to produce a high starting
torque.
As the speed increases, the rotor frequency is reduced. At
low frequency, the total resistance offered for the current
flow in the inner cage reduces due to reduction of reactance
(XL = 2πfrL), and the major part of the rotor current will be in
the inner cage rather than in the highly resistant outer
cage.
As such, the low resistance of the inner cage becomes
responsible for producing a torque just sufficient to maintain
the speed.
Slip and rotor speed: We have already found that the
End shields: The function of the two end shields which are
rotor of an induction motor must rotate in the same
to support the rotor shaft. They are fitted with bearings and
direction as the rotating magnetic field, but it cannot rotate
attached to the stator frame with the help of studs or bolts.
at the same speed as that of the magnetic field. Only when
Double squirrel cage induction motor the rotor runs at a lesser speed than the stator magnetic
field, the rotor conductors could cut the stator magnetic
Rotor construction and its working: This consists of
field for an emf to be induced. The rotor current could then
two sets of conductor bars called outer and inner cages as
flow and the rotor magnetic field will set up to produce a
shown in Fig. 4. The outer cage consists of bars of high
torque.
resistance metals like brass, and is short-circuited by the
end-rings. The inner cage consists of low resistance metal The speed at which the rotor rotates is called the rotor
bars like copper, and is short-circuited by the end-rings. speed or speed of the motor. The difference between the
The outer cage has high resistance and low reactance, synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed is called
whereas the inner cage has low resistance but being the `slip speed'. Slip speed is the number of revolutions per
situated deep in the rotor core, has a large ratio of minute by which the rotor continues to fall behind the
reactance to resistance. revolving magnetic field.
When the slip speed is expressed as a fraction of the
synchronous speed, it is called a fractional slip.
Therefore, fractional slip S
N s - Nr
= Ns

Then percentage slip (% slip)

N s - Nr
= x 100
Ns

where Ns = synchronous speed of the


stator magnetic field
Nr = Actual rotating speed of the
rotor in r.p.m.
Most squirrel cage induction motors will have a percentage
slip of 2 to 5 percent of the rated load.
Example
Calculate the percentage slip of an induction motor having
6 poles fed with 50 cycles supply rotating with an actual
speed of 960 r.p.m.
At the time of starting, the rotor frequency is the same as Given:
the stator frequency. Hence the inner cage which has
higher inductive reactance offers more resistance to the Poles = 6
current flow. As such very little current flows through the Nr = Rotor speed = 960 r.p.m.
inner cage at the time of starting.
F = frequency of supply = 50 Hz

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Ns = Synchronous speed c Rotor frequency fr = Slip x Stator frequency

f Ns - Nr
= 120 xf
P = Ns

120 x 50
= = 1000 r.p.m. =
1500 - 1440 x 50
6 1500

N s - Nr 60 x 50
% slip = x 100 = = 2 Hz.
Ns 1500

1000 - 960 Example 2


= x 100 = 4%
1000 A 12-pole, 3-phase alternator driven at a speed of 500
r.p.m. supplies power to a 8-pole, 3-phase induction
Generated voltage in the rotor and its frequency: As motor. If the slip of the motor at full load is 3%, calculate
the rotor cuts the stator flux, it induces voltage in rotor the full load speed of the motor.
conductors and it is called the rotor voltage. The frequency
of this rotor voltage is equal to the product of the slip and Let Nr = actual speed of motor
stator (supply) frequency. Supply frequency = frequency of alternator
Frequency of the rotor voltage
12 x 500
fr = Fractional slip x stator = = 50 Hz.
120
frequency
Synchronous speed Ns of the induction motor
Ns - Nr
= x f or sf
Ns 120 x 50
= = 750 r.p.m.
8
From the above, we find that, at the time of starting, the
rotor is at rest, and the slip will be equal to one and the rotor N s - Nr
frequency will be the same as the stator frequency. When % slip S = x 100 = 3
Ns
the motor is running at high speed, the slip will be low and
the frequency of the rotor will also be low. 750 - Nr
x 100 = 3
Example 1 = 750
A 3-phase induction motor is wound for 4 poles, and is
supplied from a 50 Hz supply. Calculate a) the synchronous 3 x 750
= 22.5
speed, b) the speed of the rotor when the slip is 4 percent, 750 – Nr = 100
and c) the rotor frequency.
Nr = 727.5 r.p.m.
120 f
a Synchronous speed = Ns = Example 3
P
120 x 50 A 400V, 3-phase, eight-pole 50 Hz squirrel cage motor has
= = 1500 r.p.m. a rated full load speed of 720 r.p.m. Determine
4
a the synchronous speed
b Actual speed of the rotor = Nr
b the rotor slip at rated load
Ns - Nr b the percentage slip at rated load
Percentage slip = x 100
Ns
d the percentage slip at the instant of start up
N s x Percentage slip e the rotor frequency at the rated load
Ns – Nr =
100 f the rotor frequency at the instant of start up.

N s x %slip Solution
Nr = N s -
100 120 x f
a Synchronous speed Ns =
p
1500 x 4
= 1500 -
100
120 x 50
= = 750 r.p.m.
= 1440 r.p.m. 8

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b Slip at rated load = 750 - 720 = 30 r.p.m. Torque is proportionally = Stator flux x rotor
current x rotor power
30 x 100 factor.
c Percent slip at rated load = = 4%
750 Let E1 be the applied voltage
d At the instant of start up the rotor speed is zero, and Ø be the stator flux which is proportional to E1
hence the percentage slip will be 100 percent.
S be the fractional slip
e Rotor frequency at rated load fr
R2 be the rotor resistance
( f x percentage slip) X2 be the rotor inductive reactance at standstill
=
100
SX2 be the rotor inductive reactance at fractional slip S
50 x 4 K be the transformation ratio between stator and rotor
= = 2 Hz. voltages
100
f At the instant of starting the slip is 100 percent. E2 be the rotor induced emf and equal to SKE1
Therefore, at this instant the rotor frequency will be I2 be the rotor current,
equal to the stator frequency fr (at starting) = f = 50 Hz.
Cosθ be the rotor power factor.
Rotor copper loss: Rotor copper loss is the loss of power
Z2 be the rotor impendence.
taking place in the rotor due to its resistance and the rotor
current. Though the resistance of the rotor for a squirrel We can conclude mathematically the following final results.
cage motor remains constant, the current in the rotor
T α Ø I2 Cosθ2
depends upon the slip, transformation ratio between the
stator and rotor voltages and the inductive reactance of the This can be deduced in to a formula
rotor circuit.
Let T = torque developed by the motor SKE12 R 2

P R = power developed in the rotor R22 + S2 X22

Pm = power converted in the rotor as mechanical


Rotor copper loss
power Tα
Fractional slip
nS = the synchronous speed in r.p.m.
nr = the rotor speed in r.p.m. R2
Starting torque α as fractional slip S = 1
R2 + X2
2 2
Then PR = 2πnsT watts
Pm = 2πnrT watts.
1
The difference between PR - Pm is the rotor copper loss. Maximum torque α
X2
PR – Pm = Rotor copper loss
where X2 in inductive reactance of the rotor at standstill and
Rotor copper loss= 2πT(ns– nr) is constant.
Rotor copper loss Motor torque calculation: Since the stator flux and
= (ns– nr)
2πT induced rotor current for an induction motor are not easily
measured, the torque equation T = K Øs IR Cos θR is not
Rotor copper loss (n s - n r ) the most practical equation to be used for determining a
2πn s T = motor torque. Instead the Prony Brake torque equation
ns described earlier may be used, provided the motor's output
power and Rev/min are known.
= Fractional slip
Rotor copper loss = Fractional slip x Input 2π x torque x Rev/min
power to the rotor Output power in watts =
60
= S x 2πnsT.
(60 x output watts)
Torque: The torque production in an induction motor is Torque (newton metres) =
(2π x Rev/min)
more or less the same as in the DC motor. In the DC motor
the torque is proportional to the product of the flux per pole
and the armature current. Similarly in the induction motor (9.55 x output watts)
=
the torque is proportional to the flux per stator pole, the (Re v / min)
rotor current and also the rotor power factor.
A motor's power may also be stated in British horsepower
Thus we have,
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 121

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(hp). In this case the output power in watts will be equal to equipment, and also affect the working of the other
the output horsepower multiplied by 746 (1 hp = 746w). electrical equipments. As such the National Electrical
Code has stipulated certain minimum standards for the
In case the motor power is given in metric horsepower, the
insulation resistance value.
output power in watts will be equal to the metric horsepower,
multiplied by 735.6 (1 metric horsepower = 735.6 watts). Method of testing insulation resistance of the
Example electrical motor and the recommended value of the
resistance as per National Electrical Code: Before
Determine the torque in newton metres produced by a 5 hp putting into operation, the electrical motor must be tested
squirrel cage motors rotating at 1440 r.p.m. for its insulation resistance. This is to make sure that there
Assuming it is British horsepower, output power in is no leakage between the current carrying parts of the
watts motor and the non-current carrying metal parts of the
motor. As insulation resistance may fail during the course
= hp x 746 of operation due to the reasons mentioned above, it is
= 5 x 746 = 3730 watts. most necessary to check the insulation resistance at
intervals, say once in a month, for any motor which is in
(60 x output watts) operation, as a preventive maintenance check. These
Torque (newton metres) = values of insulation resistance must be recorded in the
(2π x Rev/min)
maintenance card and whenever the value goes below the
(60 x 3730) accepted value, the motor winding has to be dried and
varnished to improve the conditions.
=
(2 x 3.14 x 1440)
Condition and acceptable test results: According to
= 24.75 newton metres. NE code, the insulation resistance of each phase winding
against the frame and between the windings shall be
iii) Insulation test on induction motors measured. A megohm-meter of 500V or 1000V rating shall
It is often said that electricity is a good servant but a bad be used. Star points should be disconnected while testing.
master. This is because electricity is so useful but can To avoid accidents due to weak insulations, first the
cause accidents, and even death if one is careless. A large insulation resistance value between any conducting part
number of accidents, which occur in electrical motors, is of the machine and the frame of the machine should be
due to leakage of current from the conducting part of the tested, and the measured value should not be lesser than
motor to the non-conducting part. The main reason is the one megohm as a thumb rule, or more precisely should not
weak insulation caused by the damaged insulation be less than a value based on the voltage and rated power
materials of the motor. of the motor as given in the National Electrical Code.
Insulation materials used on winding wires or in between
winding wires and the slots of the laminated core, or the 20 x E
Insulation resistance Ri =
insulated sleeves of lead cables may get damaged due to 1000 + 2P
the following reasons.
where
– Moisture content in the atmosphere (Ex. Electrical
motors in harbours)
R1 is the insulation resistance in megohms at 25°C
– Chemicals and their fumes in the surroundings (Ex.
Electrical machines in chemical plants) En related phase-to-phase voltage and
– High temperature of the surrounding (Ex. Electrical P rated power in KW.
machines in steel rolling mill)
If the resistance is measured at a temperature different
– High temperature emanating from the machine itself from 25°C, the value shall be corrected to 25°C.
while working. (Ex. Electrical machines at hill tops
where the cooling ability of the thin air is poor.) General instruction for the measurement of insulation
resistance: Insulation resistance of an electric motor may
– Dust, dirt, oil particles deposited on the windings and
be in the range of 10 to 100 megohms but as it varies
cables. (Ex. Electrical machines in cement plants, oil
greatly in accordance with the temperature and humidity
mills, chemical plants etc.)
of the electric motor, it would be difficult to give a definite
– Aging of the machine. value. When the temperature of such a motor is raised, the
insulation resistance will initially drop considerably, even
When the insulation deteriorates, the insulation resistance
below the acceptable minimum. If any suspicion exists on
value is reduced, and the current may leak to the frame of
this score, the motor winding shall be dried out. The
the electrical machine. If the machine is not properly
equation given above is used to calculate the insulation
earthed, the leakage currents may develop a dangerous
resistance as a standard value. However it should not be
potential on the frame. If somebody comes in contact with
less than 1 megohm as an acceptable value.
the frame, he may get even fatal shocks. These leakage
currents also produce erroneous readings in the measuring
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Secondly, in the case of accidental leakage of currents The test lamp is connected in series with a fuse and a
from any current carrying part to non-current carrying switch to the phase wire and the other end is connected
metal part, there should be a ground system which should to one of the terminals (say U1 in Fig. 1). The neutral of the
provide a minimum impedence path for the faulty (leakage) supply wire is touched to the other terminals one by one.
current to flow. Thereby protective devices like fuses or The terminal in which the lamp lights is the other end of the
circuit-breakers or earth leakage circuit-breakers or earth winding connected to the phase wire (say U2 in Fig. 1). The
fault relays would function and disconnect the supply to pairs are to be found in a similar manner. Lighting of the
the defective motor circuit. lamp between two terminals shows continuity of the
winding. Lighting of the lamp between more than two
However, this will not be possible unless and until the
terminals shows short between the windings.
ground (earth) system has minimum impedance. This
could be achieved by the following means. Limitations of lamp continuity test: However, this test
– Using low resistance earth continuity conductors only shows the continuity but will not indicate any short
between the frame of the motor and the earth electrode. between the turns of the same winding. A better test would
– Providing rust-proof metal parts like bolts, nuts and be to use an ohmmeter having an accurate low resistance
lugs for connecting the earth continuity conductor range to measure the resistance of the individual windings.
(ECC) with the frame as well as the main electrodes. In a 3-phase induction motor, the resistance of the three
(Galvanised nuts and bolts are to be used.) windings should be the same, or more or less equal. If the
reading is less in one winding, it shows that the winding is
– Keeping the earth electrode resistance value as low as shorted.
possible such that in case of leakage, any one unit of
the protective system will operate to isolate the motor Insulation test between windings: As shown in Fig. 2,
from the supply. one of the Megger terminals is connected to one terminal
of any one winding (say U1 in Fig. 2) and the other terminal
Necessity of continuity test before insulation test: of the Megger is connected to one terminal of the other
While testing the insulation resistance between the winding windings (say W2 in Fig. 2).
and the frame, it is the usual practice to connect one prod
of the Megger to the frame and the other prod to any one
of the terminals of the winding. Likewise, when testing
insulation resistance between windings, it is the usual
practice to connect the two prods of the Megger to any two
ends of a different winding. In all the cases it is assumed
that the windings are in sound condition and the two ends
of the same winding will be having continuity. However, it
is possible the winding may have a break, and part of the
winding may have a higher insulation resistance and the
other part might have been grounded. Hence, to increase
the reliability of the insulation resistance test, it is
recommended that continuity test may be conducted in
the motor before the insulation test, to be sure, that the
winding is sound and the insulation resistance includes
the entire winding.
When the Megger handle is rotated at its rated speed, the
Continuity test: The continuity of the winding is checked
reading should be more than one megohm. A lower
by using a test lamp in the following method as shown in
reading than one megohm shows weak insulation between
Fig.1. First the links between the terminals should be
the windings, and needs to be improved. Likewise the
removed.
insulation resistance between the other windings is tested
and the values are recorded in Table 1.
Table 1

S.No. Between Insulation Remarks


windings resistance
values in
megohms
1 U and W

2 U and V

3 V and W

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Insulation resistance between winding and frame: will give an idea about the behaviour of the motor in load
As shown in Fig. 3, one terminal of the Megger is conditions. As the torque of the motor is also dependent
connected to one of the phase windings, and the other on the slip, it will be interesting to study the characteristic
terminal of the Megger is connected to the earthing of the squirrel cage induction motor to find the relationship
terminal of the frame. When the Megger handle is rotated between load, speed, torque and slip.
at the rated speed, the reading obtained should be more
Speed, torque and slip characteristics : It has already
than one megohm. A lower reading than one megohm
been made clear that the rotor speed of a squirrel cage
indicates poor insulation between the winding and the
motor will always lag behind the synchronous speed of the
frame and needs to be improved by drying and varnishing
stator field. The rotor slip is necessary in order to induce
the windings.
the rotor currents required for the motor torque. At no load,
only a small torque is required to overcome the motor’s
mechanical losses, and the rotor slip will be very small,
say about two percent. As the mechanical load is
increased, however, the rotor speed will decrease, and
hence, the slip will increase. This increase in slip inturn
increases the induced rotor currents, and the increased
rotor current in turn, will produce a higher torque to meet
the increased load.
Fig. 1 shows the typical speed torque and slip characteristic
curves for a standard squirrel cage motor. The speed curve
shows that a standard squirrel cage motor will operate at
Likewise the other windings are tested and the readings
a relatively constant speed from no load to full load.
are tabulated as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
S.No. Between Insulation Remarks
windings resistance
values in
megohms
1 U and frame

2 U and frame

3 V and frame

Necessity of frame earthing: The frame of the electrical


equipment/machine needs to be earthed because : Since the squirrel cage rotor is constructed basically of
– the earthing system provides safety for persons and heavy copper/aluminium bars, shorted by two end rings,
apparatus against earth faults. the rotor impedance will be relatively, low and hence, a
small increase in the rotor induced voltage will produce a
– the object of an earthing frame is to provide as nearly relatively large increase in the rotor current. Therefore, as
as possible a surface under and around the motor the squirrel cage motor is loaded, from no-load to full load,
which shall be of uniform potential, and as near zero or a small decrease in speed is required to cause a relative
absolute earth potential, as possible. increase in the rotor current. For this reason, regulation
According to I.E.rules, for reasons of safety, the frame of of a squirrel cage motor is very good. But the motor is often
the motor has to be connected by two distinct earth classified as a constant speed device.
connections to two earth electrodes with the help of The slip curve shows that the percentage slip is less than
properly sized earth continuity conductors. Further the 5% load, and is a straight line.
earth system resistance (earth electrode 5 ohms and
earth continuity conductor one ohm, if not specified) Since the torque will increase in almost direct proportion
should be sufficiently low such that the protective devices to the rotor slip, the torque graph is similar to the slip graph
in the motor circuit will operate and isolate the circuit in which also has a straight line characteristic as shown in
case of earth faults. Fig. 1.
iv) Characteristics of squirrel cage induction motor Relationship between torque, slip rotor resistance
and rotor inductive reactance : It was stated earlier that
The most important characteristic of the induction motor
torque is produced in an induction motor by the interaction
is the speed torque characteristic which is also called the
of the stator and the rotor fluxes. The amount of torque
mechanical characteristic. A study of this characteristic
124 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206

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produced is dependent on the strength of these two fields However, when the load and the resulting slip are increased
and the phase relation between them. This may be much beyond the rated full load values, the increase in
expressed mathematically as rotor frequency, and hence, the increase in rotor reactance
and impedance become appreciable. This increase in
T = K φsIR Cosφ rotor inductive reactance and the resulting decrease in
where T = torque in Newton metre rotor power factor will have two effects; first, the increase
K = a constant in impedance will cause a decrease in the rate at which the
φs = stator flux in weber rotor current increases with an increase in slip, and
second, the lagging rotor power factor will increase; that
IR = rotor current in ampere
means, the rotor flux will reach its maximum sometime
Cos φ = rotor power factor after the stator peak flux has been swept by it. The out-
From no load to full load, the torque constant (K), the stator of-phase relationship between these two fields will reduce
flux (φs) and the rotor power factor (Cos φ) for a squirrel cage their interaction and their resulting torque. Hence, if the
motor will be practically constant. Hence the motor’s motor load is increased beyond the breakdown torque
torque will vary almost directly with the induced rotor value, the torque falls rapidly due to the above two effects
current (IR) since the rotor current inturn will vary almost and the motor operation becomes unstable, and the motor
directly with its slip. Variation of the torque of a squirrel will stall.
cage motor is often plotted against its rotor slip as shown Effect of rotor resistance upon the torque/slip
in Fig. 2. relationship: Fig. 3 shows the relationship between
torque and slip when the rotor resistance is changed. The
shaded portion of the curve shows the actual operating
area. Curve A for an induction motor with low rotor
resistance, say 1 ohm, Curve B is for 2 ohm, Curve C is for
4 ohm and Curve D for 8 ohm.

Breakdown torque : In all these cases the standstill


The increase in the rotor current, and hence, the increase inductive reactance of the rotor is the same, say 8 ohm.
in the rotor torque for a given increase in the rotor slip is From the curves it is clear that the maximum (breakdown)
dependent on the rotor power factor. The rotor resistance torque is the same for the four values of R. Further it is also
for a squirrel cage motor will be constant. However, an clear that the maximum torque occurs at greater slip for
increase in slip will increase the rotor frequency, and the higher resistance.
resulting inductive reactance of the rotor from no load to full
load and even upto 125 percent of rated load, the amount Starting torque : At the time of starting, the fractional slip
of rotor slip for a standard squirrel cage motor is relatively is 1, and the starting torque is about 300% of the full load
small and the rotor frequency will seldom exceed 2 to 5 torque for the rotor having maximum resistance as shown
Hz. Therefore, for the above range of load the effect of by curve D of Fig. 3, and at the same time the rotor having
frequency change on impedance will be negligible, and as low resistance will produce a starting torque of 75% of the
shown in Fig. 2, the rotor torque will increase in almost a full load torque only, as shown by curve A of Fig. 3. Hence,
straight relationship with the slip. we can say that an induction motor having high rotor
resistance will develop a high torque at the time of starting.
Inbetween 10 to 25 percent slip the squirrel cage motor will
attain its maximum possible torque. This torque is referred Running torque : While looking at the normal operating
to as the maximum breakdown torque, and it may reach region in the shaded portion of the graph, it will be found
between 200 and 300 percent of the rated torque as shown the torque at running is appreciably high for low resistance
in Fig. 2. At the maximum torque, the rotor’s inductive rotor motors and will be conspicuously less for high
reactance will be equal to its resistance. resistance rotor motors.

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As squirrel cage induction motors will have less rotor
resistance, their starting torque is low but running torque
is quite satisfactory. This is partly compensated by the
double squirrel cage motors which produce high starting
and normal running torque. On the other hand, the slip ring
induction motor, due to its wound rotor, has the possibility
of inclusion of resistance at the time of starting and
reducing the same while running.
Application of squirrel cage induction motor : Single
squirrel cage motors are used widely in industries and in
irrigation pump sets where fairly constant speed is required.
This motor has fairly high efficiency, costs less and is
found to be robust in construction. Torque, Mechanical power and Rotor output : Stator input
Pi = stator output + stator losses.
Double squirrel cage induction motors are used in textile
mills and metal cutting tool operations where high starting The stator output is transferred fully inductively to the rotor
torque is essential. circuit.
v) Efficiency of induction motor Obviously, rotor input Pg = stator output.
When the three-phase induction motor is running at no- Rotor gross output, Pm = rotor input Pg = rotor cu. losses.
load, the slip has a value very close to zero. The torque
This rotor output is converted into mechanical energy and
developed in the rotor is to overcome the rotational losses
gives rise to the gross torque T. Out of this gross torque
consisting of friction and windage. The input power to the
developed, some is lost due to windage and friction losses
motor is to overcome stator iron loss and stator copper
in the rotor, and the rest appear are useful torque To.
loss. The stator iron loss (consisting of eddy current and
hysteresis) depends on the supply frequency and the flux Let n r.p.s be the actual speed of the rotor and if it is in Nm,
density in the iron core. It is practically constant. The iron then
loss of the rotor is, however, negligible because the
T x 2πn = rotor gross output in watts, Pm.
frequency of the rotor currents under normal condition is
always small. rotor gross output in watts, Pm
Therefore, T = N.m
If a mechanical load is then applied to the motor shaft, the 2π n
initial reaction is for the shaft load to drop the motor speed
slightly, thereby increasing the slip. The increased slip The value of gross torque in kg.m is given by
subsequently causes I2 to increase to that value which,
when inserted into the equation for torque calculation (i.e rotor gross output in watts
T= Kg m
T = Kφs I2 cos φs), yields sufficient torque to provide a 9.81 x 2π n
balance of power to the load. Thus an equilibrium is
Pm
established and the operation proceeds at a particular = Kg m
value of slip. In fact, for each value of load horsepower 9.81 x 2π n
requirement, there is a unique value of slip. Once slip is
specified then the power input, the rotor current, the If there were no copper losses in the rotor, the rotor output
developed torque, the power output and the efficiency are will equal the rotor input and the rotor will run at synchronous
all determined. The power flow diagram in a statement speed.
form is shown in Fig. 1. Note that the loss quantities are
rotor input Pg
placed on the left side of the flow point. Figure. 2 is the Therefore, T =
same power flow diagram but now expressed in terms of 2 π ns
all the appropriate relationships needed to compute the
performance. From the above two equation we get,
Rotor gross output = Pm = Tω = T x 2πn
Rotor input = Pg = Tωs = T x 2πns
The difference between the two equals the rotor copper
loss.
Therefore, rotor copper loss = s x rotor input
= s x power across air gap
= sPg.

rotor copper loss


Also rotor input, Pg =
s

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Rotor gross output Pm = Input Pg - rotor cu.loss vi) Types of squirrel cage motors
= (1 - s) Pg The three-phase squirrel cage motors have been
standardised according to their electric characteristics
rotor gross output, p m
or = 1- s into six types designated as design A, B, C, D, E and F.
rotor input, p g Standard squirrel cage induction motors which were of
shallow, slot types are designated as class A. For this
rotor gross output. Pm = (1 - s)Pg reason class A motors are used as a reference and are
referred to as ‘normal starting-torque’, normal starting
n
Therefore rotor efficiency = current, normal slip motors.
ns
Classes of squirrel-cage motors
Example (According to starting characteristics)
The power input to a 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz. induction Class Starting Starting Current Slip
motor is 50kW, the slip is 5%. The stator losses are 1.2 torque
kW and the winding and friction losses are 1.8 kW. Find
(i) the rotor speed, (ii) the rotor copper loss, (iii) the A Normal Normal Normal
efficiency. B Normal Low Normal
Data given C High Low Normal
No. of poles P=4 D High Low High
Frequency f = 50 Hz
E Low Normal Low
Phases =3
F Low Low Normal
Input kW = 50
Slip s = 5%
Out of these six, four specific designs A through D are
Stator losses = 1.2 kW
common squirrel cage motors. These four classes, however,
Friction & Windage losses = 1.8 kW cover nearly all practical applications of induction
Find: machines.
rotor speed =N Class A motors: These motors are characterised by
rotor copper loss = s x input power to rotor having a low rotor-circuit resistance and reactance. Its
efficiency =η locked rotor current with full voltage is generally more than
6 times the full load current. Because of their low resistance,
Solution starting currents are very high. They operate at very small
slips (s < 0.01) under full load. Machines in this class are
120f 6000 suitable only in situations where very small starting
Synchronous speed = Ns = = = 1500 rpm torques are required. The rotor bar construction of such
p 4
Ns - Nr motor is shown in Fig. 1.
Fractional slip = s =
Ns
5 1500 - Nr
=
100 1500

75 = 1500 - Nr

Therefore, rotor speed, Nr = 1500 - 75 = 1425 rpm.


Input power to rotor = (50 - 1.2)kW
Rotor copper loss = s x input power to rotor Class B motors: These are general purpose motors of
= 0.05 x 48.8 normal starting torque and starting current. The speed
= 2.44 kW. regulation at full load is low (usually under 5%) and the
starting torque is in the order of 15% of the rated speed
Rotor output windage = Rotor input - (Friction and loss + being lower for the lower speed and larger motors. It should
rotor cu.loss) = 48.8 - (1.8 + 2.44) be realised that although the starting current is low, it
= 44.56 kW generally is 600% of full load value. (Fig .2)

Output 44.56 x 100


Efficiency = = = 89.12%.
Input 50

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Class E motors as shown in the fig.5

Class C motors: Compared to class B motors, class C


motors have higher starting torque, normal starting current
and run at slips of less than 0.05 at full load. The starting
torque is about 200% of the rated speed and the motors Class F motors as shown in the fig.6
are generally designed to start at full-load. Typical
application of this class motor is driving conveyors,
reciprocating pumps, and compressors. (Fig. 3)

Now when the motor is stationary, the frequency of the


rotor current is the same as the supply frequency. But
when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends
upon the relative speed or on slip speed. Let at any slip
speed, the frequency of the rotor current be fr then
Class D motors: These are high slip motors with high
120 fr
starting torque and relatively low starting current. As a Ns - N =
result of the high full load slip, their efficiency is generally p
lower than that of the other motor classes. The peak of the
torque speed curve, resulting in a starting torque of about 120 f
also, Ns =
300%, is identical to the starting torque. (Fig.4) p

Dividing one by the other, we get

fr Ns - N
= =s
f Ns

fr = sf

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 & 3.4.206
Electronic Mechanic - Electrical Control Circuits

Starters for induction motors-D.O.L, manual star-delta starter, semi automatic


star-delta starter and automatic star/delta starter
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the necessity of starters and types
• state the specification of a D.O.L. starter, explain its operation and application
• explain the necessity of a back-up fuse and its rating according to the motor rating.

i) Necessity of starter: A squirrel cage induction motor


just before starting is similar to a polyphase transformer
with a short-circuited secondary. If normal voltage is
applied to the stationary motor, then, as in the case of a
transformer, a very large initial current, to the tune of 5 to
6 times the normal current, will be drawn by the motor from
the mains. This initial excessive current is objectionable,
because it will produce large line voltage drop, which in turn
will affect the operation of other electrical equipment and
lights connected to the same line.
The initial rush of current is controlled by applying a
reduced voltage to the stator winding during the starting
period, and then the full normal voltage is applied when the
motor has run up to speed. For small capacity motors, say
up to 3 Hp, full normal voltage can be applied at the start.
However, to start and stop the motor, and to protect the
motor from overload currents and low voltages, a starter is
required in the motor circuit. In addition to this, the starter
may also reduce the applied voltage to the motor at the time
of starting.
Types of starters: Following are the different types of
starters used for starting squirrel cage induction motors.
– Direct on-line starter
– Star-delta starter There is no difference between the complete contactor
circuit explained in Exercise 12 and the D.O.L.starter,
– Step-down transformer starter except that the D.O.L. starter is enclosed in a metal or
– Auto-transformer starter PVC case, and in most cases, the no-volt coil is rated for
415V and is to be connected across two phases as shown
In the above starters, except for the direct on-line starter, in Fig 1. Further the overload relay can be situated
reduced voltage is applied to the stator winding of the between ICTP switch and contactor,or between the
squirrel cage induction motor at the time of starting, and contactor and motor as shown in Fig. 1, depending upon
regular voltage is applied once the motor picks up the the starter design. Trainees are advised to write the
speed. working of the D.O.L. starter on their own by going through
Selection of starter: Many factors must be considered the explanation given in Exercise 12 which is for a
when selecting starting equipment. These factors include complete contactor circuit.
starting current, the full load current, voltage rating of Specification of D.O.L. starters: While giving specification,
motor, voltage (line) drop, cycle of operation, type of load, the following data are to be given.
motor protection and safety of the operator.
D.O.L. STARTER
A D.O.L. starter is one in which a contactor with no-volt
Phases - single or three.
relay, ON and OFF buttons, and overload relay are
incorporated in an enclosure. Voltage 230 or 415V.
Current rating 10, 16, 32, 40, 63, 125 or 300 amps.
Construction and operation: A push-button type, direct
on-line starter, which is in common use, is shown in No-volt coil voltage rating AC or DC 12, 24, 36, 48, 110,
Fig. 1. It is a simple starter which is inexpensive and easy 230/250, 360, 380 or 400/440 volts.
to install and maintain. Number of main contacts 2, 3 or 4 which are normally
open.
129

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Number of auxiliary contacts 2 or 3. 1 NC + 1 NO or 2 diazed (DZ) type fuses are recommended for protecting
NC + 1 NO respectively. the installation as well as the thermal overload relay of the
Push-button - one `ON' and one `OFF' buttons. motor starter against short circuits. In case of short
circuits, the back-up fuses melt and open the circuit
Overload from setting – amp-to-amp. Enclosure - metal
quickly. A reference table indicating fuse ratings for
sheet or PVC.
different motor ratings is given.
Applications: In an induction motor with a D.O.L. starter,
the starting current will be about 6 to 7 times the full load It is recommended that the use of semi-enclosed, rewirable,
current. As such, D.O.L. starters are recommended to be tinned copper fuses may be avoided as for as possible.
used only up to 3 HP squirrel cage induction motors, and The given full load currents apply in the case of
up to 1.5 kW double cage rotor motors. single phase, capactor-start type motors, and in
Necessity of back-up fuses: Motor starters must never the case of 3-phase, squirrel cage type induction
be used without back-up fuses. The sensitive thermal motors at full load having average power factor
relay mechanism is designed and calibrated to provide and efficiency. The motors should have speeds
effective protection against overloads only. When sudden not less than 750 r.p.m.
short circuits take place in a motor circuit, the overload Fuses upto and including 63 A are DZ type fuses.
relays, due to their inherent operating mechanism, take a Fuses from 100 A and above are IS type fuses
longer time to operate and open the circuit. Such delays (type HM).
will be sufficient to damage the starter motor and connected
circuits due to heavy in-rush of short circuit currents. This
could be avoided by using quick-action, high-rupturing
capacity fuses which, when used in the motor circuit,
operate at a faster rate and open the circuit. Hence H.R.C.

Table of relay ranges and back up fuses for motor protection

Sl. Motor ratings Motor ratings Relay range Nominal back-up


No. 240V 1-phase 415V 3-phase A fuse recommended
hp kW Full load hp kW Full load a c
current current

1 0.05 0.04 0.175 0.15 - 0.5 1A


2 0.05 0.04 0.1 0.075 0.28 0.25 - 0.4 2A
3 0.25 0.19 0.70 0.6 - 1.0 6A
4 0.125 0.11 0.50 0.37 1.2 1.0 - 1.6 6A
5 0.5 0.18 2.0 1.0 0.75 1.8 1.5 - 2.5 6A
6 0.5 0.4 3.6 1.5 1.1 2.6 2.5 - 4.0 10A
7 2.0 1.5 3.5 2.5 - 4.0 15A
8 0.75 0.55 2.5 1.8 4.8 4.0 - 6.5 15A
9 3.0 2.2 5.0 4.0 - 6.5 15A
10 1.0 0.75 7.5 5.0 3.7 7.5 6.0 - 10 20A
11 2.0 1.5 9.5 7.5 5.5 11.0 9.0 - 14.0 25A
12 3.0 2.25 14 10.0 7.5 14 10.0 - 16.0 35A

Manual star-delta switch/starter However with large capacity motors, the starting current
Necessity of star-delta starter for 3-phase squirrel will cause too much voltage fluctuations in the power lines
cage motor: If a 3-phase squirrel cage motor is started and disturb the other loads. On the other hand, if all the
directly, it takes about 5-6 times the full load current for a squirrel cage motors connected to the power lines are
few seconds, and then the current reduces to normal value started at the same time, they may momentarily overload
once the speed accelerates to its rated value. As the the power lines, transformers and even the alternators.
motor is of rugged construction and the starting current Because of these reasons, the applied voltage to the
remains for a few seconds, the squirrel cage induction squirrel cage motor needs to be reduced during the
motor will not get damaged by this high starting current. starting periods, and regular supply could be given when
the motor picks up its speed.

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Following are the methods of reducing the applied voltage Manual star-delta starter: Fig. 2 shows the conventional
to the squirrel cage motor at the start. manual star-delta starter. As the insulated handle is
spring-loaded, it will come back to OFF position from any
– Star-delta switch or starter
position unless and until the no-volt (hold-on ) coil is
– Auto-transformer starter energised. When the hold-on coil circuit is closed through
– Step-down transformer starter the supply taken from U2 and W2, the coil is energised and
it holds the plunger, and thereby the handle is held in delta
Star-delta starter: A star-delta switch is a simple position against the spring tension by the lever plate
arrangement of a cam switch which does not have any mechanism. When the hold-on coil is de-energised the
additional protective devices like overload or under-voltage plunger falls and operates the lever plate mechanism so as
relay except fuse protection through circuit fuses, whereas to make the handle to be thrown to the off position due to
the star-delta starter may have overload relay and under spring tension. The handle also has a mechanism (not
voltage protection in addition to fuse protection. In a shown in Fig) which makes it impossible for the operator
star-delta switch/starter, at the time of starting, the to put the handle in delta position in the first moment. It is
squirrel cage motor is connected in star so that the phase only when the handle is brought to star position first, and
voltage is reduced to 1 3 times the line voltage, and then then when the motor picks up speed, the handle is pushed
to delta position.
when the motor picks up its speed, the windings are
connected in delta so that the phase voltage is the same The handle has a set of baffles insulated from each other
as the line voltage. To connect a star-delta switch/starter and also from the handle. When the handle is thrown to
to a 3-phase squirrel cage motor, all the six terminals of star position, the baffles connect the supply lines L1, L2 and
the three-phase winding must be available. L3 to beginning of the 3-phase winding W1, V1 and U1
respectively. At the same time the small baffles connect
As shown in Fig 1a, the star-delta switch connection V2, W2 and U2 through the shorting cable to form the star
enables the 3 windings of the squirrel cage motor to be point. (Fig 2b)
connected in star, and then in delta. In star position, the
line supply L1, L2 and L3 are connected to the beginning of When the handle is thrown to delta position, the larger end
windings U1, W1 and V1 respectively by the larger links, of the baffles connect the main supply line L1, L2 and L3 to
whereas the short links, which connect V2 U2 and W2, are the winding terminals W1U2, V1W2 and U1V2 respectively to
shorted by the shorting cable to form the star point. This form the delta connection. (Fig. 2c)
connection is shown as a schematic diagram. (Fig.1b)
When the switch handle is changed over to delta position,
the line supply L1, L2 and L3 are connected to terminals U1
V2, W1 U2 and V1 W2 respectively by the extra large links
to form a delta connection. (Fig. 1c)

The overload relay current setting could be adjusted by the


worm gear mechanism of the insulated rod. When the load
current exceeds a stipulated value, the heat developed in
the relay heater element pushes the rod to open the
hold-on coil circuit, and thereby the coil is de-energised,
and the handle returns to the off position due to the spring
tension.

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The motor also could be stopped by operating the stop Assuming PF = 1, we have = 6401 watts.
button which in turn de-energises the hold-on coil.
Delta connection
Back-up fuse protection: Fuse protection is necessary
Eph = EL = 400V
in the star-delta started motor circuit against short circuits.
In general, as a thumb rule for 415V, 3-phase squirrel cage
E ph 400
motors, the full load current can be taken as 1.5 times the IPh = = = 16A
H.P. rating. For example, a 10 HP 3-phase 415V motor will Z ph 25
have approximately 15 amps as its full load current.
To avoid frequent blowing of the fuse and at the same time IL = 3 Iph =1.732 x16 = 27.7 A
for proper protection, the fuse wire rating should be 1.5
times the full load current rating of the motor. Hence for 10 Power absorbed = 3 ELILCosθ
HP, 15 amps motor, the fuse rating will be 23 amps, or say
25 amps. (assume PF = 1)

Comparison of impact of star and delta connections = 3 x 400 x 27.7 x 1


on starting current and torque of the induction motor:
When the three-phase windings of the squirrel cage motor = 19190 W.
are connected in star by the starter, the phase voltage The torque developed is proportional to the square of the
across each winding is reduced by a factor of 1 3 of the voltage across the winding.
applied line voltage (58%), and hence the starting current In the case of star, the voltage across the winding Eph
reduces to 1/3 of that current which would have been drawn
if the motor were directly started in delta. This reduction in EL
starting current also reduces the starting torque to 1/3 of Eph =
3
the starting torque which would have been produced in the
motor, if it were started directly in delta.
E 2L
The above statement could be explained through the = K in star
3
following example.
Example In the case of delta, the voltage across the Eph winding

Three similar coils of a 3-phase winding of a squirrel cage Eph = EL.


induction motor, each having a resistance of 20 ohms and Hence torque
inductive reactance of 15 ohms, are connected in (a) star
(b) delta through a star-delta starter to a 3-phase 400V 50 (EL)2K = E2L K.
Hz supply mains. By comparison the torque developed in star connection at
Calculate the line current and total power absorbed in each the time of starting is 1/3 of the torque developed in a delta
case. Compare the torque developed in each case. connection (running).

Solution As the torque is 3 times less in starting due to the star


connection, whenever a motor has to be started with heavy
Impedence per phase loads, the star-delta starter is not used. Instead an
auto-transformer or step-down transformer starter could
Zph = R2 + X2 be used as the voltage tapping can be changed to more
than 58% of the line voltage to suit the torque requirement.
= 20 2 + 15 2
ii) Semi-automatic star-delta starter
Star connection
The standard squirrel cage induction motors with both ends
of each of the three windings brought out (six terminals) are
EPh = EL = 400 = 231 volts known as star-delta motors. If the starter used has the
3 3 required number of properly wired contactors, the motor
can be started in star and run in delta.
E ph 231
IPh = = = 9.24amps The proper use of manual star-delta starter demands a
Z ph 25 special skill in handling the starter. The sluggish operation
of the manual lever often causes damage to the moving and
IL = Ish = 9.24amps. fixed contacts in a manual star-delta starter.

Power absorbed = 3 EL ILCosθ

= 3 x 400 x 9.24 x 1

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The contactors are employed for making and breaking the Operation: Refer to the control circuit and power circuit
main line connections. Figure .1 shows the wiring diagram diagrams shown in Fig. 2. When the start button S2 is
and Fig. 2 shows the line diagram of power circuit and the pressed the contactor coil K3 energises through P4, P3 and
control circuit. K1 normally closed contact 12 and 11. When K3 closes, it
opens the normally closed contact K3 between 11 and 12
and makes contact between 10 and 9 of K3. The mains
contactor K1 energies through P4, 10 and 9 of K3. Once K1
energises the NO contact of K1 point 8 and 7 establishes
a parallel path to K3 terminals 10 and 9.
The star contactor K3 remains energised so long as the
start button is kept pressed. Once the start button is
released, the K3 coil gets de-energised. The K3 contact
cannot be operated because of the electrical interlock of K1
and normally closed contacts between terminals 12 and
11.
When the K3 contactor get de-energised the normally
closed contact of K3 between terminals 11 and 12 establishes
contact in the contactor K2 - coil circuit. The delta
contactor K2 closes.
The operator has to observe the motor starting and reaching
70% of the synchronous speed for satisfactory starting and
running of the induction motor.
Figure. 2(c) shows the alternative form of drawing control
circuit.

iii) Automatic star-delta starter


Applications : The primary application of star-delta motors
is for driving centrifugal chillers of large central air-
conditioning units for loads such as fans, blowers, pumps
or centrifuges, and for situations where a reduced starting
torque is necessary. A star-delta motor is also used where
a reduced starting current is required.
In star-delta motors all the winding is used and there are no
limiting devices such as resistors or auto-transformers.
Star-delta motors are widely used on loads having high
inertia and a long acceleration period.
Overload relay settings : Three overload relays are
provided on star-delta starters. These relays are used so
that they carry the motor winding current. This means that
the relay units must be selected on the basis of the winding
current, and not the delta connected full load current. The
motor name-plate indicates only the delta connected full
load current, divide this value by 1.73 to obtain the winding
current. Use this winding current as the basis for selecting
and setting the motor winding protection relay.
Operation : Figure 1 shows the line diagram of the power
circuit and the control circuit of the automatic star-delta
starter. Pressing the start button S-energises the star
contactor K3. (Current flows through K4 T NC terminals 15
& 16 and K2 NC terminals 11 & 12). Once K3 energises the
K3 NO contact closes (terminals 23 & 24) and provide path
for the current to close the contactor K1. The closing of
contactor K1 establishes a parallel path to start button via
K1 NO terminals 23 & 24.

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Figure. 2 shows the current direction and closing of Similarly Figure. 3 shows the action taking place after the
contacts as explained above. timer relay operating the contact K4T.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 3.5.211
Electronic Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Types of audio and video connectors


Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list the different types of Audio and Video connectors
• explain the construction of Audio and Video connectors
• explain the applications of connectors.

Introduction: The various types of equipments used in styroflex spacer. The cable side of the inner conductor is
the field of communications and broadcasting are in the in the form of a small cylindrical rod with a hole and screw
form of cabinets closed on all sides by metal plates. The arrangement (C) for connecting the centre conductor of the
input-output connections, Auxiliary inputs and outputs unbalanced cable. There is also a clamp like lead (D) fixed
and other connections to the equipment are brought out in to the outer tube to which the shield of the unbalanced
the form of connectors mounted normally on the rear side cable is to be connected using a crimp tool or a nose plier.
of the equipment. So connections to the equipments by
cables cannot be done with open ended cables. The cable The entire rear portion of the connector (cable end) is
ends should also have suitable mating connectors for protected by a strong PVC cover (E) which is screwed to
giving input or taking the output from the equipments. the metal connector. A sleeving of suitable diameter may
be used at the cable connection to prevent the strands of
The use of such connectors makes it easy to remove the shield touching the inner conductor.
equipment or replace the equipment whenever necessary.
The cable connections can easily be changed to other The RCA plugs can also be used with video cables (RG58/
equipments when cables and equipments are provided 59) to connect video inputs and outputs in commercial
with connectors. Also the use of such connectors are equipments.
helpful in making firm and reliable connections. In addition, RCA scokets (female) are available in different styles; The
in many cases the usage of connectors helps for fool proof construction of these sockets is more or less similar as
operation avoiding errors due to wrong connections. PCB mount type and panel mount type as shown in fig. 2A
Audio Connectors & 2B. The central conductor is the inner tube separated
from the outer tube by a plastic or foam spacer. The
The details of some of the Audio connectors which are dimensions of the inner tube and outer tube are such that
mostly in use are as follows. the male plug tightly sits making firm contact.
RCA plug and sockets: The exploded view of the RCA Fig 2a Fig 2b
connector plug is given in Fig.1.

PCB MOUNT TYPE


PANEL MOUNT TYPE

Phono Jack (Unbalanced): Phono jacks are generally


used wherever more flexibility in operation is required. For
example in patch panels where the inputs and outputs of
various equipments are available these phono jacks are
useful as patch chords for connecting the equipments.
The RCA plugs and sockets are invariably used in commer- This audio jack is commonly seen on stereo headphones
cial equipments like audio consoles, recorders, TV receiv- for audio devices ,cell phones, although there is a wide
ers, video cassette recorders/players and some commer- range of uses including audio input as well as output. It is
cial amplifiers. These connectors can be used only with also called as TRS phono plug connector with 3 contact
unbalanced audio cables. They are normally used for places on the jack separated by two insulation layers as
connecting high impedance inputs and outputs. shown in fig.3
The exploded view of RCA plug is shown in fig.1. The RCA
plug consists of metal outer tube (B) and an inner central
conductor (A) insulated from one another by foam or
135

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Fig 3 instead of 2 as in the case of unbalanced jack. The
construction is shown in Fig. 5.

S
R
T

The leads (C & D) from the concentric tubular conductors


(A & B) are brought out on the cable side. The two live leads
of the balanced cable are connected to the central two
TRS is an acronym representing Tip + Ring + Sleeve. The conductors while the screen (shield) is crimped to the lead
2 contact (Tip + Sleeve or TS) version is typically for mono from the outermost tubular conductor. The entire rear
audio and the three contact version (TRS) is typically for portion of the jack is covered and protected by a PVC
stereo audio. There are also other variants such as a four housing (E) which is screwed to the metal jack.
contact version which is often designed for camcorders,
the extra ring for the video signal, or for modern cell phones The balanced phono jacks are used for patch chords in
and mobile devices facilitating earphone and microphone patch panels for connecting to audio equipments having
combination headsets. balanced inputs and outputs. Most professional equipments
like Hi-Fi audio equipments have balanced inputs and
The exploded view of construction of the phono jack is given outputs.
in Fig. 4. This type of phono jack is used with unbalanced
circuits. It has two concentric tubular conductors (A&B) XLR Male plug (cable type): It consists of a metal case
are gold plated and insulated from one another. The inner with an insulator disc inside holding the three pins in
conductor A is having a conical edge and a locking wedge. precise position. The cable ends of the pins have curved
The leads from these conductors are brought out on the edges to enable easy soldering. The clamp provided at the
cable side (C & D). The inner conductor of the cable is cable end of the connector helps to hold the audio cable
soldered to the inner lead and the shield of the cable is tightly so that movement or shaking of the cable will not
crimped to the outer lead with a crimping tool or nose plier. affect the soldering connection at the pins. A thick rubber
The entire rear portion is covered and protected by a PVC tapered tube is provided for leading the cable inside and
housing (E) which is screwed to the metal frame. The gold helps to give right flexibility at the connector. A typical XLR
plating given to the jack is to provide very good electrical male plug shown in Fig. 6.
contact. The unbalanced phono jacks are used mostly in
commercial equipments like audio consoles, tape
recorders, patch panels and audio amplifiers.

The arrangement of pins in a XLR male plug is shown in


Fig. 7. The three leads of the Audio cable namely two live
Phone Jack (Balanced): The phono jacks are also leads and shield can be connected to any pin in any
available for balanced circuits. The construction of bal- sequence. But a standard sequence should be fol-
anced phono jack is more or less similar to the above lowed to avoid wrong inter-connections between various
except that there are three concentric tubular conductors equipments. The international standard is to connect the
screen (ground) to pin 1 and the live leads of the cable to
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
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pin 2 & pin 3. This standard should be followed in
connecting any XLR connector.

XLR Female plug (cable type) : XLR Female plug (cable)


is shown in Fig .8. The XLR female plug consists of a metal
case with three sockets held in position by fibre spacer.
The metal case is provided with a locking arrangement
which helps to hold the connector in locked position. While
removing the plug, the lockpin should be pressed slightly
while pulling out the plug. The cable end of the connector
is similar to that of the male connector described above.

The numbering is similar to what was described earlier and


the same standard should be used.
The male panel mount receptacle is the input to the
equipment and the female panel mount receptacle is the
output of the equipment.
All XLR connectors described above are used only for
connecting balanced input and output using two core
screened Audio cables.
Video Connectors
The standards used for connecting audio cable to XLR
The details of some of the common video connectors are
connectors should be followed here also. The screen
as follows.
(ground) should be connected to Pin No.1 and the live leads
to pins 2 & 3. The pin configuration is shown in Fig. 9. BNC (Male plugs) : The BNC male plugs are very common
in video systems and equipments. It consists of an inner
conductor in the form of a pin and outer metal housing as
shown in fig.12. The inner pin is gold plated normally for
providing good electrical contact. The inner pin is kept
insulated from the outer housing by a styroflex or foam
spacer. The outer housing has a turnable locking arrange-
ment. The plug is pushed into the female receptacle and
when turned clockwise the connector gets locked. While
removing, the housing is gently turned anti-clockwise and
XLR female plugs (cable) should be used for feeding the pulled.
input to the equipment by inserting it to the male panel
mounted connector fixed in the equipment.
XLR panel mount Male and Female receptacles: The
panel mount receptacles shown in Fig. 10 & 11 are fixed in
the equipments for feeding input into and taking the output
from the equipments. The mating cable connectors are
inserted into these connectors and are locked by the pins.
The lock is provided in the female panel mount connector
for locking the male cable connector and in the female
cable connector for locking into the male receptacle fixed The cable side of the connector is in the form of a tube
in the equipment. The input/output connections cannot go through which the inner conductor of the cable is con-
wrong since a male cable connector can go only into the nected to the central pin. The outer shield of the cable is
female panel mount and vice versa. expanded and spread over the knurled portion of the tube.

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Another cylindrical tube is run over this bed and crimped. digital audio device. HDMI is a digital replacement for
Now the inner pin and the outer metal housing act as two analog video standards.
leads of the video cable. A protective PVC cover is provided
at the rear of the connector to reduce strain at the cable No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of
connection. video quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The
CEC (Consumer Electronics Control) capability allows
The BNC plugs are used alongwith the following types of HDMI devices to control each other when necessary and
co-axial cables in video circuits. allows the user to operate multiple devices with one remote
control handset.
RG58 RG59 BNC connectors are
RG174A RG223/U used both for 50 and Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed
RG8A/U RG55B/U 75 ohms cables. since initial release of the technology but all use the same
RG142B/U RG188A/U cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video
RG213/U RG400/U capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer
RG179B/U RG214/U versions have optional advanced features such as 3D,
Ethernet data connection, and CEC (Consumer Electronics
BNC (Female) connectors: BNC female connectors can
Control)extensions.
be either of cable type or panel mount type. Mostly they
are of panel mount type fixed as input and output ports of The HDMI specification defines 5 connector types. The
various video equipments. Fig.13 illustrates the panel normal full-size single-link Type A is shown in fig.14a &
mount BNC connector. It consists of an inner thin 14b.
cylindrical tube fixed centrally inside a larger outer metal
Fig 14a
tube housing. Styroflux or foam is used as the spacer
between the two. The outer housing has two short pins
used for locking the male plug.

Fig 14b HDMI SOCKET

HDMI PLUG CONNECTOR

S/PDIF connector
S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format) connector
plug is shown in fig.15a & 15b is a type of digital audio
interconnect used in consumer audio equipment to output
audio over reasonably short distances. The signal is
In the rear portion of the connector the leads from the inner transmitted over a fiber optic cable with TOSLINK connector.
conductor is brought out to which the centre lead of the S/PDIF interconnects components in home theatres and
cable is soldered. The shield of the cable is connected to other digital high fidelity systems.
the chassis (ground) at a point nearest to the connector. Fig 15a
Since the outer frame of connector is fixed to the panel, it
gets grounded.
In the cable type BNC female connector, the rear portion
(cable side) is similar to that of the male plug and the S/PDIF
CONNECTOR
procedure for giving cable connection is also same. PLUG

HDMI connector
Fig 15b
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a
proprietary audio/video interface for transferring
uncompressed video data and compressed or S/PDIF SOCKET
uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant
source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible
computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or

138 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211

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S/PDIF is based on the professional AES3 interconnect as PCB mount, cable mount or panel mount types. The
standard. S/PDIF can carry two channels of uncompressed male barrel connector or 'plug' is usually found in a wire
PCM audio or compressed 5.1 or 7.1 surround sound (such termination by soldering / crimping. The two connectors
as DTS audio codec) it cannot support lossless formats are 'tip' and 'sleeve' as shown in fig.17. The outer diameter
(such as Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio) which of the sleeve is most commonly either 5.5mm or 3.5mm
require greater bandwidth like that available with HDMI . and will be mating with 2.5mm or 2.1mm pin; 3.5mm sleeve
will mate with 1.3mm pin. Polarity of sleeve and tip is shown
This mode is used to connect the output of a DVD player by a small diagram on the device.
or computer, via optical to a home-theatre amplifying
receiver that supports Dolby Digital or DTS. Another Jack connectors
common use is to carry two channels of uncompressed Stereo 3.5 mm Plugs: These are shown in Fig.18.
digital audio from a CD player to an amplifying receiver. Available in two versions, insulated plug or screened plug.
The insulated type has a moulded body with a cable strain
‘F’ connectors: The general view of the F connector is given in relief sleeve and the screened type has a metal body with
Fig.16. It consists of an inner pin and outer housing a moulded cable strain relief sleeve. Miniature 2.5 mm
separated and insulated from one another. The housing plugs also are in use.
(outer) is hexagonal in the outside and cylindrical and
threaded inside. The threading is used for tightening the
connector after pushing it to the female receptable. The
leads on the cable side are similar as in the case of RCA plug
where the inner and outer leads of the cable are connected.

‘F’ connectors are invariably used in cable TV circuits and


equipments with cables of 75 ohm impedance.
‘F’ type connectors also come in a different forms where
the centre lead of the cable (single strand) is directly used
Chassis Mounting PCB Socket: This is shown in Fig. 19.
as the central conductor of the connector. The shield of the
Enclosed chassis socket with silver plated normally closed
cable is just clamped and crimped to the outer conductor
contacts (Double circuit). Plated mounting bush. Earth
of the connector.
contact connected to bush.(Stereo socket)
In addition to the common connectors described above,
Fig 19
you will come across some other type also used in
equipments. Barrel power connector is one of them used
specifically to provide power connection to devices as
shown in fig. 17 below.
Fig 17
CHASSIS MOUNTING PCB SOCKET
INSERTION
TIP
DETECTION
Chassis Socket: This is shown in Fig. 20. Enclosed
chassis socket with silver-plated closed circuit contacts
(single circuit). Plated mounting bush. Earth contact
connected to bush.
Fig 20
SLEEVE

Barrel power connector is also called as coaxial power


connector.-It is used specifically to provide power connection
CHASSIS MOUNT SOCKET
to devices. The female barrel connector or 'jack' is available
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211 139

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Chart showing various types of sockets/jacks and plugs used for
Audio/Video and DC power connectors
Sl.No. Socket / connector Name Socket / connector Image

1 RCA socket -Female

2 RCA plug- Male

3 TRS-Jack- Female (6.35mm)

4 TRS plug - Male(6.35mm)

5 TRS Jack- Female (6.35mm)

6 TRS plug - Male (6.35mm)

7 XLR connector- female

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Sl.No. Socket / connector Name Socket / connector Image

8 XLR connector- Male

9 TRRS jack- Female

10 TRRS plug- male

11 Headphone Jack- Female

12 Headphone plug- Male

13 TOS Link -optical Jack -female

14 TOS link - optical plug- male

15 S/PDIF connector- male

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Sl.No. Socket / connector Name Socket / connector Image

16 S/PDIF connector female

17 HDMI Female Connector

18 HDMI male connector

19 BNC Female connector

20 BNC Male Connector

21 F - Connector

Male Female

22 Barrel DC connector- plug

23 Barrel DC connector -jack

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 3.5.211
Electronic Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Audio and Video/RF Cables


Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list different types of audio cables
• describe construction of audio cables
• list the application of audio cables
• list different types of video/RF cables
• describe the construction of video cable and RF cables
• list the application of video and RF cables.

Audio Cables: Audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to or cable. For example, the signal output from a normal
20kHz. In other words frequencies from 20Hz to 20kHz are microphone is very low. This low level signal should reach
audible by human ear. Any information conveyed at these the amplifier at the other end of the cable with minimum
frequencies are wanted signals. Any other disturbances loss. For this we must use a cable with more number of
like noise cross talk and hum are unwanted signals. The strands. The gauge of each strand can be thin to provide
audio equipments are designed and assembled to handle flexibility to the cable.
only wanted signals and reject unwanted signals. Similarly
In the case where an amplifier output (line output) of
the audio cables used inside the audio equipments and
moderate level getting connected to another equipment,
also cables used for connecting two or more equipments
line loss is not very important. But the cable has to be
and devices should also be such that they reject unwanted
slightly more sturdy. Here we can use a cable having less
signals. For this purpose the audio cables are provided
number of strands each strand being a slightly thicker
with a shield which is grounded at both ends of the cable.
gauge.
This shield acts as a screen and prevents induction of
noise. This shield surrounding the live leads runs throughout In the case where the output of a high power amplifier is to
the length of the cable in the form of a metal (copper) mesh. be connected to another location we have to choose a
cable having more number of strands and thicker gauge
The general construction of an audio cable is shown in the
to avoid line loss and to reduce heating of the cable.
fig. 1.
The choice of cable depends on the signal level, length for
the cable and durability. Of course cost is also a factor.
The details of various types of commonly used Audio
cables are as follows.
Standard Round: Fig. 2 shows standard type braided
screen cables. They offer low noise for use in low-level
signal circuits.

The two conductors (D,D) are made up of either single 16/0.2mm tinned copper stranded conductors, PVC
strand or multi-stranded with polythene insulation (C) insulated, braided screen and grey PVC sheath.
around each conductor. The shield (B) made up of metal Cores: red (single), blue and red (twin).
in the form of a mesh is fixed around the two leads and run
throughout the length of the cable. Normally a cotton braid
is also provided in between the leads and the shield to give
flexibility to the cable. A PVC sheath (A) is provided over
the metal shield to give protection to the cable from
weather and also to provide mechanical strength.
There are different types of audio cables depending upon
their applications and usage. Wherever unbalanced
circuits are connected single core screened cables are
used and wherever balanced circuits are connected two
core screened cables are used. Some of the commercial
microphones gives the unbalanced output for which single Capacitance: 360 pF/m (single); core to screen 288 pF/
core audio cables (Flexible) are used. m and core to core 171 pF/m (twin). Twin type has twisted
The number of strands in each conductor and the gauge cores for hum reduction.
(thickness) of each strand depend upon the application.
When the signal level is low, we must avoid loss in the line

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Given below is a list of common audio cables, their types, specifications and applications.
Types of Audio cables

Sl.No. Type Specification Application


1 Microphone cable Low noise single core Microphones, Pre-Amplifiers Programme
10 x 0.2mm Amplifiers (Unbalanced) shielded
2 Microphone cable Low noise Two core Microphones, Pre-Amplifiers Programme
26 x 0.1mm Flexible, Amplifiers (Balanced)
Shielded
3 Standard Audio Two core 14 x 0.2mm Line Amplifiers, Audio consoles, Tape recorders,
cable cotton braided shielded Programme Amplifiers
4 General purpose Two core 26 x 0.1mm For any indoor and outdoor applications
Audio cable cotton braided shielded
5 Heavy duty Two core individually Data Transmission
Audio cables screened 7 x 0.2mm
6 Heavy duty Four core Individually Data Transmission
Audio cable screened 7 x 0.2mm

Microphone Cables: Fig. 3 shows a 2-core standard type This cable comes with four 14/0.12 mm tinned copper
Microphone cable. This is a low noise screened cable. stranded conductors, PVC insulated and wrapped with
Construction ensures good transmission properties polythene tape. Capacitance 125 PF / m.
desirable in many professional audio & low level programme
This is also a High-grade, low-noise, screened cables and
circuits. Two 55/0.1 mm plain copper stranded conductors
the construction ensures good transmission properties
PVC insulated and twisted together.
desirable in many professional audio and low noise level.
Patch/instrument Cable: It is shown in the Fig. 6.

Fig. 4 shows a 2 core flexible type Microphone cable. This


cable is designed to fulfill the conflicting requirements of
flexibility and good screening properties, thus making it An instrument/patch cable which has been developed with
suitable for hand-held or free-standing microphone the emphasis on mechanical stability and consistent
applications. Two 28/0.1mm plain annealed copper electrical performance. This black 6mm cable is ideal for
stranded conductors, PVC insulated with a single lap stage use where mechanical strength is the prime
screen constructed from plain annealed copper with a grey consideration.
PVC outer sheath.
Specifications : Strand / conductor : 7 x 0.202 mm shield
Capacitance 273pF/m Dia.5.4mm : Double shield of lapped copper screen, Capacitance 110
PF/m, resistance : 78.2 Ω / km.
Heavy Duty Twin: Fig.7 shows 2 core Heavy duty twin
with individually lapped screen.

Fig. 5 shows a 4-core standard type Microphone cable.

Speaker cable : Speaker wire is used to make the


electrical connection between loudspeakers and audio
amplifiers. Modern speaker wire consists of two electrical
conductors individually insulated by plastic (such as PVC,
PE or Teflon) or, less commonly, rubber. The two wires are

144 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211

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electrically identical, but are marked to identify the correct in all cases. The types of cables vary depending upon the
audio signal polarity. Most commonly, speaker wire comes application.
in the form of zip cord as shown in fig. 8.
The general construction of a Video/RF cable is shown in
Fig 8 the Fig. 9.
The specification of the cable are as follows:
1/0.6mm copper plated steel conductor, solid polyethylene
insulation, plain copper braid and sheathed in either black
or white PVC.
Video/RF cables are invariably co-axial cables.

Zip-cord is a type of electrical cable with two conductors


held together by an insulating jacket that can be easily
separated simply by pulling apart. The design of zip-cord
makes it easy to keep conductors that carry related
electrical signals together and helps avoid tangling of
cables. Conductors may be identified by a color tracer on
the insulation, or by a ridge molded into the insulation of
The co-axial cable consists of a central conductor which
one wire, or by a colored tracer thread inside the insulation.
may be single or multiple stranded copper material or
Zip cords are intended for use on loudspeakers.
copper coated steel material. This conductor is placed
Thicker wires reduce resistance. As speaker impedance inside a polyethylene (Dielectric) insulation (C). This is
drops, lower gauge (heavier) wire is needed to prevent surrounded by the shield which is in the form of a mesh
degradation to damping factor - a measure of the amplifier's made of copper (B). The entire above assembly is
control over the position of the voice coil. High-power in-car protected by a PVC sheath (A) which protects the cable
audio systems using 2-ohm speaker circuits require from heat and other weather conditions and also provides
thicker wire than 4 to 8-ohm home audio applications. strength.
Most consumer applications use two conductor wires. A
There are different types of RF co-axial cables depending
common rule of thumb is that the resistance of the speaker
upon the application and usage. Thin cables like RG58 or
wire should not exceed 5% of the rated impedance of the
RG59 are used in low power applications whereas cables
system.
like RG8 which are thicker are used for higher power
Two individually screened 7/0.2 mm tinned copper stranded handling. The length of the transmission line also decides
conductors laid side by side in a flat ‘figure 8’ grey PVC the type of cable to be used. Co-axial cables are available
outer sheath. Capacitance of core to screen -320 pF/m. generally in two main types distinguished by their
characteristic impedances. The characteristic impedance
Video Cables/RF Cables: All video and RF circuits and
of a cable is defined as the impedance that will be offered
equipments uses only unbalanced inputs and outputs.
at the measuring end for a total length equal to infinity. Co-
The term unbalanced means that the signal is carried only
axial cables are of two types (a) 50 ohms co-axial cable
by the live lead whose potential is always referred with
and (b) 75 ohms co-axial cable. All RF equipments are of
respect to ground which is common. Hence the video/RF
50 ohms and video base band equipments are standardised
connectors and video/RF cables both associated with
for 75 ohms.
these circuits and equipments are also unbalanced. We
have seen in the case of Video/RF connectors there is only So the choice of RF cable depends on the characteristic
the central pin live. The housing or the outer of the impedance, signal power level, length of the cable and
connector is grounded. Similarly the RF/Video cables durability.
also have only one live limb which is kept insulated from
the shield (ground) by a suitable solid material. The A list of common type of RF cables, their specification and
construction of a Video/RF cable is similar and standard applications are given in the table next page.

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
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Types of RF cables

Specifications

Characteristic Attenuation Thickness


impedance for 10m
in Ohms at 100 MHZ

1 RG58C/U 50 3 db 5mm Short length RF cabling


2 RG214/U 50 0.76 db 10.8mm RF Transmission line
3 RG223/U 50 1.41 db 5.5mm Short length RF cabling
4 RG213/U 50 0.62 db 10.3mm RF Transmission line
5 RG18A/U 50 0.3 db 24mm Long length RF Transmission line
6 RG174/U 50 2 db 2.5mm For wiring inside RF equipments
RG59B/U 75 1.9 db 6.15mm General purpose video cabling
RG179B/U 75 3.2 db 2.5mm Short length video cabling
CT167 75 3.7 db 10.1mm Cable TV
CT100 75 3.9 db 6.65mm
CT125 75 4.9 db 78mm
RG6U 75 6.96 Cable TV - long lines
RG11U 75 0.6 db 10.29mm Closed circuit TV (video) cabling

Other types of video cables come with power supply line PTZ combo cable- The PTZ combo cable is shown in
along the coaxial cable are given below. fig.11
RG59 Coaxial Cable + 2 Core Power CCTV cable
Fig 11
RG59+2 composite cable is shown in fig.10.
Fig 10

This heavy duty Pan Tilt Zoom- (PTZ) cable is an ideal


choice for applications with pan, tilt and zoom security
cameras. PTZ Combo cable is a 3 in 1 cable which
supports the data, power and video signal. The power
This cable is also called as shotgun cable, is more cores are 0.15 x 30 stranded to prevent interruptions and
economical in saving your installation time and money are colour coded red 12V and black 0V to avoid any errors
fitting 1 cable instead of 2. It allows you to send power in in connection. These power cores can also be used to run
the two cores and a video signal in Coaxial cable down just 24V AC, ideal for most PTZ installations.
the one cable. The two cables run in shotgun style can
easily be separated to allow the power cores to be taken
to a power source leaving the RG59 to be crimped for
connection to a Digital Video Recorder (DVR), Video
camera, or monitor.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 3.5.211
Electronic Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Termination of cable ends of crimping and soldering


Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the application of BNC plug
• state the application of 'N' male connectors
• state the application of 'F' connectors
• describe the crimping process used in co-axial cables and connectors
• describe the stripping process using a cable stripper
• state the advantage and disadvantages of crimping.

The structure and description of various types of video and Table 1 gives the types of cables suitable for BNC
RF connectors and co-axial cables were discussed in connectors of both types.
Ex.1 Related Theory.
Table - 1
The co-axial cables cannot be used directly without
putting the proper connectors at their ends. The Cables with
impedances faced by RF circuits will be perfect only if 75 ohms BNC Application
connected by correct type of cables and proper connectors. connectors
In other words RF circuits will get matched to their loads
only when properly connected. If co-axial cables with bare RG59B/U Video circuits and cabling
ends are used there will be mismatch causing reflections RG179B/U Closed circuit
and may cause damage to the devices in the RF circuits. RG6 TV
Hence the usage of co-axial cables of proper character
impedance (Zo) with suitable connectors is a must in RF Cables with
circuits. Even RF connectors are designed for 50 and 75 50 ohms BNC Application
ohms depending upon the application. connectors

Selection of cable with BNC connector: A BNC RG58C/U Low power


connector of 75 ohms characteristic impedance (Zo) RG174A/U RF circuits
connected to a RG59 cable (whose Zo is also 75 ohms) is RG8A/U and interconnecting
suitable for wiring in video circuits. All video circuits RG213/U low power RF
invariably use 75 ohms as the standard in their design. RG214/U equipments
BNC connectors of Zo 50 ohms should not be used with RG188/U
co-axial cable of Zo 75 ohms. This will cause mismatch, RG223/U
reflections and heating of components. Some of the types of co-axial cables having Zo as 50 ohms
Selection of co-axiable with N type connectors: to be used alongwith ‘N’ connectors are given in table 2.
Similarly in the case of ‘N’ connectors, the characteristic The outer diameter of these cables are such that they fit
impedance of ‘N’ connectors is 50 ohms only. They should into the connector. These co-axial cables are also meant
be used only with co-axial cables having Zo as 50 ohms. for more power handling capacity.
The impedance of the connector must match the impedance
of the cable used. Also the impedance of the cable
connector assembly must match the impedances of the
equipments where they are used for inter-connectivity.
Table - 2
Co-axial Overall Characteristic Application
cable type outer diameter impedance
(inch)
RG8A/U 0.285 50 Short and medium length
RG9 0.280 50 transmission lines and
RG9A 0.280 50 inter-connecting cables.
RG55B 0.116 50 Used in medium power
RG400 0.116 50 RF equipments (upto 100W)
RG213 0.285 50
RG214 0.285 50

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Selection of co-axial cable with F connectors : In the The co-axial cables commonly used with ‘F’ connectors
case of F connectors, the impedance of these connectors are given in table 3.
is 75 ohms. Hence they should be used only with co-axial
cables having characteristic impedance of 75 ohms.
Table -3
Type of Overall Zo Applications
cable outer dia Nominal
impedance
in ohms
RG6 0.185 75 Short length out-door and cabling in cable TV field.
RG59 0.146 75 Example: LNBC to satellite receiver, modulator - amplifier
CT100 0.25 75 connections, Roof top to TV receivers tap off connections etc.

While making co-axial cable-connector assemblies there crimping tools used for co-axial cable connections.
is a possibility of some thin strands of the shield of the Crimping ensures very good contact and also avoids
cable touching the inner at the connector end. This should breaking of the cable leads which is normal in soldered
be carefully avoided. Also while checking the continuity connections.
during testing shake the connector ends of the cable while
holding multimeter prods. The centre pin and the outer of The crimping tool type HT 301C is used for crimping
the connector should not show continuity even while common types of video and RF connectors. HT 301C is
shaking the cable. useful for crimping BNC connectors while making co-axial
cable connector assembly.
The Crimping tool : We have come across crimping tools
used with power cables where the cable ends are connected Figure 1 shows the crimping tool. It is 8.7" professional
to lugs and crimped for firm contact. Similarly we have Hexagon/Oval type Ratchet and useful for F, BNC, TNC,
N, Fiberoptic thinnet - PVC & Thinnet Teflon connectors.

148 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211

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It consists of a pair of jaws with a set of DIE in between the fully closed. Slight pressure on the handles releases the
jaws. The DIE set consists of three or four hexagonal lock and causes the jaws to open. As detailed in the
holes. figure, the die can be replaced depending upon the
requirement.
The jaws can be opened and closed by the two handles.
The frame is made up of carbon steel and hardened so that The specification are given in table 4. It explains clearly
it can withstand heavy pressure. the dimensions of various dies in the tool and also gives the
types of cables that can be used for crimping. For
The handles are sufficiently long to give good leverage.
example HT 301C has four dies 8.1mm, 6.5mm, 5.41mm
The handles get locked automatically when the jaws are
and 1.72mm.
Table - 4
A specification of all dimension and RG size

HT PIN SQ FOR CRIMPING RG TYPE CABLE


PIN
301A .256" .213" .698" 59, 62, 140, 210, BELDEN 8279
6.5 mm 5.41 mm 1.72 mm 55,58,141,142,223,303,400, Fiber Optic

301B .319" .213" .187" 6, 55, 58, 141, 142, 223, 303, 400
8.1mm 5.41mm 4.75mm 174, Fiber Optic

301C .319" .256" .213" .068" 6, 59, 62, 140, 210, BELDEN 8279
8.1mm 6.5mm 5.41mm 1.72mm 55, 58, 141, 142, 223, 303, 400, Fiber Optic

301D .324" .256" .213" .068" 5, 6, 58, 59, 62, 140, 141, 142, 212, 222, 303
8.3mm 6.5mm 5.41mm 1.72mm Fiber Optic BELDEDN 8281, 8279, 9231, 9141

The RG 59B/U co-axial cable has an outer diameter of b) It avoids breaking of leads which we normally experience
6.15mm (including the PVC sheath) and the diameter of in soldered connection.
the inner conductor is 0.6mm whereas in the BNC (crimp
type) connector the Outer Diameter of the centre pin is c) The crimping saves a lot of time. The process is very
2mm and that of the metal sleeve is 7mm. For crimping quick.
these two we must use the dies 1.72mm for the inner The only disadvantages in crimping is, the connector once
conductor and 5.41mm for the shield. used for crimping, cannot be re-used. It should be thrown
After stripping the PVC sheath and dressing the lead out only. This is the reason why precaution should be
insert the inner conductor into the center pin (D) and crimp taken to cut the cable end to correct dimensions and
positioned properly before crimping.
it using the 1.72 mm die.
Cable stripper : Many people are in the habit of using
The dimensions of the BNC plug are shown in Fig. 2. Next, shaving blades for removing the PVC sheath of the cable.
after inserting the metal sleeve (C) over the screen spread This is first of all hazardous as there is a possibility of
over the knurled surface (B), use 5.41mm die to crimp the injuring the fingers. Secondly while cutting the sheath the
metal sleeve. blade may cut the strands of the inner conductor. In the
case of a co-axial cable, while cutting the PVC sheath, the
strands of the screen also may get cut thereby rendering
it weak while connecting.
Cable strippers are available in the market for various
applications to overcome the above difficulty.
The cable stripper is simple in construction. It consists of
a pair of jaws made of hard bakelite frame. The jaws are
spring loaded and can be opened by a short lever operated
by the thumb. There is a hole in the jaw through which the
cable to be stripped is inserted after opening the jaws. A
sharp piece of blade kept moulded inside this hole is used
for cutting the sheath. The blade is kept in a position to
The advantages of using crimping are
cut precisely the PVC sheath only.
a) Crimping ensures firm mechanical and electrical
contact.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
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After inserting the cable into the jaw, it has to be positioned
carefully for cutting only the required length of the sheath.
Turning the stripper enables the blade to cut along the
perimeter of the cable sheath. You have to make two or
three rounds to allow the blade to cut fully and uniformly
all around the PVC sheath.
Now slight pulling the stripper and the cable apart will
release the length of PVC sheath along from the cable.
Use of the cable stripper is simple and fast and saves time.
It does not cut the screen mesh of the co-axial cable. Also
the instrument is safe for handling.
Fig 3 shows the clear pictorial views to carry out the
following instructions.
Instructions
1 Insert coax cable at the end of the stripper by pressing
your thumb on the other end opening the jaws. Once
the coax cable is on position, release the thumb to
close jaws.
2 Insert index finger on through the hollow end and turn
the stripper, while holding the coax cable with your
other hand, about 3-5 times clockwise.
3 After turning, hold the stripper with the hand that you
used to turn the stripper, and pull sideways, while
maintaining your hold of the other hand on the coax
cable, which should complete the strip of the cable.
Lastly, open the jaws to release the scraps out of the
stripper.
Universal crimping tools: Today Universal crimping
tools are available in different shapes and sizes.
Compression Tool is available in market for crimping
connectors on to the coaxial cable ends. Two types of
Universal crimping and compression Tools used for crimping
the 'F'-connector, BNC- Connector and RCA- Connector is 4c
shown in fig.4a, 4b & 4c below.
4a 4b

These tools can be used to crimp 'F', BNC, and RCA


connectors onto RG6, and RG59 coaxial cables. This
compression tool kit is a compact solution for technicians
with the highest performing on coaxial cable crimping.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 3.5.211
Electronic Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Different types of cable and connectors used in LAN


Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list different types of cables used in networking
• explain the construction of a twisted pair cable
• explain the construction of a coaxial cable.

Cables or Transmission media The two types of cables are:


Network computers must have a pathway to contact other – Unshielded twisted pair cable.
computers. The physical path through which the electrical
– Shielded twisted pair cable.
signals travel is called transmission media or cables.
Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)
Cable media are wires that conduct electricity/signal. The
following types of cables are used in LAN. Unshielded twisted pair cable is composed of a set of
twisted pairs with a simple plastic encasement as in
1 Twisted pair cable
Fig. 2.
2 Co-axial cable
1. Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair is a common scheme for using copper wire as
telecommunication cable because copper is a good
conductor of electrons. Twisted copper wires reduces
cross talk and signal emissions.
Twisted pairs are formed by two insulated 22 to 26 gauge
copper wires that are twisted about each other as in
Fig. 1. These twisted cables are available in two types.

It is commonly used in telephone systems and has been


largely standardized.
Twisted pair network cables are rated in terms of their
capability to carry network traffic. They are referred as
category 3, 4 5e and cat 6.

Category 3/Cat 3 - 10 Mbps - used for voice grade telephone or 10 mbps ethernet
Category 4/Cat 4 - 16 Mbps - Token ring network
Category 5/Cat 5 - 100 Mbps - For 100 Mbps Ethernet
/ECat 5 - 100/1000 Mbps

CAT 6 cable wires with a soft supporting member in the center of the
cable as shown in fig. 3.
Cat 6 is a "twisted pair" network cable used for carrying
data signals at speeds of up to 550MHz of Bandwidth. This Fig 3
cable is preferred for more advanced networking
installations where a higher bandwidth than normal is
required.
With Gigabit Ethernet, Broadband, Audio/Video and
Security capabilities, Cat6 is ideal for any critical network
installation. Whether it's for wiring a home, office or entire
campus, we have the solution that's right for the installation.
Cat6 is backward compatible with the CAT 3, 5, 5e cable
standards. As with Cat5 and Cat5e cabling, Cat6 cables
consists of 4 unshielded twisted pairs(UTP) of copper

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Cat6 standard also includes more stringent specifications outlet (I/O). The information outlet contains a RJ-45 jack
for cross talk and system noise. called I/O jack in it.
ECategory 5 and category 5 UTP are commonly used in The UTP cable is crimped to the information outlet.
computer networking. Another patch cable connects to the RJ-45 jack in the
information outlet and the other end gets connected to the
UTP cables are limited to a length of 100 meters (328 feet)
NIC of the computer. Note that the distance from the
for each node to Hub connection.
connector on the hub to the connector on the computer’s
Shielded twisted pair cable NIC cannot exceed 100 metres of cable length.
Today, the mostly used cable is UTP. But some forms of 2. Co-axial cable
shielded twisted pair (STP) still exist. The below Fig. 4
Co-axial cable commonly called (“Coax”) is made of two
shows the STP cable. It is used in places where
conductors that share a common axis, hence the name
electromagnetic interference caused by electric motors,
(“co”, “axis”). typically, the centre of the cable is relatively
power lines and other sources.
stiff solid copper wire or stranded wire surrounded by an
insulating plastic foam. The foam is surrounded by the
second conductor, a wire mesh tube as in Fig. 6.

The STP is insulated cable which includes bundled pair


wrapped in a foil shielding.
Several co-axial cable standards are in comon use for
UTP
computer networking. The most common types meet one
UTP is a popular choice for structured cabling systems of the following ohm and size stanards.
used widely in office network environments. Structured
– 50 ohm RG-8 and RG-11 (used in thick Ethernet
cabling system is a network cabling pattern which follows
specifications.)
strict engineering design rules. It allows voice, data and
video to be transmitted/received on the same cabling – 50 ohm RG-58 (used in thin Ethernet specifications).
system. It allows shifting, adding and replacing the nodes - 75 ohm RG-59 (used for low power video and RF
easily. The arrangement is as shown in Fig. 5.
– 75 ohm RG-62 (used for ARC net specifications)
The co-axial cable can handle a speed of only 10 Mbps
maximum and the distance it can drive is only 185 m
maximum.
Types of Co-axial cable
There are two types of co-axial cable
– Thin (Thinnet)
– Thick (Thicknet)
Thinnet: Thinnet is a flexible coaxial cable about 0 .25 inch
thickness. Because this type of coaxial is flexible and
easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of
network installation. as shown in fig.7
Thicknet : Thicknet is relatively rigid co-axial cable about
0.405 inches in diameter. The copper core is thicker than
The cabling starts from the Hub or switch which is placed
a thinnet.
in a Rack centrally. A patch cable (usually 6-10 feet long)
connects a port on the hub to a patch panel which is also RJ45 Cable Wiring:
in the Rack using RJ-45 connectors on each end. On the
RJ stands for Registered Jacks. These are used in
back side of the patch panel, the UTP cable is hard-wired
telephone and data jack wiring.RJ-45 is a 8-position, 8-
or crimped to the panel connector. From the patch panel,
conductor jack used in 10BaseT and 100BaseT Ethernet
theUTP cable runs continuously to a wall jack or information
wiring.

152 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211

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Fig 9

RJ-45 conductor data cable contains 4 pairs of wires each


consists of a solid colored wire and a strip of the same
color. There are two wiring standards for RJ-45 wiring: T- RJ45 socket
568A and T-568B. Although there are 4 pairs of wires,
10BaseT/100BaseT Ethernet uses only 2 pairs: Orange Fig 10
and Green.
The other two colors (blue and brown) may be used for a
second Ethernet line or for phone connections. The two
wiring standards are used to create a cross-over cable
(T-568A on one end, and T-568B on the other end), or a
straight-through cable. as shown in fig. 8 & 9.
Fig 8

PIN POSITION

Fig 11

RJ45 PLUG

Fig.10. Colours of wires & pin numbers for T568A cable


end
Fig.11. Colours of wires & pin numbers for T568B cable
end

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
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The straight-through cables are used when connecting RJ45 Input / Output box (I/O Box) is a preparatory cable
Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) to Data with both ends terminated by RJ45 keystone jacks for LAN
Communications Equipment (DCE), such as computers network; it is also called as wall jack. The keystone jack
and routers to modems (gateways) or hubs (Ethernet is shown in fig.14(a). Keystone jack has color code
Switches). running down A and B standards on both sides of the jack
to be followed with the colours of wires. Using a punch
To create a straight-through cable, you'll have to use either
down tool the wires are punched down into the blades
T-568A or T-568B on both ends of the cable. As shown n
designed to work with solid conductors into the keystone
figure- Fig.12.
jack as shown in fig. 14 b. It is prepared as a straight
Fig 12 through cable terminated at both ends with RJ45 sockets.
It is used to connect the router to personal computer and
printer etc in the networking. It consists of one or more
number of RJ45 keystone sockets fitted onto a face plate
and it is wired internally by punching down the wires of the
CAT cable into respective terminals as shown in fig.14 c

Fig 14a

The cross-over cables are used when connecting DTE to


DTE, or DCE to DCE equipment; such as computer to
computer, computer to router; or gateway to hub Fig 14b
connections.To create a cross-over cable, you'll have to
use T-568A at one end and T-568B at another end of the
cable as shown in fig.13.
Fig 13

Fig 14c

It is prepared as a straight through cable terminated at


both ends with RJ45 sockets. This I/O Box is used for
extending the network connectivity for a maximum allowable
distance of 100meters.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 3.5.211
Electronic Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Cables and Connectors of a PC system


Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• establish the need for cables and connectors in a PC system
• list the types of cables/connectors used to interconnect PC peripherals
• list the types of cables/connectors used to interconnect mother board with devices.

Basic Computer devices are using DB9 interface for serial communication
D type 25 pin male connectors are located on the rear
A personal computer consists of a mother board, RAM - side of the cabinet usually denoted as COM-1 & COM
add on cards, Hard disk drive (HDD), Floppy disk drives -2 are used for serial communication. These are connected
FDD, Power supply, cabinet, monitor, key board and a to mother board using two 10 core cables. A D type 25
mouse. These parts are available as separate modules. pin ( female ) parallel port is located on the rear side of
It is possible to integrate all these devices into one the cabinet is used for parallel communication. This is
complete unit with minimum interconnections. In practice also called as printer port or asynchronous port which is
these modules are interconnected using cables, connected to the mother board using a 25 core flat cable.
connectors, and edge connectors. Such an arrangement Printers are connected to the parallel port. A general
gives the flexibility of changing subsystem and ease of mouse comes with a 9 pin D type female connector which
trouble shooting. is connected to the serial port.
Cables and connectors Universal Serial Bus (USB) is also a communication port
Different types of cables used in the computer are multicored similar to serial port used to connect modem, scanners
round shielded cable, unshielded cables and multicored and Web-cameras etc. USB ports are used to connect the
flat cable as per the international standards. Chart -1 peripherals having the USB connectors. Two 5 core or 4
shows various types of connectors used in PC. Mouse, core cables are connected between the Mother Board and
key board and monitor comes with a cable, terminated the USB terminations on the rear side of the PC.
with connectors at one end .Hard disk, FDD, CD-ROM and Mini jack connectors are used to connect Audio IN and
other such devices are terminated with a 40 pin/50pin/34 OUT of external audio sources. Computers with sound
pin FRC connectors. Power supply to HDD, FDD and CD- card are provided with female mini jack connectors at the
ROM units also fed through the hard plastic connectors. rear side. Allows to attach microphone or external sound
HDD, is connected to the Mother Board with a flat cable source, speakers . The PCs CD-ROM drive audio is
(40 pin) for data transmission and 4 pin hard plastic connected to the sound card internally.
connector for the Power. These cables are made in such RCA connectors are used for video IN and OUT to external
away that we can connect two devices at a time (one video sources. Computers with TV tuner card/ video
master and the other slave). In a typical system the digitizer card are provided with female type RCA connectors
connection may be any of the following type at the rear side.
i) M/B to HDD and CD drive Game port is a 15 pin D type (normal) connector provided
ii) M/B to two HDDs at the rear side of the computer to connect JOY stick
which is a popular multi directional pointing device used for
ii) M/B to two CD drive
playing computer games.
FDD is connected to the MB with a 34 pin flat cable for data
Monitors come with a cable terminated with a 15 pin D
transfer and 4 pin hard plastic Molex connector for power.
type male connector. It is connected to the CPU through
We can connect two floppy disks at a time using the cable.
a 15 pin D type female video connector located at the rear
They can be either two “5 1/4 “or two “3 1/2” or combination
side of the cabinet. This connector is a high density
of both. But nowadays only “3 1/2 “ i.e. 1.44MB drives are
connector, packed in a 9 pin D type shell construction.
used and the “5 1/2“ are out dated
Registered Jack (RJ) connectors are available as two
The rear panel connectors are identified by their standard
wire, 4 wire and 8 wire terminations. They are denoted as
types such as D type, DIN type, mini DIN type or PS/2
RJ 11( 4 pin) and RJ 45 ( 8 pins) etc. RJ-female connectors
type, RJ type, BNC, RCA and USB. All these types have
are located at the rear side of a computer if the computer
male and female connectors. Chart 1 at the end of this
is fitted with a modem or network card. RJ 11 is used to
lesson provides details on various connectors and cables.
interface telephone connection (for modem). RJ 45 for
DB-9 is a D-type subminiature connector or D- sub type network interface connection - (for net work). BNC -
of connector. It has items for male connector and I holes ”Baynet Naur Connector” is used for coaxial cable
for female connector. Today DB 9 has mostly been termination.
replaced by USB, PS-2, fire wire and others. Still many
The BNC connectors are also used in networking
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computers using coaxial cable. S/PDIF is based on the professional AES3 interconnect
standard. S/PDIF can carry two channels of uncompressed
Normal Key boards are terminated with a DIN type male
PCM audio or compressed 5.1/7.1 surround sound (such
connector. A DIN type female connector is provided at the
as DTS audio codec).
rear side of the PC through which the key board is
connected to the PC. A miniature DIN connector is also Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is a video display interface
provided on the PC for connecting keyboards terminated developed by the Digital Display Working Group (DDWG).
with PS/2 connector or mouse terminated with PS/2. The digital interface is used to connect a video source,
such as a display controller to a display device, such as
Connector /converters
a computer monitor. It was developed with the intention of
Usually connectors are matched properly between cabinet creating an industry standard for the transfer of digital
and devices. Sometimes the connectors may not match. video content.
Convertors are available to match these devices. For
The interface is designed to transmit uncompressed
example - a PS/2 (mini DIN) mouse can be converted to
digital video and can be configured to support multiple
match 9 pin serial connector, if the mother board does not
modes such as DVI-D (digital only), DVI-A (analog only),
have PS/2 connector (mini DIN). In this way we can use
or DVI-I (digital and analog). Featuring support for analog
the device with unmatched connector saving cost of a new
connections, the DVI specification is compatible with the
device. Converters are available for Modem, Keyboard,
VGA interface.
mouse.
S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format) is a
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a proprietary
type of digital audio interconnect used in consumer audio
audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video
equipment to output audio over reasonably short distances.
data and compressed or uncompressed digital audio data
The signal is transmitted over a fiber optic cable with
from an HDMI-compliant source device, such as a display
TOSLINK connectors. S/PDIF interconnects components
controller, to a compatible computer monitor, video
in home theatres and other digital high fidelity systems.
projector, digital television, or digital audio device. HDMI is
a digital replacement for analog video standards. S/PDIF is based on the professional AES3 interconnect
standard. S/PDIF can carry two channels of uncompressed
FireWire The IEEE 1394 High Performance Serial Bus
PCM audio or compressed 5.1/7.1 surround sound (such
(HPSB), FireWire is a high-speed interface mostly
as DTS audio codec).; it cannot support lossless formats
developed and promoted by Apple for video transmission.
(such as Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio) which
Introduced in 2000, FireWire was added to camcorders
require greater bandwidth like that available with HDMI or
and a variety of A/V equipment. Even early iPods could
Display Port.
connect via FireWire. Still included on Mac laptop and
desktop computers, modern camcorders have replaced Fiber optic cable
FireWire with USB, HDMI and other video outputs. There
Fiber optic cable is made of light- coducting glass or
are two types as FireWire 400 and 800.
plastic core surrounder by more glass and a tough outer
USB 3.0 is the third major version of the Universal Serial sheath as in Fig 1 The center core provide the light path or
Bus (USB) standard for interfacing computers and electronic wave guide while the galss or cladding is composed of
devices. Among other improvements, USB 3.0 adds the varying layers of reflective glass. The glass or cladding is
new transfer mode SuperSpeed (SS) that can transfer composed of varying layers of reflective glass. The glass
data at up to 5 Gbit/s (625 MB/s), which is about ten times cladding is designed to refract ligh back into the core.
faster than the USB 2.0 standard. Each core and cladding strand is surronded by a tight or
loose sheath in tight configurations, the strand is completely
eSATA & USB Hybrid Port
surrounded by the outer plastic sheath. Loose configuration
A combo port that connects to external SATA (eSATA) use a liquid gel or other material between the strand and
drives and USB devices with cables up to two meters long. the protective sheath.
The eSATA USB Hybrid Port (EUHP) also eliminates the
external power cable by supplying 5 or 12 volts to eSATAp
(eSATA powered) drives.
Both of these ports connect to regular external eSATA
drives. However, the Hybrid Port also supplies power to
eSATAp drives as well as connects USB devices. If the
port is blue, it supports USB 3.0, otherwise only USB 2.0.
S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format) is a
type of digital audio interconnect used in consumer audio
equipment to output audio over reasonably short distances.
The signal is transmitted over a fiber optic cable with
TOSLINK connectors. S/PDIF interconnects components
in home theatres and other digital high fidelity systems.

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Fiber optic connectors
The Optical fibers may be multimode or single mode in The connector used fiber optic cables is called an ST
nature. single mode fiber has been optimized to allow (straight tip) connection shown Fig 4
only one light path while multimode fiber allows various
paths. The following figure explains single mode and
multimode fibers. Fig 2

One more connector type is SC (subscribe connector)


is coming up popularly. It has a square body and locks
by simply pushing into the socket.

The MTRJ is a new fiber optic connecotr being used


widely. it can operate at Gigbit ethernet speeds ( 1000
Mbps) easily. The MT-RJ has a lacthing mechanism
Single mode fiber cable can be used for distance upto similar to the RJ-45 UTP connector. A standard MT-RJ
10kms. and multimode cable foe upto 2.5km. The connection consists of 3 components: a male connector
typical speeds are 100/1000 Mbpz. The types of optic (with pins), a female MT-RJ (with guide holes) and as
cable are diffrentiated by mode, composition ( glass or MTRJ adapater. it is easily to install and maintain and
plastic) and core/cladding size. should be considedred for any new installation. The
Common types of fiber optical cables: figure 5 and 6 show the MTRJ connectors and connec-
- 8.3 micron core/125 micron cladding single mode tions in use.
- 62.5 micron core/125 micron cladding multimode
- 50 micron core/125 micron cladding multimode
-100 micron core/140 micron cladding multimode
The common fiber optic cables installation is given in
the following Fig 3

The single carried by a single mode cable is generated Fiber-Optic connectors can attach to the cable in
by a laser source and that of a multimode by light several ways, using either a crimped compresion fitting
emitting diode (LED). Together, these qualities allow or an epoxy giue.
single mode cable to operate at higher bandwiths than
multimode and traverse distance upto 50 times longer. Fiber cables are mainy used for backbone connectivity
single mode cable is cheaper than multimoda and has a across the floors or when the distance cannot be
relatively high bend radius, which makes it mode diffcult covered by UTP cable limitation or when the network
to work with. MMF is most commonly used. path to be connected is exposed to sky.

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Fiber cables come in three varieties depending on the The speaker connecotr connector (male) shown in Fig 9
place of usage.
1 Indoor cables-for in -house usage within buildings.
2 outdoor cables/Armoured cable-to be used in areas
which are exposed to sky. Has an additional hard
shield to prevent any occassional damage.
3 Indoor/outdoor cable can be used inside and outside
buildings. Does not carry heavy shield as in outdoor
cable, but better than indoor cable.

Diffrent types of network connectivity hardware


In s network number of hardware devices are used to
connect each computer to a media segment. These A Speakon connecotr is designed with a locking system
devices are: that may be designed for soldering or screw-type
connections. Line connecotrs (female) mate with (male)
1 Transmission media connectors
panel connectors at both ends, Recently the manufac-
2 Network interface boards
ture has introduced new series called STX which include
3 Modems
also male line connectors and female panel Speakon
We can also connect multiple seprate segments of connecotrs are designed for use in speaker cables.
transmission media to form one large network. For this With 1/4’ speaker jacks and XLR connections. It is
purpose we use the following nerworkng devices. possible for users to erroneously use low-current
shielded microphone or instrument cables are intended
1 Repeaters
solely for use in high current audio applications,
2 Hubs
3 Bridges The connection diagram of speakon female socket is
4 Multiplexers shown in Fig 10
5 Transceiver
6 Routers
1 Transmission media connectors:
Every medium has one or more physical connecotors to
which you can attach various devices (Fig 7)

BNC (Bayonet nut connector)


It is a connecotor for co-axial cable that locks when one
connector is insrted into another and is roated 90
degree as in Fig 8

Connector arrange their contacts in two concentric rings


with the inner contacts named +1,+2, etc. and the outer
contacts connectors (in the four-pole and eight-pole
version only). named -1, -2, etc. [5] The phase conven-
tions is that positive voltage on the + contact causes air
to be pushed away form the speakers.
Speakon connectors are made in two, four and eight-
Speakon connector pole configurations. The two-pole line connector will
The Speakon is an electrical connecotr used in profes- mate with the four -pole panel connector, connecting to
sional audio systems for connecting loudspeakers to +1 and -1: but the reverse combination will not work.
amplifiers. Speakon connectors are rated for 40 A RMS The eight-pole connector is physically larger to accom-
continuous current, higher than 1/4-inch TS phone modate the extra poles. The four-pole connector is the
connectors, two-pole twist lock, and XLR connecotr for most common at least from the availability of ready-
loudspeakers
158 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211

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made leads, as it allows for things like bi-amping(two of Important Types Of Ports
the four connections for the higher-frequency signal,
Serial port
With the other two for the lower-frequency signal)
without two separate cables. • Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
Cables & Connectors
A port is a physical docking point using which an ex • Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
termal devices can be connected to the computer. It can Parallel port
also be progrommatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to the computer or over • Used for scanners and printers
the internet. Diffrent types ports used in computer is • Also called printer port
Shown in Fig 11.
• 25 pin model
Characteristics of ports
• IEEE 1284-complaint Centronics port
A port has the following characteristics-
PS/2 Port
• External devices are connected to a computer using
cables and ports. • Used for old computer keybord and mouse
• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of • Also called mouse port
external devices is pligged in.
• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the • Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each
mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers, etc. for the mouse and keybord
• IEEE 1284-complaint Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
• It can connect all kinds of external USB ports as
minimum.
• It was intorduced in 1997.
• Most of the computers provide two USB port.
VGA Port
• Connects monitor to a computer’s video card.
• It has 15 holes.
• Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port
connector has Pins, VGA port has holes.

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Chart 1

Description Application Cable/connector

40 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with HDD


located on M/B

34 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with FDD


located on M/B

25 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with Parallel port


located on M/B provided on the rear side of the
PC

10 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with serial port


located on M/B “D” connector provided on the
rear side of the PC

FDD cable (data) To connect MB with FDD


located inside the PC

HDD cable (data) To connect MB with HDD


located inside the PC

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Description Application Cable/connector

4 pin Molex connector SMPS to HDD,FDD,DVD- ROM


from SMPS unit

4 pin Berg connector SMPS to FDD (3 1/2’’)


from SMPS unit

20 pin Berg connector SMPS (ATX) to MB


from SMPS unit

12 pin Berg connector SMPS (AT) to MB

5 pin DIN plug on key Key board to MB


board cable

5 pin DIN socket MB to key board


provided on the rear side
of the PC

5 pin Miniature DIN plug Key board to MB


on keyboard cable

5 pin Miniature DIN socket MB to key board


provided on the rear side
of the PC

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Description Application Cable/connector

PS/2 Key board connectors Mouse to MB

15 pin High density VGA MB to Monitor


connector on the rear side
of PC

15 pin D type connector To connect Joy stick

D-25 pin male connector Serial port (Com-port)


on the rear side of the PC

D-9 pin male connector Serial port (Com-port)


on the rear side of the PC

D-25 pin female connector Parallel port (Printer port)


on the rear side of the PC

Mini Jack socket Audio IN /MIC


on the rear side of the PC

162 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211

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Description Application Cable/connector

Mini Jack from external External Audio Devices to Sound


audio device card

USB female connector MB to USB peripherals


provided on the rear side
of the PC

USB male connector from USB peripherals to MB


the USB device

Chart showing various types of sockets /ports and plugs used for
Computer Rear Panel & Mother board

Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

1 Mains Power supply Connector and plug

2 Mains Power supply adaptor and plug

3 Audio jack (3.5mm)

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Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

4 Audio plug (3.5mm)

5 USB -2.0- female

6 USB-2.0- male

7 RJ-45jack- Female

8 RJ-45 plug-Male

9 PS-2 mouse port

10 PS-2 mouse plug

11 PS-2 keyboard port

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Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

12 PS-2 keyboard plug

13 DVI male connector

14 DVI port

15 HDMI plug

16 HDMI Port

17 DP9-Serial female plug

18 DP9-Serial male port

19 DP-25 Parallel plug

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Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

20 DP-25 Parallel port

21 eSATA -female

22 eSATA - Port

23 VGA port (DP-15)

24 VGA male plug (DP-15)

25 USB -3.0 port -male

26 USB-3.0 port - female

27 IEEE 1394( fire wire)- Female

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Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

28 IEEE 1394 ( fire wire)- male

29 40 Pin FRC Female connector

30 40 pin FRC Male connector

31 34 pin FRC male connector

32 34 Pin FRC female connector

33 26 Pin FRC Female Connector

34 26 pin FRC Male Connector

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Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

35 10 pin FRC Male Connector

36 10Pin FRC female Connector

37 S/PDIF connector- male

38 S/PDIF connector- female

39 SATA cable

40 SATA port

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Radio wave propagation - principles, fading etc


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the fundamentals of radio wave propagation
• explain the phenomena of fading & propagation characteristics through different media.

Radio wave propagation upper atmosphere, due to the sun. Understanding the
effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has
Radio wave propagation. A radio wave is form of radiant
many practical applications, from choosing frequencies
energy (electromagnetic radiation) that propagates at the
for international shortwave broadcastors to design reliable
speed of light (186,000 miles or 300, 000,000 meters per
mobile telephone systems, radio navigation and operation
second). Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves
of radar systems.
when they are transmitted, or propagated from one point
on the earth to another, or into various parts of the Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors
atmosphere. As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like determined by its path from point to point. This path can
light waves, radio waves are affected bythe phenomena be a direct line of sight path or an over the horizon path
of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization aided by refraction in the ionosphere, which is a region
and scattering. between 60 and 600 km approximately. Factors
influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation can
Radio wave propagation is affected by the daily changes
include sporadic -E, solar flares, geomagnetic storms,
of water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the
ionospheric layers tilts and solar porton events.

Table 1 : Radio frequencies and their primary mode of propagation


Band Frequency Wave length Propagation via

ELF Extremely 3-30 Hz 100, 000 km


Frequency 10,000 km
SLF Super low 30-300 Hz 10,000
Frequency 1,000 km
ULF Ultra low 0.3-3 kHz 1000-
Frequency 100 km
VLF Very low 3-30 kHz 100 km-10 km Guided between the earth and the ionosphere
Frequency
LF Low frequency 30-300 kHz 10 km-1 km Guided between the earth and the D layer of
the ionosphere and
Surface waves
MF Medium 300-3000 kHz 1000-100m E, F layer ionospheric refraction at night, when
frequency D layer absorption weakens
HF High frequency 3-30 MHz 100-10m E Layer ionospheric refraction
(Short wave) F1, F2 layer ionospheric refraction
VHF Very high 30-3000 MHz 10-1 m Infrequent E ionospheric (Es) refraction
frequency uncommonly F2 layer ionospheric refraction
during high sunspot activity up to 50 MHz and
rarely to 80 MHz. Generally direct wave.
Sometimes tropospheric ducting
UHF Ultra high 300-300 MHz 100-10 cm Direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric ducting
frequency
SHF Super high 3-30 GHz 10-1 cm Direct wave
frequency
EHF Extremely high 30-300 GHz 10-1 mm Direct wave limited by absorption
Frequency
THF Tremendously 0.3 - 3 THz 1-0.1 mm
high frequency

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Surface modes ( ground wave) play significant roles. The D- layer, when present during
sunlight periods, causes significant amount of signal loss,
Surface wave
as does the E - layer whose maximum usable frequency
Lower frequencies (between 30 and 3, 000 KHz) have the can rise to 4 MHz and above, thus block higher frequency
property of following the curvature of the earth via ground signals from reaching the F2 - layer. The layers, or more
wave propagation in the majority of occurrences. appropriately “regions”, are directly affected by the sun
Early commerical and professional radio services relied on a daily diurnal cycle, a seasonal cycle and the 11-
exclusively on long wave, low frequencies and ground - year sunspot cycle and determine the utility of these
wave propagation. To prevent interference with these modes. During solar maxima, or sunspot highs and peaks,
services, amateur and experimental transmitters wire the whole HF range up to 30 MHz can be used usually
restricted to the higher (HF) frequencies, felt to be useless around the clock and F2 propagation up to 50 MHz is
since their ground - wave range was limited. Upon observed frequently depending upon daily solar flux 10.7
discovery of the other propagation modes possible at cm radiation values. During solar minima, or minimum
medium wave and short wave frequencies, the advantages sunspot counts down to zero, propagation of frequencies
of HF for commercial and military purposes became above 15 MHz is generally unavailable.
apparent. Amateur experimentation was then confined Multipath fading basics
only to authorized frequency segments in that range.
Multipath fading is a feaure that needs to be taken into
Direct modes (line-of-sight) account when designing or developing a radio
Line of sight is the direct propagation of radio waves communications system. In any terrestrial radio
between antennas that are visible to each other. This is communications system, the signal will reach the receiver
probably the most common of the radio propagation not only via the direct path, but also as a result of
modes at VHF and higher frequencies. Because radio reflections from objects such as buildings, hills, ground,
signals can travel through many non - metallic objects, water, etc, that are adjacent to the main path.
radio can be picked up through walls. This is still line - of The overall signal at the radio receiver is a summation of
sight propagation. Examples would include propagation the variety of signals being received. As they all have
between a satellite and a ground antenna or receptionof different path lengths, the signals will add and subtract
television signals from a local TV transmitter. from the total dependent upon their relative phases.
Ionospheric modes (sky wave) At times there will be changes in the relative path lengths.
Sky wave This could result from either the radio transmitter or
receiver moving, or any of the objects that provides a
Sky wave propagation, also referred to as skip, is one of reflective surface moving. This will result in the phases of
the modes that rely on refraction of radio waves in the the signals arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn
ionosphere, which is made up of one or more ionized this will result in the signal strength varying as a result of
layers in the upper atmosphere. F2 - layer is the most the different way in which the signals will sum together. It
important ionospheric layer for long - distance, multiple - is this that causes the fading that is present on many
hop HF propagation, through F1, E and D - layers also signals.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Need for modulation & types of modulation


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the need for modulation
• explain various types modulation & demodulation techniques.

Need for modulation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies


8 -1 (>20kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in
The velocity of electromagnetic waves is 3 x 10 ms . On
communication systems.
the other hand, the velocity of sound waves cannot be
used to transmit intelligence to far off place. Only Operating range
electromagnetic waves can be made to do this. The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The
Modulation is extremely necessary in communication greater the frequency of the wave, the greater is the energy
systems due to the following reasons. possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are small,
these cannot be transmitted over large distance if radiated
Sub topics directly into space. The only pracitcal solution is to
1 Practical antenna length (L) modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal
and permit the transmission to occur at this high frequency
2 Wireless communication (carrier frequency) .
3 Operating range What is modulation?
Practical antenna length (L) The best way to define modulation is
When free space is the communication channel, antennas The process of impressing low -frequency information to
operate effective only when their dimensions are of the be transmitted on to a high -frequency wave, called the
order of the magnitude of wave length of the signal being carrier wave, by changing the characteristics of either its
transmitted. amplitude, frequency , or phase angle is called
modulation.
u 3 x 108
Now, L = λ = = Hz Another definition for modulation is.
v v
The process of altering the characteristics of the amplitude,
λ = Wave length frequency, or phase and of the high - frequency signal in
u = Velocity of electro magnetic wave accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
wave is called modulation.
v = Frequency to be radiated in Hz
Types of modulation
The aduio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Suppose a frequency of 20 kHz is to be radiated directly The sinusoidal carrier wave can be given by the equation.
into space. For this, Vc = Vc Sin (Wct+θ) = Vc Sin 2πfct+θ)
8 Vc = Maximum value
3 x 10
Length of antenna = 3
m = 15000 m = 15 km
20 x 10 fc = Frequency

this is too long antenna to be constructed practically. So, θ = Phase relation


it is impracticable to radiate audio signal directly into Wc = Angular velocity
space.
t = time
Let us now calculate the length of the antenna if a carrier
Since the three variables are the amplitude, frequency,
wave of say, 1000 kHz is used to carry the signal.
and phase angle, the modulation can be done by varying
any one of them. Thus there are three modulation types
3 x 10 8 namely.
Length of antenna = m = 300 m
10 6 • Amplitude modulation ( AM)
An antenna of 300 m length can be easily construct. • Frequency modulation (FM)
• Phase modulation (PM)
Wireless communication
In India, radio broadcasting is done through amplitude
One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should modulation. Television broadcasting is done with amplitude
be carried wihtout wires (i.e) radiated into space. At audio modulation for video signals and frequency modulation
frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the for audio signals.
efficiency of radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation
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Amplitude modulation (AM) v=A Sin ωct = vc (1+m Sin ωmt) Sin ωct
Definition = vc Sin ωct +mvc (Sin ωmt Sin ωct)
The method of varying amplitude of a high frequency carrier v=Vc Sin ωct + [mvc/2 Cos (ωc - ωm) t - mvc/2 Cos (ωc+ωm)t]
wave in accordance with the information to be transmitted,
keeping the frequency and phase of the carrier wave The above equation represents the sum of three sin waves.
unchanged is called amplitude modulation. The One with amplitude of Vc and a frequency of (ωc - ωm)2
information considered as the modulating signal and it is and the third one with an amplitude of mvc/2 and a
superimposed on the carrier wave by applying both of frequency of (ωc + ωm) 2.
them to the modualtor. The detailed diagram showing the In practice the angular velocity of the carrier is knwon to
amplitude modulation process is given below. (Fig.1) be greater thanthe angular velocity of the modulating signal
(ωc >> ωm). Thus, the second and third cosine equations
are more close of the carrier frequency. The equation is
represented graphically as shown below. (Fig.2)

As shown above, the carrier wave has positive and negative


half cycles. Both these cycles are varied according to
the information to be sent. The carrier then consists of
sine waves whose amplitudes follow the amplitude
variations of the modulating wave. The carrier is kept in
an envelope formed by the modulating wave. From the
figure, you can also see that the amplitude variaiton of
the high frequency carrier is at the signal frequency and
the frequency of the carrier wave is the same as the
frequency of the resulting wave.
Analysis of amplitude modulation carrier wave
Let vc =Vc Sin ωct
Vm = vm Sin ωmt Amplitude modulation frequency spectrum
Vc - Instantaneous value of the carrier Frequency spectrum of AM wave
Vc- Peak value of the carrier Lower side frequency - (ωc - ωm) 2
ωc- Angular velocity of the carrier
Upper side frequency - (ωc + ωm) 2
vm-Instantaneous value of the modulating signal
The frequency components present in the AM wave are
Vm- Maximum value of the modulating signal represented by vertical lines approximately located along
ωm- Angular velocity of the modulating signal the frequency axis. The height of each vertical line is drawn
in proportion to its amplitude. Since the angular velocity
fm- Modulating signal frequency of the carrier is greater than the angular velocity of the
It must be noted that the phase angle remains constant modulating signal, the amplitude of side band frequencies
in this process. Thus it can be ignored. The amplitude of can never exceed half of the carrier amplitude.
the carrier wave varies at fm. Thus there will not be any change in the original frequency,
The amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation. but the side band frequencies (ωc - ωm)2 and (ωc + ωm)2
will be changed. The former is called the upper side band
A= vc+vm=vc+vm Sin ωmt=vc[1+(vm/vc Sin ωmt)] (USB) frequency and the later is known as lower side
m - Modualtion index. The ratio of vm/vc and band (LSB) frequency.

Instantaneous value of amplitude modualted wave is given Since the signal frequency ωm/2 is present in the side
by the equation. bands, it is clear that the carreir voltage two side banded
frequencies will be produced when a carrier is amplitude
modulated by a signal frequency. That is, an AM wave
has a band width from (ωc - ωm)/2 to (ωc + ωm)/2, that is
2ωm/2 or twice the signal frequency is produced. When a
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modulating signal has more than one frequency, two side As told earlier, the value of ‘m’ lies between 0 and 0.8.
band frequencies are produced by every frequency. The value of m determines the strength and the quality of
Similarly for two frequencies of the modualting signal 2 the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is
LSB’s and 2 USB’s frequencies will be prodcued. contained in the variations of the carrier amplitude. The
audio signal transmitted will be weak of the carrier wave
The side bands of frequencies present above the carrier is only modulated to a very small degree. But if the value
frequency is known to be the upper side band and all of m exceeds unity, the transmitter output produces
those below the carrier frequency belong to the lower side erroneous distortion.
band. The USB frequencies represent the some of the
individual modulating frequencies and the LSB Power relations in an AM wave
frequencies represent the difference between the A modualted wave has more power than had by the carrier
modulating frequency and the carrier frequency. The total wave before modulating. The total power components in
bandwidth is represented in terms of the higher modulating amplitude modulation can be written as;
frequency and is equal to twice this frequency.
Ptotal=Pcarrier+PLSB+ PUSB
Modulation index (m)
Considering additional resistance like antenna resistance
The ratio between the amplitude change of modulated R.
carrier wave to the amplitude of the normal carrier wave is
called modulation index. It is represented by the letter Pcarrier = [(Vc/√2)/R]2=V2c/2R
‘m’. Each side band has a value of m/w Vc and r.ms value of
It can also be defined as the range is which the amplitude mVc/2√2. Hence power in LSB and USB can be written
of the carrier wave is varied by the modulating signal. as

m=Vm/Vc PLSB = PUSB = (mVc/2√2)2/R=m2/4*V2C/2R=m2/4Pcarrier

Percentage modulation, %m=m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100 P total =V 2C/2R+[m 2/4*V 2 C/2R]+[m 2/4*V 2C/2R] = V 2C/
2R(1+m2/2)=Pcarrier (1+m2/2)
The percentage modulation lies between 0 and 80%
In some applications, the carrier is simulataneously
Another way of expressing the modulation index is in modulated by several sinusoidal modulating signals. In
terms of the maximum and minimum values of the such a cause, the total modulation index is given as.
amplitude of the modulated carrier wave. This is shown in
Mt=√(m12+m22+m32+m42+...)
the figure below. (Fig.3)
If Ic and it are the r.m.s values of unmodualted current and
total modulated current and Ris the resistance through
which these current flow,then,
Ptotal/Pcarrier=(It.R/Ic.R)2 = (It/Ic)2
Ptotal/Pcarrier=(1+m2/2)
(It/Ic)2 = 1+m2/2
Limitations of amplitude modulation
1 Low efficiency- since the useful power that lies in the
small bands is quite small, so the efficiency of AM
system is low.
2 Limited operating range - The range of operation is
Amplitude modualted carrier wave
small due to low efficiency. Thus, transmission of
Amplitude modulated carrier wave signals is difficult.
From the figure we know that 3 Noise in reception- As the radio receiver finds it difficult
to distinguish between the amplitude variations that
2Vin=Vmax- Vmin
represent noise and those with signals, heavy noise
Vin = (Vmax-Vmin)/2 is prone to occur in its reception.
Vc=Vmax -Vin 4 Poor audio quality - To obtain high fidelity reception,
all audio frequencies till 15 kilo Hertz must be
=Vmax - (Vmax-Vmin)/2 reprodcued and this necessitates the band width of
=(Vmax +Vmin)/2 10 Kilo Hertz to minimize the interference from the
adjacent broadcasting stations. Therefore in AM
Substituting the values of Vin= Vm and Vc in the equation broadcasting stations audio quality is known to be
m =Vm/Vc, we get poor.
M= Vmax-Vmin/Vmax + Vmin

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Frequency modulation • Frequency modulation has a special effect called
capture effect in which high frequency signal will
The carrier frequency is varied according to the
capture the channel and discard the low frequency or
instantaneous amplitude of message signal or modualting
weak signals from interference.
signal by keeping the amplitude of carrier signal constant
is called frequency. (Fig.4) Disadvantages of frequency modulation
In the transmission section, we do not need any special
equipment but in the reception, we need more complicated
demodulations for demodulating the carreir signal from
message or modualting signal.
Frequency modulation cannot be used to find out the
speed and velocity of a moving object. Static interferences
are more than compared to phase modulation. Outside
interference is one of the biggest disadvantages in the
frequency modulation. There may be mixing becasue of
nearby radio stations, pagers, construction walkie-talkies
etc.
To limit the band width in the frequency modulation, we
use some filter which will again introduce some distortions
in the signal.
Transmittes and receiver should be in same channel and
one free channel must be there between the systems.
Application of frequency modulation (FM)
• Frequency modulation is used in radio’ which is very
Advantages of frequency modualtion
common in our daily life.
• Frequency modulation has more noise resistivity when
• Frequency modulation is used in audio frequencies
compared to other modulation techniques. That is why
to synthesize sound.
they are mainly used in broadcasting and radio
communications. And we are all well aware that radio • Used in applications of magnetic tape storage.
communication use mainly frequency modulation for
Phase modulation
transmission. We know that noise will occur mainly
to the amplitude of the signal. In frequency modulation, PM, is used in many applications to carry both analog
amplitude is made constant and only frequency is and digital signals. Keeping the amplitude of the carrier
varied, so we can easily find out the noise in the signal constant, the phase is varied according to the
amplitude by using a limiter. instantaneous amplitude of information signals.
• The frequency modulation is having greater resistance Advantages and disadvantages of phase modulation
to rapid signal strength variation, which we will use in • The main advantages of phase modulation is that it
FM radios even while we are travelling and frequency has less interfernce from static, which is why we use
modulation is also mainly used in mobile this type of modulation in finding, out the speed or
communication purposes. velocity of a moving object. In frequency modulation,
• For transmitting messages in frequency modulation, we cannot find out the velocity of moving object.
it does not require special equipments like linear • The main disadvantage is phase ambiguity comes if
amplifiers or repeaters and transmission levels or we increase the phase modualtion index, and data
higher when compared to other modulation techniques. loss is more and we need special equipment like
It does not require any class C or B amplifiers for frequency mulitiplier for increasing the phase
increasing the efficiency. modulation index.
• Transmission rate is good of frequency modulation Applications of phase modulation
when compared to other modulation that is frequency
modulation can transmit around1200 to 2400 bits per • Phase modulation application is not different from
second. frequency modulation. Phase modulation is also used
in communication systems.
• It may be used in binary phase shift keying

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Fundamentals of antenna, various parameters, types & applications


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the fundamentals of antenna
• explain various types & parameters of antennas
• explain the applications of various antennas.

Antenna fundamentals shape. Because the beam is slightly concentrated, dipole


antennas have a gain over isotropic antennas of 2.14 dB
An antenna is a device for converting electromagnetic
in the horizontal plane. Dipole antennas are said to have
radiation in space into electrical currents in conductors
a gain of 2.14 dBi (in comparison to an isotropic antenna).
or vice - versa, depending on whether it is being used for
receiving or for transmitting, respectively. Passive radio Some antennas are rated in comparison to dipole
telescopes are receiving antennas. It is usually easier to antennas, which is denoted by the suffix dBd. Hence
calculate the properties of transmitting antennas. dipole antennas have a gain of 0 dBd (=2.14 dBi)
Fortunately, most characteristics of a transmitting antenna Note: Mjaority of documentaiton refers to dipole antennas
(e.g its radiation pattern) are unchanged when the antenna as having a gain of 2.2 dBi. The actual figure is 2.14 dBi,
is used for receiving, so we often use the analysis of a but is often rounded up.
transmitting antenna to understand a receiving antenna
used in radio astronomy. You can also use the dB abbreviation to describe the
power level rating of antennas.
An antenna is an electrical device designated to radiate
or capture electromagnetic (EM) waves. In order to dBi - For use with isotropic antennas
properly appreciate this definition, and the physical dBd- With reference to dipole antennas
operation of antennas as a whole, we will have to familiarize
the reader with some basic electromagnetic concepts. The power rating difference between dBd and dBi is
approximately 2.2 that is, 0 dBd = 2.2 dBi.
The physical laws governing all classical electromagnetic
phenomena are maxwell’s equations. First introduced Antenna types
by the scottish scientish james clark maxwell, in his
Each type of antenna offers different coverage capabilities.
famous article. “A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic
As the gain of an antenna increases, there is some
field’, in 1864.
tradeoff to its coverage area. Usually high- gain antennas
An antenna gives the wireless system three fundamental offer longer coverage distances, but only in a certain
properties gain, direction and polarization. Gain is a direction. The radiation patterns below help to show the
measure of increase in power. Direction is the shape of coverage areas of the styles of antennas that are
the transmission pattern. A good analog for an antenna is Omnidirectional, Yagi and Patch antennas.
the reflector in a flashlight. The reflector concentrates and
Omnidirectional antenna
intensifies the light beam in a particular direction similar
to what a parabolic dish antenna would do to a RF source An omnidirectional antenna (Fig. 1) is designed to provide
in a radio system. a 360 degree radiation pattern. This type of antenna is
Antenna gain used when coverage in all directions from the antenna is
required. The standard 2.14 dBi “Rubber duck” is one style
Antenna gain is measured in decibels, which is a ratio of omnidirectional antenna.
between two values. The gain of a specific antenna is
compared to the gain of an isotropic antenna. An isotropic Figure. Omnidirectional antennas
antenna is a theoretical antenna with a uniform three -
dimensional radiation pattern (similar to a light bulb with
no reflector). dBi is used to compare the power level of a
given antenna to the theoretical isotropic antenna. The
U.S FCC uses dBi in its calculations. An isotropic antenna
is said to have a power rating of 0 dB, meaning that it
has zero gain /loss when compared to itself.
Unlike isotropic antennas, dipole antennas are real
antennas. Dipole antennas have a different radiation
pattern compared to isotropic antennas. The dipole
radiation pattern is 360 degrees in the horizontal plane
and 75 degress in the vertical plane (assuming the dipole
antenna is standing vertically) and resembles a donut in
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Directional Antennas The Yagi antenna or Yagi - Uda antenna / aerial is one of
the most successful RF antenna designs for directive
Directional antennas come in many different styles and
antenna applications.
shapes. an antenna does not offer any added power to
the signal; it simply redirects the energy it receives from The Yagi or Yagi - Uda antenna is used in a wide variety
the transmitter. By redirecting this energy, it has the effect of applications where an RF antenna design with gain
of providing more energy in one direction and less energy and directivity is required.
in all other directions. As the gain of a directional antenna The Yagi has become particularly popular for television
increases, the angle of radiation usually decreases, reception, but it is also used in very many other domestic
providing a greater coverage distance, but with a reduced and commercial applications where an RF antenna is
coverage angle. Directional antennas include patch needed that has gain and directivity.
antennas (Figure 2) Yagi antennas (Figure 3) and parabolic,
dishes. Parabolic dishes have a very narrow RF energy Not only is the gain of the Yagi antenna important as it
path and the installer must be accurate in aiming these enables better levels of signals to noise ratio to be
types of antennas these at each other. achieved, but also the directivity can be used to reduce
interference levels by focussing the transmitted power to
Figure 2 : Directional Antenna areas where it is needed, or receiving signals best from
where it emanate.

Figure 3 : Yagi antenna Typical Yagi Uda antenna used for


television reception
Yagi antenna history
The full name for the antenna is the Yagi - Uda antenna.
The Yagi antenna derives its name from its two Japanese
inventors Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda. The RF
antenna design concept was first outlined in a paper that
Yagi presented in 1928.
Yagi antenna - the basics (Fig.5)

Yagi antenna / Yagi /Uda antenna


The yagi antenna sometimes called the yagi - Uda RF
antenna is widely used where gain and directivity are
required from an RF antenna design. (Fig.4)
In this section
• Yagi antenna
• Yagi antenna theory
• Yagi antenna gain
• Yagi impedance & matching Basic concept of Yagi Uda antenna

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The Yagi antenna design has a dipole as the main radiating be optimized to either reduce this or produce the
or driven element. Further ‘parasitic’ elements are added maximum level of forward gain. Unfortunately the two do
which are not directly connected to the driven element. not coincide exactly and a compromise on the
performance has to be made depending upon the
These parasitic elements within the Yagi antenna pick
application. (Fig.)
up power from the dipole and re- radiate it. The phase is
in such a manner that it affects the properties of the RF
antenna as a whole, causing power to be focussed one
particular direction and removed from others.
The parasitic elements of the Yagi antenna operate by re-
radiating their signals in a slightly different phase to that
of the driven element. In this way the signal is reinforced
in some directions and cancelled out in others. It is found
that the amplitude and phase of the current that is induced
in the parasitic elements in dependent upon their length
and the spacing between them and the dipole or driven
element. (Fig.6) Yagi antenna radiation pattern
Parabolic antenna (Fig.8)
Fig 8

Yagi Uda antenna showing element types


There are three types of element within a Yagi antenna.
• Driven element : The driven element is the Yagi antenna
element to which power is applied. It is normally a half
wave dipole or often a folded dipole. A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic
• Refelctor : The Yagi antenna will generally only have reflector, a curved surface with the cross - sectional shape
one reflector. This is behind the main driven element, of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most common
i.e the side away from the direction of maximum form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish
sensitivity. antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a
parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions
Further reflectors behind the first one add little to the similarly to a search light or flash light reflector to direct
performance. However many designs use reflectors the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves
consisting of a reflecting plate, or a series of parallel rods from one particular direction only. Parabolic antennas
simulating reflecting plate. This gives a slight improvement have some of the highest gains, that is, they can produce
in performance, reducing the level of radiation or pick - up the narrowest beam widths, of any antenna type. In order
from behind the antenna, i.e in the backwards direction. to acheive narrow beam widths, the parabolic reflector
Typically a reflector will add around 4 to 5 dB of gain in must be much larger than the wave length of the radio
the forward drection. waves used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high
frequency part of the radio spectrum, at UHF and
Director : There many be none, one or more reflectors in microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which the wave lengths
the Yagi antenna. The director or directors are placed in are small enough that conveniently - size reflectors can
front of the driven element, i.e in the direction of maximum be used.
sensitivity.
Parabolic antennas are used as high - gain antennas for
The antenna exhibits a directional pattern consisting of a point -to point communications, in applications such as
main forward lobe and a number of spurious side lobes. microwave relay links that cary telephone and television
The main one of these is the reverse lobe caused by signals between nearby cities, wireless WAN/LAN links
radiation in the direction of the reflector. The antenna can for data communications, satellite communications and

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spacecraft communication antenna. They are also used show planar cross action radiation pattern. E- plane and
in radio telescopes. H- plane patterns give two most important views. The E-
plane pattern is a view obtained from a section containing
The other large use of parabolic antennas is for radar
maximum value of the radiated field and electric field lies
antennas, in which there is a need to transmit a narrow
in the plane of the section. Similarly when such a section
beam of radio waves to locate objects like ships,
is taken such that the plane of the section contains H
airplanes, and guided missiles. With the advent of home
field and the direction of maximum radiation.
satellite television receivers, parabolic antennas have
become a common feature of the landscapes of modern A typical radiation pattern plot is shown in fig.10 below.
countries.
Typical radiation pattern in polar coordinates

Parabolic antennas are based on the geometrical property


of the paraboloid that the paths FP1Q1, FP2Q2, FP3Q3 are
all the same length. so a spherical wave front emitted by Typical radiationpattern in rectangular coordinates
a feed antenna at the dish’s focus F will be reflected into (Fig.11)
an outgoing plane wave L travelling parallel to the dish’s
axis VF. (Fig.9)
Basic antenna parameters
An antenna does not radiate uniformly in all directions.
For the sake of reference, we consider a hypothetical
antenna called an isotropic radiator having equal radiation
in all directions. A directional antenna is one which can
radiate or receive electromagnetic waves more effectively
in some directions than in others. The relative distribution
of radiated power as a function of direction in space (i.e.,
as function of θ and φ) is called the radiation pattern of the
antenna. Instead of 3D surface, it is common practice to

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Introduction to AM, FM & PM, SSB-SC, DSB - SC modulation & demodulation


techniques
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the AM modulation & demodulation techniques
• expalin the modulation techniques of SSB-SC, DSB - SC in AM
• explain the FM modulation & demodulation techniques
• expalin the PM modulation & demodulation techniques.

Amplitude modulation index & depth Amplitude modulation depth


Amplitude modulation index and modulation depth are A complementary figure to modulation index is also used
key parameters for any AM transmission as it is necessary for amplitude modulation signals. Known as the modulation
to keep the index or depth within limits to reduce distortion depth, it is typically the modulation index expressed as a
and interference. percentage.
It is often necessary to define the level of modualtion that Thus a modulation index of 0.5 would be expressed as a
is applied to a signal. modulation depth of 50%.
In order to have a standard method of achieving this a However often the two terms and figures are used
factor or index known as the modulation index is widely interchangeably and figures for a modulation index of 50%
used for this. A complementary figure known as the are often seen where the index is 0.5
amplitude modulation depth is also seen on many
Modulation index / modulation depth examples
occasions.
Typically the modulation index of a signal will vary as the
As an indicator of the level of modulation on an amplitude
modulating signal intensity varies. However some static
modualted signal, the modulation index is important - too
values enable the various levels to visualized more easily.
low level of modulation and the modulation does not utilzie
the carrier efficiently - too high and the carrier can become Amplitude modulated index of 0.5 (Fig.1)
over modualted causing sidebands to extend out beyond
the allowed bandwidth causing interference to other users.
AM modulation index basics
Modualtion indices are described for various forms of
modulation. The amplitude modulation, AM, modualtion
index can be defined as the measure of extent of amplitude
variation about an un - modulated carrier.
As with other modulation indices,the modulation index
for amplitude modulation (AM) indicates that amount by
which the modulated carrier varies around its static un -
modulated level.
When expressed as a percentage it is the same as the
When the modulation index reaches 1.0, i.e a modulation
depth of modulation. In other words it can be expressed
depth of 100% the carrier level falls the zero and rise to
as.
twice its non - modualted level.
M Amplitude modualted index of 1.0 (Fig. 2)
Modulation index m =
A Any increase of the modulation index above 1.0, i.e 100%
A = carrier amplitude modulation depth causes over modulation. The carrier
experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier level
M = modulation amplitude would try to go below the zero point. These phase
Where : reversals give rise to additional side bands resulting from
the phase reversals (phase modualtion) that extend out,
A is the carrier amplitude . M is the modualtion amplitude
in theory to infinity. This can cause serious interference
and is the peak change in the RF amplitude from its
to other users if not filtered.
unmodualted value.
From this it can be seen that for an AM modulation index
of 0.5, the modulation causes the signal to increase by a
factor of 0.5 and decrease to 0.5 of its original level.
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Functional block diagram from figure 4, we find that

( X1 − X2) ( Y1 − Y 2)
W= +Z
10 V
Details of AD633 is available in the data sheet.
Amplitude modulator circuit with AD633
The AD633 can be used as a linear amplitude modulator
with no external components. Figure 5 shows the circuit.
The carrier and modulation inputs to the AD633 are
multiplied to produce a double sideband signal. The carrier
signal is fed forward to the Z input of the AD633 where it
is summed with the double sideband signal to produce a
double side band with the carrier output.
Amplitude modulated index of more than 1.0 i.e over
- modulated (Fig. 3)
Broadcast stations in particular take measures to ensure
that the carrier of their transmissions never become over
modulated. The transmitters incorporate limiters to prevent
more than 100% modulation. However they also normally
incorporate automatic audio gain controls to keep the
audio levels such that near 100% modulation levels are
achieved for most of the time.
AM - Modulator & demodulator
In this section we describe the circuits used for generation For single tone modulation, Em A m Sin (ϖ m t ) is used.
and demodulation of amplitude modulated signals. An The index of modulation can be varied by changing Am.
analog multiplier IC AD633( Analog devices) has been Demodulation of AM signal
used to generate the AM signal. The AD 633 is a
functionally complete, four quadrant, analog multiplier. It As stated earlier, an envelope detector has been used
includes high impedance, differential X and Y inputs, and here for demodulation. An envelope detector (Fig 6) is an
a high impedance summing input (Z). The low impedance electronic circuit that takes a high frequency modualated
output voltage is a nominal 10V full scale provided by a signal as input and provides an output which is the
buried zener. The functional diagram of the AD633 is “envelope” of the original signal. The capacitor in the circuit
shown in figure 4. stores charge on the rising edge and release it slowly
through the resistor when the signal falls. The diode in
series rectifies the incoming signal, allowing current flow
only when the positive input terminal is at a higher potential
than the negative input terminal (Fig 6).
Envelope detection process
For a sinusoidally modualted signal, if the time constant
of the detector is chosen such that

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it a 50% efficiency. This is an increase compared to normal
AM transmission (DSB), which has a maximum efficiency
of 33.333%, since 2/3 of the power is in the carrier
which carriers no intelligence, and each side band carriers
the same information. Single side band (SSB) suppressed
carrier is 100% efficient.
Spectrum plot of an DSB- SC signal (Fig.7)
Generation
DSB- SC is generated by a mixer. This consists of a
message signal multiplied by a carrier signal. The
mathematical representation of this process is shown
below, where the product-to-sum trigonometic identify is
1 ⎛⎜ 1 − m 2 ⎞

used. (Fig.8)
RC ≤
2πfm ⎜ m ⎟ , the detector can always follow the
⎝ ⎠ Vm cos (ωc t ) Vc cos (ωc t )
x =
message envelope. Message Carrier
Vm Vc
Double - side band suppressed carrier transmission [cos (ωm + ωc )t ) + cos ((ωm − ωc )t )]
(DSB-SC) 2 Modulated signal

It transmission in which frequencies produced by amplitude


modulation (AM) are symmetrically spaced above and
below the carrier frequency and the carrier level is reduced
to the lowest practical level, ideally being completely
suppressed.
In the DSB - SC modulation,unlike in AM, the wave carrier
is not transmitted; thus, much of the power is distributed
between the side bands, which implies an increase of the
cover in DSB-SC, compared to AM, for the same power
used.
DSB-SC transmission is a special case of double - side
band reduced carrier transmission. It is used for radio
data systems. Demodulation

Spectrum Demodulation is done by multiplying the DSB - SC signal


with the carrier signal just like the modulation process.
DSB- SC is basically an amplitude modulation wave This resultant signal is then passed through a low pass
without the carrier, therefore reducing power waste, giving filter to produce a scaled version of original signal. DSB-
SC cab be demodulated by a simple envelope detector,
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like AM, if the modulation index is less than unity. Full which is a serious form of distortion.
depth modulation requires carrier re-insertion.
Modulated signal

Vm cos (ωm t ) Vc cos (ωc t )


x =
Message Carrier
Vm Vc
[cos (ωm + ωc )t ) + cos ((ωm − ωc )t )]
2 Modulated signal

⎛1 ⎞ Vm Cos (ωm t )
= ⎜ Vc Vc' ⎟ +
⎝2 ⎠ Original message How it works (Fig.10)

1 This is best shown graphically. Below is a message signal


Vc Vc Vm [Cos(( ωm − 2ωc )t )] that one may wish to modulate into a carrier, consisting
2
of a couple of sinusoidal components.
The equation above shows that by multiplying the
modulated signal by the carrier signal, the result is a
scaled version of the original message signal plus a
second term. Since ωc >> ωm this second term is much
higher in frequency than the original message. Once this
signal passes through a low pass filter, the higher
frequency component is removed, leaving just the original
message.
Distortion and attenuation (Fig. 9)
For demodulation, the demodulation oscillator’s frequency
and phase must be exactly the same as modulation
oscillator’s otherwise, distortion and / or attenuation will
occur.
To see this effect, take the following conditions.
Message signal to be transmitted : f(t)
The equation for this message signal in (fig 10) is
Modulation (carrier) signal : Vc cos (ωc t ) s(t) =
1
cos (2 π 800t) −
1
cos (2 π 1200t)
2 2
Demodulation signal (with small frequency and phase
deviations from the modulation signal ) The carrier, in this case, is a plain is a plain 5 kHz
c( t ) = cos ( 2π5000 t )
Vc' cos [(ωc + Δω)t + θ]
The modulation is performed by multiplication in the time
The resultant signal can then be given by
domain, which yields a 5 KHz carrier signal, whose
amplitude varies in the same manner as the message
f ( t ) x Vc cos (ωc t )x V''c cos [(ωc + Δω) t + θ]
signal.

1 1 ⎡1 ⎤
= Vc Vc' f ( t ) cos ( Δω t + θ) + Vc Vc' f ( t ) cos 1
cos (2π800t ) − cos (2π1200t )⎥
2 2 cos (2π5000t ) ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎦
x( t ) x
[( 2ωc + Δω) t + θ] Carrier Message signal

After low pass filter

1
= Vc Vc' f ( t ) cos ( Δω t + θ)
2

The cos ( Δω t + θ) terms results in distortion and


attenuation of the original message signal. In particular, if
the frequencies are correct, but the phase is wrong,
contribution from θ is a constant attenuaton factor, also
Δω.t represents a cyclic inversion of the recovered signal,

182 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218

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twice the bandwidth of the original base band signal. Single
- side band modulation avoids this band width doubling,
and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased
device complexity and more difficult tuning at the receiver.

The name “suppressed carrier” comes about because the


carrier signal component is suppressed -it does not
appear in the output signal. This is apparent when the
spectrum, of the output signal is viewed. (Fig.11, 12 &
13)

Illustration of the spectrum of AM and SSB signals is


shown in fig14. The lower side band (LSB) spectrum is
inverted compared to the baseband. As an example, a
2 KHz audio base band signal modualted onto a 5 MHz
carrier will produce a frequency of 5.002 MHz if upper
side band (USB) is used or 4.998 MHz is LSB is used.
Frequency modulation
A signal may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave.
In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency
modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier
Single - side band modulation wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
In radio communications, single - side band modulation (Compare with amplitude modulation, in which the
(SSB) or single - side band suppressed - carrier (SSB- amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency
SC) is a refinement of amplitude modulation which uses remains constant) fig.15.
transmitter power and band width more efficiently.
Amplitude modulation produces an output signal that has
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Noise reduction
A major advantage of FM in a communications circuit,
compared for example with AM, is the possibility of
improved signal to noise ratio (SNR). Compared with an
optimum AM scheme, FM typically has poorer SNR below
a certain signal level called the noise threshold, but above
a higher level - the full improvement or full quieting threshold
- the SNR is much improved over AM. The improvement
depends on modulation level and deviation. For typical
voice communications channels, improvements are
typically 5-15 dB. FM broadcasting using wider deviation
can achieve even greater improvements. Additional
techniques, such as pre - emphasis of higher audio
frequencies with corresponding de-emphasis in the
receiver, are generally used to improve overall SNR in FM
circuits. Since FM signals have constant amplitude, FM
In analog signal applications, the difference between the receivers normally have limiters that remove AM noise,
instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is further improving SNR.
directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input
- signal amplitude.
IC based AM transmitter circuit
Digital data can be encoded and transmitted via a carrier
wave by shifting the carrier's frequency among a IC 555 (IC1) is used as a free running multivibrator
predefined set of frequencies - a technique known as designed for a frequency of around 600 kHz. The frequency
frequency - shift keying (FSK). FSK is widely used in of the multivibrator can be calcuated as follows:
modems and fax modems, and can also be used to send f =1.443(R1+2R2) C1 where R1 and R2 in ohms, capacitor
morse code. Radio teletype also uses FSK. C1 in microfarads, and frequency f in hertz. This frequency
can be changed by simply replacing R2 with a variable
Frequency modulation is used in radio, telemetry, radar,
resistor or C1 with gang capacitors. A condenser
seismic prospecting, and monitoring newborns for
microphone is used for audio signal input.
seizures via EEG. FM is widely used for broadcasting
music and speech, two - way radio systems, magnetic The IC 555 multivibrator is used as a voltage-to-frequency
tape- recording systems and some video- transmission converter. The output of the condenser microphone is given
systems. In radio systems frequency modulation with to pin 5 of ICI, which converts the input voltage or voice
sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling signal into appropriate frequency at output pin 3. This
naturally - occuring noise. frequency produces an electromagnetic wave, which can
be detected by a near by AM radio receiver, and you can
Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation
hear your own voice in that radio. (Note that if there is no
when the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of
noise in receiver, tune it to 600 kHz.)
the FM signal.
The circuit operates with a 9V regulated power supply or
Modulation index
a 9V battery. For antenna, connect 2-3m long wire at pin
As in other modulation systems, the value of the 3.
modulation index indicates by how much the modulated
variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to
variations in the carrier frequency.

Δf fΔ x m ( t )
h= =
fm fm

where fm is the highest frequency component present in


the modulating signal xm(t), and is the peak frequency -
deviation -i.e the maximum deviation of the instantaneous
frequency from the carrier frequency. For a sine wave
modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio
of the amplitude of the modulating sine wave to the
amplitude of the carrier wave (here unity)
If h< 1, the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its
bandwidth is approximately 2fm. Sometimes modulation
index h<0.3 rad is considered as narrowband FM
otherwise wideband FM.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Block diagram of AM & FM transmitter, FM generation & detection


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the working of AM transmitters
• explain the working of FM transmitters
• list the types of FM detection
• sketch the different types of FM detector circuits.

AM transmitters The various sections of the figure(1) are:


Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM • Carrier oscillator
transmitters. These transmitters are used in medium wave • Buffer amplifier
(MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for AM
broadcast. The MW band has frequencies between 530 • Frequency multiplier
KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has frequencies • Power amplifier
ranging from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. The two types of AM
transmitters that are used based on their transmitting • Audio section
powers are. • Modulated class C power amplifier
High level AM transmitters Carrier oscillator
Low level AM transmitters The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signals, which
High level transmitters are high level modulation, and low lies in the RF range. The frequency of the carrier is always
level transmitters use low level modulation. very high. Because it is very difficult to generate high
frequencies with good frequency stability, the carrier
The choice between the two modulation schemes depends oscillator generates a sub multiple with the required carrier
on the transmitting power of the AM transmitter. In frequency. This sub multiple frequency is multiplied by
broadcast transmitters, were the transmitting power may the frequency multiplier stage to get the required carrier
be of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is frequency. Further, a crystal oscillator can be used in
employed. In low power transmitters, where only a few this stage to generate a low frequency carrier with the
watts of transmitting power are required, low level best frequency stability. The frequency multiplier stage
modulation is used. then increases the frequency of the carrier to its required
High level and low level transmitters value.
Below figure 1 show the block diagram of high level and Buffer amplifier
low level transmitters. The basic difference between the The purpose of the buffer amplifier is to first matches the
two transmitters is the power amplification of the carrier output impedance of the carrier oscillator with the input
and modulating signals. impedance of the frequency multiplier, the next stage of
High level AM transmitter the carrier oscillator. It then isolates the carrier oscillator
and frequency multiplier.
This is required so that the multiplier does not draw a
large current from the carrier oscillator. If this occurs, the
frequency of the carrier oscillator will not remain stable.
Frequency multiplier
The submultiples frequency of the carrier signal, generated
by the carrier oscillator, is now applied to the frequency
multiplier through the buffer amplifier. This stage is also
known as harmonic generator.
The frequency multiplier generates higher harmonics of
Figure (1) is drawn for audio transmission. In high level carrier oscillator frequency. The frequency multiplier is a
transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating tuned circuit that can be tuned to the requisite carrier
signals are amplified before applying them to the frequency that is to be transmitted. Power amplifier
modulator stage, as shown in figure (1). In low level The power of the carrier signals is then amplified in the
modulation, the powers of the two input signals of the power amplifier stage. This is the basic requirement of a
modulator stage are not amplified. high level transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives high
power current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.
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Audio section The double TT matching network also filters unwanted
frequency components appearing at the output of the last
The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the
stage of the transmitter. The output of the modulated
microphone, as shown in figure (1). The audio driver
class C power amplifier may contain higher harmonics,
amplifiers the voltage of this signal. The amplification is
such as second and third harmonics, that are highly
necessary to drive the audio power amplifier. Next, a
undesirable. The frequency response of the matching
class A or a class B power amplifier amplifies the power
network is set such that these unwanted higher harmonics
of the audio signal.
are totally suppressed, and only the desired signal is
Low level AM transmitter coupled to the antenna.
FM transmitter (Fig. 4)
The FM transmitter has three basic sections
1 The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator,
reactance modulator and the buffer amplifier
2 The frequency multiplier section, which features several
frequency multipliers.
3 The power output section, which includes a low level
power amplifier, the final power amplifier, and the
The low level AM transmitter shown in the figure (2) is
impedance matching network to properly load the power
similar to a high level transmitter, except that the powers
section with the antenna impedance.
of the carrier and audio signals are not amplified. These
two signals are directly applied to the modulated class C
power amplifier.
Modulation takes place at the stage, and the power of
the modulated signal is amplified to the required
transmitting power level. The transmitting antenna then
transmits the signal.
Coupling of output stage and antenna
The output stage of the modulated class C power amplifier
feeds the signal to the transmitting antenna. To transfer
maximum power from the output stage to the antenna it The essential function of each circuit in the FM transmitter
is necessary that the impedance of the two sections may be described as follows.
match. For this, a matching network is required. The
matching between the two should be perfect at all The exciter
transmitting frequencies. As the matching is required at 1 The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a
different frequencies, inductors and capacitors offering stable sine wave signal at the rest frequency, when no
different impedance at different frequencies are used in modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change
the matching networks. frequency when fully modulated, with no measurable
The matching network must be constructed using these change in amplitude.
passive components. This is shown in figure (3) 2 The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high impedance
load on the oscillator to help stabilize the oscillator
frequency. The buffer amplifier may have a small gain.
3 The modulator acts change the carrier oscillator
frequency by application of the message signal. The
positive peak of the message signal generally lowers
the oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest
frequency, and the negative message peak raises the
The matching network used for coupling the output stage oscillator frequency to a value above the rest frequency.
of the transmitter and the antenna is called double TT The greater the peak to peak message signal, the larger
network. This network I consists of two inductors. L1 and the oscillator deviation.
L2 and two capacitors, C1 and C2. The values of these Frequency multiplier
components are chosen such that the input impedance
Frequency multipliers are tuned input, tuned output RF
of the network between 1 and 1. Shown in figure (3) is
amplifiers in which the output resonant circuit is tuned to
matched with the output impedance of the output stage
a multiple of the input frequency. Common frequency
of the transmitter. Further, the output impedance of the
multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x frequency
network is matched with the impedance of the antenna.
multiplier is sometimes seen, but its extreme low efficiency

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forbids widespread usage. Note that multiplication is by Frequency Multiplier
whole numbers only.
A special form of class C amplifier is the frequency
Power output section multiplier. Any class C amplifier is capable of performing
frequency multiplication.
The final power section develops the carrier power, to be
transmitted and often has a low power amplifier driven For example a frequency doubler can be constructed by
the final power amplifier. simply connecting a parallel tuned circuit in the collector
of a class C amplifier that resonates at twice the input
The impedance matching network is the same as for the
frequency when the collector current pulse occurs, it
AM transmitter and matches the antenna impedance to
excites or rings the tuned circuit at twice the input
the correct load on the final over amplifier.
frequency.

Fig 5: Frequency doubler by simply connecting a is to remember that the no sinusoidal current pulse is
parallel tuned circuit rich in harmonics. Each time the pulse occurs, the second,
third, fourth, fifth, and higher harmonics are generated.
A current pulse flows for every other cycle of the input. A
The purpose of the tuned circuit in the collector is to act
tripler circuit is constructed in the same way except that
as a filter to select the desired harmonics.
the tuned circuit resonates at 3 times the input frequency.
In this way, the tuned circuit receives one input pulse for In many applications a multiplication factor greater than
every three cycles of oscillation it produces multipliers that achievable with a signal multiplier stage is required.
can be constructed to increase the input frequency by In such cases two or more multipliers are cascaded to
any integer factor up to approximately 10. As the produce an overall multiplication of 6. In the second
multiplication factor gets higher, the power output of the examples, three multipliers provide an overall multiplication
multiplier decreases . For most practical applications, 30. The total multiplication factor is simply the product of
the best result is obtained with multipliers of 2 and 3. individual stage multiplication factors.
Another way to look the operation of class C multipliers

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Reactance modulator To enable the best detection to take place the signal
should be centred about the middle of the curve. If it moves
The reactance modulator takes its name from the fact
off too far then the characteristic becomes less linear
that the impedance of the circuit acts as a reactance
and higher levels of distortion result. Often the linear region
(capacitive or inductive) that is connected in parallel with
is designed to extend well beyond the bandwidth of a
the resonant circuit of the oscillator. The varicap can
signal so that this does not occur. In this way the optimum
only appear as a capacitance that becomes part of the
linearity is achieved. Typically the bandwidth of a circuit
frequency determining branch of the oscillator circuit.
for receiving VHF FM broadcasts may be about 1MHz
However, other discrete devices can appear as a capacitor
whereas the signals is only 200 KHz wide.
or as an inductor to the oscillator, depending on how the
circuit is arranged . A colpitts oscillator uses a capacitive There are a number of circuits that can be used to
voltage divider as the phase reversing feedback path and demodulate FM. Each type has its own advantages and
would most likely tapped coil as the phase reversing disadvantages, some being used when receivers used
element in the feedback loop and most commonly uses a discrete components, and others now that ICs are widely
modulator that appears inductive. used.
FM generation & Detection Below is a list of some of the main types of FM
demodulator of FM discriminator / detector . In view of
In order to be able to receive FM signal, a receiver must
the widespread use of FM, even with the competition from
be sensitive to the frequency variations of the incoming
digital modes that are widely used today, FM
signals. As already mentioned these may be wide or
demodulators are needed in many new designs of
narrow band. However the set is made insensitive to the
electronics equipment.
amplitude variations. This is achieved by having a high
gain IF amplifier. Here the signals are amplified to such a Slope FM detector (Fig.7)
degree that the amplifier runs into limiting. In this way
The very simplest from of FM demodulation is known as
any amplitude variations are removed.
slope detection or demodulation. It consists of a tuned
In order to be able to convert the frequency variations into circuit that is tuned to a frequency slightly offset from the
voltage variations, the demodualtor must be frequency carrier of the signal.
dependent. The idea response is perfectly linear voltage
As the frequency of the signals varies up and down in
to frequency characteristics. Here it can be seen that the
frequency according to its modulation, so the signal moves
centre frequency is in the middle of the response curve
up and down the slope of the tuned circuit. This causes
and this is where the un-modulated carrier would be located
the amplitude of the signal to vary in t line with the
when the receiver is correctly tuned into the signal. In
frequency variations. In fact at this point the signal has
other words there would be no offset DC voltage present.
both frequency and amplitude variations.
(Fig.6)
The ideal response is not achievable because all systems
have a finite bandwidth and as a result a response curve
known as an "S" curve is obtained. Outside the bandwidth
of the system, the response falls, as would be expected.
It can be seen that the frequency variations of the signal
are converted into voltage variations which can be amplified
by an audio amplifier before being passed into
headphones, loudspeaker, or passed into other electronic
circuitry for the appropriate processing.

It can be seen from the diagram that changes in the


slope of the filter, reflect into the linearity of the
demodulation process. The linearity is very dependent
not only on the filter slope as it falls away, but also the
188 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218

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tuning of the receiver - it is necessary to tune the receiver This amplitude signal is applied to a simple diode detector
off frequency and to a point where the filter characteristic circuit. D1, Here the diode provides the rectification, while
is relatively linear. C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load
The final stage in the process is to demodulate the
amplitude modulation and this can be achieved using a FM slope detection advantages & disadvantages
simple diode circuit. One of the most obvious
FM slope detection is not widely used, and yet it has
disadvantages of this simple approach is the fact that
some limited applications. Knowing the advantages and
both amplitude and frequency variations in the incoming
disadvantages enables the technique to be used where
signal appear at the output. However the amplitude
applicable. (Fig.8)
variations can be removed by placing a limiter before the
detector.
A variety of FM slope detector circuits may be used, but
the one below shows one possible circuit with the
applicable wave forms. The input signal is a frequency
modulated signal. It is applied to the tuned transformer
(T1, C1, C2 combination) which is offset from the centre
carrier frequency. This converts the incoming signal from
just FM to one that has amplitude modulation
superimposed upon the signal.

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple - can be used to provide Not linear as the output is dependent upon the curve
of FM demodulation when only an AM detector is present a filter
Enable FM to be detected without any Not particularly effective as it relies on centring the
additional circuitry signal part of the way down the filter curve where signal
strengths are less.
Both frequency and amplitude variations are accepted
and therefore much higher levels of noise and
interference are experienced

Ratio detector
When circuits employing discrete components were more
widely used, the Ratio and Foster - seeley detectors were
widely used. Of these the ratio detector was the most
popular as it offers a better level of amplitude modulation
rejection of amplitude modulation. This enables it to
provide a greater level of noise immunity as most is
amplitude noise, and it also enables the circuit to operate
satisfactorily with lower levels of limiting in the preceding
IF stages of the receiver. (Fig.9)
The operation of the ratio detector cenres around a
frequency sensitive phase shift network with a transformer
and the diodes that are effectively in series with one
another. When a steady carrier is applied to the circuit
the diodes act to produce a steady voltage across the
resistors R1 and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up as
a result.

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The transformer enables the circuit to detect changes in from one side of the secondary and add to the other causing
the frequency of the incoming signal. It has three windings. an imbalance across the resistors R1 and R2. As a result
The primary and secondary act in the normal way to this causes a current to flow in the third winding and the
produce a signal at the output. The third winding is un- modulation to appear at the output.
tuned and the coupling between the primary and the third
The capacitors C1 and C2 filter any remaining RF signal
winding is very tight, and this means that the phasing
which may appear across the resistors. The capacitor
between signals in these two windings is the same.
C4 and R3 also act as filters ensuring no RF reaches the
The primary and secondary windings are tuned and lightly audio section of the receiver.
coupled. This means that there is a phase difference of
Ratio detector advantages & disadvantages
90 degrees between the signals in these windings at the
centre frequency. If the signal moves away from the centre As with any circuit there are a number of advantages and
frequency the phase difference will change. In turn the disadvantages to be considered when choosing between
phase difference between the secondary and third windings several options.
also varies. When this occurs the voltage will subtract

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to construct using discrete components High cost of transformer
Offers good level of performance and Typically lends itself to use in only circuits using discrete
components and not integrated within an IC

As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the ratio primary side of the transformer using a capacitor, and
detector is not widely used these days. Techniques that this is taken to the centre tap of the transformer. This
do not require the. Use of a transformer with its associated gives a signals that is 90 degrees out of phase.
costs and those than can be more easily incorporated
within an IC tend to be used. When an un-modulated carrier is applied at the centre
frequency, both diodes conduct, to produce equal and
Foster -Seeley FM detector opposite voltage across their respective load resistors.
The foster seeley detector or as it is sometimes described These voltages cancel each one another out at the output
the foster seeley discriminator has many similarities to so that no voltage is present. As the carrier moves off to
the ratio detector. The circuit topology looks very similary, one side of the centre frequency the balance condition
having a transformer and a pair of diodes, but there is no is destroyed, and one diode conducts more than the other.
third winding and instead a choke is used. (Fig.10) This results in the voltage across one of the resistors
being larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the
output corresponding to the modulation on the incoming
signal.
The choke is required in the circuit to ensure that no RF
signals appear at the output. The capacitors C1 and C2
provide a similar filtering function.
Both the ratio and foster - seeley detector are expensive
to manufacture. Wound components like coils are not
easy to produce to the required specification and therefore
they are comparatively costly. Accordingly these circuits
are rarely used in modern equipment.
Foster - Seeley detector advantages & disadvantages
As with any circuit there are a number of advantages and
Like the ratio detector, the foster - seeley circuit operate disadvantages to be considered when choosing between
using a phase difference between signals. To obtain the the various techniques available for FM demodulation.
different phased signals a connection is made to the

Advantages Disadvantages
Offers good level of performance and reasonable Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an
linearity integrated circuit
Simple to construct using discrete High cost of transformer
components

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As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the foster demodulated.
seeley detector or discriminator is not widely used these
A further design consideration is the linearity of the VCO.
days. Its main use was within radios constructed using
This should be designed for the voltage to frequency curve
discrete componetns.
to be as linear as possible over the signal range that will
PLL, Phase locked loop FM demodulator (Fig.11) be encountered, i.e the centre frequency plus and minus
the maximum deviation anticipated
The way in which a phase locked loop, PLL FM
demodulator works is relatively straightforward. It required In general the PLL VCO linearity is not a major problem
no changes to the basic locked loop, itself, utilizing the for average systems, but some attention may be required
basic operation of the loop to provide the required output. to ensure the linearity is sufficiently good for hi- fi systems.
Quadrature FM demodulator (Fig.12)
The basic format of the quadrature detector is shown below
It can be seen that the signal is split into two components.
One of these passes through a network that provides a
basic 90° phase shift, plus an element of phase shift
dependent upon the deviation.
The original signal and the phase shifted signal are then
When used as an FM demodulator, the basic phase locked passed into a multiplier or mixer.
loop can be used without any changes. With no
modulation applied and the carrier in the centre position
of the pass - band the voltage on the tune line to the VCO
is set to the mid position. However if the carrier deviates
in frequency, the loop will try to keep the loop in lock. For
this to happen the VCO frequency must follow the
incoming signal, and in turn for this to occur the tune line
voltage must vary. Monitoring the tune line shows that
the variations in voltage correspond to the modulation
applied to the signal. By amplifying the variations in voltage
on the tune line it is possible to generate the demodulated
signal.
The PLL FM demodulator is normally considered a
relatively high performance form of FM demodulator or
detector. Accordingly they are used in many FM receiver The mixer output is dependent upon the phase difference
applications. between the two signals, i.e it acts as a phase detector
Linearity : The linearity of the PLL FM demodulator is and produces a voltage output that is proportional to the
governed by the voltage to frequency characteristic of the phase difference and hence to the level of deviation on
VCO within the PLL. As the frequency deviation of the the signal. (Fig.13)
incoming signal normally only swings over a small portion
of the PLL bandwidth, and the characteristic of the VCO
can be made relatively linear, the distortion levels from
phase locked loop demodulations are normally very low.
Distortion levels are typically a tenth of a percent.
Manufacturing costs : The PLL FM demodulator lends
itself to integrated circuit technology. Only a few external
components are required, and in some instances it may
not be necessary to use an inductor as part of the resonant
circuit for the VCO. These facts make the PLL FM
demodulator particularly attractive for modern applications.
PLL FM demodulator design considerations
When designing a PLL system for use as an FM
demodulator, one of the key considerations is the loop
filter. This must be chosen to be sufficiently wide that it is
able to follow the anticipated variations of the frequency
modulated signal. Accordingly the loop response time
should be short when compared to the anticipated shortest
time scale of the variations of the signal being

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It the operation of the system is designed to ensure that
the deviation remains well away from the 90° points,
then the linearity remains very good.
In terms of performance, the quadrature detector is able
to operate with relatively low input levels, typically down
to levels of around 100 microvolts and it is very easy to
set up requiring only the phase shift network to be tuned
to the centre frequency of the expected signal. It also
provides good linearity and this results in low levels of
distortion.
Coincidence FM demodulator
This form of demodulator has many similarities to the
quadrature detector. It uses digital technology and replaces
a mixer with a logic NAND gate. Often the analogue Quadrature detector advantages & disadvantages
multiplier is replaced by a logic AND gate and the input The quadrature detector offers significant advantages for
signal is hard limited to produce a variable frequency many circuits, but as with any decision, a number of
waveform. (Fig.14) different advantages and disadvantages have to be
The operation of the circuit is fundamentally the same, considered when selecting a given circuit for FM
but it is known as a coincidence detector. Also the output demodulation.
of the AND gate has an integrator to 'average' the output
waveform to provide the required audio output, otherwise
it would consist of a series of square wave pulses

Advantages Disadvantages
Offers good level of performance and including Requires the use of a coil
linearity
Can be incorporated into an integrated circuit Some designs may require setting during manufacture

Despite the disadvantages, the quadrature FM detector


is the circuit of choice for many radio receivers.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Type of radio receivers, superhetrodyne receiver, block diagram, principles,


characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the basic principles and characteristics of radio reception.
• list the different types of radio receivers.
• explain the advantages and disadvantages of different types of radio receiver.
• sketch the blocks of Superhetrodyne radio receiver.

Principle of radio receivers


The modulated wave emitted from a transmitting antenna
in the form of electromagnetic waves(energy) travels in
free space at the speed of light (3x108 metres/sec). The
distance of electromagnetic waves travel depends upon
the chosen type of transmitting antenna and the
transmitted power.
As shown in Fig.1, if a wire is suspended above the ground
in the region where the electromagnetic waves are
traveling. The passing electromagnetic waves induces a
small voltage in the wire.

The first job of a radio receiver is to select a particular


station signal in which we are interested and reject the
rest of signals. This can be done easily using a tuned
circuit as shown in Fig 3a.
Although the induced voltage in the suspended wire is
very small, of the order of microvolts, the wave-form of the
induced voltage is an exact replica of the signal
transmitted by the transmitting antenna. Thus the
suspended wire acts as a receiving antenna.
If the received weak signal, at the receiving antenna is
processed, the information (voice and music etc.) which
modulates the carrier at the transmitter can be reproduced.
Selecting required electromagnetic waves (signal)
Since several transmitting antennas of several stations
transmit information(voice and music etc.) simultaneously
into air, the electromagnetic waves of several stations
simultaneously exist in free space. All these
electromagnetic waves corresponding to several stations As already discussed in previous units, the frequency
intercept(cut) the receiving antenna at the same time. response of the parallel tuned circuit in Fig 3a will be as
Each of these simultaneously induces voltages in the shown in Fig. 3b. How good is this parallel tuned circuit,
receiving antenna as shown in Fig. 2. Hence, the receiving in selecting a particular frequency signal is termed as the
antenna or the aerial will have signal voltages selectivity of the circuit.This selectivity of the tuned circuit
corresponding to several transmitting stations as shown in a receiver decides whether or not the receiver suffers
in Fig 2. from interference of unwanted stations.

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AM receiver and frequency bands
AM broadcasting is restricted to the following frequency
bands;
Medium wave (MW) band 530KHz to 1650KHz
Short wave(SW)band 3MHz to 26 MHz
Broadcasting stations, transmitting amplitude
modulated(AM) MW band signals rely on ground waves
for propogation. The SW band AM transmitters on the
other hand rely both on ground waves and sky waves for
propogation. hence, the distance covered by MW stations
is much less than that of SW stations.
The receiving antenna of AM receivers
In earlier days a lengthy copper wire or a lengthy copper
tape made of a thin copper wire mesh as shown in Fig 4
were used as receiving antennas.
Types of radio receivers
There are mainly 4 types of radio receivers .they are listed
as follows
1 Basic crystal Radio Receiver.
2 T.R.F.RadioReceiver.
3 Reflex radio Receiver
4 Superhetrodyne Radio Receiver.
1 Basic crystal Radio Receiver
Here is the schematic diagram for a very basic crystal
radio set fig.7. This basic radio uses no power other than
Due to the large space occupied by these antennas, a
that provided by the transmitting antenna from the radio
loop antenna couple to an antenna transformer as shown
station.
in Fig 5 is used.

The ferrite rod antenna is shown in fig 6. This antenna


with ferrite, having an extremely high permeability has
excellent pick-up/receiving characteristics.
The antenna transformer used to couple the selected signal This circuit consists of an inductor (also called a coil), a
to the next stage is often referred to as antenna coil rather variable capacitor (used to be called a variable condenser),
than antenna transformer. The primary winding of the a germanium diode (formerly called a crystal), a filtering
antenna coil (antenna transformer)isolates the antenna capacitor and finally very high impedance headphones.
side from the tuned circuit and provides proper impedance
The inductor has taps on it one to connect the antenna
matching to the antenna.
and other to connect the detector diode.
Generally ferrite core antenna coil is wound on insulating
The variable capacitor is usually connected across the
material such as paper or plastic. The gauge of wire used
whole of the inductor to form a tuned circuit for our crystal
and the number of turns used for the antenna coils
radio set.
designed to receive MW band station and the SW band
station differ.

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Earth connection for crystal radio set and usually an audio frequency amplifier. This type of
receiver was popular in the 1920s. Early examples could
For the crystal radio set circuit to perform at all well you
be tedious to operate because when tuning in a station
need a very good earth connection.
each stage had to be individually adjusted to the station's
The symbol connected to the top of the inductor or coil frequency, but later models had ganged tuning, the tuning
and variable capacitor denotes an antenna. The higher mechanisms of all stages being linked together, and
and longer (50' or 17 metres) this antenna is, the better operated by just one control knob as shown in the block
the likely reception. diagram (fig 8).
Radio signals (waves) such as we encounter in the AM By the mid 1930s it was replaced by the superheterodyne
radio band have two halves. One half travels across the receiver .
surface of the earth at the speed of light through people, Limitations in the crystal receiver can be largely over-
buildings and other objects. The other half, a mirror image, come by what are known as TRF receivers. This type of
travels beneath the surface of the earth. This radio wave receiver essentially consists of a chain of radio frequency
has a definite length. Its length is the speed of light divided amplifiers which improves the selectivity and test
by the frequency. These radio waves we want to detect sensitivity of the radio receiver.
with our crystal radio set.
• The selectivity is improved over that of simple crystal
Variable Capacitor: .A capacitor which tuned about 15 receiver .The selectivity is improved because we have
pF to 365 pF. introduced a stage of RF amplification before the
Inductor or Coil: Here an air core inductor wound on detector circuit.
some suitable non metallic form. • Although theoretically it is possible to further improve
Diode: In lieu of the old crystal detector we use a the sensitivity of the receiver by adding additional RF
germanium diode of the 1N34 or OA90 type. amplifier stages.In practice several problems and
difficulties arise if the number of RF amplifier stages
Fixed Capacitor: This is for filtering and may be 0.001 are more. Some of these difficulties are listed below;
μF, 1 nF or 1000 pF type (all those values are the same -
• Because of the instability problem, the number of RF
just expressed in different units).
stages that can be used is limited. It is practically
Headphones: This is by far the hardest part to obtain. impossible to build a very high gain RF amplifier merely
The type used for hi-fi will notwork here. Ideally you need by connecting several stages together. Each stage is
high impedance 2,000 ohm types, but these are nearly obviously operating at the same frequency and it is
impossible to find. You can sometimes buy 1,000 ohm very easy to have positive feedback from the latter
crystal earpieces. The headphone is a high impedance stages to the input. Even though the voltage feedback
load for the crystal set and as we are working on free may very small, because of a high gain of the amplifier
power from the air we can't load it down. The power is not stages, conditions for self-oscillation are almost always
available. Remember we're using free power from the sky. present. Therefore the amplifier may turn around and
work as an oscillator.
Frequency range: The frequency range of a set like this
is mainly determined by the square root of the ratio of • The other problem is to do with tracking. Every stage
Maximum Capacitance to Minimum Capacitance of the has its own tuned circuit and it is necessary to vary
variable capacitor. resonant frequency of each tuned circuit in such a
way that all tuned circuit have the same resonant
A.M. Radio band: This would cover about 530 KHz to
frequency. Apart from the practical difficulty of obtaining
about 1650 KHz. This is slightly more than a 3:1 ratio.
ganged capacitor with many sections, the inevitable
2. T.R.F. Receiver stray capacitance in the various parts of the circuit
upset the matching of each stage.
• The next problem has to do with the fidelity of the final
audio output. Although additional tune circuits improve
the selectivity and results in excellent sensitivity, the
overall response becomes very sharp. It is as though
a single tuned circuit with an extremely high Q value
is being used. In order to receive the transmitted
program information, a receiver which can respond not
only to the carrier but also to the side bands is required.
As the receiver becomes more and more selective,
the side bands get eliminated increasingly. Therefore,
the audio frequency response becomes restricted.
A tuned radio frequency receiver (or TRF receiver) is a • Although the above drawbacks severely limit the use
type of radio receiver that is composed of one or more of TRF-receivers these receivers are used in some
tuned radio frequency (RF) amplifier stages followed by a applications in which the radio receiver is expected to
detector (demodulator) circuit to extract the audio signal receive only a few station and is used sparingly.
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3 Reflectional receiver The superheterodyne receiver revolves around the process
of mixing. Here RF mixers are used. (This is not the same
A reflectional radio receiver (Fig 9) (also called a reflex
as mixers used in audio desks where the signals are
radio) is a radio receiver in which the same amplifier is
added together).
used for both the high-frequency radio (RF) and low-
frequency sound (AF) signals. The radio signal from the When two signals are beating together it is found that the
output of the amplifier passes detection and then re-enters output contains signals at frequencies other than the two
the input of the amplifier. During the second pass, the input frequencies. New signals are seen at frequencies
sound frequency is amplified then passed to the earphone. that are the sum and difference of the two input signals,
The German company Telefunken applied the German i.e. if the two input frequencies are f1 and f2, then new
patent 293300 in the year 1913 for the reflex receiver. signals are seen at frequencies of (f1+f2) and (f1-f2).
To take an example, if two signals, one at a frequency of
600 KHz and another at a frequency of 1055KHz are mixed
together then new signals at frequencies of
455KHzand1655KHz are generated.
Design and principle of operation
In the superhet radio, the received signal enters one inputs
of the mixer. A locally generated signal (local oscillator
signal) is fed into the other. The result is that new signals
are generated. These are applied to a fixed frequency
Reflectional radio receivers were used because fewer intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier and filter. Any signals
amplifier devices are needed. They also consume less that are converted down and then fall within the pass-
electricity than a receiver designed with two separate band of the IF amplifier will be amplified and passed on to
amplifiers. the next stages. Those that fall outside the pass-band of
the IF are rejected. Tuning is accomplished very simply
However, this design is less stable, with the possibility of by varying the frequency of the local oscillator.
breaking into unwanted oscillation. A greater level of skill
and experience is needed to debug the assembled device The advantage of this process is that very selective fixed
before it starts working. For a reflex circuit to work properly, frequency filters can be used. They are normally at a lower
bypassing and filtering are major considerations also. frequency than the incoming signal. This enables their
performance to be better and less costly.
It is important to ensure that the signal is at all time entirely
operating within the linear range of the amplifier, or else
inter-modulation (IM) will occur. It is difficult to judge when
minor amounts of non-linearity occur in an amplifier. A
reflex circuit will immediately produce severe distortion
and possible oscillation as soon as the signal exceeds
the linear range of the active component's curves. As this
is the circumstance where the active device begins to
work as a detector, which means it is mixing signal with
the AF being fed back to amplify. This adds considerable
difficulty to the making of a circuit which is dependably
free of problems for all signals available. Basic superheterodyne block diagram and
functionality
4. Superheterodyne Receiver (Fig.10)
The basic block diagram of a basic superhet receiver is
Edwin Armstrong the US Engineer invented the superhet shown below in fig.11. This details the most basic form of
or superheterodyne receiver as we know it today with a the receiver and serves to illustrate the basic blocks and
fixed frequency, intermediate frequency, filter and a variable their function.
local oscillator. His idea was developed in 1918.

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• The way in which the receiver works can be seen by Types of receiver Broadcast band IF value
following the signal as it passes through the receiver.
AM receivers 530 KHz to 25 MHz
• Front end amplifier and tuning block: Signals enter
FM receivers 88 KHz to 108 MHz
the front end circuitry from the antenna.
• Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have
This block performs two main functions:
passed through the IF stages of the superheterodyne
• Tuning: The tuning is applied to the RF stage. The receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different
purpose of this is to reject the signals on the image demodulators are required for different types of
frequency and accept those on the wanted frequency. transmission, and as a result some receivers may have
It must also be able to track the local oscillator so a variety of demodulators that can be switched in to
that as the receiver is tuned, so the RF tuning remains accommodate the different types of transmission that
on the required frequency. Typically the selectivity are to be encountered. Different demodulators used
provided at this stage is not high. Its main purpose is may include:
to reject signals on the image frequency which is at a
• AM diode detector, Synchronous AM detector (in AM
frequency equal to RF + 2IF. As the tuning within this
receivers),Basic FM detector,PLL FM detectorOR
block provides all the rejection for the image response,
Quadrature FM detector(in FM receiver)
it must be at a sufficiently sharp to reduce the image
to an acceptable level. However the RF tuning may • Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is
also help in preventing strong off-channel signals from the recovered audio. This is passed into the audio
entering the receiver and overloading elements of the stages where they are amplified and presented to the
receiver. headphones or loudspeaker.
• Amplification: In terms of amplification, the level is Image frequency interference
carefully chosen so that it does not overload the mixer Assume two broadcasting stations are transmitting at two
when strong signals are present, but enables the different frequencies say, 800 KHz and 1710 KHz
signals to be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good respectively. suppose a receiver is tuned to station
signal to noise ratio is achieved. The amplifier must broadcasting at 800 KHz, then the local oscillator
also be a low noise design. Any noise introduced in produces a frequency of 1255 KHz (800 KHz + 455 KHz
this block will be amplified later in the receiver. =1255 KHz ) for an IF of 455 KHz . suppose, an undesired
• Mixer / frequency translator block: The tuned and station transmitting at 1710 KHz happens to reach the
amplified signal then enters one port of the mixer. The mixer input, then the local oscillator frequency of 1255
local oscillator signal enters the other port. The KHz, also can mix with this undesired signal of 1710 KHz
performance of the mixer is crucial to many elements and produces IF of 455 KHz (1710 KHz -1255KHz = 455
of the overall receiver performance. It should be as KHz). This results in two signals of 455 KHz reaching the
linear as possible. If not, then spurious signals will be IF stage for amplification.
generated and these may appear as 'phantom' (ghostly Since the IF amplifiers amplify all signals in the frequency
appearing) received signals. range of 455 KHz, both the station signals get amplified
• Local oscillator: The local oscillator may consist of and are available for detection. When the signal are
a variable frequency oscillator that can be tuned by detected and further amplified by the audio amplifiers,
altering the setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively the audio signal so produced will be a mix of the information
it may be a frequency synthesizer that will enable broadcasted from the two stations. This causes confusion
greater levels of stability and setting accuracy. and unintelligible information. This phenomenon is called
Image Frequency Interference. The unwanted frequency
• Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block: Once
of 1710 KHz is called the image frequency. The effect of
the signals leave the mixer they enter the IF stages.
image frequency interference is shown in Fig.12
These stages contain most of the amplification in the
receiver as well as the filtering that enables signals on • Image frequency interference is one major disadvantage
one frequency to be separated from those on the next. of superheterodyne receiver operation.
Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers • The problem of image frequency interference,
providing inter-stage coupling, or they may be much possibilities of minimizing it and its consequences are
higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters, listed below;
dependent upon what is required.The criterion for
choosing a suitable intermediate frequency is, the IF • Image frequencies can be prevented by using highly
value should not coincide with the frequency of any selective RF amplifier circuits.
powerful radio station (or its harmonics). With the • However, inclusion of RF stage in commercial radio
above in mind the following IF values have been receivers will be quite expensive. Also high selectivity
standardized by the Electronic industries may result in chopping-off of a portion of the received
association(EIA) for different types of receivers which side bands.
are used throughout the world;

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• By making the intermediate frequency (IF) value as • The intermediate frequency must not fall within the
high as possible such that the image frequencies are tuning range of the receiver, or else instability will occur
outside the RF band of the receiver. and heterodyne whistles will be heard, making it
impossible to tune to the frequency band.
• However, if the value of IF is very high than the
selectivity will be such that, unwanted RF signal from Characteristics of receiver
an adjacent station will also be picked up resulting in Selectivity
an another type of interference . This is called adjacent
channel interference. In addition, a high value of IF One of the problems in a receiver is its inability to sharply
result in tracking difficulties. Hence the IF cannot be select the required station. This station selection
very high also. performance of a radio receiver depends on the
characteristics of the tuned LC circuit which has to accept
• NOTE: Tracking is the ability of tuning the local only the desired frequency, while rejecting the rest. This
oscillator frequency exactly 455 KHz above the RF characteristic is termed as selectivity of the receiver.
carrier frequency.
Selectivity is the ability of a receiver to tune-in or receive
• The following are the major factor influencing the choice a desired channel frequency while rejecting other
of the intermediate frequency in any particular system; undesired channel frequencies.
• If the intermediate frequency is too high, poor Selectivity of a receiver is determined by the bandwidth of
selectivity and poor adjacent channel rejection results the tuned circuit in the receiver. This in turn depends upon
unless sharp cut off (e.g. crystal) filters are used in the Q of the tuned circuit. Hence, if the required selectivity
the IF stages. cannot be obtained by a single tuned circuit, (due to the
• A high value of intermediate frequency increases limitation in the value of achievable Q) the required
tracking difficulties. selectivity can be obtained by increasing the number of
tuned circuits used in a receiver .
• As the intermediate frequency is lowered, image-
frequency rejection becomes poorer. This is because, Sensitivity
rejection is improved as the ratio of image frequency Sensitivity of a receiver is measured in terms of the voltage
to signal frequency is increased, and this, naturally, that must be induced in the antenna by electromagnetic
requires a high IF. signals to develop a standard audiooutput from the
amplifier. This standard output is arbitrarily chosen as 50
• A very low intermediate frequency can make the
mWatts.
selectivity too sharp, cutting off the side-bands. This
problem arises because, Q must be low when IF is Sensitivity of a receiver is the ability of the receiver to
low, and hence the gain per stage is low. Thus a respond satisfactorily to weak signal voltages. In other
designer is more likely to raise the Q than to increase words , sensitivity is the minimum signal input voltage
the number of amplifiers. required to produce a specified output.
• If the IF is very low, the frequency stability of local The sensitivity of broadcast receivers is not more than
oscillator must be made correspondingly higher 100 microvolts. Under most favourable conditions,
because any frequency drift is now a larger proportion specially designed communication receivers have the
of the low IF than of a high IF. highest sensitivity of the order of 1 microvolt.

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The lower the numerical figure indicated for sensitivity, knob. Since the intermediate-frequency amplifier is not
the better is the receiver. For example, if receiver-A is tunable, multicircuit electric filters can be readily used in
said to have a sensitivity of 100 microvolts, it means a it to provide high selectivity, and the required signal
minimum of 100 microvolt is necessary for this receiver amplification can be easily obtained. Automatic frequency
to function satisfactorily. If another receiver-B is said to control and automatic gain control can also be incorporated
have a sensitivity itself is sufficient for this receiver to without difficulty.
function satisfactorily. Hence, receiver-B is more sensitive
A disadvantage of superheterodyne receivers is the
compared to receiver-A.
possibility of spurious responses due to frequency
Fidelity conversion. The image frequency and the frequency of
the desired signal exhibit a mirror-like symmetry .Another
Fidelity of a receiver is the ability of a receiver to truly re-
example of a spurious response is the noise-produced
produce theaudio signals transmitted.
signal distortions that appear as whistles. Methods of
Fidelity is the term used to indicate the accuracy of minimizing spurious responses include increasing the
reproduction at the output of the radio receiver. radio-frequency selectivity of the receiverand choosing an
Usually it is found that the sound produced by one radio intermediate frequency that is outside the frequency range
is differentfrom another radio. This is because the radio of the desired incoming signals.
receiver may not be in a position to reproduce all the Further developments for superheterodynereceiver
audio frequency transmitted by the transmitters.
Basic Doublesuperheterodyne receiver concept
The fidelity of the receiver depends on various factors such
The basic concept behind the double superheterodyne
as , carrier frequency alignment of the receiver, frequency
radio receiver is the use of a high intermediate frequency
response of the A.F. amplifier and the loudspeaker.
to achieve the high levels of image rejection that are
Signal to noise ratio required, and a further low intermediate frequency to provide
Another important parameter associated with radio the levels of performance required for the adjacent channel
receiver,that define the quality of the radio receiver ,is the selectivity.
Signal to noise ratio. Typically the receiver will convert the incoming signal down
Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power at the to a relatively high first intermediate frequency (IF) stage.
output to the noise power at the given R.F. frequency. This enables the high levels of image rejection to be
Usually the ratio is found out at various frequencies .The achieved ,as the image frequency lies at a frequency twice
ratio is always expected to be very high. In other words that of the IF away from the main or wanted signal.
the higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better is the radio Block diagram of a basic double superheterodyne
receiver. radio receiver.
Advantages and drawbacks of the superheterodyne The diagram in fig 13 shows a very basic version of the
design double superheterodyne receiver. Many sets these days
An important advantage of superheterodyne receivers is are far more complicated. Some superhet radios have
that the intermediate-frequency amplifier does not need more than one frequency conversion, and other areas of
to be tuned, Regardless of the frequency of the incoming additional circuitry to provide the required levels of
signal. For this reason, superheterodyne receivers are performance. However the basic superheterodyne concept
easy to tune. Only the input circuit, radio-frequency remains the same, using the idea of mixing the incoming
amplifier, and local oscillator needed to be tuned. Such signal with a locally generated oscillation to convert the
tuning is usually carried out by means of a single control signals to a new frequency.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Block diagram of FM Receivers, AM/FM-RF Alignment


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• sketch the block of FM receiver
• explain the function of limiter circuit in FM receiver
• explain how detection of FM is different from AM
• explain the working of discriminator circuit
• explain the advantage of radio detector over discriminator
• explain the with circuit detector the working of radio detector
• state the advantage of FM over AM
• state the necessity of alignment in radio receiver
• name the two main type of alignment required in a receiver
• explain the IF alignment and RF alignment in receiver.

FM Receiver signal of 10.7 MHz. This signal is then amplified by the IF


The block diagram of an FM superheterodyne receiver is amplifier. The output of the IF amplifier is applied to the
shown in Fig.1 limiter circuit. The limiter removes the noise in the received
signal and gives a constant amplitude signal.
A typical FM receiver block diagram shown in fig.1 is quite
similar to that of AM receiver. The RF amplifier amplifies This circuit is required when a phase discriminator is used
the received signal intercepted by the antenna. The to demodulate an FM signal.
amplified signal is then applied to the mixerstage. The The output of the limiter is now applied to the FM
second input of the mixer comes from the local oscillator. discriminator or detector, which recovers the modulating
The two input frequencies of the mixer generate an IF signal.

However, this signal is still not the original modulating level. However, AGC may be provided using an AGC
signal. Before applying it to the audio amplifier stages, it detector. This generates a dc voltage to control the gains
is deemphasized. De-emphasizing attenuates the higher of the RF and IF amplifier.
frequencies to bring them back to their original amplitudes However, notice that a limiter stage appears between the
as these are boosted or emphasized before transmission. IF stage and the detector stage. This is one way an FM
The output of the deemphasized stage is the audio signal, receiver can reject noise. Fig.2 shows what happens in a
which is then applied to the audio stages and finally to limiter stage.
the speaker. In the limiter shown in Fig.2 the input signal is very noisy.
It should be noted that a limiter circuit is required with the The output signal is noise -free. By limiting or by amplitude
FM discriminators. If the demodulator stage uses a ratio clipping, all the noise spikes have been eliminated. Some
detector instead of the discriminator, then a limiter is not FM receivers uses two stages of limiting to eliminate most
required. This is because the ratio detector limits the noise interference.
amplitude of the received signal. Limiting cannot be used in a AM receiver because the
In FM receivers, generally, AGC is not required because amplitude variations carry the information to the detector.
the amplitude of the carrier is kept constant by the limiter In FM reception, the frequency variations contain the
circuit. Therefore, the input to the audio stages controls information. Amplitude clipping in a FM receiver will remove
amplitudes and there are no erratic changes in the volume just the noise but does not remove the information.

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Detection in FM is more complicated than in AM. Since not demodulate the signal. To detect a FM signal needs
FM contains several side bands above and below the a double tuned discriminator circuit shown in Fig.3.
carrier, a signal nonlinear detector (such as a diode) will

The discriminator circuit shown in Fig.3 can serve as an


FM detector. The discriminator works by having two
resonant points. One is above the carrier frequency, and
one is below the carrier frequency.
In the discriminator circuit shown in Fig.3, when the carrier
is unmodulated, D1 and D2 will conduct an equal amount.
This is because the circuit is operating where the
frequency response curves cross . The amplitude is equal
for both tuned circuits at this point. The current through
R1 will be equal to the current through R2. If R1 are equal
in resistance, the voltage drops will also be equal. Since
the two voltages are series-opposing, the output voltage
will be zero. This means , carrier is at rest(no modulation),
the discriminator output is zero. The frequency response
curves of this discriminator is shown in Fig.4.

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In the frequency response curves for the discriminator and drift or because somebody ("The Phantom") has been
circuit, fo represents the correct point on the curves for fiddling with the adjustments previously.
the carrier. In a FM receiver, the station's carrier frequency Since a radio receiver has several tuned circuits, all these
will be heterodyned to fo. This represents a frequency of must be tuned to their correct frequencies for the receiver
10.7 MHz for broadcast FM receivers. The heterodyning to work satisfactorily for all stations in the desired band.
process allows one discriminator circuit to demodulate This process of tuning the circuits to their correct
any signal over the entire commercial FM band. frequencies is referred to as receiver alignment.
Suppose the carrier shifts higher in frequency because of There are two main alignments to be carried out in a
modulation, this will increase the amplitude of the signal superhet radio receiver. They are,
in L2C2 and decrease the amplitude in L1C1. Hence there
will be more voltage across R2, and less across R1. Thus - IF alignment
the output of the discriminator goes positive. - RF alignment.
On the other hand when the carrier shifts below fo, the IF alignment is carried out such that all the IF transformers
signal is closer to the resonant point of L1C1. More voltage of the receiver are tuned to the correct standard
will drop across R1, and less across R2. Hence, the output intermediate frequency.
goes negative.
The main requirement for RF alignment is setting the local
The output from the discriminator circuit will be, oscillator to tune in the station frequencies on the dial.
- zero when the carrier is at rest, RF alignment has two parts, one at the lower end of the
band and the other at the higher end of the band. At the
- positive when the carrier moves higher in frequency, lower end, either the oscillator coil or the padder capacitor
and is adjusted. At the higher end frequencies, the trimmer
- negative when the carrier moves lower in frequency. capacitor is used to do the adjustment.
Thus the output of the discriminator is a function of the Test set up for receiver alignment for AM
carrier frequency. Although a simple radio receiver can be aligned without
Automatic frequency control the need of any specialized test equipment, to carry out
alignment accurately and in a professional way, certain
The output of the discriminator can also be used to correct minimum test equipment's are very much necessary .They
any drift in the receiver oscillator frequency. FM detector are;
feeds a signal to the audio amplifier and to a stage marked
AFC. AFC stand for automatic frequency control. If the - RF signal generator with facility for modulated output
oscillator output frequency happens to change for some - An AC voltmeter
reason, then, fo will not exactly be 10.7 MHz. There will
be a steady DC output voltage from the discriminator. - A DC voltmeter
This DC voltage can be used as a control voltage to - A dummy antenna
change the oscillator frequency automatically and set it
back to 10.7 MHz. - A non-metallic screwdriver.

The discriminator circuit discussed above work fairly well; IF alignment procedures
but they are sensitive to amplitude changes. This is why Aligning the IF amplifiers means tuning the IF transformers
one or two limiters are needed for noise free reception. to obtain the maximum output signal at the IF center
An improved method of FM detection is by using the ratio frequency of 455 kHZ. There are several accepted method
detector instead of the discriminator. Ratio detectors are for IF alignment. Generally the manufactures of the
not very sensitive to the amplitude of the signal. This makes receivers specify the method to be followed for alignment,
it possible to build receivers without limiters and still in the form of table. Generalizing these methods, the two
provide good noise rejection. FM detector circuits used main methods of IF alignment is;
in FM receivers are generally used in conjunction with
integrated circuits(IC's).They usually have the advantage [1] IF alignment using a RF signals, set at IF center
of requiring no alignment or only one adjustment whereas frequency and without any modulation of the IF signal
alignment for discriminators and ratio detectors is more The procedure is employed by manufactures of high end
time-consuming. communication sets. As this procedure is generally not
Introduction to receiver alignment employed in the training environment.

What is Alignment? [2] IF alignment using a RF signal set at IF center


frequency and modulated using a 400 HZ signal with 30%
Alignment is the process of adjusting the IF and RF modulation.
circuits for best reception (sensitivity, selectivity and
absence of whistles) and accurate indication of the This procedure makes use of an IF carrier, modulated
frequency/wavelength on the tuning scale. The set will with 30% modulation using a 400 HZ sine wave. This
have been properly aligned when it was manufactured but procedure is most commonly employed for IF alignment
could require realignment either due to component ageing
202 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218

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for most commercial radio receivers. A brief procedure of 1] Oscillator frequency setting- to adjust tracking
this method of IF alignment is given below.
(a) Setting oscillator frequency for low end of the band
Step 1:
Step 1:
Short the gang condenser portion of the MW antenna
Using a frequency counter set the signal generator to
tuned circuit. Set the gang its half way(half open). Set
530 kHz modulated (standard). To radiate the signal from
cores of all IFTs towards the top of the can.
the signal generator, connect the signal generator lead to
Setting the gang half open corresponds to pointer position a standard radiation loop or use a 0.01 μF capacitor across
of 1000 kHZ on the dial scale. the generator leads. Keep this setup close to the receiver.
Step 2: Step 2:
Connect a 0-2 V AC voltmeter across the detector load. Position the dial pointer at 520 kHz position on the dial
(lowest frequency marking).
Step 3:
Keep the volume control in the maximum volume position.
Set the output level of the RF signal generator modulated
455 kHZ to low. Step 3:
Step 4: Turn the MW oscillator coil core very gently in clockwise
direction using an insulated screwdriver, till you receive
Feed 455 kHZ modulated RF signal through a 0.22 μF
the radiated signal clearly
coupling capacitor to the base of the mixer amplifier .Turn
the receiver power ON. Set the modulated RF output Do not turn the coil core (slug) more than one third at a
amplitude just high enough for the AC voltmeter at the time; else the core may get broken.
detector load to read about 0.5 to 1.0 Volt AC.
(b) Setting oscillator frequency for high end of the band
Step 5:
Step 4:
Using a non-metallic screwdriver, starting from the detector
Now set the signal generator to 1630 kHz modulated.
side, tune the last IFT core (IFT-3) for maximum signal
output on the AC meter. Then, tune the preceding IFT Step 5:
(IFT-2) and go ahead till you reach the first IFT(IFT-1) Position the dial pointer at 1630 kHz position on the dial.
such that the AC voltage reading is maximum. Keep the volume control in the maximum volume position.
NOTE: If you have not disconnected the audio stage, you Step 6:
will listen to the 400 Hz tone at the speaker. The tone
level heard becomes maximum when all the IFTs are Adjust the MW oscillator trimmer gently, till you receiver
correctly tuned. the radiated signal clearly.
After carrying out the above procedure of IF alignment, Repeat the above two procedures twice, as adjustment
remove the modulated RF signal fed at the base of the of the oscillator trimmer affects the oscillator coil
transistor of the converted stage. adjustment. The idea is to obtain the best tracking of the
oscillator and RF circuits.
RF alignment procedures
2] MW antenna setting
Recall that RF alignment is nothing but setting the
frequency of the local oscillator to tune -in to correct station (a) Adjusting MW antenna coil position for better
frequencies on the dial. sensitivity at the Low-end of the band
RF alignment has two parts; Step 1:
1) RF alignment at the low end of the band (say around Set the signal generator to 640 kHz modulated
1500 kHz in MW band) for setting the oscillator (standard).bring the radiating loop connected to receiver.
frequency and antenna. Step 2:
2) RF alignment at the high end of the band (say around Position the dial pointer at 640 kHz position on the dial.
1500 kHz in MW band) for setting the oscillator Keep the volume control in the maximum volume position.
frequency and antenna.
Step 3:
As in IF alignment, RF alignment can be carried out using
modulated carrier as given below; Slide the MW antenna coil over the ferrite rod along the
length of ferrite rod.The 400Hz modulating signal tone
RF alignment-using modulated RF signal: output from receiver increases. Position the coil where
This consists of two parts; the output is maximum. Put a wedge to lock the antenna
coil in that place temporarily.
1] Oscillator frequency setting
(b) Adjusting antenna coil trimmer for better sensitivity
2] MW antenna setting. for the high end of the band

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Step : 1
Without changing the position of the dummy antenna,
set the signal generator to 1630 kHz modulated
(standard).
Step 2:
Position the dial pointer at 1630 kHz position on the dial.
Keep the volume control in the maximum volume position.
Step 3:
The main sections from antenna to detector output
Adjust the MW antenna trimmer gently, till you receive are;
the 400 Hz radiated tone loudly and clearly.
First of all the one single most important contributor to
Repeat the above two procedures of antenna setting twice, the overall alignment is the detector. If the detector and IF
as adjustment of the antenna trimmer affects the antenna are not setup properly then overall performance will suffer;
coil adjustment. FM stereo separation will be poor if the response of the
(c) Adjusting both MW antenna coil and trimmer for good basic receiver is poor. The detector must be resonant at
reception of station in mid-band the IF frequency and centered before going on to the other
stages.
Step 1:
Except for models that have adjustable IF's (10/
Set the signal generator to 1000 kHz (modulated) B,18,19,20/B), this is the only IF section alignment
Step 2: adjustment that you should consider. The early classic
models mentioned above are beyond the scope of this
Position the dial pointer at 1000 kHz position on the dial. document and should not be attempted unless you have
Keep the volume control at the maximum volume position. access to the proper equipment and have complex IF
Step 3: filter experience, however the detector and RF front end
adjustments are applicable.
Switch ON receiver and check if the 400 kHz modulating
tone is loudly and clearly heard at the receiver speaker. The equipment you will need are:

Step 4: 1 FM generator

Without changing the position of the dummy antenna, 2 Frequency counter


decrease the output amplitude of the signal generator such 3 Distortion analyzer
that the radiated signal strength is very low and the output
on speaker is very feeble i.e., just audible. 4 DC coupled scope or DVM

Reducing the radiated signal strength the generator is Detector alignment


just to simulate weak station. 1 Ground the scope input at 10mv/division, and center
Step 5: the line on 0, or set the DVM to a low DC volts scale.

Remove the wedge fixed to the antenna. Gently shift the 2 Disconnect the antenna.
position of the antenna coil on the ferrite rod little by little 3 Connect the scope or DVM to the DC output of the
on either side of its previous position to get maximum detector.
possible 400 Hz tone sound output from the speaker. Put
the wedge and/or apply wax to permanently lock the 4 Connect the Distortion analyzer to audio output.
antenna coil at that position. 5 Find a very quiet area of the band that has no stations,
Step 6: this is usually at the lower band edge. By rocking the
tuning back and forth there should be no DC change
Adjust the MW antenna trimmer carefully till you receive at the detector output or center tune meter movement.
the radiated signal as above. Sometimes placing a little shorting wire across the
General procedure for aligning an FM receiver antenna input will help to find a quiet spot. You are
setting the detector to the center of the noise
The procedure below is a general list of steps involved in generated by the IF/Limiter.
the RF section of an FM broadcast receiver alignment. it
should not be done unless you have the minimum 6 Using a non-metallic tuning tool, tune the secondary
equipment &have experience in RF alignment techniques. of the detector (usually the top slug) transformer to
achieve 0VDC.
There are a few things you must be aware of to get the
order of alignment right; fig.5 helps in understanding the7 Connect a signal generator set for this unused
signal path a bit. frequency with an output level of 1 KμV, +/- 75 KHz
(100%) modulation and adjust it's frequency for 0 VDC
then adjust the primary slug for minimum distortion.
The center tune meter should show centered.
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8 Repeat steps 5 and 6 until there is minimum distortion Just like the local oscillator there is also one or more
with a signal and 0 VDC output at the detector with no pairs of capacitors for the RF path for both band edges.
signal present.
1 Set the generator for 88 MHz or nearby open channel,
Front end alignment set the generator for 3 - 5 μV and adjust for maximum
audio or minimum distortion. These are sensitivity
The FM Circuit with tuning any station from 88-108 Mhz
adjustments, so you may have to fiddle with the
range and converting any selected station to exactly a
generator output to be at a level below significant limiter
10.7 MHz signal to feed the I.F. (Intermediate Frequency)
action.
amplifier stages. This requires that all the stages of the
R.F section track together, each stage is tuned by one of 2 Set the generator for 108 MHz or nearby open channel;
the gangs in the big variable capacitor that the tuning adjust for maximum output or minimum distortion.
knob turns.
3 Repeat steps 1 - 2 until there is no noticeable
The front end contains several adjustments usually in pairs, improvement.
one for the low end and one for the high end of the tuning
Depending on the model there may be a neutralization
range. There is usually an inductor for the low end and
adjustment. This is circuit used to prevent the first stage
capacitor for the high end. Check and repair any dial string
from oscillating and to give a low noise figure. While it's
and pulley problems before proceeding, do not use any
rare that it needs adjustment, in cases where the RF
kind of lubricant on the dial string or pulleys, as this will
stage is oscillating, adjust in small increments until the
cause slipping on the Gyrotouch(tm) shaft. A tuner
stage becomes stable. You will notice that the stage is
properly working should with one good strong spin action
oscillating if there are extraneous noises or carriers and
should glide all the way by itself from one end of the band
that the overall sensitivity is low. If you end up adjusting
to the other, or at least most of the way. If it doesn't there
the neutralization trimmer, you will have to repeat steps 1
is a binding or friction problem that should be fixed before
- 3 above as they are interactive, but only on the first
alignment.
stage.
Using a frequency counter set the generator to 88 MHz
It sounds complicated, but just remember detector
and set the local oscillator inductor for 0 VDC at the
alignment first, then oscillator adjustments, then RF
detector; (center tune on meter if the unit has one)
stages. Inductors are for the low end and caps are for the
Set the generator to 108 MHz and set the local oscillator high end.
trim capacitor for 0 VDC at the detector
If there is a post mixer transformer it can be set just like
Repeat 1 -2 until there is no change, they may take 3 or the sensitivity adjustments (weak signal) at any frequency.
4 times until both ends are correct. if you want to take the time, if this transformer is present,
repeat the detector adjustment.
If you just want to set the local oscillator and don't have
access to a frequency counter you can use a couple of If there is a signal strength meter adjustment, set the
known stations near both band edges. generator for 100 μV and set for 90% deflection.
Check the center accuracy at 98 MHz, it should be pretty
close. since you have adjusted just the band edges above.
You are expecting that the center will fall in place. Repeat
the local oscillator adjustments a little closer off the edges
say at 90 and 106 MHz. usually this is not necessary but
should be noted.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 3.6.218
Electronic Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Digital modulation and demodulation techniques, sampling, quantization,


encoding
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the principle of digital communication
• list the fundamental techniques of digital modulation and demodulation
• explain the term of sampling
• explain the meaning of quantization
• describe the terms of encoding.

Digital communication is the physical transfer of data in Fig 2


terms of a digital bit stream or a digitized analog signal
over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication
channel. (Fig.1)
The messages are either represented by a sequence of
pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission),
or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms
(pass-band transmission), using a digital modulation
method.
The pass-band modulation and corresponding
demodulation (also known as detection) is carried out by
modem equipment. (Fig.2)
According to the most common definition of digital signal,
both baseband and pass-band signals representing bit-
streams are considered as digital transmission,while an
alternative definition only considers the baseband signal
as digital, and pass-band transmission of digital data as
Fundamental Techniques
a form of digital-to-analog conversion
The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are
In case of digital transmission, the message signal is
based on keying: (Fig.3)
transmitted in the form of 0’s and 1's. If the signal is digital,
it is transmitted directly through the physical wires and if • ASK (Amplitude-Shift Keying): A finite number of
the signal is analog, it is first converted to digital form amplitudes are used.
using PCM and then transmitted through physical wires • FSK (Frequency-Shift Keying): A finite number of
like coaxial cable or optical fibers. frequencies are used.
• PSK (Phase-Shift Keying): A finite number of phases
are used
• QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation): A finite
number of at least two phases and at least two
amplitudes are used.

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated


by a discrete signal.
Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-
to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation
as analog-to-digital conversion.

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Amplitude Shift Keying - ASK Advantages of Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude shift keying (ASK) is a digital modulation The main advantage of ASK modulation is generation of
process, in which digital message signal is modulated ASK is very much easy. Both ASK modulation and
with the high frequency carrier. The amplitude of the carrier demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive. The
is changed according to the message signal. It is similar ASK technique is also commonly used to transmit digital
to AM When input = high i.e. at logic 1, output's amplitude data over optical fiber. There are many other advantages
is same as high frequency carrier's amplitude. When input of ASK, Such as Amplitude-shift keying transmitters are
= low i.e. at logic 0, output is 0. Hence the information of very simple and transmitter current is low.
the message signal is contained in the amplitude of the Disadvantages of Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
carrier signal i.e. if input is 1, carrier is on and if input is 0.
carrier is off. Therefore, it is also known as On Off keying. ASK is linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise,
(Fig.4) distortion and propagation condition on different routes in
PSTN (Public switched telephone network).It requires
excessive bandwidth and is therefore a waste of power.
Frequency Shift Keying - FSK (Fig.6)
Frequency shift keying (FSK) is the most common form
of digital modulation in the high-frequency radio spectrum,
and has important applications in telephone circuits.
The digital message signal is modulated with the high
frequency carrier. The frequency of the carrier is changed
according to the message signal. It is similar to FM When
input = high i.e. at logic 1, carrier frequency is shifted up
i.e. frequency increases. When input = low i.e. at logic 0,
carrier frequency is shifted down i.e. frequency decreases.
ASK demodulation
Hence the information of the message signal is contained
Demodulation is the process of recovering the original in the frequency of the carrier signal.
message signal from the modulated signal .i.e., the reverse
process of modulation. It is also known as Detection. An
Ideal demodulator should produce an output as same as
the original message signal before modulation.
But practically it is not possible, due the presence of
noise (like Gaussian noise, white noise, short noise,
etc...), hence, deviations occur after demodulation, this
is known as Distortion.
The ASK demodulator, which is designed specifically for
the symbol-set used by the modulator, the presence or
absence of a sinusoid in a given time interval needs to be
determined the amplitude of the received signal and maps
it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the FSK demodulation
original data. Frequency and phase of the carrier are kept The FSK demodulation methods for FSK can be makes
constant. (Fig.5) all positive voltages into binary 1's and all negative voltages
into binary 0's.This type of demodulator was very popular
due to its relative simplicity and its noncritical tuning.
Phase-locked-loop (PLL) demodulators are a more recent
technique, but they have very similar performances to that
of FM detector demodulators.(Fig.7)

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Advantages of FSK
• Low Noise, Since Amplitude Is Constant
• Power Requirement Is Constant
• Operates In Virtually Any Wireless communication
Available
• High Data Rate
• Used In Long Distance Communication
• Easy To Decode
• Good Sensitivity
Disadvantages of FSK
• Complex Circuits. Advantages of PSK

• Coherent FSK is not often used in practice due it the • PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it
difficulty and cost in generating two reference requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK
frequencies close together at the receiver. • More efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are
• It requires more bandwidth. possible, compared to FSK.

• The FSK is not preferred for the high speed modems • High power efficiency
because with increase in speed, the bit rate increases. • It is used in low data rate wireless communication.
Phase Shift Keying - PSK: Disadvantages of PSK
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme • More complex signal detection / recovery process, than
that conveys data by changing, or modulating the phase in ASK and FSK.
of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
• Low bandwidth efficiency.
The digital message signal is modulated with the high
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation - QAM
frequency carrier. The phase of the carrier is changed
according to the message signal. It When input = low i.e. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is both an analog
at logic 0, output wave is 180 degrees out of phase with and a digital modulation scheme. It conveys two analog
the carrier is similar to PM When input = high i.e. at logic message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing
1, output wave is in phase with the carrier. i.e. 0 degrees (modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using
phase. (Fig.8) the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation
scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation
scheme.
The two carrier waves, usually sinusoids, are out of phase
with each other by 90° and are thus called quadrature
carriers or quadrature components - hence the name of
the scheme. The modulated waves are summed, and the
final waveform is a combination of both phase-shift keying
(PSK) and amplitude-shift keying(ASK).
In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at least two
phases and at least two amplitudes are used and it also
used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital
Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of telecommunication systems.
distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite
The QAM modulator and QAM demodulator are key
number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of
elements within any quadrature amplitude modulation
binary digits.
system.
The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the
The modulator and demodulator are used to encode the
symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase
signal, often data into the radio frequency carrier that is
of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it
to be transmitted. Then the demodulator is used at the
represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires
remote end to extract the signal from the RF carrier so
the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received
that it can used at the remote end.
signal to a reference signal. (Fig.9)
As quadrature amplitude modulation is a complex signal,
specialised QAM modulators and demodulators are
required.

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QAM modulator basics The signals enter the system, they are split and each
side is applied to a mixer. One half has the in-phase local
The QAM modulator essentially follows the idea that can
oscillator applied and the other half has the quadrature
be seen from the basic QAM theory where there are two
oscillator signal applied. (Fig.12)
carrier signals with a phase shift of 90° between them.
These are then amplitude modulated with the two data
streams known as the I or In-phase and the Q or
quadrature data streams. These are generated in the
baseband processing area. (Fig.10)

The basic modulator assumes that the two quadrature


signals remain exactly in quadrature.
A further requirement is to derive a local oscillator signal
for the demodulation that is exactly on the required
The two resultant signals are summed and then processed
frequency for the signal. Any frequency offset will be a
as required in the RF signal chain, typically converting
change in the phase of the local oscillator signal with
them in frequency to the required final frequency and
respect to the two double sideband suppressed carrier
amplifying them as required.
constituents of the overall signal.
It is worth noting that as the amplitude of the signal varies
Systems include circuitry for carrier recovery that often
any RF amplifiers must be linear to preserve the integrity
utilises a phase locked loop - some even have an inner
of the signal. Any non-line varieties will alter the relative
and outer loop. Recovering the phase of the carrier is
levels of the signals and alter the phase difference, thereby
important otherwise the bit error rate for the data will be
distorting the signal and introducing the possibility of data
compromised.
errors. (Fig.11)
Advantages of QAM
• QAM appears to increase the efficiency of transmission
for radio communications systems by utilizing both
amplitude and phase variations.
• The advantage of using QAM is that it is a higher order
form of modulation and as a result it is able to carry
more bits of information per symbol.
• By selecting a higher order format of QAM, the data
rate of a link can be increased.
• Baud Rate (Baud Rate - No. of symbols per second)
is high.
Disadvantages of QAM
• First it is more susceptible to noise. Receivers for use
with phase or frequency modulation are both able to
use limiting amplifiers that are able to remove any
amplitude noise and thereby improve the noise
reliance.
• The second limitation is also associated with the
amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or
frequency modulated signal is amplified in a radio
transmitter, there is no need to use linear amplifiers,
whereas when using QAM that contains an amplitude
The QAM demodulator is very much the reverse of the component, linearity must be maintained.
QAM modulator.

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• Almost always requires a highly stable local oscillator
• In the optical domain this is very expensive.
Sampling
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a
continuous signal to a discrete signal. A common example
is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal)
to a sequence of samples ( discrete-time signal). (Fig.13)

2) Natural Sampling (Fig.15)


• In this the samples are not the instant but of a small
period of time
• It is obtained by PAM.
• This is usually used for the comparison of sampled
output at various time intervals of various signals
• It has low SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio - The amount of
original signal present to that of the noise in given
A sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or signal).
space. A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples
equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous
signal at the desired points.After sampling, the process
of converting a continuous-valued discrete-time signal to
a digital (discrete-valued discrete-time) signal is known
as analog-to-digital conversion
Sampling is usually done by using PAM (Pulse Amplitude
Modulation). In this the analog signal is sampled at a
given pulsing frequency.
Criteria for Sampling:
The criteria for sampling is given by Nyquist, known as
Nyquist sampling theorem. The Nyquist sampling theorem
provides a prescription for the nominal sampling interval
required to avoid aliasing. It may be stated simply as
follows:
"The sampling frequency should be at least twice the 3) Flat- top Sampling (Fig.16)
highest frequency contained in the signal." • This is similar to Natural Sampling
Types of Sampling
There are three basic types of sampling used in the
process of sampling process.
They can be differentiated by their output waveform that
they produce and the process involved in producing them.
1) Ideal Sampling (Fig.14)
• In this the samples are the instants of that time
• It is obtained by Pulse Modulation with
• Pulse of low duty cycle ideally, not possible but is
used for theoritical purpose.

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• In this the top is made flat irrespective of the signal The output of the quantization depends on the resolution
form of the quantizer, i.e., if a sinusoidal wave to be quantized
is given to a 2-bit quantizer then the output has 4 levels in
• This is usually used for Quantization as it gives higher
its output,
SNR values when compared to natural sampling.
If it is a 3-bit quantizer then the output has 8 levels, thus
Quantization
the number of levels can be given based on the resolution
Quantization in digital signal processing, is the process of the quantizer, i.e., the number of output bits of the
of mapping a large set of input values to a (countable) quantizer.
smaller set - such as rounding values to some unit of
Quantization Error
precision.
• When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error -
A device or algorithmic function that performs quantization
the coded signal is an approximation of the actual
is called a quantizer.
amplitude value.
The round-off error introduced by quantization is referred
• The difference between actual and coded value
to as quantization error.
(midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error.
In analog-to-digital conversion, the difference between the
Encoding
actual analog value and quantized digital value is called
quantization error or quantization distortion. This error is An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software
either due to rounding.. The error signal is sometimes program, algorithm that converts information from one
modeled as an additional random signal called quantization format (code) to another for the purpose of standardization,
noise because of its stochastic behavior.Quantization is speed and security.
involved to some degree in nearly all digital signal
In telecommunication it is a device used to change a signal
processing, as the process of representing a signal in
such as bit stream into a code.
digital form ordinarily involves rounding. (Fig.17, 18 & 19)
The encoding is used to follow up standards so that type
conversion from one to another doesn't affect the overall
process. E.g.: NRZ-S is used in USB communication
irrespective of the type of hardware, thus they ensure a
standard.The usually used coding technique is line-coding
technique. It is the coding technique followed to coding
only single bit at a time.
Line coding consists of representing the digital signal to
be transported by an amplitude- and time-discrete signal
that is optimally tuned for the specific properties of the
physical channel (and of the receiving equipment). The
waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent
the 1's and 0's of a digital data on a transmission link is
called line encoding.
The common types of line encoding are
a. Unipolar encoding.
• Return to Zero (RZ).
b. Polar encoding.
• Non-Return to Zero Level (NRZ-L).
• Non-Return to Zero Space (NRZ-S).
• Non-Return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I).
• Non-Return to Zero Mark (NRZ-M).
c. Bipolar encoding.
• Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI)
d. Manchester encoding.

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Unipolar Encoding Disadvantages
Unipolar encoding or Return to Zero is a line code. A • Presence of DC level (indicated by spectral line at 0
positive voltage represents a binary 1, and zero volts Hz).
indicates a binary 0. It is the simplest line code, directly • Contains low frequency components. Causes "Signal
encoding the bit stream, and is analogous to on-off keying Droop" (explained later).
in modulation. (Fig.20)
• Does not have any error correction capability.
In unipolar NRZ the duration of the MARK pulse (Γ) is
equal to the duration (To) of the symbol slot. (Fig.21) • Does not possess any clocking component for ease
of synchronisation.
Advantages
• Is not transparent. Long string of zeros causes loss of
• Simplicity in implementation. synchronisation.
• Doesn't require a lot of bandwidth for transmission.

Polar encoding (Fig.22)


In polar signalling a binary 1 is represented by a pulse
g1(t) and a binary 0 by the opposite (or antipodal) pulse
g0(t) = -g1(t). Polar signalling also has NRZ and RZ forms.

Advantages
• Simplicity in implementation.
• No DC component.
Disadvantage
• Continuous part is non-zero at 0 Hz. Causes "Signal
Droop".
• Does not have any error correction capability.
• Does not posses any clocking component for ease of
synchronisation.
Bipolar encoding (Fig.23)
• Is not transparent.
Bipolar Signalling is also called "alternate mark inversion"
Types (AMI) uses three voltage levels (+V, 0, -V) to represent
1 NRZ-L two binary symbols. Zeros, as in unipolar, are represented
by the absence of a pulse and ones (or marks) are
2 NRZ-I
represented by alternating voltage levels of +V and -V.
3 NRZ-M
4 NRZ-S

212 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218

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Alternating the mark level voltage ensures that the bipolar Manchester encoding follows XOR operation.
spectrum has a null at DC and that signal droop on AC
coupled lines is avoided. Clock Data Manchester Encoding

The alternating mark voltage also gives bipolar signalling 0 0 0


a single error detection capability. 0 1 1
Like the Unipolar and Polar cases, Bipolar also has NRZ 1 0 1
and RZ variations. 1 1 0

Advantages
• No DC component.
The transition at the centre of every bit interval is used for
• Occupies less bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ
synchronization at the receiver. Manchester encoding is
schemes.
called self-synchronizing. Synchronization at the receiving
• Does not suffer from signal droop (suitable for end can be achieved by locking on to the transitions,
transmission over AC coupled lines). which indicate the middle of the bits.
• Possesses single error detection capability. Advantages
Disadvantages • No DC component.
• Does not possess any clocking component for ease • Does not suffer from signal droop Easy to synchronise
of synchronisation. with.
• Is not transparent. • Is Transparent.
Manchester encoding (Fig.24) Disadvantages
In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided • Because of the greater number of transitions it
into two halves. The voltage remains at one level during occupies a significantly large bandwidth.
the first half and moves to the other level during the second
• Does not have error detection capability.
half.

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Modulation and Demodulation of analog signal using
PAM,PPM,PWM
Pulse amptitude modulation (PAM) is the basic from of
pulse modulation in which the signal is samped at regular
intervals and each sample is made proportation to the
amplitude of the modulating signal at the sampling instant.
The processing of PAM signal is shown in Fig 1. The two
signals i.e, modulating signal and sampling signal or carrier
signal are sent to the sampler (Multiplier) stage where
the amplitude of the signal proportational to the modulating
signal through which information is carried. This is PAM
signal

PAM circuit using IC555 and NPN transistor is shown in


Fig 3. The timer chip is wired in astable multivibrator
configuration with the NPN transistor base at terminal
output pin. Its pulse frequency is designed at least twice
that of audio signal. The collector of transistor is coupled
with low frequency audio signal through positive clamper
using capacitor C1 and diode D1.
The PAM signal along with the message signal and the
sampling signal, that is the carrier train of pulses waveform The positive clamping will shift the level of audio signal
plotted in time domain are shown in Fig 2 above ‘O’ volt. The output at the collector of transistor is
PAM wave as shown in Fig 3. The amplitude of pulse
generated by the IC555 varies in accordence with the
instantaneous amplitude of information signal.

214 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218

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Demodulation of PAM Stereo FM Radio
PAM siganl is demodulated by the low pass filter circuit As most radio listeners are aware, One of the main
shown in Fig 4. The RC network eliminates high frequency advantages of FM radio broadcasting over AM/Medium
ripples and generates the demodulated signal proportional Wave is the avaliability of stereo sound. This involves
to the PAM input signal. transmitting and receiving image. In principle, we can use
two complete transmitter/receiver systems to send stereo
sound. In practice, however, it makes more sense to use
multiplexing.
When introducting an improved service-stereo for FM, or
colour for TV-broadcasters are often stuck with the ‘old
grannie problem’. This is the fact that there will be
thousands/millions of listeners/viewers who can’t afford
(or don’t want the new improved service). They want to be
able to go on receiving mono/black & white just as if
nothing had changed. For this reason one of the main
engineering requriements when introducing stereo to FM
radio was to do it in a way which went unnoticed by anyone

using cheap old mono radios. This menas that the system signal and subtracted one from the other to procedure a
chosen is more comples than otherwise it would need to diffrent signal. The sum is essentially a monophonic signal
be. which is what we would send for playing through a single
The standard FM stereo system which has been adopted loudspeakers. The diffrence signal is used to DSBSC
by broadcasters around the world is illustrated in figure modulated a 38 kHz sinewave.
the system uses frequency division multiplexing to The DSBSC output is added to the sum (mono) signal
combine the two signals destined for the left and right and the combination is sent on the transmitter’s FM
hand loudspeakers. The signals are first passed through modulator. A monophonic receiver can now ignore the
filters which only allow through frequencies up to 15KHz. stero information simply by using a filter after its FM
The L and R signals are then added to produce a sum
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218 215

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demodulator to block everything above 15kHz. A stereo transmission with the same output S/N as a mono signal.
receiver has to have, an addition circuit after the FM A careful analysis shows that we need around a tenflod
demodulator which can detect and demodulate which can increase in the received signal level to obtain the same
detect and demodulate the DSBSC wave. Once it has S/N for stereo as mono. This is why many radios & FM
done this it has recovered the diffrence information and tuners sound noisier in stereo than in mono. A similar
can recreate the left and right signals by adding/ argument applies to interference. Stereo reception is
subracting. significantly more susceptible to interference. Stereo
Demodulating a DSBSC signal can be diffrent due to the recception is significantly more susceptible to interference
adsence of the carrier whose frequency & phase need to than mono.
Multiplexing of AM signal
perform demodulation. In the stereo system this problem
is dealt with by including in the broadcast signal a 19kHz Analog signals are easily multiplexed by using frequency
pilot tone. This comes from a 19 kHz master oscillator at division multiplexing (FDM) technique for multiplexing AM
the tranmitter to which the 38 kHz subcarrier oscillator is signals for transmission. FDM is a networking technique
phase locked.The 19kHz master oscillator at the in which multiple data signals are combined for
transmitter to which the 38 kHz subcarrier oscillator is simulataneous transmission via a shared comminication
phase locked. The 19 kHz master oscillator at the medium. FDM uses a carrier signal at a descrete
transmitter to which the 38 kHz subcarrier oscillator is frequency for each data stream and then combines many
phase locked. The 19 kHz pilot tone falls in a spectral modulated signals into one in such a manner that each
region above the mono sum signal and below the DSBSC individual signal can be retrieved at the destination.
diffrence signal information.(The DSBSC signal extends
The following Fig 1 shows the process of FDM of three
=15kHz around 38 kHz since the input modulating signals
voice signals with diffrent carrier frequencies are modulated
are band limited to 15kHz.)
and sent together over a cable by using FDM technique
The stereo receiver looks at incoming FM demodulated
In FDM a guard band frequency of 9 khz is provided
signals. It knows that the 15-23 kHz range should be
between different AM channels to keep signals from
vacant unless a stereo signal is being transmitted. If a
intefering with each other. This process of multiplexing of
19kHz pilot tone is present it can be recognised and used
AM signal is adopted at Transmitter and then goes to
to control the frequency and phase of a 38 kHz oscillator
media at different slots of frequency.
in the receiver’s stereo decoder. This can then
demodulated the diffrence information and combine it with Since the PAM, PPM and PNM are analog signals, the
the mono (sum) signal to recover the stereo sound. The multiplexing of these signals are required with FDM
presence of the 19 kHz tone is also often used to make technique.
the receiver presence of the 19 kHz tone is also often
used to make the receiver light up an indicator with flags
that a stereo multiplexed signal is being received (This

doesn’t of course, guarantee the sound is in stereo. Demultiplexing of AM signal


Broadcasters often leave the sstem on when transmitting
mono material! Then L always equals R and the diffrence Demultiplexing is the reverse process of the multiplexing
DSBSC signal is always zero.) action the demultiplexer is also known as ‘DEMUX’

From erailer section on FM we know that the noise power A demux circuit seperates multiple analog or digital
spectral density of a demodulated FM signal tends to seprates form one signal received over a single shared
increase with the square of the modulation frequency. This medium such as a single conductor of copper wire or
means that there will be more noise in the 23 - 53 kHz fiber optical cable
band used for the diffrence signal than for the 0 - 15 kHz At receiving end the DEMUX receive the signal from the
band used for the sum signal. As a result we require a multiplexer and it converts back to orginal form the
significantly higher input signal level to receive a stereo following diagram shown in Fig 2 explain the
216 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218

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demultiplexing of three AM signls from a multiplexed
signal.
The composite signal of diffrent carrier are seperated by
the ‘DEMUX’ using select lines (data selector) Then each
signal passes through band pass filter (BPF) where all
the carrier are seperated.
Now, each modulated signal is applied at demodulators
to detect all the three orginal message signals at receiving
end.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 3.7.227
Electronic Mechanic - Microcontroller (8051)

Architecture of 8051
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• understand the architecture of 8051 microcontroller
• differetiate between microprocessor and microcontroller
• observe advantages of microcontroller.

Microcontroller the system cost is very high. Microcontrollers are the


The main reason for the development of microcontroller is devices that actually fit the profile “Computer - on - a chip”
to overcome the drawback of the microprocessor. Even as it consists of a main processing unit or processor along
though microprocessors are powerful devices, they require with some other components that are necessary to make
external chips like RAM, ROM input/output ports and it a complete computer. The components that are present
other components in order to design a complete working on a typical microcontroller IC are CPU, memory, input /
system. This made it economically difficult to develop ouput ports and timers. The block diagram of a
computerized consumer applicances on a large scale as microcontroller is shown below in fig.1.

Microcontrollers are basically used in embedded systems. memory microcontrollers do not have program memory
Microcontrollers can be classified based on bus width, embedded on them and require an external chip for the
memory structure and instruction set. Bus width indicates same. Now a day, all microcontrollers are embedded
a the size of the data bus. memory microcontrollers. The classification based on
Microcontrollers can be classified as 8-bit, 16- bit or 32-bit instruction set is similar to that of a microprocessor. They
based on the bus width. Higher bus widths often result in can be either CISC (complex instruction set computer) or
better performance. Microcontrollers can be divided into RISC (Reduced instruction set computer. Majority of
two types based on their memory structures ; Embedded microcontrollers follow CISC architecture with over 80
memory and external memory. In case of embedded instructions. Microcontrollers can also be divided based
memory microcontrollers, the required data and program on their computer architecture into von neumann and
memory is embedded into the IC. Whereas external harvard.

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Functions of different ICs used in the microcontroller 4 RS485 Drivers and RS232 drivers : ICL 232 (RS232)
kit and 74LBC184D (RS485)
1 EPROM : 27256 ( 32k x 8 EPROM) 8051 is used for serial communication with associated
diver for interface immunity and overcoming attenuation.
The micro -51 EB LCD has a standard EPROM configuration
of 32KB. The address for the monitor EPROM is 0000- 5 Address Latch : (74LS273)
3FFF. EPROM expansion is C000-FFFF.
It is used to latch the address (A0-A7) from AD lines (AD0-
2 RAM : 61256 ( 256K x 16 BIT SRAM) AD7). The latch stores the number output by the 8051
from the databus. So that the LED can be lit with any 8 bit
The micro - 51 EB LCD has 32 KB of read /write program
binary number.
/ data memory using one 61256 whose addres is from
4000 to BFFFF. The micro - 51 EB LCD has one more 6 Data bus buffer : (72LS244)
32KB of read/write data memory using one 61256 whose
It connect 8 bit of input data to I/O pheripheral devices.
address is 0000-3FFF and C000-FEFF.
7 LCD interface and LCD module : ( IC74174)
3 Parallel I/O interface : 8255 PPI (Programmable
pheripheral interface) The LCD is diaplay is driven by both address latch and data
bus buffer.
Intel 8255 programmble pheripheral interface 24
programmbable I/O lines configured as three 8 bit ports The following table shows some of the difference between
direct bit set / reset capability. Three modes of operation microprocessors and microcontrollers.
namely basic I/O, strobed I/O and bidirectional bus.

Micropocessor Microcontroller

Microprocessor assimilates the function of a central Microcontroller can be considered as a small computer
processing unit (CPU) on to a single integrated circuit (IC) which has a processor and some other components
order to make it a micro computer chip.

Microprocessors are mainly used in designing general Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled
purpose systems from small to large and complex devices
systems like super computers

Microprocessors are basic components of personal Microcontrollers are generally used in embedded
computers system .

A microprocessor based system can perform numerous A microcontroller based system can perform single of
tasks very few tasks .

The main task of microprocessor is to perform the In addition to performing the tasks of fetch, decode and
instruction cycle repeatedly. This includes fetch, execute, a microcontroller also controls its environment
decode and execute. based on the output of the instruction cycle.

In order to build or design a system (Computer, a The IC of a microcontroller has memory (both RAM,
microprocessor has to be connected externally to some ROM) integrated on it along with some other
other components like memory (RAM and ROM) and input components like I/O devices and timers
output ports

The overall cost of a sytem built using a microprocessor Cost of a system built using a microcontroller is less,
is high. This is because of the requirement of external all the components are readily available.
components.

Generally power consumption and dissipation is high Power consumption is less


because of the external devices. Hence it requires
external cooling system.

The clock frequency is very high usually in the order of Clock frequency is less usually in the order of Mega
Giga Hertz. Hertz.

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Advantages of microcontroller : As the microcontroller is Table - 1
having on - chip I/O ports, timer/counters, code and data
memory (limited) which reduces the program exeuction Commom features of 8051 and 8052
time. (Fig.2)
Comparative study of 8051 and 8052. Sl.No. Parameter 8051 8052

Although the 8051 microcontroller was introduced first 1. Clocks instruction


with 8 bit capacity the enhanced version of 8051 been cycle 12 12
developed later which is called 8052 micro controller. The
8052 microcontroller is technically designed with certain 2. UARTs/serial
additional features. The common features of these ports 1 1
microcontrollers are given in Table - 1 and the diffrences 3. Maximum
are given in Table - 2 below: program size
without external 64K 64K
Table - 2 logic

Diffrences between 8051 and 8052 4. Maximum PIO


port pins 32 32
PARAMETERS 8051 8052
5. Size 8Bit 8Bit
Internal RAM
(DATA Memory) 128byte 256 Bye

Internal ROM Peripheral Interface Controller


(Code Memory) 4Kb 8Kb
Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC) is the world’s smallest
Timer/Counter 2 3 and very fast microcontroller that can be programmed to
execute a vast range of tasks compare with other
No.of interrupt 5 6 controllers. These programming and the simulated process
of this microcontroller can be done by a circuit-wizard
software. PIC microcontroller is an IC and its architecture
comprises of CPU, RAM, ROM, timers, counters and
protocols like SPI, UART, CAN which are used for
interfacing with other peripherals. Microcontrollers are
used for industrial purpose also the advantages of using
this microcontroller includes low power consumption, high
performance, supports hardware and software tools such
as simulators, compilers, and debuggers.

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The block diagram of PIC microcontroller architecture is General Purpose Registers (GPR)
shown in (Fig-1) comprises of central processing unit
(CPU), I/O ports, A/D converter, memory organization,
timers/counters, serial communication, interrupts, As the name implies, These registers are used for general
oscillator and CCP module that are discussed in given purpose only. For instance, if we want to multiply any two
below: numbers by using this microcontroller. Usually, registers
are used for multiplying and storing in other registers. So,
GPR registers don’t have any superior function,- CPU can
simply access the data in the registers.

Special Function Registers (SFR)

As the name implies, SFRs are used only for special


purposes. These registers work based on the
function assigned to them, and these registers
cannot work as a normal register. For instance, if
you cannot use the STATUS register for storing the
information, SFRs are used for viewing the status
of the program. So, the user cannot change the
SFR’s function; the function is given by the
manufacturer at the time of built-up.
Architecture of PIC Microcontroller
Memory Organization
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The memory organization of Peripheral Interface Controller
PIC microcontroller’s CPU is not different like other (PIC) is shown in Fig 2 which includes the following:
microcontroller CPU, which includes the ALU, controller
unit, the memory unit, and accumulator. ALU is mainly
used for arithmetic and logical operations. The memory
unit is used to store the commands after processing.
The control unit is used to control the internal & external
peripherals, and the accumulator is used to store the
final results and further processes.
Memory Organization • Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
The memory module of the PIC microcontroller Memory (EEPROM)
architecture consists of Random Access Memory (RAM) • Flash Memory
Read Only Memory (ROM) and STACK. • Stack

Memory Organization
Random Access Memory (RAM)

(RAM) The Random access memory is used to store the


information temporarily in its registers. It is categorized
into two banks, each bank has so many registers. The
RAM registers are categorized into two types, namely
Special Function Registers (SFR) General Purpose
Registers (GPR).

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Input Output (I/O) Ports to select 8 or 16-bit mode. Timers are used for generating
accuracy actions, for example, creating specific time
The PIC microcontroller consists of 5-ports, namely Port-
delays between two operations.
A, Port-B, Port-C, Port-D and Port-E.
Interrupts
BUS
PIC microcontroller consists of 20 internal and 3-external
BUS is used to transfer and receive the data from one
interrupt sources which are allied with different peripherals
peripheral to another as shown in Fig 3. It is categorized
like USART, ADC, Timers, and so on.
into two types as data bus and address bus.The Data
Bus is used to transfer or receive the data.

The address bus is used to transfer the memory address


from the peripherals to the Central Processing
Unit(CPU).Input /Output pins are used to interface the
exterior peripherals; both the UART and USART are serial
communication protocols, used to interface with serial
devices such as GPS, GSM, IR, Bluetooth, etc.

Analog to Digital (A/D) Converter

A/D converter is shown in Fig 4 . It is used to convert


analog voltage values to digital voltage values. An A/D
module in PIC Microcontroller Controller comprises of 5-
inputs for 28-pin devices and 8-inputs for 40-pin devices.
The operation of the A/D converter is controlled by special
registers like ADCON0 & ADCON1. The upper and lower
bits of the converter are stored in registers like ADRESH
and ADRESL. In this process, it needs 5V of an analog
reference voltage.

Timer/Counters

PIC microcontroller has four-timer/counters wherein the


one 8-bit timer and the remaining timers have the choice

222 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 3.7.227
Electronic Mechanic - Microcontroller (8051)

Pin details of 8051, Internal data memory, SFR and on-chip features
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• pin diagram of 8051
• data memory and special function registers
• utilization of on - chip resources such as ADC.

The pin diagram of 8051: 8051 is a 40 pin There are 4 ports in 8051 IC (Port 0, Port 1, Port 2 and
microcontroller with I/O ports (Ref.Fig.1) Port 3) 32 pins are function as I/O port lines and 24 of
these lines are dual purpose (P0, P1, P3). Each can
operate as I/O, or as a control line or part of the address
or data bus. Eight lines in each port can be used in
interfacing to parallel devices like printers, DAC etc., or
each line the port can be used in interfacing to single bit
devices like LED’s, switches, transistors, solenoid,
motors and loudspeakers.
PORT 0 (32-39 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port ( P0.0-P0.7). For simple design it
is used as I/O ports. For larger design with external
memory, it is used as multiplexed address and data bus
(AD0-AD7)
PORT 1(1-8 Pins )
It is a dedicated I/O port ( P1.0-P1.7). It is used only to
inferface with the external devices.
PORT 2 (21-28 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port (P2.0-P2.7). It is used as I/O port
or higher byte of address bus (A8-A15).
PORT 3 (10-17 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port (P3.0- P3.7) It is used as I/O
port, or used to special features of 8051 (Table 1)

Table 1
BIT Name BIT Address Alternate function

P 3.0 RXD B0H Receive data for serial port

P 3.1 TXD B1H Transmit data for serial port

P 3.2 INT0 B2H External interrupt 0

P 3.3 INT1 B3H External interrupt 1

P 3.4 T0 B4H Timer /counter 0 external input

P 3.5 T1 B5H Timer/counter 1 external input

P 3.6 WR B6H External data memory write stroke

P 3.7 RD B7H External data memory read stroke

P 1.0 T2 90H Timer/ Counter 2 external input

P 1.1 T2EX 91 H Timer /Counter 2 capacture / reload

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RST (9 Pin No ) RAM
It is a master reset input pin. It should be kept high to i) Register Bank (00H-1FH) 4 banks (Bank 0,1,2,3 ) Each
start - up 8051. bank consisting of 8 register (R0-R7)
On- chip oscillator (18-19 Pins) ii) Bit addressable RAM (20 H-2FH)
It is a crystal oscillator with stabilizing capacitor connected iii) General purpose RAM (30 H-7FH)
to pin number 18 and 19. The normal crystal frequency
i. Register banks
is 12 MHz.
The bottom 32 locations of internal memory contain the
Power connection (20,40 Pins)
register banks. The 8051 instruction set supports of 8
The 8051 operates at +5V DC. Pin No. 40 is Vcc. Pin No. registers R0 through R7, and by default these registers
20 is Vss (GND) are addresses 00H-07H.
PSEN (Program store enable ) (29 Pin No) ii. Bit addressable RAM
PSEN is an output and control signal to enable the There are 128 general - purpose bit addressable locations
external memory. at byte addresses 20 H through 2FH (8 bits /byte X 16
bytes = 128 bits ). These addresses are accessed as
ALE (Address Latch Enable) (30 Pin No)
bytes or as bits, depending on the instruction.
ALE is an ouput signal to control demultiplexing the
For example, to set bit 67H, the following instruction could
address and data bus. ALE signal oscillates at 2 MHz.
be used.
EA (External access) (31 Pin No)
Set B 67H
It is an input signal is generally kept high ( +5VDC) or low
Note that “Bit address 67H” is the most significant bit at
(GND). If EA is high 8051 executes program from internal
“byte address 2CH”.
ROM. If EA is low it executes program from external
memory. iii. General purpose RAM
Internal data memory General purpose RAM consisting of address location(30H-
7FH) which is byte addressable available to programmer
128 Bytes of internal data memory is divided in to two
to store data /programs.
parts, Part I is RAM (00- 7FH) Part II is special function
registers (SFR) (80-FFH) Fig. 2

Fig 2

RAM Byte
address Bit address
Byte 7F
Bit address
address
38
27 3F 3E 3D 3C 3B 3A 39
Bit – addressable locations

26 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30

25 2F 2E 2D 2C 2B 2A 29 28 General
Purpose
24 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 RAM

23 IF IE ID IC IB IA 19 18

22 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

21 0F 0E 0D 0C 0B 0A 09 08

20 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 30
Bit-addressable locations

Summary 2F 7F 7E 7D 7C 7B 7A 79 78
1F
Bank 3
of the 8051 18
2E 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70
on-chip 2D 6F 6E 6D 6C 6B 6A 69 68
17
data Bank 2
10 2C 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60
memory
(RAM) 0F 2B 5F 5E 5D 5C 5B 5A 59 58
Bank 1
08 2A 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50
07 Default register 29 4F 4E 4D 4C 4B 4A 49 48
bank for R0-R7
00 28 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40

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21 SFRs are available, out of 21, 11 are bit program memory. 128 bytes of on - chip data memory, 32
addressable and 10 are byte addressable bi-directional and individually addressable I/O lines, two
16 bit timer / counters, one full duplex serial port and 6
P0 (80 H) : Port 0, bit addressable
source /5- vector interruput with two priority level on -
SP (81 H) : Stack pointer chip.
DPL (82 H) : Data pointer low byte Utilization of on - chip resources such as ADC
DPH (83 H) : Data pointer high byte The PCF 8591 is a single - chip, single - supply low -
PCON (87H) : Power control register power 8 bit CMOS data acquisition, device with four analog
inputs, one analog output and a serial I2C - bus interface.
TCON (88H) : Timer control register, bit addressable The functions of the device include analog input
TMOD (89H) : Timer mode register multiplexing, on- chip track and hold function, 8 bit analog-
to-digital conversion and an 8- bit digital - to analog
TL0 (8AH) : Timer 0 low byte conversion. The maximum conversion rate is given by the
TL1 (8BH) : Timer 1 low byte maximum speed of the I2C- bus.

TH0 (8CH) : Timer 0 high byte Features and benefits

TH1 (8DH) : Timer 1 high byte • Single power supply

P1 (90H) : Port 1, bit addressable • Operating supply voltage 2.5V to 6.0V

SCON (98H) : Serial port control register, bit addressable • Low standby current

SBUF (99H) : Serial data buffer, byte addressable • Serial input and output via I2C- bus

P2 (A0H) : Port 2, bit addressable • I2C address selection by 3 hardware address pins

IE (A8H) : Interrupt enable, bit addressable • Max sampling ratte given by I2C- bus speed

P3 (B0H) :Port 3, bit addressable • 4 Analog inputs configurable as single ended or


differential inputs
IP (B8H) : Interrupt priority, bit addressable
• Auto- incremented channel selection
PSW (D0H) : Program status word, bit addressable
• Analog voltage range from VSS to VDD
ACC (E0H) : Accumulator, bit addressable
• On - chip track and hold circuit
On-chip features of 8051 philips microcontroller
• 8-bit successive approximation A/D conversion
The derivative of 8051 philips microcontroller is most
powerful 8 bit microcontroller. It has got an 8 bit CPU • Multiplying DAC with one analog output.
optimized for control application. 64 K program memory Applications
space, 64K data memory space, 4K bytes of on - chip
Supply monitoring
Reference setting

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 3.7.227
Electronic Mechanic - Microcontroller - (8051)

Instruction set of 8051, arithmatic and logical function


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• write program for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing two 8 bit numbers
• write program for logical and, or function for two 8 bit numbers.

Assembly software for 8051 Examples


Here some simple assembly language programs for 8051 ADD A, #84 - Immediate addressing mode
microcontroller are given to understand the operation of SUBB A, R2 - Register addressing mode
different instructions and to understand the logic behind
particular program. ADD 73h, a - Direct addressing mode
MOVC A, @ A+DPTR ; A ← ext_code_mem (A+DPTR) ADDC @R1, 25h - Indirect addressing mode
MOVC A, @ A+PC ; A ← ext_code_mem (A+PC) iii. Logic instructions
8051 Instruction set The MCS - 51 family microncontrollers perform basic logic
operations on both bit and byte operands.
The 8051, 8-bit microcontroller family instruction set
includes 111 instructions, 49 of which are single - byte, Bit level (single operand) operations
45 two - byte and 17 three - byte instruction. The instruction In 8051 internal RAM and SFRs can be addressed by the
opcode format consists of a function mnemonic followed address of each bit within a byte. This bit addressing is
by a destination & source operand field. The instruction very convenient when we wish to alter a single bit of a
set is divided into four functional groups. byte. The ability to operate on individual bits creates the
• Data transfer need for the area of RAM that contains data addresses
that hold a single bit. The bit addresses are numbered
• Arithmetic from 00H to 7FH to represent the 128d bit addresses that
• Logic exist from byte addresses 20H to 2FH.
• Control transfer CLR sets a or any directly addressable bit to zero (0)
i. Data transfer instructions SETB sets and directly bit - addressable bit to one (1).
Data transfer operations are divided into three classes: CPL is used to complement the contents of the A register
without affecting any flag, or any directly addressable bit
• General - purpose location.
• Accumulator - specific RL, RLC, RR, RRC, SWAP are the five operations that
• Address - object can be performed on A. RL, rotate left, RR, rotate right,
RLC, rotate left through carry, RRC, rotate right through
None of these operations affects the PSW flag settings
carry and SWAP, rotate left four. Four RLC and RRC and
except a POP or MOV directly to the PSW.
CY flag become equal to the last bit rotated out. SWAP
Examples rotates A left four places to exchange bits 3 through 0
with bits 7 through 4.
MOV A, # 45 - Immediate addressing mode
Byte level (two operand) operations
MOV A, R1 - Register addressing mode
ANL performs bits wise logical AND of two operands (for
MOV 45h, A - Direct addressing mode
both bit and byte operands) and returns the result to the
MOV @ R1, 32 h - Indirect addressing mode location of the first operand.
ii. Arithmetic instructions ORL performs bit wise logical OR of two source operands
The MCS - 51 family microcontrollers have four basic (for both bit and byte operand) and returns the result to
mathematical operations. Only 8- bit operations using the location of the first operand.
unsigned arithmetic are supported directly. The overflow XRL performs logical exclusive OR two source operands
flag, however, permits the addition and subtraction (byte operands) and returns the result to the location of
operation to serve for both unsigned and signed binary the first operand.
integers. Arithmetic can also be performed directly on
Example
packed BCD representations.
ANL A, #45h - Immediate addressing mode

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ORL A, R2 - Register addressing mode @Ri - Indirect internal or external RAM location addressed
by register R0 or R1
XRL 52h, A - Direct addressing mode
#data - 8-bit constant included in instruction
ANL @R3, 65h - Indirect addressing mode
#data 16- 16- bit constant included as bytes 2 and 3 of
iv. Control transfer instructions
instruction.
There are three classes of control transfer operations:
bit - 128 software flags, any bit - addressable I/O pin,
unconditonal calls, returns, jumps, conditional jumps, and
control or status bit
interrupts. All control transfer operations, some upon a
specific condition, cause the program execution to A - accumulator
continue a non - sequential location in program memory.
Notes on program addressing modes
Example
addr16- Destination address for LCALL and LJMP may
CJNE A, #22H, loop - Immediate addressing mode be anywhere within the 64-kbyte program memory address
space.
DJNZ R1, loop - Register addressing mode
addr11- Destination address for ACALL and AJMP will
DJNZ 30H, loop - direct addressing mode
be within the same 2- kbyte page of program memory as
JMP @A + DPTR - Indirect addressing mode the first byte of the following instruction.
Notes on data addressing modes rel - SJMP and all conditional jumps include an 8-bit offset
byte. Range is +127/- 128 byts relative to the first byte
Rn- Working register R0-R7
of the following instruction.
Direct - 128 Internal RAM locations, any I/O port, control
or status register
Instruction set summary
Mnemonic

Arithmetic operations Description Byte Cycle

ADD A, Rn Add register to accumulator 1 1

ADD A, direct Add direct byte to accumulator 2 1

ADD A @Ri Add indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

ADD A, # data Add immediate data to accumulator 2 1

ADDC A, Rn Add register to accumulator with carry flag 1 1

ADDC A, direct Add direct byte to A with carry flag 2 1

ADDC A, @ Ri Add indirect RAM to A with carry flag 1 1

ADDC A, # data Add immediate data to A with carry flag 2 1

SUBB A, Rn Subtract register from A with borrow 1 1

SUBB A, direct Subtract direct byte from A with borrow 2 1

SUBB A, @Ri Subtract indirect RAM from A with borrow 1 1

SUBB A, #data Subtract immediate data from A with borrow 2 1

INC A Increment accumulator 1 1

INC Rn Increment register 1 1

INC direct Increment direct byte 2 1

DEC @Ri Increment indirect RAM 1 1

DEC A Decrement accumulator 1 1

DEC Rn Decrement register 1 1

DEC direct Decrement direct byte 2 1

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DEC @Ri Decrement indirect RAM 1 1

INC DPTR Increment data pointer 1 2

MUL AB Multiply A and B 1 4

DIV AB Divide A by B 1 4
DA A Decimal adjust accumulator 1 1

Logic Operations Description Byte Cycle

ANL A, Rn AND register to accumulator 1 1

ANL A, direct AND direct by the to accumulator 2 1

ANL A, @Ri AND indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

ANL A, @data AND immediate data to accumulator 2 1

ANL direct, A AND accumulator to direct byte 2 1

ANL direct, #data AND immediate data to direct byte 3 2

ORL A, Rn OR register to accumulator 1 1

ORL A, direct OR direct byte to accumulator 2 1

ORL A, @Ri OR indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

ORL A, #data OR immediate data to accumulator 2 1

ORL direct, A OR accumulator to direct byte 2 1

ORL direct, #data OR immediate data to direct byte 3 2

XRL A, Rn Exclusive OR register to accumulator 1 1

XRL A, direct Exclusive OR direct byte to accumulator 2 1

XRL A, @Ri Exclusive OR indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

XRL A, #data Exclusive OR immediate data to accumulator 2 1

XRL direct, A Exclusive OR accumulator to direct byte 2 1

XRL direct, #data Exclusive OR immediate data to direct byte 3 2

CLR A Clear accumulator 1 1

CPL A Complement accumulator 1 1

RL A Rotate accumulator left 1 1

RLC A Rotate accumulator left through carry 1 1

RR A Rotate accumulator right 1 1

RRC A Rotate accumulator right through carry 1 1

SWAP A Swap nibbles within the accumulator 1 1

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Data transfer Description Byte Cycle

MOV A, Rn Move register to accumulator 1 1

MOV A, direct Move direct byte to accumulator 2 1

MOV A, @Ri Move indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

MOV A, #data Move immediate data to accumulator 2 1

MOV Rn, A Move accumulator to register 1 1

MOV Rn, direct Move direct byte to register 2 2

MOV Rn, #data Move immediate data to register 2 1

MOV direct, A Move accumulator to direct byte 2 1

MOV direct, Rn Move register to direct byte 2 2

MOV direct, direct Move direct byte to direct byte 3 2

MOV direct, @Ri Move indirect RAM to direct byte 2 2

MOV direct, #data Move immediate data to direct byte 3 2

MOV @Ri, A Move accumulator to indirect RAM 1 1

MOV @Ri, direct Move direct byte to indirect RAM 2 2

MOV @Ri, #data Move immediate data to indirect RAM 2 1

MOV DPTR, #data 16 Load data pointer with a 16 - bit constant 3 2

MOV A, @A+DPTR Move code byte relative to DPTR to accumulator 1 2

MOVC A, @A, +PC Move code byte relative to PC to accumulator 1 2

MOVX A, @Ri Move external RAM ( 8-bit addr.) to A 1 2

MOVX A, @DPTR, A Move A to external RAM (16-bit addr.) 1 2

PUSH direct Push direct byte onto stack 2 2

XCH A, Rn Exchange register with accumulator 1 1

XCH A, direct Exchange direct byte with accumulator 2 1

XCH a, @Ri Exchange indirect RAM with accumulator 1 1

XCHD A, @Ri Exchange low- order nibble indir. RAM with A 1 1

Boolean variable manipulation

Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle

CLR C Clear carry flag 1 1

CLR bit Clear direct bit 2 1

SETB C Set carry flag 1 1

SETB bit Set direct bit 2 1

CPL C Complement carry flag 1 1

CPL bit Complement direct bit 2 1

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Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle

ANL C, bit AND direct bit to carry flag 2 2

ANL C, /bit AND complement of direct bit to carry 2 2

ORL C, bit OR direct bit to carry flag 2 2

ORL C, /bit OR complement of direct bit to carry 2 2

MOV c, bit Move direct bit to carry flag 2 1

MOV bit, C Move cary flag to direct bit 2 2

Program and Machine control

Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle

ACALL addr16 Absolute subroutine call 3 2

LCALL addr16 Long subroutine call 3 2

RET - Return from subroutine 1 2

RETI - Return from interrupt 1 2

AJMP addr16 Absolute jump 3 2

LJMP addr16 Long jump 3 2

SJMP rel Short jump (relative addr.) 3 2

JMP @A + DPTR Jump inidrect relative to the DPTR 1 2

JZ rel Jump if accumulator is zero 2 2

JNZ rel Jump if carry flag is not zero 2 2

JC rel Jump if carry flag is set 2 2

JNC rel Jump if carry flag is not set 2 2

JB bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set 3 2

JNB bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set 3 2

JBC bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set and clear bit 3 2

CJNE A, direct, rel Compare direct byte to A and jump if not equal 3 2

CJNE A, #data, rel Compare immediate to A and jump if not equal 3 2

CJNE Rn, #data, rel Compare immed. to reg. and jump if not equal 3 2

CJNE @Ri, #data, rel Compare immed. to ind. and jump if not equal 3 2

DJNZ Rn, rel Decrement register and jump if not zero 2 2

DJNZ direct, rel Decrement direct byte and jump if not zero 3 2

NOP No operation 1 1

Theory :
Program 1: 16 - bit addition
As there is only one 16- bit register in 8051, 16-bit addition
Objective
is performed by using ADDC instruction twice, i.e adding
To perform 16-bit additoin of the two 16-bit data using LSD first and MSD next.
immediate addressing and store the result in memory.

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Example MOVX @DPTR, A
The program is to add the 16-bit data 1234 with the data HLT : SJMP HLT
5678 and store the result at the locations 4150 and 4151
Object codes
using immediate addressing.
Memory Object Mnemonics
Result : (4150) = AC (LSB); (4151) = 68 (MSB)
addreses codes
DATAL1 = 34; DATAL2 = 78
4100 C3 CLR C
DATAM1 = 12; DATAM2 = 56
4101 74 MOV A,#DATAL1
DATAM1 - MSD OF DATA1,
DATAM2 - MSD OF DATA2, 4102 34

DATA1 - LSD OF DATA1, 4103 34 ADDC. A, #DATAL2


DATA2 - LSD OF DATA 2, 4104 78
Flowchart:
4105 90 MOV DPTR, #4150
Program for 16 bit addition (refer manual)
4106 41
16- Bit Addition
4107 50

4108 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
Start
4109 A3 INC DPTR

410A 74 MOV A, #DATAM1
(A) = MSB of I Operand
410B 12

410C 34 ADDC A, #DATAM1
ADD (A) with MSB of II operand
410D 56

410E F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
Store MSB of result in memory
410F 80

4110 FE HERE, SJMP HERE
(A) = LSB of II operand
Program 2 - 8 bit subtraction

Objective
ADD (A) with LSB of II operand
To perform subtraction of two 8-bit data using immediate
↓ addressing and store the result in memory.

Store LSB of result in memory Theory


Using the accumulator, subtraction is performed and the

result is stored. Immediate addressing is employed. The
Stop SUBB instruction writes the result in the accumulator.
Example
Program :
Sample data : DATA1 = 20
CLR C
DATA 2 = 10
MOV A, #DATAL1
Result : (4500) = 10
ADDC A, #DATAL2
MOV DPTR, # 4150
MOVX @DPTR, A
INC DPTR
MOV A, #DATAM1
ADDC A, #DATAM2

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Flow chart Exercises
8 - bit subtraction i. Subtract the contents of location 4500 from the contents
of location 4501 and store the result at location 4600.

Sample data : (4500) = 56
Start
(4501) = 6A

Result : (4600) = 14
Clear carry flag
ii. Perform the same subtraction using two’s complement

addition.
Get I operand in A
Program 3 - 8 bit multiplication

Objective
Subtract II Operand from A
To obtain the product of two 8-bit data using immediate
↓ addressing and store the result in memory.
Sotre result in memory Theory
↓ The 8051 has a “MUL” instruction unlike many other 8-bit
Stop processors. MUL instruction multiplies the unsigned eight
- bit integers in A and B. The low - order byte of the product
CLR C is left in A and the high- order byte in B. If the product is >
MOV A, #DATA1 255, the overflow flag is set. Otherwise it is cleared. The
carry flag is always cleared.
SUBB A, #DATA2
Example
MOV DPTR, #4500
Let us multiply the contents of registers A and B and
MOVX @DPTR, A store the 16-bit result at locations 4500 and 4501.
Here : SJMP Here Sample data : DATA 1= 0A
Object codes DATA2 = 88
Memory Object Mnemonics (4500) = 50 (LSB)
addreses codes
(4501) = 05 (MSB)
4100 C3 CLR C 8-bit Multiplication
4101 74 MOV A,#DATAL1 Start
4102 20 ↓

4103 94 SUBB A, #DATAL2 Get multiplier in A



4104 10
Get Multiplicand in B
4105 90 MOV DPTR, #4500

4106 45
Multiply A with B
4107 00 ↓
4108 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A Store result in memory

4109 80 Here: SJMP here ↓


Stop
410A FE
Program
Procedure
MOV A, #DATA1
i Enter the op codes and data in the trainer MOV B, #DATA2
MUL AB
ii Execute the program and verify for results
MOV DPTR, #4500
iii Change data and see that correct results are obtained.
MOVX @DPTR, A

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INC DPTR (4551) = 99 - First number
MOV A, B (4552) = 99
MOVX @DPTR, A (4553) = 99
Here : SJMP Here (4554) = 99
Object codes (4561) = 99 - Second number
Memory Object Mnemonics (4562) = 99
address codes
(4563) = 99
4100 74 MOV A,#DATAL1
(4564) = 99
4101 0A
Result : (4570) = 98
4102 75 MOV A,#DATAL2 (4571) = 99
4103 F0 (4572) = 99

4104 88 (4573) = 99
(4574) = 01
4105 A4 MUL AB
Program 4 - 8 bit division
4106 90 MOV DPTR, # 4500
Objective
4107 45
To divide an 8-bit number by another 8-bit number and
4108 00 store the quotient and remainder in memory.
Theory
4109 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
The 8051 has a “DIV” instruction unlike many other 8-bit
410A A3 INC DPTR processors. DIV instruction divides the unsigned eight -
410B E5 MOV A, B bit integer in A by unsigned 8-bit integer in register B. The
accumulator receives the integer part of the quotient and
410C F0 register B receives the integer remainder. The carry and
flags will be cleared.
410D F0 MOVX, @DPTR, A
Example
410E 80 Here : SJMP here
Let the divisor and dividend be in registers B and A
410F FE respectively.
Data : DATA 1 = 65 - Dividend
Procedure
DATA2 = 08 - Divisor
i. Enter the above opcode from 4100
Result : (4500) = 0C - Quotient
ii. Execute the program; see that the result is stored
correctly. (4501) = 05= Remainder
iii. Change data and check if the results are correct each Flow Chart
time.
8 bit by 8- bit division
Exercises
Start
i. Obtain the square of a number stored in memory

Sample : (4500) = 0A
Geet dividend in A
Result : (4600) = 64

ii. Obtain the fourth power of 08 using MUL instruction
Get divisor in B
and store the result in memory.

Result : (4500) = 10 (MSB)
Divide A by B
(4501) = 00 (LSB)

iii. Do a decimal multi - byte addition in 32-bit and store
the result in memory. Store LSB & MSB of the result in memory
Data : (4500) = 04 - Count ↓
Stop
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Program Exercise
MOV A, #DATA1 ; Load Acc. with dividend i) Obtain the one’s and two’s complement of the data 77
MOV B # DATA2 ; Load Reg. B with divisor and store it in memory.
DIV AB Result : One’s complement (4500) = 88
MOV DPTR, # 4500 Two’s complement (4501) = 89
MOVX @DPTR, A ; Store quotient at 4500 Program 5
INC DPTR Objective
MOV A, B ; Store remainder at 4501
Perform OR function of an 8 bit number
MOVX @DPTR, A
Theory
HLT : SJMP HLT
Setting bits can be done by ORing that particular bit
Object codes
by1. The following program explains how to set a particualr
Memory Object Mnemonics bit in an 8-bit number by using the ORL instruction of
address codes 8051
Example
4100 74 MOV A,#DATAL1
In the following program, the contents of the accumulator
4101 65
is ORed with an immediate data accordingly to set the
4102 75 MOV B,#DATAL2 required bits.

4103 F0 Sample data : DATA1 = 2F


DATA2 = 45
4104 08
Result : (4500) = 6F
4105 84 DIV AB
Program
4106 90 MOV DPTR, # 4500 MOV A, # DATA 1
4107 45 ORL A, # DATA 2
MOV DPTR, # 4500
4108 00
MOVX @DPTR, A
4109 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A Here : SJMP Here
410A A3 INC DPTR Object codes

410B E5 MOV A, B Memory Object Mnemonics


address codes
410C F0
4100 74 MOV A,#DATA1
410D F0 MOVX, @DPTR, A
4101 2F
410E 80 Here : SJMP here
4102 44 ORL A,#DATA 2
410F 0E
4103 45
4110 41
4104 90 MOV DPTR, #4500
Procedure
4105 45
i. Enter the opcodes and the data in the trainer
4106 00
ii. Execute the program and check for results
4107 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
iii. Change data and check for the corresponding results.
4108 80 Here; SJMP here
Discussion
One’s complement is nothing but the logical operation Procedure
‘NOT’ In this example, the CPL instruction has been i. Enter the opcodes and execute the program
employed . Since the two’s complement of a number is
its one’s complement +1, by INC instruction has been ii. Check whether the corresponding bits are set
employed. It can also be performed by adding 1 to one’s accordingly.
complement number by using ADD instruction.

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Discussion ANL A, # DATA 2
The ORL instruction can be used to set a particular bit in MOV DPTR, # 4500
the command or control registers of peripherals interfaced
MOVX @DPTR, A
with the processor and can also be used to determine if
the status read from peripherals is as expected. Here : SJMP Here
Exercises Object codes
i. Set alternate bits in an 8-bit number, starting from bit Memory Object Mnemnics
0 and store the result at location 4200 in memory. address codes
ii. Store successive powers of 2 from 0 to 7 in consecutive 4100 74 MOV A,#DATA1
memory locations starting from 4300. 4101 87
Result : (4300) = 01
4102 54 ANL A, #DATA 2
(4301) = 02
4103 7E
(4302) = 04
(4303) = 08 4104 90 MOV DPTR, #4500

(4304) = 10 4105 45
(4305) = 20 4106 00
(4306) = 40 4107 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
(4307) = 80
4108 80 Here; SJMP here
Program 6
4109 08
Objective
To perform AND function of an 8 bit number. 410A 41
Theory Procedure
The ANL instruction of 8051 can be used to reset bits. i. Enter the opcodes from 4100 and execute the program.
AND ing with zero prodcues a cleared bit. ANDing with
one does not change the status of the bit. ii. Check whether the result is 06 at 4500

Example Discussion

To mask bits 0 and 7, the 8- bit data has to be ANDed The ANL instruction can be used to check whether a
with 7E, which is 01111110 in binary. particular status is reached in the peripheral device just
like the ORL instruction. The other logical instruction
Sample data : DATA 1 = 87 available in the instruction set of 8051 is the XRL
DATA 2 = 7E (Exclusive -OR). The CLR (clear operand) instruction is
also a logical instruction which can be used to initialize
Result : (4500) = 06 registers in counter operations.
Program
MOV A, #DATA 1

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 3.7.227
Electronic Mechanic - Microcontroller - (8051)

Timer on the microcontroller kit


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• Explain the function of timer is 8051
• design a delay program using timer in microcontroller kit.

The 8051 microcontroller has two independent 16 bit up Example


counting timers named timer 0 and timer 1 and this article Let the required delay be 1000 μS =(ie; 1mS)
is about generating time delays using the 8051 timers.
Generating delay using pure software loops have been That means X = 1000
already discussed here but such delays are poor in 65536- X = 65536 - 1000 = 64536
accuracy and cannot be used in sensitive applications.
Delay usng timer is the most accurate and surely the 645536 is considered in decimal and converting it to
best method. hexadecimal gives FC18
A timer can be generalized as a multi - bit counter which That menas THTL = FC18
increments / decrements itself on receiving a clock signal Therefore TH=FC and TL = 18
and produces an interrupt signal up on roll over. When
the counter is running on the processor’s clock, it is called Program for generating 1mS delay using 8051 timer
a “Timer”, which counts a predefiend number of processor The program shown below can be used for generating
clock pulses and generates a programmable delay. When 1mS delay and it is written as a subroutine so that you
the counter is running on an external clock source (may can call it anywhere in the program. Also you can put this
be periodic or aperiodic external signal) it is called a in a loop for creating longer time delays (multiples of
“counter” itself and it can be used for counting external 1ms). Here timer 0 of 8051 is used and it is operating in
events. MODE1 (16 bit timer).
In 8051, the oscillator output is divided by 12 using a Delay : MOV TMOD< #0000001B/ Sets timer 0 to MODE1
divide by 12 network and then fed to the timer as the (16 bit timer). Timer 1 is not used
clock signal. That means for an 8051 running at 12 MHz,
the timer clock input will be 1 MHz. That means the timer MOV TH0, #0FCH // TH0 register with FCH
advances once in every 1μS and the maximum time delay MOV TL0, #018H // Loads TL0 register with 18H
possible using a single 8051 timer is (216) x (1μS) =
65536μS. Delays longer than this can be implemented SETB TR0 // Starts the timer 0
by writing up a basic delay program using timer and then Here : JNB TF0, Here// Loops here until TF is set (ie ;
looping it for a required number of time. We will see all until rool over)
these in detail in next following sections.
CLR TR0 // Stops timer 0
Designing a delay program using 8051 timers
CLR TF0 // Clear TF0 flag
While designing delay programs in 8051, calculating the
RET
initial value that has to be loaded in to TH and TL registers
forms a very important thing. Let us see how it is done. The above delay routine can be looped twice in order to
get a 2mS delay and it is shown in the program below.
Assume the processor is clocked by a 12MHz crystal.
Main : MOV R6, #2D
That means, the timer clock input will be 12MHz/12=1MHz
LOOP : ACALL DELAY
That means, the time taken for the timer to make one
increment = 1/1MHz= 1μs. DJNZ R6, LOOP
For a time delay of “X” μS the timer has to make “X” SJMP Main
increments.
Delay : MOV TMOD, #00000001B
216= 65536 is the maximim number of counts possible for
MOV TH0, #0FCH
a 16 bit timers.
MOV TL0, #018H
Let TH be the value that has to be loaded to TH registed
and TL be the value that has to be loaded to TL register. SETB TR0
Then, THTL = Hexadecimal equivalent of (65536-X) where Here : JNB TF0, here
(65536-X) is considered in decimal.
CLR TR0

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CLR TF0 • We can configure the desired timer to create an
interrupt when the TF flag is set.
RET
• IF interrupt is not used, then we have to check the
Few points to remember while using timers
timer flag (TF) is set using some conditional branching
• Once timer flag (TF) is set,the programmer must clear instruction.
it before it can be set agian
• Maximum delay possible using a single 8051 timer is
• The timer does not stop after the timer flag is set. The 65536μS and minimum is 1 μS provided that you are
programmer must clear the TR bit in order to stop the using a 12MHz crystal for clocking the microcontroller.
timer.
• Once the timer overflows, the programmer must reload
the initial start values to the TH and TL registers to
begin counting up from.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 3.7.227
Electronic Mechanic - Microcontroller - (8051)

Application of 8051 (motor, traffic control)


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the application of 8051 microcontroller
• design the circuit to control of DC motor using 8051.

Application of 8051 microcontroller


A microcontroller is a versatile chip which can be used in The DC motor has rotor, stator, field magnet brushes,
various fields starting from simple consumer electronics shaft, commutator etc., The DC motor required large
to high end medical, automobile and defence application currents of the order of 400 mA for its rotation. But this
also. So now a day the microcontrollers are found in every much amount of current cannot be generated by the ports
walk of life. of the microcontroller. So if it is direclty connect the DC
motor to the ports of the conroller it may draw high current
Interfacing DC motor to 8051 using L293D
for its operation from the port and hence the
A DC motor runs in response to the applied DC current. It microcontroller may be damaged. So we use a driving
prodcues torque by using both electric and magnetic field. circuit along with opto isolator provides an additional
protection to the microcontroller from large currents.
(fig )1

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Assembly lanuage program to control DC motor using 8051
ORG 0000H Remarks
Main Set B P1.2
MOV P1, # 00000001B Motor runs in clockwise
ACALL Delay
MOV P1, #00000010B Motor runs in anticlockwise
ACALL Delay
SJMP Main Motor rotates continuously in clockwise for some time
and anticlockwise for some time
Delay MOV R4, # FFH Load R4 register with FF
MOV R3, #FFH Load R3 register with FF
LOOP1 DJNZ R3, LOOP1 Decrement R3 until it is zero
LOOP2 DJNZ R4, LOOP2 Decrement R4 until it is zero
RET Return to the main program

Traffic light control


Usually, the red light contains some orange in its hue,
Traffic lights, which may also be known as stop lights, and the green light contains some blue, for the benefit of
traffic lamps, traffic signals, signal lights, robots or people with red - green color blindness, and “green” lights
semaphore, are signaling devices positioned at road in many areas are in fact blue lenses on a yellow light
intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations ( which together appear green)
to control competing flows of traffic.
PIN assignment with 8051
Interfacing traffic light with 8051
LAN direction 8051 lines Modules
The traffic light controller section consists of 12 Nos. point
LEDS are arranged by 4 lanes in PS/8051 trainer kit. South P1.0 Go
Each lane has go (green), listen (yellow) and stop (red) P1.1 Listen
LED is being placed (Refer fig.2). P1.2 Stop
About the colors of traffic light control
East P1.3 Go
Traffic lights alternate the right of way of road users by P1.4 Listen
displaying lgihts of a standard color (red, yellow/amber, P1.5 Stop
and green), using a universal color code ( and a precise
sequence to enable comprehension by those who are North P1.6 Go
color blind). In the typical sequence of colored lights. P1.7 Listen
P3.0 Stop
Illumination of the green light allows traffic to proceed in
the direction denoted. West P3.1 Go
P3.2 Listen
Illumination of the yellow/ amber light denoting, if safe to
P3.3 Stop
do so, prepare to stop short of the intersection, and
Illumination of the red signal prohibits any traffic from PWR 13-16 NC
proceeding. 17,19 Vcc
18, 20 GND

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
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Assembly program to interface traffic light
Opcode Mnemonics
Title :
Program to inferface
Traffic light with 8051
CNTL PORT : 4003
PORT A : 4000
PORT B : 4001

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
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Memory Opcode Mnemonics Memory Opcode Mnemonics
Address Address

8500 90 85 45 Start : MOV DPTR, # TRE 8526 90 40 01 MOV DPTR, #PORT B

8503 7A 0C MOV R2, #0C 8529 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A

8505 E0 MOVX @DPTR, A 852A 12 85 36 LCALL DELAY

8506 C0 83 PUSH DPH 852D D0 82 POP DPL

8508 C0 83 PUSH DPL 852F D083 POP DPH

850A 90 40 03 MOV DPTR, #CNTL PORT 8531 A3 INC DPTR

850D F0 MOVX @DPTR, A 8532 DA DF DJNZ R2, LOOP 1

850E D0 82 POP DPL 8534 80 CA SJMP START

8510 D0 82 POP DPL 8536 7F 10 DELAY: MOV


R7, # 10H
8512 A3 INC DPTR
8538 7D FF LOOP P3, MOV
8513 E0 LOOP 1: MOVX @DPTR, A R6, # 0FFH
8514 C0 83 PUSH DPH 853C 00 LOOP2 : NOP
8516 C0 82 PUSH DPL 853D 00 NOP
8518 90 40 00 MOV DPTR, # PORTA 853E DE FC DJNZ R6, LOOP2
851B F0 MOVX @ DPTR, A 8540 DD F8 DJNZ R5, LOOP3
851C D0 82 POP DPL 8542 DF F4 DJNZ R7, LOOP4
851E D0 83 POP DPH 8544 22 RET
8520 A3 INC DPTR TRE : 8545
8521 E0 MOVX @DPTR, A 8545 21H, 09H, 10H, 00H (South way)
8522 C0 83 PUSH DPH 8549 0CH, 09H, 80J, 00H (East way)

8524 C0 82 PUSH DPL 854D 64H, 08H, 00H, 04H (North way)
8551 24H, 03H, 02H, 00H (West way)
8555 End
Note : The schematics sections given is, traffic light
connected to port 1 and port 3 the sample program is
given based on 8255

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 3.8.332
Electronic Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Different types of Level Sensors and their workings


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define the transducers, sensors and basics of passive & active transducers
• explain thermistor, its types and construction details
• describe the working principle, features, applications, advantage & disadvantages.

Transducers and sensors physical change in some characteristic that changes in


response to some excitation, for example heat or force is
Transducer converted into an electrical signal.
A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical There are different types of Sensors and Transducers,
quantity into its corresponding electrical signal or vice both analogue & digital and input & output available to
versa. In most of the electrical systems, the input signal choose from. The type of input or output transducer being
will not be an electrical signal, but a non-electrical signal. used, really depends upon the type of signal or process
This will have to be converted into its corresponding being "Sensed" or "Controlled" but we can define a sensor
electrical signal if its value is to be measured using and transducers as devices that converts one physical
electrical methods. quantity into another.
Sensor: Devices which perform an "Input" function are Simple Input/Output System using Sound
commonly called Sensors because they "sense" a Transducers as shown in fig. 1

There are different types of sensors and transducers use really depends upon the quantity being measured or
available in the market, and the choice of which one to controlled. The more common types given in the table 1.

Table 1
Physical quantity being Input Device (Sensor) Output Device (Actuator)
measured by the sensor

Light Level Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) Lights & Lamps


Photodiode, Photo-transistor LED's & Displays
Solar Cell Fibre Optics
Temperature Thermocouple, Thermistor, Heater, Fan
Thermostat, Resistive Temperature
Detectors
Force/Pressure Strain Gauge, Pressure Switch Lifts & Jacks
Load Cells Electromagnet, Vibration
Position Potentiometer, Encoders Motor, Solenoid
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch Panel Meters
LVDT
Speed Tacho-generator, Reflective/Slotted AC and DC Motors
Opto-coupler, Doppler Effect Sensors Stepper Motor, Brake
Sound Carbon Microphone, Piezo-electric Bell
Crystal Buzzer, Loudspeaker
242

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Analogue and Digital Sensors Digital Sensors
Analogue Sensors As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete
digital output signals or voltages that are a digital
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or
representation of the quantity being measured. Digital
voltage which is generally proportional to the quantity being
sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a
measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature,
logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then
Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all
that a digital signal only produces discrete (non-
analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in
continuous) values which may be outputted as a single
nature. For example, the temperature of a liquid can be
"bit", (serial transmission) or by combining the bits to
measured using a thermometer or thermocouple which
produce a single "byte" output (parallel transmission).
continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down. as shown in fig. 2 Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal
Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal In our simple example as shown fig.3 the speed of the
rotating shaft is measured by using a digital LED/Opto-
detector sensor. The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft
(for example, from a motor or robot wheels), has a number
of transparent slots within its design, As the disc rotates
with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor
in turn producing an output pulse representing a logic "1"
or logic "0" level.

Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that


are changing smoothly and continuously over time. These
signals tend to be very small in value from a few mico-
volts (uV) to several milli-volts (mV), so some form of
amplification is required. Then circuits which measure
analogue signals usually have a slow response and/or
low accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily
converted into digital type signals for use in micro-
controller systems by the use of analogue-to-digital
converters (ADCs).

Basics of passive and active transducers


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define the classification of the transducers
• explain the various type of passive and active transducers
• describe the procedure for selection of transducers.

A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical


quantity into its corresponding electrical signal. In most
of the electrical systems, the input signal will not be an
electrical signal, but a non-electrical signal. This will have
to be converted into its corresponding electrical signal if
its value is to be measured using electrical methods.
A transducer will have basically two main components.
They are as shown in fig. 1
Sensing Element : The physical quantity or its rate of
change is sensed and responded to by this part of the Transduction Element : The output of the sensing
transistor. element is passed on to the transduction element. This
element is responsible for converting the non-electrical
signal into its proportional electrical signal.

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 243

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There may be cases when the transduction element They are commonly used in applications like Tank level
performs the action of both transduction and sensing. monitoring in chemical, water treatment, food, battery
industries and involving high pressure and temperature
Diffrent Types of Level Sensors and their Workings
A level sensor is one kind of device used to determine the Optical Level Sensors
liquid level that flows in an open system or closed system
Optical level sensors are used to detect liquid including
The level measurements can be available in two types
poised materials, interface between two immiscible liquids
namely continous measurements and point level
and the occurrence of sediments. They are working based
measurements. The continuous level sensor is used to
on the changes of transmission in infrared light emitted
measure the levels to a precise limit whereas point level
from an IR LED. The interference from the produced light
sensors used to determine the level of liquid wheather
can be reduced by using a high energy IR diode and pulse
that is high or low.
modulation methods.
Fig 4
Continuous optical level sensors, on the other hand, use
the highly internse laser light that can infuse dusty
enviroments and notice liquid substances. They are
commonly used in applications like leak detection and
tank level measurement

RTD Configuration
An RTD can be connected in a two, three or four-wire
configuration. The two-wire configuration is the simplest
and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is
LEVEL SENSORS
connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit
and the two output voltage is measured. The disadvntage
Generally these sensors are connected to an output unit
of this circuit is that the two connecting lead wire
for sending out the results to a monitoring system The
present technologies use wireless transmission of
information to the monitoring system, which is very useful
in imprtant and hazardous locations that cannot be simply
accessed by common workers.

Classification of Level sensors


Ultrasonic Level sensors
Level sensors are classified according to their working
principle and their applications.
Ultrasonic level sensors are used to detect the levels of
sticky liquid substances and bulkiness materials as well.
They are worked by producing audio waves at the range resistances add directly two RTD’s resistance and error
of frequency from 20 to 200 kHz. These waves are then is incurred.
replicated back to a transducer The ultrasonic level
sensors are used to control the liquid level, fine-grained 2-Wire Configuration
solids within mining and powders, food and beverage
industries and chemical processing The four-wire configuration consists of two current leads
and two potential leads that measure the voltage drop
Capacitance Level Sensors across the RTD. The two potential leads are high resistance
to negate the effect of the voltage drop due to current
These sensors are used to detect the liquid levels like flowing during the measurement.
slurries and aqueous liquids They are operated by using
a probe for checking level changes. These level changes This configuration is ideal for canceling the lead wire
are transformed into analong signals. The probes are resistance in the circuit as well as eliminating the effects
generally made of conducting wire by PTFE insulation of different lead resistance, Which was possible problem
But stainless steel probes are extermely responce and with the three-wire configuration. The four-wire configuration
hence they are appropriate for measuring non-conductive is commonly used when a highly accurate measurement
subsance granular or materials with low dielectric is requried for the application
constant. These types of sensors are very simple to use
and clean as they do not have any moving components.

244 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232

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Which accounts for its reliability and wide spread use.The
Float Switch float value is shown in Fig 9
Liquid Level sensors or float switches are used to monitor It consists of a value connected to a hollowball sealed
liquid levels in tanks or other vessels and are designed to float rises with it: once it rises to a pre-set level, the
react according to react according to predefined high or
low levels. They are connected to the pump motor in series
with the supply.
The folat switch is shown in Fig 8. It consists of a micro
switch attached to a assembly with a hollow cylinderical
sealed float hinged to move up and down
The micro switch is N/C type and connects
power supply to motor for pumping water into
tank.

When the water raises the float raises and the attached,
lever pushes the knob of micro switch open/disconnect
the electrical circuit. Thus the pump motor is switched
OFF.
Whenever the water level decreases the float comes down, mechanism forces the lever to close the valve and shut
there by the micro switch is automatically connect power off the water flow.

Classification of transducers (Passive & Active)


Passive transducers
Passive transducer require an external power supply to
operate, called an excitation signal which is used by the
sensor to produce the output signal.
Active transducers
Active transducers are self-generating devices because
their own properties change in response to an external
effect.
1. Passive Type Transducers
a) Resistance Variation Type
Resistance Strain Gauge - The change in value of
resistance of metal semi-conductor due to elongation or
to the motor. compression is known by the measurement of torque,
displacement or force.
Float Value
Resistance Thermometer / Resistance Temperature
A float valve is used to shut off the flow of liquids, normally Detector (RTD) - The change in resistance of metal wire
water, at a predetermined level. when adjusted and working due to the change in temperature known by the
properly a float value is very accurate and extremely measurement of temperature
reliable. Float values are found in nearly every over head
Resistance Hygrometer - The change in the resistance
water tank at home as well as in many industrial
of conductive strip due to the change of moisture content
applications. The concepts of the float value is very simple,
is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
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Hot Wire Meter - The change in resistance of a heating the ionisation of gas caused by radio-active radiation is
element due to convection cooling of a flow of gas is known known by its corresponding radiation value.
by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.
2. Active Type
Photoconductive Cell - The change in resistance of a
Photo-voltaic Cell - The voltage change that occurs
cell due to a corresponding change in light flux is known
across the p-n junction due to light radiation is known by
by its corresponding light intensity.
its corresponding solar cell value or light intensity.
Thermistor - The change in resistance of a semi-
Thermocouple - The voltage change developed across
conductor that has a negative co-efficient of resistance is
a junction of two dissimilar metals is known by its
known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow.
Potentiometer Type - The change in resistance of a
Piezoelectric Type - When an external force is applied
potentiometer reading due to the movement of the slider
on to a quartz crystal, there will be a change in the voltage
as a part of an external force applied is known by its
generated across the surface. This change is measured
corresponding pressure or displacement.
by its corresponding value of sound or vibration.
b) Capacitance Variation Type
Moving Coil Type - The change in voltage generated in a
Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge - The change magnetic field can be measured using its corresponding
in capacitance due to the change of distance between value of vibration or velocity.
two parallel plates caused by an external force is known
Selection of Transducer
by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Selection of a transducer is one of the most important
Dielectric Gauge - The change in capacitance due to a
factors which help in obtaining accurate results. Some of
change in the dielectric is known by its corresponding
the main parameters are given below.
liquid level or thickness.
• Selection depends on the physical quantity to be
Capacitor Microphone - The change in capacitance due
measured.
to the variation in sound pressure on a movable diaphragm
is known by its corresponding sound. • Depends on the best transducer principle for the given
physical input
c) Inductance Variation Type
• Depends on the order of accuracy to be obtained
Eddy Current Transducer - The change in inductance
of a coil due to the proximity of an eddy current plate is • Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.
known by its corresponding displacement or thickness.
Characteristic of transducer
Variable Reluctance Type - The variation in reluctance
of a magnetic circuit that occurs due to the change in
position of the iron core or coil is known by its
corresponding displacement or pressure.
Proximity Inductance Type - The inductance change
of an alternating current excited coil due to the change in
the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding
pressure or displacement.
Differential Transformer - The change in differential
voltage of 2 secondary windings of a transformer because
of the change in position of the magnetic core is known
by its corresponding force, pressure or displacement.
Magnetostrictive Transducer - The change in magnetic
properties due to change in pressure and stress is known
by its corresponding sound value, pressure or force.
d) Voltage and Current Type
Photo-emissive Cell - Electron emission due to light
incidence on photo-emissive surface is known by its
corresponding light flux value.
Hall Effect - The voltage generated due to magnetic flux
across a semi-conductor plate with a movement of current
through it is known by its corresponding value of magnetic
flux or current.
Ionisation Chamber - The electron flow variation due to

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All transducers, irrespective of their measurement requirements, exhibit the same characteristics such as range, span,
etc.

Thermistors
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define thermistor and its types
• define construction and working principle, salient
features of the thermistor
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):
• describe the application, advantages &
disadvantages.
Thermistor:
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor
whose resistance is dependent on temperature. The term
is a combination of "thermal" and "resistor". It is made of
metallic oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical
shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable
material such as epoxy or glass.
A thermistor is a temperature sensor constructed of
semiconductor material that exhibits a large modification
in resistance in proportion to a tiny low modification in
temperature. Thermistor is inexpensive, rugged, and
reliable and responds quickly. Because of these qualities
thermistors are used to measure simple temperature
measurements, but not for high temperatures. Thermistor
is easy to use, cheap, and durable and responds Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor, when
predictably to a change in temperature. Thermistors are the temperature increases, resistance decreases.
mostly used in digital thermometers and home appliances Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance
such as refrigerator, ovens, and so on. Stability, sensitivity increases as shown in the fig 1. This type of thermistor is
and time constant are the final properties of thermistor used the most.
that create these thermistors sturdy, portable, cost- Positive Temperature coefficient (PTC):
efficient, sensitive and best to measure single-point
temperature. Thermistors are available in different shapes
like rod, disc, bead, washer, etc. This article gives an
overview of thermistor working principle and applications.
Types of thermistor:
There are a number of ways in which thermistors can be
categorised into the different thermistor types. The first is
dependent upon the way they react to heat. Some
increase their resistance with increasing temperature,
while others exhibit a fall in resistance.
It is possible to use a very simplified equation for the
curve of a thermistor to expand this idea:
Δ R = k x ΔT
Where
Δ R = change in resistance. A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When
temperature increases, the resistance increases, and
Δ T = change in temperature.
when temperature decreases, resistance decreases as
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance. shown in the fig 2.This type of thermistor is generally
used as a fuse.
In most cases the relationship between temperature and
resistance is non-linear, but over small changes a linear Construction
relationship can be assumed. The device is manufactured from materials like sintered
There are two types of thermistor mixtures of oxides of metals such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, and iron. Their resistances range from 0.4 ohms
1 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
to 75 mega-ohms and they may be fabricated in wide
2 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) variety of shapes and sizes. Smaller thermistors are in
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the form of beads of diameter from 0.15 millimeters to 1.5 1 Temperature control of air conditioner and refrigerator.
millimeters. Such a bead may be sealed in the tip of
2 Room temperature monitoring
solid glass rod to form probe which is easier to mount
3 Surge Suppression in power lines in SMPS.
4 This device is used to measure the temperature of
incubators.
5 NTC thermistors are used to measure and monitor
batteries while they are kept for charging.
6 They are used to know the temperature of oil and
coolant used inside automotive engines.
Advantages of Thermistor
1 When the resistors are connected in the electrical
than bead. Alternatively thermistor may be in the form of circuit, heat is dissipated in the circuit due to flow of
disks and washers made by pressing thermistor material current. This heat tends to increase the temperature
under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes with of the resistor due to which their resistance changes.
diameter from 3 millimeters to 25 millimeters. Washers For the thermistor the definite value of the resistance
may be stacked and placed in series or parallel to increase is reached at the given ambient conditions due to which
power disciplining capability. As shown in fig. 3. the effect of this heat is reduced.
Working Principle 2 In certain cases even the ambient conditions keep on
changing, this is compensated by the negative
temperature characteristics of the thermistor. This is
quite convenient against the materials that have positive
resistance characteristics for the temperature.
3 The thermistors are used not only for the measurement
of temperature for the measurement of power etc.
4 They are also used as the controls, overload protectors,
giving warnings etc.
5 The size of the thermistors is very small and they are
very low in cost. However, since their size is small
A thermistor is an inexpensive and easily obtainable they have to be operated at lower current levels.
temperature sensitive resistor, thermistor working principle Disadvantages
is, its resistance is depending upon temperature. When
temperature changes, the resistance of the thermistor 1 The high resistivity of thermistors is a significant
changes in a predictable way, the benefits of using a advantage, since it leads to very small errors, which
thermistor are accuracy and stability, There are two types could be even hundred time smaller compared to
of termistors available as NTC and PTC, their symbols measurement errors of RTDs.
are shown in Fig 4. 2 In general, thermistors are more fragile than RTDs and
Salient features of thermistor thermocouples and therefore require delicate handling
and mounting. Another drawback of them is that
1 Thermistors are compact, rugged and inexpensive. because they consist of semiconductors, they are
2 It exhibit high stability. more prone to permanent de-calibration (drifting out of
3 The response time of thermistor can vary from a their specified tolerance). Contrary to applicability of
fraction of second to minutes, depending on the RTDs and thermocouples, use of thermistors is
characteristics and contraction of the thermistor. generally limited to a temperature range of few hundred
degrees Celsius.
4 The response time varies inversely with the dissipation
factor. 3 Small mass of thermistors also makes them
susceptible to self-heating errors.
5 The dissipation factor varies with the degree of thermal
isolation of the thermistor. The Theromostat
6 The upper temperature limits is depending on physical The thermostat is a contant type electro-mechanical
changes in the material and the contact materials temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of
7 A low current must be allowed through the thermistor two diffrent metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or
to avoid self heating. aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-
metalllic strip. The different linear expansion rates of the
Application two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending
movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
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The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical use do have temperature adjustment screws that allow for
switch or as a mechanical way of operating an electrical a more precise desired temperature set-point and hysteresis
switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to level to be pre-set.
control hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot Temperature sensor ICs
water storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling
systems. The Bi-metallic Thermostat in shown in Fig 5 A silicon temperature sensor is an integrated circuit,
The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals include extensive signal processing circuitry within the
stuck together back to back. When it is at normal same package as the sensor. There is n need to add
temperature closed and current passes through the compensation circuit for temperature sensor ICs. Some of
thermostat. When it has heated up, one metal expands these are analogue circuits with either voltage or current
more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends output. Other combine analogue sensing circuits with
up (or down) opening the contacts preventing the current voltage comparators to provide alerts functions. Some
from flowing. other sensor ICs combine analogue-sensing circuitry with
digital input/output and control registers, making them an
On/Off thermostat ideal solution for microprocessor-based systems.
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly There are a wide variety of temperature sensor ICs that are
upon their movement when subjected to temperature available to simplify the broadest possible range of
changes. There are the ‘snap-action’ types that produce an temperature monitoring
instantaneous “ON/OFF” or “OFF/ON” type action on the
electrical contacts at a set temperature point, and the Tempeature sensor ICs are classified into different types
like voltage output, current ouput, digital output, resistance
slower ‘creep-action’ types that gradually change their
position as the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostat is shown in Fig 6 It is
commonly used in our homes for controlling the temperature
set point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and
they can also be found on walls to control the domestic
heating system.
Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic coil or
sprial that slowly unwinds or coils-up as the temperature
changes. Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are
more sensitive to temperature changes than the temperature
gauges and dials etc.
Although snap-action type thermostats are very cheap and
are available over a wide opeating range, one main
disadvantage of the standard snap-action type thermostat
is when used as a temperature sensor, they have a large
hysteresis range from when electrical contacts open until
when they close again for example it may be set 20°C but
may not open until 22°C or close again until 18°C
Commercially available bi-metallic thermostats for home

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output silicon and Diode temperature sensors. Modern Temperature sensors directly connected to microprocessor
semiconductor temperature sensors offer high accuracy input and thus capable of direct and reliable communication
and high linearity over an operating range of about 55°C to with microprocessors. The sensor unit can communicate
+150°C. Internal amplifiers can scale the output to convient effectively with low-cost processors without the need of A/
values, such as 10mV/°C. As an example the LM 35 D converters.
temperature sensor outline diagram is shown in the Fig 7
A practical circuit using temperatue sensor IC LM 35 is
a and b
shown in Fig 8, in which the sensor output is connected to
Feature of LM35 Temperature Sensor:
the non-investing input of the Op-Amp IC 741. On reaching
• Calibrated directly in Celsius. the predetermined temperature the circuit produces the
• Rated for full -55°C to +150°C range output changes the status of LED indicator.
• Suitable for remote applications
• Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
• Operated from 4 to 30 volts
• Low self-heating
• ±1/4°C of typical nonlinerarity
The Above temperature sensor has three terminals. This of
sensor consists of a material that performs the operation
according to temperature to vary the resistance. This
change of resistance is sensed by the circuit and it
calculate temperature. When the voltage increases then
temperature also rises.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain about RTD and its types.
• define construction and working principle of the RTD (PT100).
• describe the application, limitation, advantages & disadvantages.

Resistance Temperature Detectors In RTD devices Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD), as the name used metals. These three metals are having different
implies, are sensors used to measure temperature by resistance variations with respect to the temperature
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with variations. That is called resistance-temperature
temperature. characteristics as shown in fig.2. Platinum has the
temperature range of 650°C, and then the Copper and
RTDs are relatively immune to electrical noise and Nickel have 120°C and 300°C respectively. The figure-2
therefore well suited for temperature measurement in shows the resistance-temperature characteristics curve
industrial environments, especially around motors, of the three different metals. For Platinum, its resistance
generators and other high voltage equipment. changes by approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance of temperature.
Temperature Detector is a device which is used to
determine the temperature by measuring the resistance
of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature
with high accuracy, RTD is the only one solution in
industries. It has good linear characteristics over a wide
range of temperatures. The physical appearances of
different RTDs are shown in fig 1a & 1b.

The purity of the platinum is checked by measuring R100


/ R0. Because, whatever the materials actually we are
using for making the RTD that should be pure. If it is not
pure, it will deviate from the conventional resistance-
temperature graph. So α and β values will change
depending upon the metals.
Types of RTDs based on wires color code : (Fig 3)
Main trend for industrial resistance temperature detector
is platinum RTD due to physical stability and high
applicable temperature.
There are the other RTDs such as Nickel, Platinum-cobalt,
and so on.
RTD Configuration
An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire
configuration. The two-wire configuration is the simplest
and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is
connected by two wire to a wheatstone bridge circuit and
the output voltage is measured. The disadvantage of this
circuit is that the resistance of two connecting lead wires
are added directly to the RTDs resistance and an error is
incurred.

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2- Wire Configuration of different lead resistances, which was a possible
problem with the three-wire configuration is commonly
The four-wire configuration consists of two current leads
used when a highly accurate measurement is requried
and two potential leads that measure the voltage drop
for the application.
across the RTD. The two potential leads are high resistance
to negate the effect of the voltage drop due to curent flowing
during the measurement. Note: Refer to the RTD user manual/datasheet
This configuration is ideal for cancelling the lead wire for type of RTD based on lead colour
resistances in the circuit as well as eliminating the effects

Pt-100 working principle


A platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) Pt100 They have been used for many years to measure
is a device with a typical resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C (it is temperature in laboratory and industrial processes, and
called Pt100). It changes resistance value as its have developed a reputation for accuracy, repeatability,
temperature changes following a positive slope (resistance and stability. A RTD can typically measure temperatures
increases when temperature is increasing).as show in up to 850 °C.
fig 4a & 4b.

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Pt100 types the thin film Platinum RTD is low cost and low thermal
mass. The low thermal mass makes them respond faster
There are basically three styles of Pt100 sensing
and they are easier to assemble into small packages.
elements. Each style has unique characteristics and
Disadvantages are that they are not as stable as wire
advantages.
wound RTDs.
Wire wound Element: The wire wound sensor is the
Limitations of RTD
simplest sensor design. The sensing wire is wrapped
around an insulating mandrel or core. The winding core In the RTD resistance, there will be I2R power dissipation
can be round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator. by the device itself that causes a slight heating effect.
The coil diameter provides a compromise between This is called as self-heating in RTD. This may also cause
mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire an erroneous reading. Thus, the electric current through
to minimize strain and consequential drift. as shown in the RTD resistance must be kept sufficiently low and
fig. 5 constant to avoid self-heating. Because of this the RTD
is used only up to maximum 600°C
Applications of RTDs include
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement
Coiled Element: The coiled sensor shown in fig. 6 is a
method to produce a "strain free" design. A strain free • Exhaust gas temperature measurement
RTD's should be used
• When accuracy and stability are a requirement of the
customer's specification
• When accuracy must extend over a wide temperature
range
• When area, rather than point sensing improves control
• When a high degree of standardization is desirable
design allows the sensing wire to expand and contract
free of influences from other materials in the assembly. Advantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors
Techniques similar to those used in this design are used • The advantages of using RTDs include:
in Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRT),
• Linear over wide operating range
which are used as laboratory standards.
• Wide temperature operating range
Thin Film Element: The thin film sensing element is
manufactured by depositing a very thin layer of platinum • High temperature operating range
on a ceramic substrate. This layer is usually just a 10 to
• Interchangeability over wide range
100 angstroms (1e-8 centimeters) thick. The platinum film
is coated with epoxy or glass. This coating helps protect • Good stability at high temperature
deposited platinum film and acts as a strain relief for the
Disadvantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors
external lead wires as shown in fig. 7. The advantage of
The disadvantages of using RTD's include:
• Low sensitivity
• Higher cost than thermocouples
• No point sensing
• Affected by shock and vibration requires three or four-
wire operation

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Note: Refer the RTD user manual for leads
colors and temperature vs resistances graph
Testing of thermocouple sensor under laboratory
setup
The thermocouple sensor can be tested in the
laboratory by fixing the thermowell bulb on a stand
under a lit fire of a candle, as shown in Fig 8. The
height of the candle has to be increased form the base
as per the graducated scale mashing on the stand.
The output voltage produced bt the sensor is measured
using a DC millivoltmeter for each level and reading for
corresponding temperatures are recorded and
compared to confirm the correct working of
thermocouple sensor.
In the same method of experiment, the RTD can also
be fixed on the stand under the lit fire flame of the
candle as shown in Fig 9. For diffrent height of the
flame, corresponding resistance variations of each
temperature across the output terminals of the RTD is
measured using ohm meter and its working can be
ascer tained.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Thermocouple
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define thermocouple and its working principle
• explain the various type of thermocouple .
• describe the application, advantages & disadvantages
• explain the characteristics curve graph of mV Vs temperature measured.

Thermocouple and its working principle


Thermocouple is a device consisting of two dissimilar
conductors or semiconductors that contact each other at
one or more points as shown in fig.1. A thermocouple
produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the
contact points differs from the temperature of another, in
a process known as the thermoelectric effect.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor for measurement and control and can also convert
a temperature gradient into electricity.
Type of thermocouples
Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach
intermediate temperatures, as covered by nickel alloy
thermocouple types E,J,K,M,N,T. Also shown are the
noble metal alloy type P, and the pure noble metal
combinations gold-platinum and platinum-palladium.
The table - 1 showing the different type to thermocouple
and its range.
Thermocouple Characteristics table - 1
Color Coding
ANSI/ Symbol Overall jacket Magnetic Environment
Generic Names Individual
ASTM Single extension Yes/No (Bare Wire)
Conductor
grade wire
Mild Oxidizing,
Copper
Reducing,
Constantan,
TP Blue X Vacuum or Inert,
T Nominal Blue
TN Red X Good where
Composition:
moisture is
55% Cu, 45% Ni
present
Reducing
Vacuum, Inert,
Iron Constantan, Limited use in
Nominal White X oxidizing at High
J JP JN Black
Composition : Red X Temperatures,
55% Cu, 45% Ni Not
recommended
for low temps.
Chromel &,
Nominal
Composition: Oxidizing or
EP 90% Ni, 10% Cr Purple Inert, Limited
E Purple X
EN Constantan, Red use in Vacuum
Nominal or Reducing
Composition :
55% Cu, 45% Ni

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Color Coding
ANSI/ Symbol Overall jacket Magnetic Environment
Generic Names Individual
ASTM Single extension Yes/No (Bare Wire)
Conductor
grade wire
Chromel,
Nominal
Composition: Clean Oxidizing
90% Ni, 10% Cr and Inert,
KP Yellow X
K Alumel*, Yellow Limited use in
KN Red X
Nominal Vacuum or
Composition: Reducing
95% Ni, 2% Mn,
2% AI
Nicrosil*,
Nominal
Compositions :
Clean Oxidizing
84, 6% Ni,
and inert.
NP 14.2%, Cr, 1.4% Orange X
N Orange Limited use in
NN Si Nisil*, Red X
Vacuum or
Nominal
Reducing
Composition:
95.5%, Ni, 4.4%
Si, 1% Mg
Oxidizing or
Inert
Platinum 10% Atmospheres,
SP Black X
S Rhodium Pure Green Do not Insert in
SN Red X
Platinum metal tubes.
Beware of
contamination.
Oxidizing in Inert
Atmospheres.
Platinum 13%
RP Black X Do not insert in
R Rhodium Pure Green
RN Red X metal tubes.
Platinum
Beware of
contamination
Oxidizing or
Inert
Platinum 30%
Atmospheres.
BP Rhodium Gray X
B Gray Do not insert in
BN Platinum 6% Red X metal tubes.
Rhodium
Beware of
contamination. `
Vacuum, Inert,
Tungsten 5%
Hydrogen
P Rhenium Green X
C Red Atmospheres,
N Tungsten 26% Red X
Beware of
Rhenium
Embrittlement.

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Temperature Vs mV graph for various type of
Thermocouples: (fig 2)

Applications Disadvantage :
1 Temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine 1 Thermocouples measure their own temperature.
exhaust, diesel engines.
2 Thermocouples can error in reading their own
2 Temperature measurement of industrial processes and temperature, especially after being used for a while,
fog machines. or if the insulation between the wires loses its
3 For process temperature measurement of Steel, resistance due to moisture or thermal conditions
Cement , Petro chemical etc., 3 Beware of electrical hazards using thermocouples, they
Advantage: are electrical conductors. RTD's are less sensitive to
electrical noise.
1 Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large
temperature range, from - 270 up to 3000 °C (for a 4 Thermocouples DO NOT MEASURE AT THE
short time, in inert atmosphere). JUNCTIONS! They can't, it is physically impossible to
have a temperature gradient at a point.
2 They are less suitable for applications where smaller
temperature differences need to be measured with high 5 The distance between thermocouple and heater
accuracy, for example the range 0-100 °C with 0.1 °C element will generate a thermal lag which can be
accuracy compensated by the temperature controller.

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Strain gauges and load cell


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the strain gauges and its types
• define construction and working principle & gauge factor
• explain the load cell and strain gauge load cell
• describe the application, advantages and disadvantages.

Strain Gauges Fig 2


A strain gauge (or strain gage) is a device used to measure
strain on an object. The most common type of strain gauge
consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports
a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object
by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the
object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its
electrical resistance to change. This resistance change,
usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related
to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
as shown in fig 1.
MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE

Hydraulic strain Gauge


One of the problems with strain gauges is detecting very
small strains. You can imagine, for example, a situation
where your house is slowly subsiding but the amount of
movement is so small that it won't show up-perhaps until
the damage is done. With a simple crack detector such
as the ones described above, it takes 1mm of building
movement to produce 1mm of movement on the surface
of the crack detector. But what if we want to detect
movements smaller than this that doesn't show up on a
Types of strain gauges scale? In this case, what we really need is a strain gauge
with leverage that amplifies the strain, so even a tiny
There are four main types of strain gauges: mechanical,
movement of the detecting element produces a very large
hydraulic, electrical resistance, and piezoelectric.
and easily measurable movement of a pointer over a scale.
1 Mechanical
Hydraulic detectors offer a solution and work much like
2 Hydraulic simple syringes. Syringes are essentially hydraulic
3 Electrical Resistance pistons where a small movement of fluid in a large piston
(the part you press with your finger) produces a much
4 Piezoelectric larger movement of fluid in a small piston attached to it
Mechanical strain Gauge (the needle where the fluid comes out). It's easy to see
how this can be used in a strain gauge: you simply connect
Suppose you have a crack forming in a wall of your home your large piston to whatever it is that's producing the
because of subsidence and you want to know if it's getting strain and use a smaller piston in a smaller tube, marked
any worse. Call in the building inspectors and they'll with a scale, to indicate how much movement has
probably glue a piece of tough, plexiglass plastic, ruled occurred. The relative size of the pistons determines how
with lines and a scale, directly over the crack. Sometimes much the movement you're trying to detect is scaled up.
known as a crack monitor, you'll find it's actually made Typically, hydraulic strain gauges like this multiply
up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer has a movement by a factor of 10 or so and are commonly used
ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red arrow or in geology and Earth science. As shown in fig 3.
pointer. You glue one layer to one side of the crack and
one layer to the other so, as the crack opens, the layers
slide very slowly past one another and you can see the
pointer moving over the scale. Mechanical strain gauges
as shown in fig 2.

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Piezoelectric Strain Gauge
Some types of materials, including quartz crystals and
various types of ceramics, are effectively "natural" strain
gauges. If you push and pull them, they generate tiny
electrical voltages between their opposite faces. This
phenomenon is called piezoelectricity (pronounced
pee-ay-zo electricity) and it's probably best known as a
way of generating the timekeeping signal in quartz
watches. Measure the voltage from a piezoelectric sensor
and you can calculate the strain very simply. Piezoelectric
strain gauges are among the most sensitive and reliable
and can withstand years of repeated use as shown in
fig 5.
Electrical Resistance strain gauge
Fig 5
If you're designing something like an airplane wing,
typically you need to make far more sophisticated
measurements (and many more of them) than a simple
mechanical strain gauge will allow. You might want to
measure the strain during takeoff, for example, when the
engines are producing maximum thrust. You can't go
sticking little plastic strain gauges onto the wing and walk
out to measure them during a flight! But you can use
electrical strain gauges to do much the same thing from
a flight recorder in the cockpit.
PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
The most common electrical strain gauges are thin,
rectangular-shaped strips of foil with maze-like wiring Principle of Working - Strain Gauges
patterns on them leading to a couple of electrical cables. When force is applied to any metallic wire its length
You stick the foil onto the material you want to measure increases due to the strain. The more is the applied force,
and wire the cables up to your computer or monitoring more is the strain and more is the increase in length of
circuit. When the material you're studying is strained, the wire. If L1 is the initial length of the wire and L2 is the
the foil strip is very slightly bent out of shape and the final length after application of the force, the strain is given
maze-like wires are either pulled apart (so their wires are as:
stretched slightly thinner) or pushed together (so the wires
are pushed together and become slightly thicker). ∈ = (L2-L1)/L1
Changing the width of a metal wire changes its electrical Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its
resistance, because it's harder for electrons to carry diameter decreases. Now, we know that resistance of
electric currents down narrower wires. So all you have to the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As the
do is measure the resistance and, with a bit of calculation, length of the conductor increases its resistance decreases.
you can calculate the strain. If the forces involved are This change in resistance of the conductor can be
small, the deformation is elastic and the strain gauge measured easily and calibrated against the applied force.
eventually returns to its original shape-so you can keep Thus strain gauges can be used to measure force and
making measurements over a period of time, such as related parameters like displacement and stress. The input
during the test flight of a prototype plane as shown in and output relationship of the strain gauges can be
fig 4. expressed by the term gauge factor or gauge gradient,
Fig 4 which is defined as the change in resistance R for the
given value of applied strain ∈. As shown in fig 6 working
principle of strain gauge.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE

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Gauge factor Uses of Load Cells
The gauge factor GF is defined as: Load cells are used in several types of measuring
instruments such as laboratory balances, industrial
Where
scales, platform scales and universal testing machines.
is the change in resistance caused by strain, Installed load cells in glass fiber nests to weigh albatross
is the resistance of the unreformed gauge, and chicks. Load Cells are used in a wide variety of items
such as the seven-post shaker which is often used to
is strain. setup race cars.
For metallic foil gauges, the gauge factor is usually a Strain gauge load cell
little over 2. For a single active gauge and three dummy
resistors in a Wheatstone bridge configuration, the output Through a mechanical construction, the force being
from the bridge is: sensed deforms a strain gauge as shown in the fig 8. The
strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as a
ΔR / R G change in electrical resistance, which is a measure of
GF = the strain and hence the applied forces. A load cell usually
ε
consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge
where configuration. Load cells of one strain gauge (Quarter
Bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also available.
Δ R is the change in resistance caused by strain,
The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a
RG is the resistance of the unreformed gauge, and few millivolts and requires amplification by an
ε is strain. instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output
of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the force
For metallic foil gauges, the gauge factor is usually a
applied to the transducer.
little over 2. For a single active gauge and three dummy
resistors in a Wheatstone bridge configuration, the output Strain gauge load cells are the most common in industry.
ν from the bridge is: These load cells are particularly stiff, have very good
resonance values, and tend to have long life cycles in
BV.GF.ε application. Strain gauge load cells work on the principle
ν= that the strain gauge (a planar resistor) deforms/stretches/
4
contracts when the material of the load cells deforms
where appropriately. These values are extremely small and are
BV is the bridge excitation voltage. relational to the stress and/or strain that the material load
cell is undergoing at the time. The change in resistance
Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 2-10 mm2 of the strain gauge provides an electrical value change
in size. With careful installation, the correct gauge, and that is calibrated to the load placed on the load cell.
the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be
measured. Gauge factor(G.F)=1+2μ whereμ=poisson's Strain gauge load cells convert the load acting on them
ratio. into electrical signals. The gauges themselves are bonded
onto a beam or structural member that deforms when
Load cell: weight is applied. In most cases, four strain gauges are
A load cell is a device that is used to convert a force into used to obtain maximum sensitivity and temperature
electrical signal. Strain gauge load cells are the most compensation. Two of the gauges are usually in tension,
common types of load cells. There are other types of and two in compression, and are wired with compensation
load cells such as hydraulic (or hydrostatic), Pneumatic adjustments. The strain gauge load cell is fundamentally
Load Cells, Piezoelectric load cells, Capacitive load cells, a spring optimized for strain measurement. Gauges are
Piezoresistive load cells.etc. mounted in areas that exhibit strain in compression or
tension. The gauges are mounted in a differential bridge
Load cells are used for quick and precise measurements. to enhance measurement accuracy. When weight is
Compared with other sensors, load cells are relatively applied, the strain changes the electrical resistance of
more affordable and have a longer life span as shown in the gauges in proportion to the load. Other load cells are
fig 7. fading into obscurity, as strain gauge load cells continue
to increase their accuracy and lower their unit costs.

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Advantages of strain Gauge Advantages of load cells
1 There is no moving part. 1 Rugged and compact construction
2 It is small and inexpensive. 2 No moving parts
Disadvantages of strain Gauge 3 Can be used for static and dynamic loading
1 It is non-linear. 4 Highly Accurate
2 It needs to be calibrated. 5 Wide range of measurement
Application of Strain gauge 6 Can be used for static and dynamic loading
1 Residual stress Disadvantages of load cells
2 Vibration measurement 1 Calibration is a tedious procedure
3 Torque measurement
4 Bending and deflection measurement
5 Compression and tension measurement
6 Strain measurement

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 & 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Proximity sensors
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define proximity switches
• explain the different types of proximity switches
• describe the selection, advantages and disadvantages.

Proximity sensors The value 9.85*1012 F/M is a constant denoted by ∈0 and


Proximity sensors detect the presence of objects without is called the dielectric constant of free space.
physical contact.It detects the presence or absence of From the equation it is clear that the value of capacitance
objects using electromagnetic fields, light, and sound. C and the distance between the parallel plates,d are
There are many types, each suited to specific applications inversely proportional to each other. An increase of
and environments. distance between the parallel plates will decrease the
Types of proximity capacitance value correspondingly. The same theory is
used in a capacitive transducer. This transducer is used
1 Capacitive to convert the value of displacement or change in pressure
2 Inductive in terms of frequency.

3 Photo electric Parts of Capacitance Transducer (fig 2)

Capacitive Transducers As shown in the figure 2, a capacitive transducer has a


static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a
It is important to know the basics of a parallel plate dielectric in between. When a force is exerted to the outer
capacitor. Being the simplest form of a capacitor, it has side of the diaphragm the distance between the diaphragm
two parallel conducting plates that are separated to each and the static plate changes. This produces a capacitance
other by a dielectric or insulator with a permittivity of E which is measured using an alternating current bridge or
(for air). Other than paper, vacuum, and semi-conductor a tank circuit.
depletion region, the most commonly used dielectric is
air. as shown in fig 1.

A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a


Due to a potential difference across the conductors, an change in frequency according to the change in
electric field develops across the insulator. This causes capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding
the positive charges to accumulate on one plate and the to the displacement or force given to the input.
negative charges to accumulate on the other. The capacitor
value is usually denoted by its capacitance, which is Advantages
measured in Farads. It can be defined as the ratio of the • It produces an accurate frequency response to both
electric charge on each conductor to the voltage difference static and dynamic measurements.
between them.
Disadvantages
The capacitance is denoted by C. In a parallel plate
capacitor, C = [A*∈r*9.85*1012 F/M]/d • An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level
will change the accuracy of the device.
A - Area of each plate (m)
d - Distance between both the plates (m)
∈r - Relative Dielectric Constant
262 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232

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• As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion and over all inductance of the circuit. This system is used
in signals. in the devices along with the inductive bridge circuit. In
this circuit the change in the induction ratio of the two
Inductance Type Inductive Transducers
coils provides the output proportional to the mechanical
The inductance type of the inductive transducers simple input.
single coil is used as the transducer. When the mechanical
In the above arrangements the supply of the current and
element whose displacement is to be measured is moved,
the output is obtained from the same coil or circuit.
it changes the permeance of the flux path generated by
the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit Advantages
and the corresponding output. The output from the circuit
1 Non contact type
is calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it
directly gives the valve of the parameter to be measured. 2 Maintenance free
The figure 3 shows the single coil inductive circuit. Here 3 pnp or npn type
the magnetic material is connected to the electric circuit 4 360°-viewable output indicators for easy operation and
and it is excited by the alternating current. At the bottom maintenance
there is another magnetic material that acts as the
armature. As the armature is moved, the air gap between 5 Electrical protections against short circuits, overload,
the two magnetic material changes and the permeance transient noise, false pulses and reverse polarity (DC
of the flux generated by the circuit changes that changes models) to help reduce downtime and maintenance
the inductance of the circuit and its output. The output costs
meter directly gives the valve of the input mechanical Disadvantages
quantity.
Virtually nil but following may be noted
1 Cannot be repaired
2 Must be free from oil and dust
3 Cable connections to be checked regularly
Photoelectric sensors
Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the
bulk of problems put to industrial sensing. Because
photoelectric technology has so rapidly advanced, they
now commonly detect targets less than 1 mm in diameter,
or from 60 m away. Classified by the method in which
In the figure 4, coil is wound around the round hollow
light is emitted and delivered to the receiver, many
magnetic material and there is magnetic core that moves
photoelectric configurations are available. However, all
inside hollow magnetic material. In the above circuits the
photoelectric sensors consist of a few of basic
change in the air gap or the change in the amount of the
components: each has an emitter light source (Light
magnetic material in the circuit can be used to produce
Emitting Diode, laser diode), a photodiode or
the output proportional to the input.
phototransistor receiver to detect emitted light, and
supporting electronics designed to amplify the receiver
signal. The emitter, sometimes called the sender,
transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the
detecting receiver.
All photoelectric sensors operate under similar principles
as shown in fig. 5 Identifying their output is thus made
easy; dark-on and light-on classifications refer to light
reception and sensor output activity. If output is produced
when no light is received, the sensor is dark-on. Output
from light received, and it's light-on. Either way, deciding
on light-on or dark-on prior to purchasing is required unless
the sensor is user adjustable. (In that case, output style
can be specified during installation by flipping a switch or
wiring the sensor accordingly.)

Another arrangement of the coils is shown in figure 3,


where two coils are used. In this circuit the movement of
the core changes the relative inductance of the two coils

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emitter models can transmit a well-collimated beam 60
m for increased accuracy and detection. At these
distances, some through-beam laser sensors are capable
of detecting an object the size of a fly; at close range,
that becomes 0.01 mm. But while these laser sensors
increase precision, response speed is the same as with
non-laser sensors - typically around 500 Hz.
One ability unique to through-beam photoelectric sensors
is effective sensing in the presence of thick airborne
contaminants. If pollutants build up directly on the emitter
or receiver, there is a higher probability of false triggering.
However, some manufacturers now incorporate alarm
outputs into the sensor's circuitry that monitor the amount
of light hitting the receiver. If detected light decreases to a
Through-beam specified level without a target in place, the sensor sends
a warning by means of a builtin LED or output wire.
The most reliable photoelectric sensing is with through-
beam sensors. Separated from the receiver by a separate Through-beam photoelectric sensors have commercial and
housing, the emitter provides a constant beam of light; industrial applications. At home, for example, they detect
detection occurs when an object passing between the obstructions in the path of garage doors; the sensors have
two breaks the beam. Despite its reliability, through-beam saved many a bicycle and car from being smashed.
is the least popular photoelectric setup. The purchase, Objects on industrial conveyors, on the other hand, can
installation, and alignment of the emitter and receiver in be detected anywhere between the emitter and receiver,
two opposing locations, which may be quite a distance as long as there are gaps between the monitored objects,
apart, are costly and laborious. With newly developed and sensor light does not "burn through" them. (Burn-
designs, through-beam photoelectric sensors typically offer through might happen with thin or lightly colored objects
the longest sensing distance of photoelectric sensors - that allow emitted light to pass through to the receiver.)
25 m and over is now commonplace. New laser diode
Application and selection of proximity sensor:
Proximity Sensor comparison table -1

Technology Sensing Range Applications Target Materials

Inductive <4-40 mm Any close - range detection of Iron Steel Aluminum


ferrous material Copper etc.

Capacitive <3-60 mm Close - range detection of Liquids Wood Granulates


non - ferrous material Plastic Glass etc.

Photoelectric <1mm - 60 mm Long - range small or large


target detection Silicon Plastic Paper
Metal etc.

264 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232

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Technology Sensing Range Applications Target Materials

Ultrasonic <30 mm - 3 mm Long - range detection of Cellophane Foam Glass


targets with difficult surface liquid Powder etc
properties. Color/ reflectivity
insensitive.
.

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 265

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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Displacement measurement using LVDT


Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define LVDT
• explain the working principle and operation of LVDT
• state the advantages, disadvantages and application of LVDT.

Details of LVDT and its construction


Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used
to measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle
of a transformer. As shown in Figure 1, an LVDT consists
of a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is
typically mounted to a stationary form, while the core is
secured to the object whose position is being measured.
The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound
on the hollow form. A core of permeable material can slide
freely through the center of the form. The inner coil is the
primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown.
Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the
two secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.

arrangement (push-pull mode), when the core is positioned


at the centre, a zero signal is derived.
Movement of the core from this point in either direction
causes the signal to increase (Fig 2c). As the windings
are wound in a particular precise manner, the signal output
has a linear relationship with the actual mechanical
LVDTs Working principle movement of the core.
The LVDT or Linear Variable Differential Transformer is a The secondary output signal is then processed by a phase-
well established transducer design which has been used sensitive demodulator which is switched at the same
throughout many decades for the accurate measurement frequency as the primary energising supply. This results
of displacement and within closed loops for the control of in a final output which, after rectification and filtering, gives
positioning. So, how does an LVDT work? In its simplest D.C. or 4-20mA output proportional to the core movement
form, the design consists of a cylindrical array of a primary and also indicates its direction, positive or negative from
and secondary windings with a separate cylindrical core the central zero point (Fig 2d).
which passes through the centre. (Fig 2a).
Advantage:
The primary windings (P) are energized with a constant
amplitude A.C. supply at a frequency of 1 to 10 kHz. The distinct advantage of using an LVDT displacement
This produces an alternating magnetic field in the centre transducer is that the moving core does not make contact
of the transducer which induces a signal into the with other electrical components of the assembly, as with
secondary windings (S &S ) depending on the position of resistive types, as so offers high reliability and long life.
the core. Further, the core can be so aligned that an air gap exists
around it, ideal for applications where minimum
Movement of the core within this area causes the mechanical friction is required.
secondary signal to change (Fig 2b). As the two secondary
windings are positioned and connected in a set
266

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The LVDT design lends itself for easy modification to fulfill • Its is greatly affected by temperature changes.
a whole range of different applications in both research
• Internally non contact but externally has to be
and industry.
connected where the measurement has to be made
Disadvantages of LVDT
• Not feasible for very long range measurements
• Very high displacement is required for generating high
Applications of LVDT
voltages.
LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from
• Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic
fraction millimeter to centimeter.
field.
Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as
• The performance of the transducer gets affected by
a device to measure force, weight and pressure, etc..
vibrations

Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 267

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Different types of charts

Chart showing the details of SMD components ( EX NO 184)


Chart-1
Shape and makings of some common SMDs
Component Shape Markings

Chip resistor Labelled with value ( See table 3)

Chip capacitor Not marked

Polarized capacitor Plus end marked with notch or band

Diode Cathode end marked with notch or band

SOT ( small outline May be marked, unmarked, or house


Integrated circuit) numbered, pin one marked with beveled
side, dot, band. or notch.
Chart - 2

Common SMD case sizes


Inprint Resistance value
Case Size Components Components
Length(Inches) Width(Intches) 4701 4.7 k
1002 10 k
0603 0.063 0.030
1502 15 k
0805 0.080 0.050
5493 549 k
1206* 0.126 0.063
1004 1M
2010 0.200 0.100
2512 0.250 0.125
Chart-4
This is the most common size for SMD resistors and
Coding with alphanumerical characters
chip capacitors
Chart-3 Capacitance code (2nd digit from left)
Typical resistor markings and corresponding values Capacitance pF 1 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8
Inprint Resistance value
Code A E J N S W
101 100
471 470 Mulplicator 10 10 10 10 10 10
102 1k
Code 5 6 4 3 2 1
122 1.2k
103 10k
123 12k Nominal Voltage Code(first digit from left)
104 100k
Volt 4 6.3 10 16 20 25 35
124 120k
Code G J A C D E V
474 470k
100R 100 Example 1
634 634 1. 0pF, 16V...CA
2. 2pF, 6.3V....JJ
909 909
1001 1k

268 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Various connectors used in SMD soldering work stations
Chart showing the pannel controls and accessories of SMD soldering work station

Fig 1 Fig 2

Chart Showing all types of special tool/ crimping tools used for SMD soldering /
Desoldering work.

Fig 1
Fig 2

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 269

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Fig 4 Fig 5

90° Forming tool


Heated Tweezers

Fig 7
Fig 6

Anti - Static Desoldring Pump/


Solder Sucket
Tool Cut Kink forming

Fig 8 Fig 9

90 ° SMD tweezer
Curved tweezer

Fig 10 Fig 11

PGA extractor Reverse action tweezer

270 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Fig 12 Fig 13

PLCC socket extraction tool Parallel paddle tweezer

Fig 14
Fig 15

Rounded points tweezer SMD probers & spudgers

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 271

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Chart showing special tools used for SMD components, SMD IC soldering / desoldering

Fig 1
Fig 2

Anti - Static Desolderin Pump Heated Tweezers

Fig 3 Fig 4

Curved tweezer
90° Forming tool

Fig 6
Fig 5

Parallel paddle twezeer


PGA extractors

Fig 7
Fig 8

PLCC socket extraction tool 90 ° SMD tweezer

272 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Chart showing various types of soldering joint defects

Fig 1 Fig 2

Poor solder joints

Fig 3 Fig 4

Shows the damage track on PCB Damage Pad

Fig 5 Fig 6

Fig 7 Fig 8

Excess solder on joints

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
273

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Fig 9 Fig 10

Dry Joints

Chart Showing all types of fuses and fuse holders

274 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Chart showing all types of connectors/socket/plugs used for Audio, Video and RF
Applications

Fig 3

Fig 4

F- CONNECTOR

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 275

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Fig 7
Fig 8

RJ45 PLUG
RJ45 SOCKET

Fig 9

RJ11

Fig 10 Fig 11

RJ11 SOCKET CHASSIS MOUNT SOCKET 3.5mm

276 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Fig 13
Fig 12

CHASSIC MOUNTING PCB SOCKET 3.5mm


Barrel Connector

Chart - 1 Showing rear panel of multimedia Chart - 2 : Showing internal ports and slots
computer of mother board of multimedia computer

Fig 1
Fig 2

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 277

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Chart showing the Pinout Diagram/Data sheet of the IC TEA5591A and the layout Of AM/
FM Radio receivers

278 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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S.No Description Pin Number Stage - 1 Pin Number
RF amp input 2
1 FM ocillator 17,18
2 Mixer 16 Stage - 2
3 RF Input - Pin 1 FM Osc 22
4 Output 20 Stage - 3
5 1st IF Ampl 14 Mixed output 20
6 2nd IF Ampl 4 Stage - 4
7 FM Demodulation IF amp 1st input 18
8 AM/FM - Output 10 Stage - 5
9 Power supply 8 IF amp 2nd output 4
10 AGC (AM) 15
Stage - 6
11 AM oscilletor 11
FM Demodulation 10
12 AM RF input 13
Stage - 7
13 AM mixer put 7
AF output 11
14 AM AFC 17
Supply
Positive+ Vcc 8
Common ground 3

Chart showing all types of Sensors, with colour codes and other details
(EX.No.3.8.228 to 232)

Fig 4

PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 279

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Fig 7

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

280 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Proximity Sensor Comparison

Tecnology Sensing Range Applications Target Materials

Live <4-40 mm Any close - range detection of Iron Steel Aluminium


ferrous material Copper etc.

Capcititive <3-60 mm Close - range detection of Liquid Wood


non- ferrous material Granulates Plastic
etc.

Photoelectric <1mm - 60 mm Long - range small or large Silicon Plastic Paper


target detection Metal etc.

Ultrasonic <30 mm - 3 mm Long - range detection of Cellophane Foam


targets with difficult surface Glass liquid Powder
properties. Color/ reflectivity etc.
insensitive.

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 281

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Thermocouple Characteristics

Color Coding
ANSI/ Symbol Overall jacket Magnetic Environment
Generic Names Individual
ASTM Single extension Yes/No (Bare Wire)
Conductor
grade wire
Mild Oxidizing,
Copper
Reducing,
Constantan,
TP Blue X Vacuum or Inert,
T Nominal Blue
TN Red X Good where
Composition:
moisture is
55% Cu, 45% Ni
present
Reducing
Vacuum, Inert,
Iron Constantan, Limited use in
Nominal White X oxidizing at High
J JP JN Black
Composition : Red X Temperatures,
55% Cu, 45% Ni Not
recommended
for low temps.
Chromel &,
Nominal
Composition: Oxidizing or
EP 90% Ni, 10% Cr Purple Inert, Limited
E Purple X
EN Constantan, Red use in Vacuum
Nominal or Reducing
Composition :
55% Cu, 45% Ni

282 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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Color Coding
ANSI/ Symbol Overall jacket Magnetic Environment
Generic Names Individual
ASTM Single extension Yes/No (Bare Wire)
Conductor
grade wire
Chromel,
Nominal
Composition: Clean Oxidizing
90% Ni, 10% Cr and Inert,
KP Yellow X
K Alumel*, Yellow Limited use in
KN Red X
Nominal Vacuum or
Composition: Reducing
95% Ni, 2% Mn,
2% AI
Nicrosil*,
Nominal
Compositions :
Clean Oxidizing
84, 6% Ni,
and inert.
NP 14.2%, Cr, 1.4% Orange X
N Orange Limited use in
NN Si Nisil*, Red X
Vacuum or
Nominal
Reducing
Composition:
95.5%, Ni, 4.4%
Si, 1% Mg
Oxidizing or
Inert
Platinum 10% Atmospheres,
SP Black X
S Rhodium Pure Green Do not Insert in
SN Red X
Platinum metal tubes.
Beware of
contamination.
Oxidizing in Inert
Atmospheres.
Platinum 13%
RP Black X Do not insert in
R Rhodium Pure Green
RN Red X metal tubes.
Platinum
Beware of
contamination
Oxidizing or
Inert
Platinum 30%
Atmospheres.
BP Rhodium Gray X
B Gray Do not insert in
BN Platinum 6% Red X metal tubes.
Rhodium
Beware of
contamination. `
Vacuum, Inert,
Tungsten 5%
Hydrogen
P Rhenium Green X
C Red Atmospheres,
N Tungsten 26% Red X
Beware of
Rhenium
Embrittlement.

Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
283

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Chart Showing all types of cables used for Audio, Video, and RF signal Applications.

284 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232

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