Electronic Mechanic (NSQF) 3rd SEM Theory
Electronic Mechanic (NSQF) 3rd SEM Theory
NSQF LEVEL - 5
TRADE THEORY
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Duration : 2 - Year
Trades : Electronic Mechanic 2nd Year (Volume I of II) - Trade Theory NSQF Level 5
Rs. 295/-
No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.
Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone: 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791
email : chennai-nimi@nic.in, nimi_bsnl@dataone.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
(ii)
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under the Directorate
General of Training (DGT), Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing
producing and disseminating Instructional Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related
institutions.
The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Electronic 2nd
Year (Volume I of II) Trade Theory NSQF Level - 5 in Electronic & Hardware Sector under
Semester Pattern. The NSQF Level - 5 Trade Theory will help the trainees to get an international
equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the
globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also
get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF
Level - 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these
IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General / Addl.Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
(iii)
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the
development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP.
(v)
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Fourth Semester course of the Electronic
Mechanic Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in the manual on
Trade practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theortical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise
to the extent possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities
for performing the skills.
The Trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indicating about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each
exercise.
The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercises
to be completed by the trainees during the Fourth Semester course of the Electronic Mechanic trade
supplemented and supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These
exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 5
The manual is divided into Eight modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the Eight modules are
given below.
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there
is a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.
(vi)
Explanation about diffrent types of tools & equipments & raw materials
required for SMD soldering and desoldering work 43
Re-flow soldering 60
Fuses-terminology-types-uses 80
Contactors-parts-functions-troubleshooting-symbols 91
(vii)
Relays-types-operating-specification-symbols 98
Pin details of 8051, Internal data memory, SFR and on-chip features 223
(viii)
Thermistors 247
Thermocouple 255
(ix)
55-56 • Identify, place, solder SMD Soldering and De-soldering Introduction to Surface Mount
and desolder and test 189. Identify various connections Technology (SMT).
different SMD discrete and setup required for SMD Advantages, Surface Mount
components and IC,s Soldering station. (5 hrs) components and packages.
package with due care 190. Identify crimping tools for Introduction to solder paste
and following safety various IC packages. (3 hrs) (flux). Soldering of SM
norms using proper 191. Make the necessary settings assemblies, reflow soldering.
tools/setup. on SMD soldering station to Tips for selection of hardware,
de-solder various ICs of Inspection of SM. Identification
different packages (at least of Programmable Gate array
four) by choosing proper (PGA) packages. Specification
crimping tools (14 hrs) of various tracks, calculation of
192. Make the necessary settings track width for different current
on SMD soldering station to ratings. Cold/ Continuity check
solder various ICs of different of PCBs. Identification of lose
packages (at least four) by / dry solders, broken tracks on
choosing proper crimping tools printed wiring assemblies.
74-75 • Plan and carry out the Digital IC Applications Discussion on the
Selection of a project, 238-242 identified projects with
assemble the project Make simple projects/Applications respect to data of the
and evaluate using various digital ICs (digital concerned ICs.
performance for a display, event counter, stepper Components used in the
domestic/commer cial motor driver etc) project.
applications Duty cycle selector
• Frequency Multiplier
• Digital Mains Resumption Alarm
• Digital Lucky Random number
generator
• Dancing LEDs
• Count down timer
• Clap switch
• Stepper motor control
• Digital clock
• Event counter
• Remote jammer
(Instructor will pick up any five of the
projects for implementation) (50
Hrs)
76-77 Revision
78 Examination
Electronic equipments can be divided into two types: not have memory therefore the signal can be displayed
analog and digital. Analog equipment works with only instantaneously. The transient parts of the signal
continuously variable voltages, while digital equipment (which may vanish even in milliseconds or microseconds)
works with binary numbers (1 and 0's) that may represent can not be observed using an analog oscilloscope. The
voltage samples. For example, a conventional cassette DSO's are widely used in many applications in view of
player is an analog device; a compact disc player is a their flexibility and performance.
digital device.
Figure 1 shows the block diagram of DSO as consists of,
Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An
analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage 1 Data acquisition
being measured to an electron beam moving across the 2 Storage
oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up
3 Data display.
and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the
screen. This gives an immediate picture of the waveform. Data acquisition is earned out with the help of both analog
In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform to digital and digital to analog converters, which is used
and uses an analog-to-digital converter ( ADC) to convert for digitizing, storing and displaying analog waveforms.
the voltage being measured into digital information. Then Overall operation is controlled by control circuit which is
uses this digital information to reconstruct the waveform usually consists of microprocessor.
on the screen. Some of the advantages of a digital
Data acquisition portion of the system consist of a Sample-
oscilloscope over analog oscilloscope include the scope's
and-Hold (S/H) circuit and an analog to digital converter
ability to store digital data for later viewing, upload to a
(ADC) which continuously samples and digitizes the input
computer, generate a hard copy or store on a disk and its
signal at a rate determined by the sample clock and
capacity to instantly make measurements on the digital
transmit the digitized data to memory for storage. The
data.
control circuit determines whether the successive data
A digital oscilloscope also has the ability to examine points are stored in successive memory location or not,
digitized information stored in its memory and make which is done by continuously updating the memories.
automatic measurements based on the selected
When the memory is full, the next data point from the
parameters of the user, such as voltage excursion,
ADC is stored in the first memory location writing over
frequency and rise times.
the old data. The data acquisition and the storage process
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) is continues till the control circuit receive a trigger signal
from either the input waveform or an external trigger source.
Digital oscilloscopes are often referred to as digital storage
When the triggering occurs, the system stops and enters
oscilloscope (DSO) or digital sampling oscilloscopes
into the display mode of operation in which all or some
(DSO).
part of the memory data is repetitively displayed on the
The concept behind the digital oscilloscope is somewhat cathode ray tube.
different to an analog scope.
In display operation, two DACs are used which gives
Rather than processing the signals in an analog fashion, horizontal and vertical deflection voltage for the CRT Data
the DSO converts them into a digital format using an analog from the memory gives the vertical deflection of the electron
to digital converter (ADC), then it stores the digital data in beam, while the time base counter gives the horizontal
the memory, and then processes the signals digitally, deflection in the form of staircase sweep signal.
finally it converts the resulting signal in a picture format
The screen display consist of discrete dots representing
to be displayed on the screen of the scope.
the various data points but the number of dot is very large
Since the waveform is stored in a digital format, the data as 1000 or more that they tend to blend together and
can be processed either within the oscilloscope itself, or appear to be a smooth continuous waveform.
even by a PC connected to it. One advantage of using the
DSO is that the stored data can be used to visualize or
process the signal at any time. The analog scopes do
This chapter describes the menus and operating details Default Setup
associated with each front-panel menu button or control.
The oscilloscope is set up for normal operation when it is
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes are small, lightweight, bench shipped from the factory. This is the default setup. To
top packages that you can use to take ground-referenced recall this setup, push the DEFAULT SETUP button.
measurements.
Triggering
Understanding Oscilloscope Functions
The trigger determines when the oscilloscope starts to
This chapter contains information on what you need to acquire data and display a waveform. When a trigger is
understand before you use an oscilloscope. To use your set up properly, the oscilloscope converts unstable
oscilloscope effectively, you need to learn about the displays or blank screens into meaningful waveforms.
following oscilloscope functions:
When you push the RUN/STOP or SINGLE SEQ buttons
• Setting up the oscilloscope to start an acquisition, the oscilloscope goes through the
following steps:
• Triggering
• Acquires enough data to fill the portion of the waveform
• Acquiring signals (waveforms)
record to the left of the trigger point. This is also called
• Scaling and positioning waveforms the pretrigger.
• Measuring waveforms • Continues to acquire data while waiting for the trigger
Setting Up the Oscilloscope condition to occur.
You should become familiar with three functions that you • Detects the trigger condition..
may use often when operating your oscilloscope: Autoset, • Continues to acquire data until the waveform record is
saving a setup, and recalling a setup. Using Autoset the full.
function obtains a stable waveform display for you. It
• Displays the newly-acquired waveform.
automatically adjusts the vertical scale, horizontal scale
and trigger settings. Autoset also displays several For Edge and Pulse triggers, the oscilloscope counts the
automatic measurements in the graticule area, depending rate at which trigger events occur to determine trigger
on the signal type. frequency and displays the frequency in the lower right
corner of the screen.
Saving a Setup
Source
The oscilloscope saves the current setup if you wait five
seconds after the last change before you power off the You can use the Trigger Source options to select the
oscilloscope. The oscilloscope recalls this setup the next signal that the oscilloscope uses as a trigger. The source
time you apply power. You can use the SAVE/RECALL can be any signal connected to a channel BNC, to the
Menu to permanently save up to ten different setups. EXT TRIG BNC or the AC power line (available only with
Edge triggers).
Recalling a Setup
Types
The oscilloscope can recall the last setup before power
off, any of your saved setups or the default setup. The oscilloscope provides three types of triggers: Edge,
Video, and Pulse Width.
2 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 3
When you use cursors, be sure to set the Source to the Sample, Peak Detect Sequence is complete
waveform on the display that you want to measure. To when one acquisition is
use cursors, push the CURSOR button. acquired
Function Setting
The Autoset function examines all channels for signals • No signals found and no channels displayed,
and displays corresponding waveforms. Autoset oscilloscope displays and uses channel 1
determines the trigger source based on the following
Cursor
conditions:
Push the CURSOR button to display the measurement
• If multiple channels have signals, channel with the
cursors and cursor menu.
lowest frequency signal
• No signals found, the lowest-numbered channel
displayed when Autoset was invoked
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 5
Type* Voltage Select and display the measurement cursors; voltage measures
Time amplitude and time measures time and frequency
Off
Source CH1 Choose the waveform on which to take the cursor measurements
CH2
CH3**
CH4** The readouts display this measurement
MATH
REFA
REFB
REFC**
REFD**
Delta Displays the difference (delta) between the cursors
Cursor 1 Displays cursor 1 location (time is referenced to the trigger position,
voltage is referenced to ground)
Coursor 2 Displays cursor 2 location (time is referenced to the trigger position,
voltage is referenced to ground)
6 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183
Options Display Style* Displays screen data as black on white, or as white on black
Printer Setup* Displays the setup for the printer; see page 131
RS232 Setup** Displays the setup for the RS-232 port; see page 134
GPIB Setup** Displays the setup for the GPIB port; see page 143
Error Log Displays a list of any errors logged This list is useful when
contacting a Tektronix service center for help
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 7
A typical DSO may come with two USB ports that allow • You can use the USB flash drive to copy the setup to
flexible communications with a number of devices. a different oscilloscope
The USB host port on the front of the oscilloscope can You can set the print button to do the following
transfer
• Send the current image to a Pictbridge compatible
• Wave form and setup data to and from a USB flash printer or computer to the rear USBport
drive
• Save the current screen image to a USB flash drive
• Screen images to a USB flash drive choosing among a number of formats.
The USB device port on the rear of the oscilloscope can • Save the current image, the waveform data points of
transfer each displayed waveform, and the current set up
• Waveform and setup data to and from a computer parameters to a USB flash drive, with a single button
push
• Screen images to a computer
You can also set the following options before printing
• Screen images directly to a PictBridge compatible
printer Ink saver: ON prints colour waveforms on a whites back
round. OFF prints colour waveforms on a black
The USB port Host port on the front of the oscilloscope is background, as they appear on the screen
designed to support a single USB flash drive. The port
will not support multiple USB flash drives by use of a Abort printing : select to stop sending data to the printer
USB hub. and to end printing
The USB device port on the rear of the oscilloscope can Layout: Select the orientation of the screen image to be
either be connected to a computer or to a PictBridge printed either portrait or landscape.
compatible printer, but not both simultaneously. Pape size: (Select from a lot for paper sizes supported
SAVE/RECALL waveforms by your printer.) The default choice allows the printer to
select its default paper size.
You can use the SAVE/RECALL menu, Save Waveform
options to save wave from data points and acquisition Image size: Select from a list of image sizes supported
parameters information to a USB flash drive. You can use by your printer. The default choice is generally the largest
the Recall Waveform menu option to display saved image size which will fit on the default to allow the printer
waveforms. Also called as reference waveforms. Reference to control paper type.
waveforms are displayed with a lower intensity than live Print quality: Select from a list of print qualities supported
waveforms by your printer. Select default to allow the printer to control
You can use Print button or SAVE /RECALL menu, Save print quality
option to save the current screen image to a file on a Data print : Select On to print the date and time on the
USB flash drive. The PRINT button is more versatile than hard copy. Some printer do not support this option.
the option button, because it can send to any menu
The selected printer options will be saved when you turn
Saving setups on a USB flash drive has several advantages off the oscilloscope power whenever you start a print, the
over savings setups in internal memory; oscilloscope compares your selected printer settings, and
• A USB flash drive has much greater capacity then it changes them to Default.
internal memory
• You can copy the setup into a word processing or
spreadsheet program on a computer
• You can give the setup file a meaningful name.
Directly reads voltage and displays its on screen. Its reads the analong and converts it into digital form before
being dispaly on the screen
Do not require ADC, microprocessor and acquision memory Require ADC, microprocessor and acquisition memory
Can only analyze signal in real time as there is no storage Can analyze signal in real time as well as can analyze
memory available. previously acquired large sample of data with facility of
storage available.
Can not analyze high frequency sharp rise time transients Can not analyze high frequency transients due to advanced
DSP algorithms available and ported on microprocessor
with can operate on stored samples of input voltage.
10
The IC 8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated IC 8038 function generator (fig. 2)
circuit capable of producing high accuracy sine, square,
The levels of the current sources can, however, be selected
triangular, sawtooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum
over a wide range with two external resistors. Therefore,
of external components. The frequency (or repetition rate)
with the two currents set at values different from I and 2I,
can be selected externally from 0.001Hz to more than
an asymmetrical sawtooth appears at Terminal 3 and
300Hz using either resistors or capacitors, frequency
pulses with a duty cycle from less than 1% to greater
modulation and sweeping can be accomplished with an
than 99% are available at Terminal 9. The sine wave is
external voltage. The IC 8038 is fabricated with advanced
created by feeding the triangle wave into a nonlinear
monolithic technology, using Schottky barrier diodes and
network (sine converter). This network provides decreasing
thin film resistors, and the output is stable over a wide
shunt impedance as the potential of the triangle moves
range of temperature and supply variations.
toward the two extremes.
An external capacitor C is charged and discharged by
two current sources as shown in fig.1. Current source #2
is switched on and off by a flip-flop, while current source
#1 is continuously ON. Assuming that the flip-flop is in a
state such that current source #2 is off, and the capacitor
is charged with a current I, the voltage across the
capacitor rises linearly with time. When this voltage
reaches the level of comparator #1 (set at 2/3 of the supply
voltage), the flip-flop is triggered, changes states, and
releases current source #2. This current source normally
carries a current 2I, thus the capacitor is discharged with
a net-current I and the voltage across it drops linearly
with time.When it has reached the level of comparator #2
(set at 1/3 of the supply voltage), the flip-flop is triggered The figure.2 shows circuit diagram of function
into its original state and the cycle starts again. Four generator.Figure 3 and 4 shows the waveforms for 50%
waveforms are readily obtainable from this basic generator and 80 % duty cycles respectively.
circuit. With the current sources set at I and 2I respectively,
Waveform Timing
the charge and discharge times are equal. Thus a triangle
waveform is created across the capacitor and the flip-flop The symmetry of all waveforms can be adjusted with the
produces a square wave. Both waveforms are fed to buffer external timing resistors. Two possible ways to accomplish
stages and are available at pins 3 and 9. this are shown in Figure. 3 and 4. Best results are obtained
by keeping the timing resistors RA and RB separate (A).
RA controls the rising portion of the triangle and sine wave
and the 1 state of the square wave. The magnitude of the
triangle waveform is set at 1/ 3 voltage supply; therefore
the rising portion of the triangle is
C x V C x 1/ 3 xVsup ply x R A R A x C
t1 = = =
I 0.22 x Vsup ply 0.66
The failling portion of the triangle and sine wave and the 0
state of the square wave is.
12
For any given output frequency, there is a wide range of The capacitor value should be chosen at the
RC combinations that will work, however certain upper end of its possible range.
constraints are placed upon the magnitude of the charging
current for optimum performance. At the low end, currents
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 - 183 13
General safety precautions to be followed while • Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called
performing soldering and desoldering work in a 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip
laboratory or work place to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in
• Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to
They are very hot (above 300°C) and will give you a wipe the tip clean on the sponge.
nasty burn. • You are now ready to start soldering.
• Take great care to avoid touching the mains cable with ESD protection
the tip of the iron. The iron should have a heat proof
cable for extra protection. Ordinary plastic cable melts • Proper precautions in handling SMDs should also be
immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a risk observed to avoid ESD (Electrostatic - Discharge)
of burns and electric shock. • Electronics components are becoming smaller and
• Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not faster but they are also becoming more sensitive
in use. Never put it down on your workbench, even for towards ESD.
a moment. Normally the trainees used to follow the bad • Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is the release of static
practice of keeping the hot soldering iron on the top of electricity when two objects come into contact. Familiar
work bench and burn the work bench and burn the examples of ESD include the shock we receive when
power supply cable of CROs or function generator, and we walk across a carpet and touch a metal doork nob
other costly equipments. So instructor should train the and the static electricity we feel after drying clothes in
trainees from the beginning to follow the safe work a clothes dryer. A more extreme example of ESD is a
habits lightning bolt. Most ESD events are harmless, it can be
• Allow joints a minute or so to cool down before you an expensive problem in many industrial environments.
touch them. • ESD first requires a build - up of an electrostatic charge.
• Work in a well - ventilated area. The smoke formed as This occurs when two different materials rub together.
you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite One of the materials becomes positivity charged; the
irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the other becomes negatively charged. The positively -
side of, not above, your work. charged material now has an electrostatic charge.
When that charge comes into contact with the right
• Wash your hands after using solder. Solder contains material, it is transferred and we have an ESD event.
lead. The heat from the ESD event is extremely hot, although
Preparing the soldering iron we do not feel it when we are shocked. However, when
the charge is released onto an electronic device such
• Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron as an expansion card, the intense heat from the charge
will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature can melt or vaporize the tiny parts in the card causing
of above 300°C. the device to fail. Sometimes an ESD event can
• Dampen the sponge in the stand. The best way to do damage a device, but it continues to function. This is a
this is to lift it out the stand and wet it by using distilled called a latent defect, which is hard to detect and
water to avoid corrosion of soldering iron tip, and significantly shortens the life of the device.
squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, • Synthetic carpeting - one can hardly move without
not dripping wet. generating a charge - avoid carpeting in your work area.
• Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. • Cathode ray tubes (oscilloscopes or monitors) can be
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little dangerous sources of ESD- keep static sensitive
solder on the tip. components a safe distance away from the screen and
• Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will avoid touching the screen.
clean the tip.
14
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 15
Fig 6
Wrist strap
A two part device including a wrist band and a coil cord
that connects a person's skin to ground. ESD wrist
straps, also known as anti static wrist straps as show in
fig.4, are used to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD) by
safety grounding a person working with electronics
equipment or at an electronic assembly facility. It consists
of a bend of fabric with fine conductive fibers woven into
it. The fibers are usually made of carbon or carbon - filled
rubber, and the strap is bound with a stainless steel clasp ESD anti fatigue floor mats are made of 3/8” thick closed
or plate. They are usually used in conjunction with an ESD - cell expnaded polyvinyl chloride designed to provide
table mat on the workbench, or a special static dissipating comfort and reduce worker fatigue when used in static
plastic laminate on the workbench surface. sensitive environment. Surface resistivity is 109-1010 Ohm.
ESD wrist strap testing using a multimeter The construction design of the ESD floor mat allows for
effective static charge removal at a non - damaging flow rate
Step 1 : Set the range of the multimeter to megohms and emboss pattern make slip resistatn. At the same time
(M ) the ESD anti fatigue mat is known to maintain a consistent
Step 2 : Plug the wrist strap's banana jack into the voltage discharge throughout the life of the mat with no noticeable
/ohm (V ) port on the multimeter. Connect a probe to the deterioration of effectiveness. Resistant to degradation by
COM port on the multimeter. inorganic acid, organic acids, detergent solutions, alcohol
and mineral oil. Suggested service temperature of -20°F to
Step 3 : Test the conductive metal button inside the wrist +160°F.
strap to verify that the resistance reading is between 0.9
M and 1.1 M as shown in fig. 5. Floor mat ground cord
A cable and connector that connect a floor mat to ground
Heel grounder
A device for connecting a walking or standing person to
ground by using the moisture in the shoe as a body
connection and a conductive rubber tread as a connection
to a grounded mat or floor.
ESD Heel grounders
ESD heel grounders provide a continous ground path
between the operator and properly grounded ESD protected
flooring. They are designed for use in applications where
user mobility is required, such as wave solder, kitting and
quality control. “ESD protective flooring used with approved
footwear, may be used as an alternative to the wrist strap
system for standing operations.” Heel grounders quickly
and effectivley drain the static charges that are collected by
the personnel during normal everyday activities. ESD heel
straps help protect your electronic assembly plant. shown
in fig. 7 & 8.
16 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 8
Fig 11
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 17
18 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 21
Fig 28
Fig 24
Fig 29
Fig 25
Fig 26
20 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Now a days, almost all active components are available in b. Tolerance: SMD resistors are mostly metal oxide film
SMD packages for example diodes, transistors, FET, Triac resistor which are having more accurate values. So
etc. But in passive components only resistor and capaci- they mostly having tolerance of 1% to 5%. But in some
tors are available in different sizes and values. Due to size special applications they may available in less than
and mounting limitations -inductors and transformers are 1% tolerance.
not available in SMDs. In active devices, some power elec- c. Temperature coefficient: SMD are having very good
tronic components are available in limited varieties due to temperature coefficient than normal resistors due metal
large current drawing and problems for mounting heat oxide film material. Generally they may available in 25
sink on SMDs. Large surface space is required for mount- to 100 ppm/c.
ing the heat sinks whereas SMDs are in small size.
22 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
1206 0.25 3.2 1.6 Ceramic multilayer chip capacitors are available with a
very wide range of values, from 0.47pF to 1 F. This values
1210 0.25 3.2 2.6 are covered by seven cases forms. The forms depends of
1505 3.8 1.25 the capacitors values. The most popular case are 0805
and 1206.
2010 0.5 5.08 2.55
2208 5.72 1.90
2512 1.0 6.5 3.25
MELF 5.5 2.2
MINIMELF 3.6 1.4
MICROMELF 2.0 1.27
SMD capacitors
SMD capacitors are mostly used components after SMD
resistors in practical electronic circuits. SMD capacitors
are similar to general capacitors in construction and the
only difference is that instead of leads SMD capacitors
have metalized connections at their both ends.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 23
24 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Similarly FET and MOSFET in SMD forms are shown in below figures.
25
The same mark does not means the same component! SMA Surface Mounted Assembly.
Solder paste and its Application in SMT soldering material including solder wire, solder bar, solder
flux etc. Although the supplier is essentialy responsible
Solder paste or solder cream is simply a suspension of for providing the desired solder paste and screens or sten-
fine solder particles in a flux vehicle. In electronic indus- cils and the squeegee blades, the user must control pro-
try, solder paste is used in surface mount technology ( cess and equipment variables to achieve good print qual-
SMT ) to solder SMDs on to the printed circuit board, The ity. Even the best solder paste, equipment, and applica-
composition of the particles can be tailored to produce a tion methods are not sufficent by themselves to ensure
paste of the desired melting range. Additional metals can acceptable results.
be added to change paste compositions for specialized
applications. Particle size and shape, metal content and Using solder paste
flux type can be varied to produce pastes to varying vis- Start by applying flux to the circuit board pads. Then ap-
cosity. Availability of solder paste ply solder paste on the all pads of the components you
Solder paste is available in both leaded (with lead) and want to solder.
lead-free (with no lead) forms. It can be no-clean or water Using tweezers, place the component in its correct posi-
soluble. With no-clean solder paste, there is not need to tion and hold it there. Place the tip of the soldering iron
clean the board after soldering. Water soluble solder paste onto each of the pads so that the solder melts and makes
is easily soluble in water with no harm. good connections between the component and the board
How to Get the Best Solder Joints from Solder Paste Ap- Flood with solder
plication This method is for soldering chips.
1. In order to achieve good solder paste printing results, a As usual start by applying flux too the pads on the circuit
combination of the right solder paste material, the right board. Fasten one of the corner pins of the chip to its pad
tools and the right process are necessary. Kester is a by using a bit of solder. Make sure the chip is properly
trusted brand in manufacturing solder paste and other aligned on the pads.
26 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 27
Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for circuit board construction. Rather than having leads placed
producing electronic circuits in which the components through holes, the components could be soldered onto
are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed pads on the board instead. This also saved creating the
circuit boards (PCBs). An electronic device so made is lead holes in the boards which added cost to the production
called a surface-mount device (SMD). In the industry it of the bare PCBs.
has largely replaced the through-hole technology
construction method of fitting components with wire leads As the components were mounted on the surface of the
into holes in the circuit board. Both technologies can be board, as shown in the fig. 2, rather than having
used on the same board for components not suited to connections that went through holes in the board, the
surface mounting such as large transformers and heat- new technology was called surface mount technology or
sinked power semiconductors. SMT and the devices used were surface mount devices,
SMDs. The idea for SMT was adopted very quickly
An SMT component as shown in fig.1 is usually smaller because it enabled greater levels of mechanisation to be
than its through-hole counterpart because it has either used, and it considerably saved on manufacturing costs.
smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or
Fig 2
leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder
balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the
component.
Virtually all of today's mass produced electronics hardware
is manufactured using surface mount technology, SMT.
The associated surface mount devices, and SMDs provide
many advantages over their leaded predecessors in terms
of manufacturability and often performance.
It was not until the 1980's that surface mount technology,
SMT became widely used. Once SMT started to be used,
the change from conventional leaded components to
surface mount devices, SMDs took place quickly in view
of the enormous gains that could be made using SMT. TYPICAL SMT BOARD WITH TRANSISTORS, AND
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig 1
To accommodate surface mount technology, SMT, a
completely new set of components was needed. New SMT
outlines were required, and often the same components,
e.g. ICs were sold as shown in fig. 3 in both traditional
leaded packages and SMT packages. Despite this, the
gains of using SMT proved to be so large that it was
adopted very quickly.
Fig 3
SMT COMPONENT
It was reasoned that the wires that had traditionally been Surface mount devices, SMDs by their nature are very
used for connections were not actually needed for printed different to the traditional leaded components. They can
28 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Functions required for conventional IC packages are as DIPs, and PGAs (pin grid array) are typical packages in
follows. this group.
2 To facilitatge the packaging and handling of IC chips Surface mount packages have a flat structure in which
the lead pins are soldered directly to the soldered pattern
3 To dissipate heat generated by IC chips (called the mount pad) provided on the PC board, and are
4 To protect the electrical characteristics of the IC used in high - pin - density IC package situations because
devices can be mounted on both sides of the PC board.
Standard dual - in - line packages (DIP), which fulfill these QFPs and QFJs (PLCC) are typical packages in this
basic requirements, have enjoyed wide usage in the group.
electronics industry for a number of years
Custom packages
With increasing integration and higher speed ICs, and
with the miniaturization of electronic equipment, newer Memory modules are packages which have several
packages have been requested by the industry which memory ICs mounted on a PC board, Tape carrier
incorporate the functions listed below. packages (TCP ) using tape automated bonding (TAB)
techniques, chip on board (COB) packages, or IC cad
1 Multi- pin I/O packages. TCP and COB packages are custom designs
2 Ultra- miniature packages conforming to the customer’s specifications.
3 Packages suited to high density ICs Classication by package materials
4 Improved heat resistance for use with reflow soldering Packages are broadly classifed into ceramic and plastic
techniques. packages. Package materials can be selected according
to their application or operating environment.
5 High through put speed
Ceramic packages are known for thier high reliability, but
6 Improved heat dissipation plastic packages are becoming more popular due to their
7 Lower cost per pin low cost (when compared to ceramic packages). Reliability
has improved considerably in the last few years marking
plastic a very attractive alternative to ceramic.
30 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Dual in - line package DIP packages are hermetic ceramic package. The lead pitch is
2.54mm (100 mil) and the package body is made of ceramics. Metal or
glass may be used as a sealing material.
Dual in - line package (Glass sealed) Dual in - line package are called “CER-DIP” package. The lead pitch is
2.54 mm ( 100 mil) and the package body is molded with powder
ceramics. The sealing materials is glass.
Pin grid array PGA packages are featured by the leads which are drawn out vertically
from each package body and arranged on the spcfied grid. The package
body is made of ceramic, and the standard lead pitch is 2.54 mm ( 100
mil). PGA packages are suited to multipin packaging.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 31
32 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
8-16 PIN SOM = Medium outline 220 mil* Gull 50 mil pitch
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 33
34 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
0008 8
0014 14
0064 64
0144 144
0256 256
Package Material
Package symbols and codes
Code Material Applicable Package
1) Package code (New package code)
C Ceramic Multi-layer ceramic package
The package codes given onthe outline view are those
specfied in ED - 7303 (General rules for integrated circuits G Ceramic Hermetic ceramic package
package name and code) established by electronic sealed with glass
industries association of Japan (EIAJ) as shown below P Plastric Package molded with resin
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 QFN - Quad flat no leads
1 Package material The Quad flat no leads package, or QFN is a very small
square - shaped or rectangular surface - mount plastic
2 Package structure characteristics
package with no leads. It is basically a quad flat package,
3 Package name except for the absence of leads protruding from its sides.
Meta pads or lands around the periphery of the bottom of
4 Number of package leads
the QFN package service as electrical connection points
5 Reference package dimensions to the outside world. Because the QFN has no leads an
6 Lead pitches has shorter bond wire lengths, it exhibits less inductance
than leaded packages and therefore provides a higher
Examples electrical performance. The QFN package also includes
1 P-HQFP 208-40 x 40-0.65 - K (HQFP 208- P-4040- an exposed thermal pad at the package bottom to
0.65-K) this indicates a plastic QFP type package facilitate heat dissipation from the die. as shown in
with a heat sink, consistingof 208 leads with a package fig. 11a & 11b.
body size of 40 mm x 40 mm and a normal bending
Fig 11b
lead pitch of 0.65 mm.
2 P-DIP 42-13.7 x 51.98-2.54 (DIP42-P-600-2.54) This
indicates a plastic DIP type package consistingof 42
leads with package body width of 13.7mm package
body length of 51.98 mm and a lead pitch of 2.54 mm.
Package Names
Code Package Name
SOJ Small Out-line J-Leaded Package The ceramic package, or cerpack, is a hermetically sealed
rectangular ceramic package that has leads extending
ZIP Zigzag in- line Package from both of its longer sides, thus forming two sets of in -
PGA Pin Grid Array line pins. It is therefore a type of dual -in-line package
(DIP) like the CerDIP. as shown in fig.12.
BGA Ball Grid Array
LGA Land Grid Array
36 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 16
The Ceramic column grid array, or CCGA is a square - The sidebraze package, is one of the most mature IC
shaped or rectangular ceramic package that uses solder packages still in use today. It is a rectangular ceramic
columns for external electrical connection instead of leads package that has leads extending from both of its longer
or solder balls. These solder columns are arranged in a sides, thus forming two sets of in-line pins. It is therefore
grid or array at the bottom of the ceramic package body, a type of dual - in line package (DIP). Two other widely
hence the name ‘ceramic column grid array. The CCGA used DIP’s are the PDIP and the CerDIP. as shown in
is basically just a CBGA package that has solder fig. 17.
columns instead of solder balls. as shown in fig. 14 Fig 17
Fig 14
Fig 23
JLCC- J-Leaded ceramic chip carrier The land grid array or LGA is a package that uses metal
pads for external electrical connection instead of leads
The J-leaded ceramic chip carrier, or JLCC, is a square or
(as in the pin grid array) or solder balls ( as in the ball grid
rectangular surface - mount ceramic package that has J-
array). These metal pads, which are called ‘lands’ are
formed leads around its periphery. The plastic molded
arranged in a grid or array at the bottom of the package
equivalent of the JLCC is the PLCC. as shown in fig. 21.
38 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 27
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 39
40 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
42 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Explanation about different types of tools & equipments & raw materials
required for SMD soldering and desoldering work
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• trainees will be familiar to use the tools and raw materials used to avoid the damage of costly SMD devices
and components and ICs due to electrostatic discharge
• trainees will be familiar to use tools and equipments and raw materials required to do soldering and
desoldering work of SMD components and ICs.
Fig 2
Fig 4
43
44 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 11
Fig 12
Curved tweezer
Curved (eagle) tweezer for general assembly, permits
resting hand on bench. Fine points. as shown in 13
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 45
Fig 20
RESHAPES, RE-ALIGNS,
LONG REACH NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS
STRAIGHTENS QFP, TQFP & LQFP
PACKAGES TO ULTRA - FINE PITCH.
Shears PCB chip leads & wire to 20A WG, cables & wire
ties. as shown in fig. 22.
Fig 25
Fig 22
46 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 29
Fig 27
Digital multimeter
Smart tweezer (optional) : Measure accurately and easily
your SMT components. LCR measurement using smart
tweezers. Measure resistance from 0.05 ohm to 10 mega
ohm, capacitance 10pF to 5 mF and inductance 1 uH to
1H. It automatically recognize for LCR measure mode.
Continiuty or open test, Diode test. DC/AC voltae upto +/
- 8 volt, reading of main and parasitic impedance
components. Measurement of dissipation and quality
factors. as shown in fig. 31.
A small, sturdy clamp that can be rotated to almost any Fig 31
angle to hold work or tools. The jaws of this clamp are
heat - resistant, open to 2 7/8”, and have embedded
grooves to help hold circuit boards. For extra stability, it
can be secured to a work bench with mounting screws.
as shown in fig.27
ESD safe vacuum pen (optional)
Suction & vacuum lifting & halding SMD’s, glass
wafers & small parts
Vaccum handling tool that features with silicon vaccum
cups for lifting small parts and components. Vacuum
from the pen vac is generated by simply pressing and
releasing the vaccum release button. as shown in fig.28, SOLDERING & DESOLDERING TIP TEMPERUTE
29, 30. THERMOMETER (OPTIONAL)
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 47
Fig 32
Fig 36
Fig 34
A hole in the middle gives you an edge to wipe the iron tip
on, and also a place for the used solder to fall into so you
are not trying to clean the tip on older debris. We should
wet the sponge using distilled water to avoid corrosion of
This prototype board supports most kinds of SMD IC the soldering iron bit. as shown in fig.36
package.
Dry tip cleaner
TQFP 32 (0.65 mm)
A sponge replacement, these soft, metal coils are coated
TQFP 48 (0.5 mm) with flux and clean soldering iron tips without thermally
TQFP 64 (0.5 mm) shocking them like a wet sponge does. This helps to
prolong tip life. Also, this cleans more effectively than a
SOP 28, SO- 8, SO-14, SO- 16, SOT - 25 sponge. To clean, thrust the iron into the coils a few
QSOP - 28 (0.65 mm) times. as shown in fig. 37
DB 9 Do not scrape the tip on the coils because this can fling
molten solder.
MSOP - 8, etc
Size : 90 * 110* 1.5 mm
48 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 41
Fig 42
Fig 45
50 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
52 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 53
Fig 1
54
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 55
Fig 7
56 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
A ball grid array (BGA) is a type of surface mount flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device can
packaging (a chip carrier ) used for integrated circuits. be used, instead of just the perimeter. The leads are also
BGA packages are used to permanently mount devices on average shorter than with a perimeter - only type,
such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide more leading to better performance at high speeds. as shown
interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in-line or in fig. 1
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 57
58 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 59
Reflow soldering and working principle allows the wave soldering step to be eliminated from the
assembly process, potentially reducing assembly costs.
Reflow soldering is a process in which a solder paste (a
sticky mixture of powdered solder and flux) is used to
temporarily attach one or several electrical components
to their contact pads, after which the entire assembly is
subjected to controlled heat, which melts the solder,
permanently connecting the joint. Heating may be
accomplished by passing the assembly through a reflow
oven or under an infrared lamp or by soldering individual
joints with a hot air pencil as shown in fig. 1 reflow soldering
process.
Reflow soldering is the most common method of attaching
surface mount components to a circuit board, although it
can also be used for through-hole components by filling
the holes with solder paste and inserting the component The goal of the reflow process is to melt the solder and
leads through the paste. Because wave soldering can be heat the adjoining surfaces, without overheating and
simpler and cheaper, reflow is not generally used on pure damaging the electrical components. In the conventional
through-hole boards. When used on boards containing a reflow soldering process, there are usually four stages,
mix of SMT and THT components, through-hole reflow called "zones", each having a distinct thermal profile:
60 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 61
62 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Wire wrapping
Wire wrap is a method to construct electronic circuit board
as shown in fig 2. Electronic components mounted on an
insulating board are interconnected by lengths of insulated
wire run between their terminals, with the connections
made by wrapping several turns around a component lead CONDUCTIVE ADHESIVES
or a socket pin. Wires can be wrapped by hand or by
machine, and can be hand-modified afterwards. It was Chip on Board
popular for large-scale manufacturing in the 60s and early Chipboard may refer to
70s, and continues to be used for short runs and
prototypes. The method eliminates the design and A type of paperboard generally made from reclaimed paper
fabrication of a printed circuit board. Wire wrapping is stock; as shown in the fig. 4
unusual among other prototyping technologies since it • White lined chipboard, a grade of paperboard
allows for complex assemblies to be produced by
• Particle board, a type of engineered wood known as
automated equipment, but than easily repaired or modified
"chipboard" in some countries
by hand.
Fig 4
Fig 2
63
64 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 10
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 65
Acrylic
Acrylic coatings are solvent based. It provides Fair
elasticity and general protection.
They are low cost, easy to apply and remove. It exhibits
low moisture absorption and have short drying times.
Silicone conformal coatings provide excellent protection
in high temperature environments. It has good moisture These types of coating have high di-electric strength,
,humidity, chemical résistance and salt-spray resistance. abrasion resistance. It typical dielectric withstand is
It's typical temperature range is -65 °C to 200 °C. It is greater than 1500 volts and has a temperature range of -
very flexible. Removal of this coating requires specialized 59 °C to 132 °C.
solvents and long soak time. Fig. 5 Shows the acrylic type conformal coating.
Epoxy Fig 5
Epoxy coatings are available as a two part thermosetting
mixture. These conformal coatings are very hard and good
humidity resistance, chemical resistance and high
abrasion. Epoxy coating is quite easy to apply but
impossible to remove without damaging the components.
Fig.3a shows SMD IC on PCB
Fig 3a
Para - Xylylene
Paraxylene coatings are applied by chemical vapour
deposition (CVD). These coatings provide excellent di-
electric strength and resistance to solvents.
Poly Urethene
Urethene coatings are hard and durable which has
excellent resistance to solvents. It has similar moisture
resistance to acrylic and silicon. It is difficult to apply and
hard to be removed. Temperature range is quite similar to
acrylic.
66 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 6
The coating material can be applied by various methods,
from brushing, spraying and dipping.
Before coating a printed circuit board must be cleaned
and de-moisturized.
The following steps are used for coating.
1 Board is cleaned.
2 Protected areas like terminal pins, connectors are
masked off or removed.
3 Coating is applied using a spray process on both sides
of the PCB and its edges.
4 Coating isto be cured according to the coating type.
( air dry, oven dry or UV light cure.)
5 Masking is removed and any removed parts are
reassembled.
Hard 9 9 9
Medium Hard 9 9
Soft 9 9
Heat Reaction 9 9 9
Smooth Surface 9 9 9 9 9
Nonporous Surface 9 9 9 9
Glossy Surface 9 9 9
Brittle 9 9
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 67
68 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 2b
69
Fig 3b The contour of the solder around the joint should be slightly
concave.
Poor solder joints
Too much solder on a joint may lead to poor joints as
shown in fig. 6a, 6b, 6c
Fig 6a
70 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Fig 6c
Dry joints
Dry joints are the main problem of solder joint. These
solder joints may be completely open circuit, or they may
be intermittent, high resistance or noisy. Therefore it is
essential that no dry solder joints are present in any
electronics equipment.
It is easy to identify dry joints as shown in fig.8a & 8b.
Good solder joints are shiny, where as dry joints have a
dull or matt finish.
Fig 8a
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 71
72 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 73
74
Reflow
Solder joint inspection It is very important to clean the stencil frequently during
printing operations, preferably after every application or
every other application. Dry clean the stencils as often as
possible; wet cleaning should be avoided if possible. This
Board Test
will help to minimize printing defects, especially from the
Surface - Mount Assembly Process Flow paste or residue at the bottom of the stencil.
Chip Pick and Placement
Fig 2
MICRO FOOT parts can be picked up from pocketed car-
rier tape reels and placed directly onto PCBs with stan-
dard pick-and-process equipment. A non-metallic pickup
tool (nozzle) should be used to avoid scratching the top
surface of the device, which could result in nucleation sites
for microcracking. The side-lighting option on the pick-
and-place machine's vision system should be used when
attempting to use an individual bump recognition approach
Stencil design: Stencil design is the key to ensuring to ensure greater clarity in bump recognition. Feeders
maximum solder paste deposition without compromising should be well maintained to eliminate any sources of
the assembly yield from solder joint defects (such as bridg- vibration since feed vibration can cause misalignment or
ing and extraneous solder spheres). The stencil aperture complete dislocation of the devices within the pocket after
is dependent on the copper pad size, the solder mask the cover tape has been peeled back.
opening, and the quantity of solder paste. Extreme care should be used when any tool comes into
The optimum stencil thickness is 0.125mm (5 mils) for contact with the devices. The silicon chip is made of glass,
MICRO FOOT 0.80mm pitch products, 0.1mm (4 mils) for and can easily be subject to damage. To prevent die crack-
MICRO FOOT 0.5mm pitch MOSFETs, analog switches, ing during pickup and placement, the pick-and-place force
UCSP analog switches, and 0.4mm pitch MOSFET prod- should be less than 150 g during pickup. No force needs
ucts. to be exerted during placement. It is recommended that
bumps be dipped into solder paste on the PCB to greater
Solder Paste Printing
than 20 % of the paste block height. Though the part will
The solder paste printing process involves transferring self-center during solder reflow, the maximum placement
solder paste through pre-defined apertures via the appli- offset is 0.02 mm.
cation of pressure. The solder paste recommended is eu-
tectic 63Sn/37Pb non clean solder paste or lead (Pb)-free
95.5Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu non clean solder paste. Stencil align-
ment accuracy should be ± 50μm. It is recommended to
use type 3 (25 μm to 45 μm particle size range) or fine
solder paste for printing. Solder paste printing parameters
should be optimized using standard procedures for spe-
cific printing machines to ensure repeatable deposits for
all the pads on the entire board.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199 75
76 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
78 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.184 - 199
79
Fuses-terminology-types-uses
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the purpose of the fuse in a circuit
• explain the types of fuse bases
• classify the different types of fuses and their uses.
Purpose of fuses : A fuse is a safety device used for the Cut - off factor : Time (period ) taken for a fuse to interrupt
purpose of protecting a circuit against excess current. In the circuit in the event of a fault.
the event of excessive current, the fuse element melts
and opens up the circuit thereby protecting it from damage. Fusing factor : Ratio between minimum fusing current
and current rating.
Symbols : These are the graphical symbols used to
illustrate an electrical fuse in electro - technical diagrams. Minimum fu sin g current
Fusing factor = Rated current
General symbols of a fuse (Fig. 1a)
Fuse with terminals and protective housing (Fig. 1b) The fusing factor for a re-wireable fuse varies between 1.4
to 1.7 and may go up to 2.0, but for a HRC fuse it is 1.1
However, a fuse selected for over - current protection
should not have a fusing factor of more than 1.4.
The fusing factor for a re-wirable fuse varies between 1.4
to 1.7 and may go up to 2.0, but for a HRC fuse it is 1.1
However, a fuse selected for over-current protection should
not have a fusing factor of more than 1.4.
Placement of fuses : In electrical installations, the fuses Types of fuses used in domestic wiring:
are always connected into the live wires (L1, L2 and L3 as • Re-wirable type (up to 200A)
shown in fig. 2) and never into the neutral N or the protective
earth line (PE). • Cartridge type (up to 1250A)
Rewirable type fuse (Fig. 3): The fuse element in this
type of fuse consists of a wire which may be replaced when
necessary. These fuses are simple in construction and
the initial cost as well as the renewal cost is very low.
Terminology
Fuse element : The part of the fuse which is designed
to melt and open up a circuit.
Fuse - carrier : The removable portion for carrying the
fuse element.
Fuse base : The fixed part of the fuse provided with
terminals for connection to the circuit which is suitable
for the receptacle of the fuse - carrier. The fuse elements used in this type are tinned copper wire,
lead and tin alloy. Approximate sizes of fuse elements of
Current rating : Safe maximum current that can pass tinned copper wire or aluminium wire for use in semi-
continuously without overheating. enclosed fuses are shown in Table 1.
Fusing current : The current at which the fuse element The fuse element will melt after approximately 2 minutes
melts when carrying a current equal to twice the current rating.
However, the cut-off time factor varies in rewirable fuses
due to:
80
• head contact(1)
• break indicator(2)
• fuse wire(3)
• sand filling(4)
• ceramic fuse body(5)
• foot contact. (6)
Ferrule-contact cartridge fuses: This type, shown in Fig. 4,
is used for protecting electrical and electronic circuits. For easy identification of the fuse cartridges and the
These are available in 25, 50, 100, 200, 250, 500 corresponding fitting screws, they are marked with various
milliamperes, and also in 1,2,5,6,10,16 & 32 amperes colours at the places shown in Fig. 7. For each current
capacity. Normally the current rating is written on one side rating, a different colour is used.
of the cap, and while replacing, the same capacity fuse
should be used. Its body is made of glass and the fuse wire
Pink - 2 amperes Blue - 20 amperes Comparison between H.R.C. & Rewirable fuses
Green - 6 amperes Black - 35 amperes Rupturing Not recommended for Normal types
capacity currents exceeding cater to fault
Red - 10 amperes White - 50 amperes 200 A or for more than loads up to
Grey - 16 amperes Copper - 63 amperes 600V or where there 2500 KVA. For
is a possibility of S.C. certain appli-
Fig 8 shows the flow of the electric current through the fuse fault of more than 5 MVA. tions, fuses up
base and the fuse. In order to prevent the accidental to 50 MVA are
touching of a live line, the electrical supply must be obtainable.
connected to the terminal which is connected to the fixing
screw at the bottom of the base. Rupturing Rating and cut-off are Very rapid.
speed(Cut- not absolutely Usually AC
off factor) reliable. supply current
is cut off within
the first half
cycle.
Discrimi- Poor. Accurate.
nation
Safety in Risk of flash-over No external
operation under heavy fault flame.
condition.
Deterio- Oxidation and conse- No oxidation
ration quent scaling causes is the element
Diazed type fuses are available in two categories, reduction in the cross- is completely
sectional area, thus sealed.
a)quick-response type and b) delayed-action type.
increasing resistance,
The quick-response type is used for heating circuits
and leading to over-
and normal loads whereas the delayed- action type is used for
heating and premature
motor circuits and highly inductive circuits.
rupturing.
High rupturing capacity fuses (Fig. 9): They are cylindrical
Fusing Copper wire upto As low as 1.1.
in shape and are made of a ceramic body filled in with a
factor 20A 1.7 over 20A 2.0.
chemically treated filling powder or silica to quench the
arcing quickly without any fire hazard.
Circuit Breaker The electric current gets through two contact tips one
each on moving and fixed contact of silver graphite.
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable
of making, and breaking currents under normal circuit An arcing chamber incorporating de-ionising arc chutes
condition and also making, carrying current under normal for control and quick suppression of the arc is provided in
condition and breaking currents under abnormal circuit the gap between two contacts. It has a ribbed opening
conditions like a short circuit. closed by metal grid which allows ventilation and escape
of gases.
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
For protection against over-load and short circuit, MCB’s
A miniature circuit breaker is a compact mechanical
have thermal magnetic release unit. The overload is taken
device for making and breaking a circuit both in normal
care of by bimetallic strip, short circuit currents and over
condition and in abnormal conditions such as those of over
loads of more than 100% are taken care by solenoid.
current and short circuit.
Working
Types of MCB’s
The bimetallic strip when flexing due to temperature rise
MCBs are manufactured with three different principles of
caused by increasing normal rated current beyond 130%
operation namely
rotates a trip lever carrying an armature to which it is to
a Thermal Magnetic brought into field of a solenoid. The solenoid is designed
to attract the armature to full position at about 700%
b Magnetic hydraulic and
overload or instantaneous short circuit current.
c Assisted bimetallic
For initial portion of current wise (130% to 400%) tripping
Thermal magnetic MCB of circuit breaker is due to thermal action, between 400 to
700% tripping is due to combined thermal and magnetic
As shown in Fig. 1, the switching mechanism is housed
action and beyond 700% due to fully magnetic action.
in a moulded housing with phenolic moulded high
mechanically strong switching dolly. This type of MCB is Magnetic hydraulic MCB
also provided with bimetallic over load release.
Magnetic hydraulic circuit breaker operates on the principle
of a solenoid and hydraulically damped plunger.
Construction and working
A movable ferrous plunger is held against a non-ferrous
tube containing polysiloxane liquid which have flat
temperature viscosity characteristic in temperature range
of 20 to 60°C. The solenoid is a series coil in the circuit
of MCB. As the plunger moves towards a pole piece, the
reluctance of magnetic path.
Containing the armature is cumulatively reduced leading
to some magneto motive force producing a progressively
increasing flux. The armature is then attracted causing
the mechanism to trip and open the controls on overload
or short circuit. Instantaneous tripping occurs on very
large currents 7 to 8 times the full load current. The
construction of magnetic hydraulic tripping mechanism is
as shown in Fig. 2.
84
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 85
The hammer trip active current limiting system provides 5 Tamper proof
high rupturing capacity during short circuits. The typical 6 Multiple units are available.
trip time for clearing short circuits is only 2 to 3 millisecond.
Specially designed arc chutes, arc runner and silver Disadvantages
graphite contact system ensures high reliability and a long 1 Expensive
maintenance free operating life.
2 More mechanically moving parts
The residual current module works on the core balance
3 They require regular testing to ensure satisfactory
transformer principle. It includes high permeability magnetic
operation.
core and temperature resistant insulated copper wire
wound with high degree of symmetry to eliminate nuisance 4 Their characteristics are affected by the ambient
tripping. The residual current signal from the core balance temperature.
86 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 87
ELCB-types-working principle-specification
Objectives : At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• explain the working principle, different types and construction of an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
• explain the technical specifications of ELCB’s.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 89
90 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202
Contactors-parts-functions-troubleshooting-symbols
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the basic contactor circuit with a single push-button station for start and stop
• state the function of a no-volt coil, its rated voltage, position of operation, its common troubles, their causes
and remedies.
i) Contactors: The contactor forms the main part in all the The main parts of a magnetic contactor are shown in
starters. A contactor is defined as a switching device Fig. 1, and Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagram of the
capable of making, carrying and breaking a load circuit at contactor when used along with fused switches (ICTP),
a frequency of 60 cycles per hour or more. It may be push-button stations and OL relay for connecting a squirrel
operated by hand (mechanical), electromagnetic, pneumatic cage motor for starting directly from the main supply. In the
or electro-pneumatic relays. same way the direct on-line starter consists of a contactor,
The contactors shown in Fig. 1 consist of main contacts, OL relay and push-button station in an enclosure.
auxiliary contacts and no-volt coil. As per Fig 1, there are Functional description
three sets of normally open, main contacts between
terminals 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, two sets of normally Power circuit: As shown in Fig.2, when the main ICTP
open auxiliary contacts between terminals 23 and 24, 13 switch is closed and the contactor K1 is operated, all the
and 14, and one set of normally closed auxiliary contact three windings U V & W of the motor are connected to the
between terminals 21 and 22. Auxiliary contacts carry less supply terminals R Y B via the ICTP switch, contactor and
current than main contacts. Normally contactors will not OL relay.
have the push-button stations and O.L. relay as an integrated
part, but will have to be used as separate accessories
along with the contactor to form the starter function.
91
92 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202
Motor starts when `ON' button is Auxiliary contact in Check the parallel connection from
pressed. It however stops parallel with the start-button `ON' button terminals to the auxiliary
immediately when `ON' button is is not closing. contact of the contactor.
released. Rectify the defect.
Check the auxiliary contact points of
the contactor for erosion and pittings.
Replace, if found defective.
Motor does start when the start- Movable armature and fixed Dust or dirt or grit between the mating
button is pressed. However, a limb of electromagnet are surfaces of the electromagnetic core.
humming or chattering noise comes not stably attracted. Clean them.
from the starter. Low voltage supply. Find the cause
and rectify the defect.
Break in the shading ring in the case
of AC magnet.
Failure of contactor due to too much Higher incoming supply rating. Higher supply voltage than normal.
heating of the `No' volt coil. No-volt coil rating is not high. Reduce the incoming voltage.
Motor does not restart immediately It takes a little time for the thermal Wait for 2 to 4 minutes before re-
after tripping of OL relay even bimetal to cool and reset. starting.
though OL relay was reset.
Coil does not get energised even Open-circuited NVC. Check the nylon strip on relay.
though supply voltage is found NVC burnt out.
across the no-volt coil terminals. Check the nylon button below the
start button
Replace, if necessary.
Relay coil has been changed. Control circuit of relay open. Check the control circuit for open.
However motor does not start
when the start-button is pressed. Clean the control station contacts.
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 93
The table given below contains most of the important symbols used by an electrician. However, you are
advised to refer to the quoted B.I.S. standards for further additional information.
Table
S.No. BIS Description Symbol Remarks
Code No.
BIS 2032
(Part XXV)-
1980
1 9.3 Pressure switch
2 9.4 Thermostat
3 9.5 Circuit-breaker
94 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202
10 9.11 Isolator.
12 9.17 Socket(female).
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 95
23 9.29 Fuse.
28 3.14 Winding
Note: The number of half circles is not fixed,
but if desired a distinction might be made for
the different windings of a machine as specified
in 3.2,3.3 and 3.4.
96 Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202
Simplified Complete
multiline multiline
representation representation
40 5.1.3 Auto-transformers
Electronic Mechanic NSQF Level 5 -Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200- 202 97
Relays-types-operations-specification-symbols
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define a realy
• classify relays according to the operating force and function
• state the common codes used for specifying contacts and poles
• specify a relay
• explain the function of the shading coil in an AC relay
• state the causes of the failure of the relay
• identify the symbols used in relay as per I.S.2032 (Part XXVII).
Relay: A relay is a device which opens or closes an Under-current relay: Under-current relay is an alarm or
auxiliary circuit under predetermined conditions in the protective relay. It is specifically designed to operate when
main circuit. the current falls below a predetermined value.
Relays are extensively used in electronics, electrical Voltage sensing relay: A voltage sensing relay is used
engineering and many other fields. where a condition of under-voltage or over-voltage may
There are relays that are sensitive to conditions of voltage, cause a damage to the equipment. For example, these
current, temperature, frequency or some combination of types of relays are used in voltage stabilizers. Either a
these conditions. proportional AC voltage derived from a transformer or a
proportional DC derived from a transformer and rectifier is
Relays are also classified according to their main operating used for this purpose.
force as stated under.
Latching relays
– Electromagnetic relays
Latching relays are capable of maintaining their contacts
– Thermal relays in the last assumed position without the maintained
Electromagnetic relay: A relay switch assembly is a current in the coil. These relays hold their contacts in
combination of movable and fixed low-resistance contacts position after power is cut off.
that open or close a circuit. The fixed contacts are There are two basic kinds of latching relays called
mounted on springs or brackets, which have some mechanical reset and electrical reset.
flexibility. The movable contacts are mounted on a spring
or a hinged arm that is moved by the electromagnet in the Mechanical re-set relays: Mechanical re-set relays
relay as shown in Fig. 1. have a coil, an armature mechanism, and a mechanical
latching device that locks the armature in the operated
position after the coil has been de-energised. Manual
tripping of the locking mechanism, re-sets the relay.
Electrical reset relays: An electrical re-set relay shown
in Fig. 2 has the same operating mechanism, but it
includes a second coil and armature to trip the latching
mechanism. This system allows remote re-setting of the
relays to their original position.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
99
Table 1
Design Sequence Symbol
1 SPST-NO Make 1
2 SPST-NC Break 1
SPDT Break1 before make 2
100 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
101
8 Note: The two windings of the relay coil are to be marked by the
same sign, for example, the letter A.
Windings
10 Winding of a slow releasing relay
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
102
Types of overload relay The tripping of the control circuit in the bimetallic relay
results from the difference of expansion of two dissimilar
There are two types of overload relays. They are : metals fused together. Movement occurs if one of the
– magnetic overload relay metal expands more than the other when subjected to
heat. A U-shaped bimetallic strip is used in the relay as
– thermal (bimetallic) overload relay. shown in Fig. 12. The U-shaped strip and a heater element
Normally there are 3 coils in a magnetic relay and 3 sets inserted in the centre of the U compartments for avoiding
of heater coils in a bimetallic relay so that two coils will possible uneven heating due to variations in the mounting
operate in case of single phasing which help in avoiding the location of the heater element.
burning out of the motor. As shown in Fig 12, under normal conditions, the bimetallic
Magnetic overload relay: The magnetic overload relay strip pushes the pin against the leaf-spring tension, and
coil is connected in series with the motor circuits. The coil the point contacts 95 and 96 are in a closed position, and
of the magnetic relay must be wound with a wire, large hence the no-volt coil circuit is completed while the motor
enough in size to pass the motor current. As these is running. When a higher current passes through the
overload relays operate by current intensity and not by heater coil connected to terminals 2 and 2', the heat
heat, they are faster than bimetal relays. generated in the coil heats up the bimetal strip which
bends inward. Hence the pin retracts in the right hand
As shown in Fig. 11, the magnetic coil carries the motor direction and the leaf-spring opens the contact between 95
current through terminals 2 and 2' which is in series with and 96 to open the contactor. The relay cannot be reset
the power circuit. The relay contacts, 95 and 96, are in immediately as the heat in the bimetallic strips require
series with the control circuit. When a current more than some time for cooling.
a certain stipulated value, as set by the relay set scale,
passes through the power circuit, the magnetic flux
produced by the coil will lift the plunger in an upward
direction. This upward movement makes the plunger tip to
push the relay contact lever, and the contact between
terminals 95 and 96 opens. This breaks the no volt coil
circuit and the contactor opens the power circuit to the
motor. The relay contacts between terminals 95 and 96
stay open till the rest-button (not shown in the figure) is
pressed.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
104
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.200 to 202
105
i) Single phase induction motors by the lower rotor conductors; hence no rotation results.
In the next instant, as shown in Fig 1b, the voltage in the
Single phase motors perform a great variety of useful
input supply changes its polarity, creating a main field with
services at home, office, farm, factory, and in business
a change in direction. This main field produces a torque,
establishments. These motors are generally referred to as
downward in upper conductors, and upwards in bottom
fractional horsepower motors with a rating of less than 1
conductors resulting in the cancellation of torque with no
H.P. Most single phase motors fall into this category.
movement of the rotor, in this case also. Since the field is
Single phase motors are also manufactured in 1.5,2,3 and
pulsating, the torque is pulsating although no net torque is
up to 10 H.P. as a special requirement.
produced over a full cycle.
Single phase motors may be broadly classified as
split-phase induction motors and commutator motors
according to their construction and method of starting.
Split-phase induction motors can be further classified as:
– resistance-start, induction-run motors
– induction-start, induction-run motors
– permanent capacitor motors
– capacitor-start, induction-run motors
– capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors
– shaded pole motors.
Commutator motors can be classified as:
– repulsion motors
– series motors.
The basic principle of operation of a split-phase induction
motor is similar to that of a polyphase induction motor. The
main difference is that the single phase motor does not
produce a rotating magnetic field but produces only a
pulsating field. Hence to produce the rotating magnetic
field, phase-spliting is to be done to make the motor to
work as a two-phase motor for starting.
First, let us examine the behaviour of the magnetic field as
set up by an AC current in a sinlge-phase field winding.
With reference to Fig 1, at a particular instant, the current
flowing in the field winding produces the magnetic field as
shown in Fig 1a. Since the produced magnetic field is If the rotor is given a small jerk in any direction in the above
varying, it will induce currents in the rotor bars which in turn mentioned cases, it will go on revolving, and will develop
will create a rotor flux. This stator-induced flux, according a torque in that particular direction due to interaction
to Lenz's law, opposes that of the main field. By applying between the rotor and stator fluxes. Because of this effect,
this principle, the current direction in the rotor bars can be the split-phase motor, once started, needs only one
determined as shown in Fig 1a, as well as the torque winding to be connected to the supply for running. It is
created between the field and rotor currents. It is apparent clear that a single phase induction motor, when having
that the downward torque produced by the upper rotor only one winding, is not self-starting. If the main field is
conductors is counteracted by the upward torque produced made revolving instead of pulsating, a rotational torque
could be produced in the rotor.
106
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 107
110 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
112 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
I
Capacity of capacitor in CF Farad =
2 π FV
6
I × 10
Capacity in microfarad C mf =
2 π FV
3182 × I
= microfarad
V
If the capacity is 20 percent more or less than the notified
value, replace it.
Insulation test on capacitors: According to BIS 1709-1984
recommendations, the insulation test conducted between but with higher power factor, during starting as well as in
the shorted capacitor terminals and the metal can, when running.
measured by a 500V megger/insulation tester, should not
be less than 100 megohms. If the can is of insulating
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 113
114 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 115
The three-phase induction motor is used more extensively a force to move the rotor in the same direction as that of
than any other form of electrical motor, due to its simple the rotating magnetic field of the stator, as shown in
construction, trouble-free operation, lower cost and a fairly Fig. 3. As such the rotor follows the stator field in the same
good torque speed characteristic. direction by rotating at a speed lesser than the synchronous
i) Principle of 3-phase induction motor: It works on the speed of the stator rotating magneticfield.
same principle as a DC motor, that is, the current-carrying
conductors kept in a magnetic field will tend to create a
force. However, the induction motor differs from the DC
motor in fact that the rotor of the induction motor is not
electrically connected to the stator, but induces a voltage/
current in the rotor by the transformer action, as the stator
magnetic field sweeps across the rotor. The induction
motor derives its name from the fact that the current in the
rotor is not drawn directly from the supply, but is induced
by the relative motion of the rotor conductors and the
magnetic field produced by the stator currents.
The stator of the 3-phase induction motor is similar to that
of a 3-phase alternator, of revolving field type. The
three-phase winding in the stator produces a rotating
magnetic field in the stator core as it will be explained later.
The rotor of the induction motor may have either shorted
rotor conductors in the form of a squirrel cage or in the form
of a 3-phase winding to facilitate the circulation of current
through a closed circuit.
Let us assume that the stator field of the induction motor
is rotating in a clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 1. This
makes for the relative motion of the rotor in an anticlockwise
direction as shown in Fig. 1. Applying Fleming's right hand
rule, the direction of emf induced in the rotor will be towards
the observer as shown in Fig. 2. As the rotor conductors At higher speeds of the rotor nearing to synchronous
have a closed electric path, due to their shorting, a current speeds, the relative speed between the rotor and the
will flow through them as in a short-circuited secondary of rotating magnetic field of the stator reduces and results in
a transformer. a smaller induced emf in the rotor. Theoretically, if we
assume that the rotor attains a speed equal to the
synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of the
stator, there will be no relative motion between the stator
field and the rotor, and thereby no induced emf or current
will be there in the rotor. Consequently there will not be any
torque in the rotor. Hence the rotor of the induction motor
cannot run at a synchronous speed at all. As the motor is
loaded, the rotor speed has to fall to cope up with the
mechanical force; thereby the relative speed increases,
and the induced emf and current increase in the rotor
resulting in an increased torque.
The magnetic field produced by the rotor currents will be
in a counter-clockwise direction as shown in Fig 2 according To reverse the direction of rotation of a rotor: The
to Maxwell's Corkscrew rule. The interaction between the direction of rotation of the stator magnetic field depends
stator magnetic field and the rotor magnetic field results in upon the phase sequence of the supply. To reverse the
direction of rotation of the stator as well as the rotor, the
116
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 117
where `P' is the number of poles in the stator, and `F' is the
frequency of the supply.
ii) Construction of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction
motor - relation between slip, speed, rotor frequency,
copper loss and torque
Three-phase induction motors are classified according to Rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor: The rotor of
their rotor construction. Accordingly, we have two major the squirrel cage induction motor shown in Fig. 2 contains
types. no windings. Instead it is a cylindrical core constructed of
steel laminations with conductor bars mounted parallel to
– Squirrel cage induction motors
the shaft and embedded near the surface of the rotor core.
– Slip ring induction motors. These conductor bars are short circuited by an end-ring at
Squirrel cage motors have a rotor with short-circuited bars either end of the rotor core. On large machines, these
whereas slip ring motors have wound rotors having three conductor bars and the end-rings are made up of copper
windings, either connected in star or delta. The terminals with the bars brazed or welded to the end rings as shown
of the rotor windings of the slip ring motors are brought out in Fig.3. On small machines the conductor bars and
through slip-rings which are in contact with stationary end-rings are sometimes made of aluminium with the bars
brushes. and rings cast in as part of the rotor core.
N s - Nr
= x 100
Ns
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 119
f Ns - Nr
= 120 xf
P = Ns
120 x 50
= = 1000 r.p.m. =
1500 - 1440 x 50
6 1500
N s - Nr 60 x 50
% slip = x 100 = = 2 Hz.
Ns 1500
N s x %slip Solution
Nr = N s -
100 120 x f
a Synchronous speed Ns =
p
1500 x 4
= 1500 -
100
120 x 50
= = 750 r.p.m.
= 1440 r.p.m. 8
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
120
2 U and V
3 V and W
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 123
2 U and frame
3 V and frame
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 125
126 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
75 = 1500 - Nr
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 127
fr Ns - N
= =s
f Ns
fr = sf
128 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
Manual star-delta switch/starter However with large capacity motors, the starting current
Necessity of star-delta starter for 3-phase squirrel will cause too much voltage fluctuations in the power lines
cage motor: If a 3-phase squirrel cage motor is started and disturb the other loads. On the other hand, if all the
directly, it takes about 5-6 times the full load current for a squirrel cage motors connected to the power lines are
few seconds, and then the current reduces to normal value started at the same time, they may momentarily overload
once the speed accelerates to its rated value. As the the power lines, transformers and even the alternators.
motor is of rugged construction and the starting current Because of these reasons, the applied voltage to the
remains for a few seconds, the squirrel cage induction squirrel cage motor needs to be reduced during the
motor will not get damaged by this high starting current. starting periods, and regular supply could be given when
the motor picks up its speed.
130 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 131
= 3 x 400 x 9.24 x 1
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
132
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206 133
134 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.203 to 206
Introduction: The various types of equipments used in styroflex spacer. The cable side of the inner conductor is
the field of communications and broadcasting are in the in the form of a small cylindrical rod with a hole and screw
form of cabinets closed on all sides by metal plates. The arrangement (C) for connecting the centre conductor of the
input-output connections, Auxiliary inputs and outputs unbalanced cable. There is also a clamp like lead (D) fixed
and other connections to the equipment are brought out in to the outer tube to which the shield of the unbalanced
the form of connectors mounted normally on the rear side cable is to be connected using a crimp tool or a nose plier.
of the equipment. So connections to the equipments by
cables cannot be done with open ended cables. The cable The entire rear portion of the connector (cable end) is
ends should also have suitable mating connectors for protected by a strong PVC cover (E) which is screwed to
giving input or taking the output from the equipments. the metal connector. A sleeving of suitable diameter may
be used at the cable connection to prevent the strands of
The use of such connectors makes it easy to remove the shield touching the inner conductor.
equipment or replace the equipment whenever necessary.
The cable connections can easily be changed to other The RCA plugs can also be used with video cables (RG58/
equipments when cables and equipments are provided 59) to connect video inputs and outputs in commercial
with connectors. Also the use of such connectors are equipments.
helpful in making firm and reliable connections. In addition, RCA scokets (female) are available in different styles; The
in many cases the usage of connectors helps for fool proof construction of these sockets is more or less similar as
operation avoiding errors due to wrong connections. PCB mount type and panel mount type as shown in fig. 2A
Audio Connectors & 2B. The central conductor is the inner tube separated
from the outer tube by a plastic or foam spacer. The
The details of some of the Audio connectors which are dimensions of the inner tube and outer tube are such that
mostly in use are as follows. the male plug tightly sits making firm contact.
RCA plug and sockets: The exploded view of the RCA Fig 2a Fig 2b
connector plug is given in Fig.1.
S
R
T
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
137
S/PDIF connector
S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format) connector
plug is shown in fig.15a & 15b is a type of digital audio
interconnect used in consumer audio equipment to output
audio over reasonably short distances. The signal is
In the rear portion of the connector the leads from the inner transmitted over a fiber optic cable with TOSLINK connector.
conductor is brought out to which the centre lead of the S/PDIF interconnects components in home theatres and
cable is soldered. The shield of the cable is connected to other digital high fidelity systems.
the chassis (ground) at a point nearest to the connector. Fig 15a
Since the outer frame of connector is fixed to the panel, it
gets grounded.
In the cable type BNC female connector, the rear portion
(cable side) is similar to that of the male plug and the S/PDIF
CONNECTOR
procedure for giving cable connection is also same. PLUG
HDMI connector
Fig 15b
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a
proprietary audio/video interface for transferring
uncompressed video data and compressed or S/PDIF SOCKET
uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant
source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible
computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or
138 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
140 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211 141
21 F - Connector
Male Female
142 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Audio Cables: Audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to or cable. For example, the signal output from a normal
20kHz. In other words frequencies from 20Hz to 20kHz are microphone is very low. This low level signal should reach
audible by human ear. Any information conveyed at these the amplifier at the other end of the cable with minimum
frequencies are wanted signals. Any other disturbances loss. For this we must use a cable with more number of
like noise cross talk and hum are unwanted signals. The strands. The gauge of each strand can be thin to provide
audio equipments are designed and assembled to handle flexibility to the cable.
only wanted signals and reject unwanted signals. Similarly
In the case where an amplifier output (line output) of
the audio cables used inside the audio equipments and
moderate level getting connected to another equipment,
also cables used for connecting two or more equipments
line loss is not very important. But the cable has to be
and devices should also be such that they reject unwanted
slightly more sturdy. Here we can use a cable having less
signals. For this purpose the audio cables are provided
number of strands each strand being a slightly thicker
with a shield which is grounded at both ends of the cable.
gauge.
This shield acts as a screen and prevents induction of
noise. This shield surrounding the live leads runs throughout In the case where the output of a high power amplifier is to
the length of the cable in the form of a metal (copper) mesh. be connected to another location we have to choose a
cable having more number of strands and thicker gauge
The general construction of an audio cable is shown in the
to avoid line loss and to reduce heating of the cable.
fig. 1.
The choice of cable depends on the signal level, length for
the cable and durability. Of course cost is also a factor.
The details of various types of commonly used Audio
cables are as follows.
Standard Round: Fig. 2 shows standard type braided
screen cables. They offer low noise for use in low-level
signal circuits.
The two conductors (D,D) are made up of either single 16/0.2mm tinned copper stranded conductors, PVC
strand or multi-stranded with polythene insulation (C) insulated, braided screen and grey PVC sheath.
around each conductor. The shield (B) made up of metal Cores: red (single), blue and red (twin).
in the form of a mesh is fixed around the two leads and run
throughout the length of the cable. Normally a cotton braid
is also provided in between the leads and the shield to give
flexibility to the cable. A PVC sheath (A) is provided over
the metal shield to give protection to the cable from
weather and also to provide mechanical strength.
There are different types of audio cables depending upon
their applications and usage. Wherever unbalanced
circuits are connected single core screened cables are
used and wherever balanced circuits are connected two
core screened cables are used. Some of the commercial
microphones gives the unbalanced output for which single Capacitance: 360 pF/m (single); core to screen 288 pF/
core audio cables (Flexible) are used. m and core to core 171 pF/m (twin). Twin type has twisted
The number of strands in each conductor and the gauge cores for hum reduction.
(thickness) of each strand depend upon the application.
When the signal level is low, we must avoid loss in the line
143
Microphone Cables: Fig. 3 shows a 2-core standard type This cable comes with four 14/0.12 mm tinned copper
Microphone cable. This is a low noise screened cable. stranded conductors, PVC insulated and wrapped with
Construction ensures good transmission properties polythene tape. Capacitance 125 PF / m.
desirable in many professional audio & low level programme
This is also a High-grade, low-noise, screened cables and
circuits. Two 55/0.1 mm plain copper stranded conductors
the construction ensures good transmission properties
PVC insulated and twisted together.
desirable in many professional audio and low noise level.
Patch/instrument Cable: It is shown in the Fig. 6.
144 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
145
Specifications
Other types of video cables come with power supply line PTZ combo cable- The PTZ combo cable is shown in
along the coaxial cable are given below. fig.11
RG59 Coaxial Cable + 2 Core Power CCTV cable
Fig 11
RG59+2 composite cable is shown in fig.10.
Fig 10
146 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
The structure and description of various types of video and Table 1 gives the types of cables suitable for BNC
RF connectors and co-axial cables were discussed in connectors of both types.
Ex.1 Related Theory.
Table - 1
The co-axial cables cannot be used directly without
putting the proper connectors at their ends. The Cables with
impedances faced by RF circuits will be perfect only if 75 ohms BNC Application
connected by correct type of cables and proper connectors. connectors
In other words RF circuits will get matched to their loads
only when properly connected. If co-axial cables with bare RG59B/U Video circuits and cabling
ends are used there will be mismatch causing reflections RG179B/U Closed circuit
and may cause damage to the devices in the RF circuits. RG6 TV
Hence the usage of co-axial cables of proper character
impedance (Zo) with suitable connectors is a must in RF Cables with
circuits. Even RF connectors are designed for 50 and 75 50 ohms BNC Application
ohms depending upon the application. connectors
147
While making co-axial cable-connector assemblies there crimping tools used for co-axial cable connections.
is a possibility of some thin strands of the shield of the Crimping ensures very good contact and also avoids
cable touching the inner at the connector end. This should breaking of the cable leads which is normal in soldered
be carefully avoided. Also while checking the continuity connections.
during testing shake the connector ends of the cable while
holding multimeter prods. The centre pin and the outer of The crimping tool type HT 301C is used for crimping
the connector should not show continuity even while common types of video and RF connectors. HT 301C is
shaking the cable. useful for crimping BNC connectors while making co-axial
cable connector assembly.
The Crimping tool : We have come across crimping tools
used with power cables where the cable ends are connected Figure 1 shows the crimping tool. It is 8.7" professional
to lugs and crimped for firm contact. Similarly we have Hexagon/Oval type Ratchet and useful for F, BNC, TNC,
N, Fiberoptic thinnet - PVC & Thinnet Teflon connectors.
148 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
301B .319" .213" .187" 6, 55, 58, 141, 142, 223, 303, 400
8.1mm 5.41mm 4.75mm 174, Fiber Optic
301C .319" .256" .213" .068" 6, 59, 62, 140, 210, BELDEN 8279
8.1mm 6.5mm 5.41mm 1.72mm 55, 58, 141, 142, 223, 303, 400, Fiber Optic
301D .324" .256" .213" .068" 5, 6, 58, 59, 62, 140, 141, 142, 212, 222, 303
8.3mm 6.5mm 5.41mm 1.72mm Fiber Optic BELDEDN 8281, 8279, 9231, 9141
The RG 59B/U co-axial cable has an outer diameter of b) It avoids breaking of leads which we normally experience
6.15mm (including the PVC sheath) and the diameter of in soldered connection.
the inner conductor is 0.6mm whereas in the BNC (crimp
type) connector the Outer Diameter of the centre pin is c) The crimping saves a lot of time. The process is very
2mm and that of the metal sleeve is 7mm. For crimping quick.
these two we must use the dies 1.72mm for the inner The only disadvantages in crimping is, the connector once
conductor and 5.41mm for the shield. used for crimping, cannot be re-used. It should be thrown
After stripping the PVC sheath and dressing the lead out only. This is the reason why precaution should be
insert the inner conductor into the center pin (D) and crimp taken to cut the cable end to correct dimensions and
positioned properly before crimping.
it using the 1.72 mm die.
Cable stripper : Many people are in the habit of using
The dimensions of the BNC plug are shown in Fig. 2. Next, shaving blades for removing the PVC sheath of the cable.
after inserting the metal sleeve (C) over the screen spread This is first of all hazardous as there is a possibility of
over the knurled surface (B), use 5.41mm die to crimp the injuring the fingers. Secondly while cutting the sheath the
metal sleeve. blade may cut the strands of the inner conductor. In the
case of a co-axial cable, while cutting the PVC sheath, the
strands of the screen also may get cut thereby rendering
it weak while connecting.
Cable strippers are available in the market for various
applications to overcome the above difficulty.
The cable stripper is simple in construction. It consists of
a pair of jaws made of hard bakelite frame. The jaws are
spring loaded and can be opened by a short lever operated
by the thumb. There is a hole in the jaw through which the
cable to be stripped is inserted after opening the jaws. A
sharp piece of blade kept moulded inside this hole is used
for cutting the sheath. The blade is kept in a position to
The advantages of using crimping are
cut precisely the PVC sheath only.
a) Crimping ensures firm mechanical and electrical
contact.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
149
150 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Category 3/Cat 3 - 10 Mbps - used for voice grade telephone or 10 mbps ethernet
Category 4/Cat 4 - 16 Mbps - Token ring network
Category 5/Cat 5 - 100 Mbps - For 100 Mbps Ethernet
/ECat 5 - 100/1000 Mbps
CAT 6 cable wires with a soft supporting member in the center of the
cable as shown in fig. 3.
Cat 6 is a "twisted pair" network cable used for carrying
data signals at speeds of up to 550MHz of Bandwidth. This Fig 3
cable is preferred for more advanced networking
installations where a higher bandwidth than normal is
required.
With Gigabit Ethernet, Broadband, Audio/Video and
Security capabilities, Cat6 is ideal for any critical network
installation. Whether it's for wiring a home, office or entire
campus, we have the solution that's right for the installation.
Cat6 is backward compatible with the CAT 3, 5, 5e cable
standards. As with Cat5 and Cat5e cabling, Cat6 cables
consists of 4 unshielded twisted pairs(UTP) of copper
151
152 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
PIN POSITION
Fig 11
RJ45 PLUG
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
153
Fig 14a
Fig 14c
154 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Basic Computer devices are using DB9 interface for serial communication
D type 25 pin male connectors are located on the rear
A personal computer consists of a mother board, RAM - side of the cabinet usually denoted as COM-1 & COM
add on cards, Hard disk drive (HDD), Floppy disk drives -2 are used for serial communication. These are connected
FDD, Power supply, cabinet, monitor, key board and a to mother board using two 10 core cables. A D type 25
mouse. These parts are available as separate modules. pin ( female ) parallel port is located on the rear side of
It is possible to integrate all these devices into one the cabinet is used for parallel communication. This is
complete unit with minimum interconnections. In practice also called as printer port or asynchronous port which is
these modules are interconnected using cables, connected to the mother board using a 25 core flat cable.
connectors, and edge connectors. Such an arrangement Printers are connected to the parallel port. A general
gives the flexibility of changing subsystem and ease of mouse comes with a 9 pin D type female connector which
trouble shooting. is connected to the serial port.
Cables and connectors Universal Serial Bus (USB) is also a communication port
Different types of cables used in the computer are multicored similar to serial port used to connect modem, scanners
round shielded cable, unshielded cables and multicored and Web-cameras etc. USB ports are used to connect the
flat cable as per the international standards. Chart -1 peripherals having the USB connectors. Two 5 core or 4
shows various types of connectors used in PC. Mouse, core cables are connected between the Mother Board and
key board and monitor comes with a cable, terminated the USB terminations on the rear side of the PC.
with connectors at one end .Hard disk, FDD, CD-ROM and Mini jack connectors are used to connect Audio IN and
other such devices are terminated with a 40 pin/50pin/34 OUT of external audio sources. Computers with sound
pin FRC connectors. Power supply to HDD, FDD and CD- card are provided with female mini jack connectors at the
ROM units also fed through the hard plastic connectors. rear side. Allows to attach microphone or external sound
HDD, is connected to the Mother Board with a flat cable source, speakers . The PCs CD-ROM drive audio is
(40 pin) for data transmission and 4 pin hard plastic connected to the sound card internally.
connector for the Power. These cables are made in such RCA connectors are used for video IN and OUT to external
away that we can connect two devices at a time (one video sources. Computers with TV tuner card/ video
master and the other slave). In a typical system the digitizer card are provided with female type RCA connectors
connection may be any of the following type at the rear side.
i) M/B to HDD and CD drive Game port is a 15 pin D type (normal) connector provided
ii) M/B to two HDDs at the rear side of the computer to connect JOY stick
which is a popular multi directional pointing device used for
ii) M/B to two CD drive
playing computer games.
FDD is connected to the MB with a 34 pin flat cable for data
Monitors come with a cable terminated with a 15 pin D
transfer and 4 pin hard plastic Molex connector for power.
type male connector. It is connected to the CPU through
We can connect two floppy disks at a time using the cable.
a 15 pin D type female video connector located at the rear
They can be either two “5 1/4 “or two “3 1/2” or combination
side of the cabinet. This connector is a high density
of both. But nowadays only “3 1/2 “ i.e. 1.44MB drives are
connector, packed in a 9 pin D type shell construction.
used and the “5 1/2“ are out dated
Registered Jack (RJ) connectors are available as two
The rear panel connectors are identified by their standard
wire, 4 wire and 8 wire terminations. They are denoted as
types such as D type, DIN type, mini DIN type or PS/2
RJ 11( 4 pin) and RJ 45 ( 8 pins) etc. RJ-female connectors
type, RJ type, BNC, RCA and USB. All these types have
are located at the rear side of a computer if the computer
male and female connectors. Chart 1 at the end of this
is fitted with a modem or network card. RJ 11 is used to
lesson provides details on various connectors and cables.
interface telephone connection (for modem). RJ 45 for
DB-9 is a D-type subminiature connector or D- sub type network interface connection - (for net work). BNC -
of connector. It has items for male connector and I holes ”Baynet Naur Connector” is used for coaxial cable
for female connector. Today DB 9 has mostly been termination.
replaced by USB, PS-2, fire wire and others. Still many
The BNC connectors are also used in networking
155
156 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
The single carried by a single mode cable is generated Fiber-Optic connectors can attach to the cable in
by a laser source and that of a multimode by light several ways, using either a crimped compresion fitting
emitting diode (LED). Together, these qualities allow or an epoxy giue.
single mode cable to operate at higher bandwiths than
multimode and traverse distance upto 50 times longer. Fiber cables are mainy used for backbone connectivity
single mode cable is cheaper than multimoda and has a across the floors or when the distance cannot be
relatively high bend radius, which makes it mode diffcult covered by UTP cable limitation or when the network
to work with. MMF is most commonly used. path to be connected is exposed to sky.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211 157
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
159
160 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
161
162 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Chart showing various types of sockets /ports and plugs used for
Computer Rear Panel & Mother board
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
163
6 USB-2.0- male
7 RJ-45jack- Female
8 RJ-45 plug-Male
164 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
14 DVI port
15 HDMI plug
16 HDMI Port
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
165
21 eSATA -female
22 eSATA - Port
166 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
167
39 SATA cable
40 SATA port
168 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.5.207 to 211
Radio wave propagation upper atmosphere, due to the sun. Understanding the
effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has
Radio wave propagation. A radio wave is form of radiant
many practical applications, from choosing frequencies
energy (electromagnetic radiation) that propagates at the
for international shortwave broadcastors to design reliable
speed of light (186,000 miles or 300, 000,000 meters per
mobile telephone systems, radio navigation and operation
second). Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves
of radar systems.
when they are transmitted, or propagated from one point
on the earth to another, or into various parts of the Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors
atmosphere. As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like determined by its path from point to point. This path can
light waves, radio waves are affected bythe phenomena be a direct line of sight path or an over the horizon path
of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization aided by refraction in the ionosphere, which is a region
and scattering. between 60 and 600 km approximately. Factors
influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation can
Radio wave propagation is affected by the daily changes
include sporadic -E, solar flares, geomagnetic storms,
of water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the
ionospheric layers tilts and solar porton events.
169
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
170
Instantaneous value of amplitude modualted wave is given Since the signal frequency ωm/2 is present in the side
by the equation. bands, it is clear that the carreir voltage two side banded
frequencies will be produced when a carrier is amplitude
modulated by a signal frequency. That is, an AM wave
has a band width from (ωc - ωm)/2 to (ωc + ωm)/2, that is
2ωm/2 or twice the signal frequency is produced. When a
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
172
Percentage modulation, %m=m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100 P total =V 2C/2R+[m 2/4*V 2 C/2R]+[m 2/4*V 2C/2R] = V 2C/
2R(1+m2/2)=Pcarrier (1+m2/2)
The percentage modulation lies between 0 and 80%
In some applications, the carrier is simulataneously
Another way of expressing the modulation index is in modulated by several sinusoidal modulating signals. In
terms of the maximum and minimum values of the such a cause, the total modulation index is given as.
amplitude of the modulated carrier wave. This is shown in
Mt=√(m12+m22+m32+m42+...)
the figure below. (Fig.3)
If Ic and it are the r.m.s values of unmodualted current and
total modulated current and Ris the resistance through
which these current flow,then,
Ptotal/Pcarrier=(It.R/Ic.R)2 = (It/Ic)2
Ptotal/Pcarrier=(1+m2/2)
(It/Ic)2 = 1+m2/2
Limitations of amplitude modulation
1 Low efficiency- since the useful power that lies in the
small bands is quite small, so the efficiency of AM
system is low.
2 Limited operating range - The range of operation is
Amplitude modualted carrier wave
small due to low efficiency. Thus, transmission of
Amplitude modulated carrier wave signals is difficult.
From the figure we know that 3 Noise in reception- As the radio receiver finds it difficult
to distinguish between the amplitude variations that
2Vin=Vmax- Vmin
represent noise and those with signals, heavy noise
Vin = (Vmax-Vmin)/2 is prone to occur in its reception.
Vc=Vmax -Vin 4 Poor audio quality - To obtain high fidelity reception,
all audio frequencies till 15 kilo Hertz must be
=Vmax - (Vmax-Vmin)/2 reprodcued and this necessitates the band width of
=(Vmax +Vmin)/2 10 Kilo Hertz to minimize the interference from the
adjacent broadcasting stations. Therefore in AM
Substituting the values of Vin= Vm and Vc in the equation broadcasting stations audio quality is known to be
m =Vm/Vc, we get poor.
M= Vmax-Vmin/Vmax + Vmin
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
173
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
174
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
176
177
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
178
( X1 − X2) ( Y1 − Y 2)
W= +Z
10 V
Details of AD633 is available in the data sheet.
Amplitude modulator circuit with AD633
The AD633 can be used as a linear amplitude modulator
with no external components. Figure 5 shows the circuit.
The carrier and modulation inputs to the AD633 are
multiplied to produce a double sideband signal. The carrier
signal is fed forward to the Z input of the AD633 where it
is summed with the double sideband signal to produce a
double side band with the carrier output.
Amplitude modulated index of more than 1.0 i.e over
- modulated (Fig. 3)
Broadcast stations in particular take measures to ensure
that the carrier of their transmissions never become over
modulated. The transmitters incorporate limiters to prevent
more than 100% modulation. However they also normally
incorporate automatic audio gain controls to keep the
audio levels such that near 100% modulation levels are
achieved for most of the time.
AM - Modulator & demodulator
In this section we describe the circuits used for generation For single tone modulation, Em A m Sin (ϖ m t ) is used.
and demodulation of amplitude modulated signals. An The index of modulation can be varied by changing Am.
analog multiplier IC AD633( Analog devices) has been Demodulation of AM signal
used to generate the AM signal. The AD 633 is a
functionally complete, four quadrant, analog multiplier. It As stated earlier, an envelope detector has been used
includes high impedance, differential X and Y inputs, and here for demodulation. An envelope detector (Fig 6) is an
a high impedance summing input (Z). The low impedance electronic circuit that takes a high frequency modualated
output voltage is a nominal 10V full scale provided by a signal as input and provides an output which is the
buried zener. The functional diagram of the AD633 is “envelope” of the original signal. The capacitor in the circuit
shown in figure 4. stores charge on the rising edge and release it slowly
through the resistor when the signal falls. The diode in
series rectifies the incoming signal, allowing current flow
only when the positive input terminal is at a higher potential
than the negative input terminal (Fig 6).
Envelope detection process
For a sinusoidally modualted signal, if the time constant
of the detector is chosen such that
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
180
⎛1 ⎞ Vm Cos (ωm t )
= ⎜ Vc Vc' ⎟ +
⎝2 ⎠ Original message How it works (Fig.10)
1 1 ⎡1 ⎤
= Vc Vc' f ( t ) cos ( Δω t + θ) + Vc Vc' f ( t ) cos 1
cos (2π800t ) − cos (2π1200t )⎥
2 2 cos (2π5000t ) ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎦
x( t ) x
[( 2ωc + Δω) t + θ] Carrier Message signal
1
= Vc Vc' f ( t ) cos ( Δω t + θ)
2
182 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
Δf fΔ x m ( t )
h= =
fm fm
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
184
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
186
Fig 5: Frequency doubler by simply connecting a is to remember that the no sinusoidal current pulse is
parallel tuned circuit rich in harmonics. Each time the pulse occurs, the second,
third, fourth, fifth, and higher harmonics are generated.
A current pulse flows for every other cycle of the input. A
The purpose of the tuned circuit in the collector is to act
tripler circuit is constructed in the same way except that
as a filter to select the desired harmonics.
the tuned circuit resonates at 3 times the input frequency.
In this way, the tuned circuit receives one input pulse for In many applications a multiplication factor greater than
every three cycles of oscillation it produces multipliers that achievable with a signal multiplier stage is required.
can be constructed to increase the input frequency by In such cases two or more multipliers are cascaded to
any integer factor up to approximately 10. As the produce an overall multiplication of 6. In the second
multiplication factor gets higher, the power output of the examples, three multipliers provide an overall multiplication
multiplier decreases . For most practical applications, 30. The total multiplication factor is simply the product of
the best result is obtained with multipliers of 2 and 3. individual stage multiplication factors.
Another way to look the operation of class C multipliers
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
187
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple - can be used to provide Not linear as the output is dependent upon the curve
of FM demodulation when only an AM detector is present a filter
Enable FM to be detected without any Not particularly effective as it relies on centring the
additional circuitry signal part of the way down the filter curve where signal
strengths are less.
Both frequency and amplitude variations are accepted
and therefore much higher levels of noise and
interference are experienced
Ratio detector
When circuits employing discrete components were more
widely used, the Ratio and Foster - seeley detectors were
widely used. Of these the ratio detector was the most
popular as it offers a better level of amplitude modulation
rejection of amplitude modulation. This enables it to
provide a greater level of noise immunity as most is
amplitude noise, and it also enables the circuit to operate
satisfactorily with lower levels of limiting in the preceding
IF stages of the receiver. (Fig.9)
The operation of the ratio detector cenres around a
frequency sensitive phase shift network with a transformer
and the diodes that are effectively in series with one
another. When a steady carrier is applied to the circuit
the diodes act to produce a steady voltage across the
resistors R1 and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up as
a result.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218 189
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to construct using discrete components High cost of transformer
Offers good level of performance and Typically lends itself to use in only circuits using discrete
components and not integrated within an IC
As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the ratio primary side of the transformer using a capacitor, and
detector is not widely used these days. Techniques that this is taken to the centre tap of the transformer. This
do not require the. Use of a transformer with its associated gives a signals that is 90 degrees out of phase.
costs and those than can be more easily incorporated
within an IC tend to be used. When an un-modulated carrier is applied at the centre
frequency, both diodes conduct, to produce equal and
Foster -Seeley FM detector opposite voltage across their respective load resistors.
The foster seeley detector or as it is sometimes described These voltages cancel each one another out at the output
the foster seeley discriminator has many similarities to so that no voltage is present. As the carrier moves off to
the ratio detector. The circuit topology looks very similary, one side of the centre frequency the balance condition
having a transformer and a pair of diodes, but there is no is destroyed, and one diode conducts more than the other.
third winding and instead a choke is used. (Fig.10) This results in the voltage across one of the resistors
being larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the
output corresponding to the modulation on the incoming
signal.
The choke is required in the circuit to ensure that no RF
signals appear at the output. The capacitors C1 and C2
provide a similar filtering function.
Both the ratio and foster - seeley detector are expensive
to manufacture. Wound components like coils are not
easy to produce to the required specification and therefore
they are comparatively costly. Accordingly these circuits
are rarely used in modern equipment.
Foster - Seeley detector advantages & disadvantages
As with any circuit there are a number of advantages and
Like the ratio detector, the foster - seeley circuit operate disadvantages to be considered when choosing between
using a phase difference between signals. To obtain the the various techniques available for FM demodulation.
different phased signals a connection is made to the
Advantages Disadvantages
Offers good level of performance and reasonable Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an
linearity integrated circuit
Simple to construct using discrete High cost of transformer
components
190 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
191
Advantages Disadvantages
Offers good level of performance and including Requires the use of a coil
linearity
Can be incorporated into an integrated circuit Some designs may require setting during manufacture
192 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
193
194 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
196 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
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197
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199
However, this signal is still not the original modulating level. However, AGC may be provided using an AGC
signal. Before applying it to the audio amplifier stages, it detector. This generates a dc voltage to control the gains
is deemphasized. De-emphasizing attenuates the higher of the RF and IF amplifier.
frequencies to bring them back to their original amplitudes However, notice that a limiter stage appears between the
as these are boosted or emphasized before transmission. IF stage and the detector stage. This is one way an FM
The output of the deemphasized stage is the audio signal, receiver can reject noise. Fig.2 shows what happens in a
which is then applied to the audio stages and finally to limiter stage.
the speaker. In the limiter shown in Fig.2 the input signal is very noisy.
It should be noted that a limiter circuit is required with the The output signal is noise -free. By limiting or by amplitude
FM discriminators. If the demodulator stage uses a ratio clipping, all the noise spikes have been eliminated. Some
detector instead of the discriminator, then a limiter is not FM receivers uses two stages of limiting to eliminate most
required. This is because the ratio detector limits the noise interference.
amplitude of the received signal. Limiting cannot be used in a AM receiver because the
In FM receivers, generally, AGC is not required because amplitude variations carry the information to the detector.
the amplitude of the carrier is kept constant by the limiter In FM reception, the frequency variations contain the
circuit. Therefore, the input to the audio stages controls information. Amplitude clipping in a FM receiver will remove
amplitudes and there are no erratic changes in the volume just the noise but does not remove the information.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
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Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218 201
The discriminator circuit discussed above work fairly well; IF alignment procedures
but they are sensitive to amplitude changes. This is why Aligning the IF amplifiers means tuning the IF transformers
one or two limiters are needed for noise free reception. to obtain the maximum output signal at the IF center
An improved method of FM detection is by using the ratio frequency of 455 kHZ. There are several accepted method
detector instead of the discriminator. Ratio detectors are for IF alignment. Generally the manufactures of the
not very sensitive to the amplitude of the signal. This makes receivers specify the method to be followed for alignment,
it possible to build receivers without limiters and still in the form of table. Generalizing these methods, the two
provide good noise rejection. FM detector circuits used main methods of IF alignment is;
in FM receivers are generally used in conjunction with
integrated circuits(IC's).They usually have the advantage [1] IF alignment using a RF signals, set at IF center
of requiring no alignment or only one adjustment whereas frequency and without any modulation of the IF signal
alignment for discriminators and ratio detectors is more The procedure is employed by manufactures of high end
time-consuming. communication sets. As this procedure is generally not
Introduction to receiver alignment employed in the training environment.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218 203
Step 4: 1 FM generator
Remove the wedge fixed to the antenna. Gently shift the 2 Disconnect the antenna.
position of the antenna coil on the ferrite rod little by little 3 Connect the scope or DVM to the DC output of the
on either side of its previous position to get maximum detector.
possible 400 Hz tone sound output from the speaker. Put
the wedge and/or apply wax to permanently lock the 4 Connect the Distortion analyzer to audio output.
antenna coil at that position. 5 Find a very quiet area of the band that has no stations,
Step 6: this is usually at the lower band edge. By rocking the
tuning back and forth there should be no DC change
Adjust the MW antenna trimmer carefully till you receive at the detector output or center tune meter movement.
the radiated signal as above. Sometimes placing a little shorting wire across the
General procedure for aligning an FM receiver antenna input will help to find a quiet spot. You are
setting the detector to the center of the noise
The procedure below is a general list of steps involved in generated by the IF/Limiter.
the RF section of an FM broadcast receiver alignment. it
should not be done unless you have the minimum 6 Using a non-metallic tuning tool, tune the secondary
equipment &have experience in RF alignment techniques. of the detector (usually the top slug) transformer to
achieve 0VDC.
There are a few things you must be aware of to get the
order of alignment right; fig.5 helps in understanding the7 Connect a signal generator set for this unused
signal path a bit. frequency with an output level of 1 KμV, +/- 75 KHz
(100%) modulation and adjust it's frequency for 0 VDC
then adjust the primary slug for minimum distortion.
The center tune meter should show centered.
204 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
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206
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207
• Coherent FSK is not often used in practice due it the • PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it
difficulty and cost in generating two reference requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK
frequencies close together at the receiver. • More efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are
• It requires more bandwidth. possible, compared to FSK.
• The FSK is not preferred for the high speed modems • High power efficiency
because with increase in speed, the bit rate increases. • It is used in low data rate wireless communication.
Phase Shift Keying - PSK: Disadvantages of PSK
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme • More complex signal detection / recovery process, than
that conveys data by changing, or modulating the phase in ASK and FSK.
of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
• Low bandwidth efficiency.
The digital message signal is modulated with the high
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation - QAM
frequency carrier. The phase of the carrier is changed
according to the message signal. It When input = low i.e. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is both an analog
at logic 0, output wave is 180 degrees out of phase with and a digital modulation scheme. It conveys two analog
the carrier is similar to PM When input = high i.e. at logic message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing
1, output wave is in phase with the carrier. i.e. 0 degrees (modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using
phase. (Fig.8) the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation
scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation
scheme.
The two carrier waves, usually sinusoids, are out of phase
with each other by 90° and are thus called quadrature
carriers or quadrature components - hence the name of
the scheme. The modulated waves are summed, and the
final waveform is a combination of both phase-shift keying
(PSK) and amplitude-shift keying(ASK).
In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at least two
phases and at least two amplitudes are used and it also
used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital
Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of telecommunication systems.
distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite
The QAM modulator and QAM demodulator are key
number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of
elements within any quadrature amplitude modulation
binary digits.
system.
The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the
The modulator and demodulator are used to encode the
symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase
signal, often data into the radio frequency carrier that is
of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it
to be transmitted. Then the demodulator is used at the
represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires
remote end to extract the signal from the RF carrier so
the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received
that it can used at the remote end.
signal to a reference signal. (Fig.9)
As quadrature amplitude modulation is a complex signal,
specialised QAM modulators and demodulators are
required.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
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211
Advantages
• Simplicity in implementation.
• No DC component.
Disadvantage
• Continuous part is non-zero at 0 Hz. Causes "Signal
Droop".
• Does not have any error correction capability.
• Does not posses any clocking component for ease of
synchronisation.
Bipolar encoding (Fig.23)
• Is not transparent.
Bipolar Signalling is also called "alternate mark inversion"
Types (AMI) uses three voltage levels (+V, 0, -V) to represent
1 NRZ-L two binary symbols. Zeros, as in unipolar, are represented
by the absence of a pulse and ones (or marks) are
2 NRZ-I
represented by alternating voltage levels of +V and -V.
3 NRZ-M
4 NRZ-S
212 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
Advantages
• No DC component.
The transition at the centre of every bit interval is used for
• Occupies less bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ
synchronization at the receiver. Manchester encoding is
schemes.
called self-synchronizing. Synchronization at the receiving
• Does not suffer from signal droop (suitable for end can be achieved by locking on to the transitions,
transmission over AC coupled lines). which indicate the middle of the bits.
• Possesses single error detection capability. Advantages
Disadvantages • No DC component.
• Does not possess any clocking component for ease • Does not suffer from signal droop Easy to synchronise
of synchronisation. with.
• Is not transparent. • Is Transparent.
Manchester encoding (Fig.24) Disadvantages
In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided • Because of the greater number of transitions it
into two halves. The voltage remains at one level during occupies a significantly large bandwidth.
the first half and moves to the other level during the second
• Does not have error detection capability.
half.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
213
214 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
using cheap old mono radios. This menas that the system signal and subtracted one from the other to procedure a
chosen is more comples than otherwise it would need to diffrent signal. The sum is essentially a monophonic signal
be. which is what we would send for playing through a single
The standard FM stereo system which has been adopted loudspeakers. The diffrence signal is used to DSBSC
by broadcasters around the world is illustrated in figure modulated a 38 kHz sinewave.
the system uses frequency division multiplexing to The DSBSC output is added to the sum (mono) signal
combine the two signals destined for the left and right and the combination is sent on the transmitter’s FM
hand loudspeakers. The signals are first passed through modulator. A monophonic receiver can now ignore the
filters which only allow through frequencies up to 15KHz. stero information simply by using a filter after its FM
The L and R signals are then added to produce a sum
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218 215
From erailer section on FM we know that the noise power A demux circuit seperates multiple analog or digital
spectral density of a demodulated FM signal tends to seprates form one signal received over a single shared
increase with the square of the modulation frequency. This medium such as a single conductor of copper wire or
means that there will be more noise in the 23 - 53 kHz fiber optical cable
band used for the diffrence signal than for the 0 - 15 kHz At receiving end the DEMUX receive the signal from the
band used for the sum signal. As a result we require a multiplexer and it converts back to orginal form the
significantly higher input signal level to receive a stereo following diagram shown in Fig 2 explain the
216 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
217
Architecture of 8051
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• understand the architecture of 8051 microcontroller
• differetiate between microprocessor and microcontroller
• observe advantages of microcontroller.
Microcontrollers are basically used in embedded systems. memory microcontrollers do not have program memory
Microcontrollers can be classified based on bus width, embedded on them and require an external chip for the
memory structure and instruction set. Bus width indicates same. Now a day, all microcontrollers are embedded
a the size of the data bus. memory microcontrollers. The classification based on
Microcontrollers can be classified as 8-bit, 16- bit or 32-bit instruction set is similar to that of a microprocessor. They
based on the bus width. Higher bus widths often result in can be either CISC (complex instruction set computer) or
better performance. Microcontrollers can be divided into RISC (Reduced instruction set computer. Majority of
two types based on their memory structures ; Embedded microcontrollers follow CISC architecture with over 80
memory and external memory. In case of embedded instructions. Microcontrollers can also be divided based
memory microcontrollers, the required data and program on their computer architecture into von neumann and
memory is embedded into the IC. Whereas external harvard.
218
Micropocessor Microcontroller
Microprocessor assimilates the function of a central Microcontroller can be considered as a small computer
processing unit (CPU) on to a single integrated circuit (IC) which has a processor and some other components
order to make it a micro computer chip.
Microprocessors are mainly used in designing general Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled
purpose systems from small to large and complex devices
systems like super computers
Microprocessors are basic components of personal Microcontrollers are generally used in embedded
computers system .
A microprocessor based system can perform numerous A microcontroller based system can perform single of
tasks very few tasks .
The main task of microprocessor is to perform the In addition to performing the tasks of fetch, decode and
instruction cycle repeatedly. This includes fetch, execute, a microcontroller also controls its environment
decode and execute. based on the output of the instruction cycle.
In order to build or design a system (Computer, a The IC of a microcontroller has memory (both RAM,
microprocessor has to be connected externally to some ROM) integrated on it along with some other
other components like memory (RAM and ROM) and input components like I/O devices and timers
output ports
The overall cost of a sytem built using a microprocessor Cost of a system built using a microcontroller is less,
is high. This is because of the requirement of external all the components are readily available.
components.
The clock frequency is very high usually in the order of Clock frequency is less usually in the order of Mega
Giga Hertz. Hertz.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
219
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
220
Memory Organization
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
221
Timer/Counters
222 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
Pin details of 8051, Internal data memory, SFR and on-chip features
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• pin diagram of 8051
• data memory and special function registers
• utilization of on - chip resources such as ADC.
The pin diagram of 8051: 8051 is a 40 pin There are 4 ports in 8051 IC (Port 0, Port 1, Port 2 and
microcontroller with I/O ports (Ref.Fig.1) Port 3) 32 pins are function as I/O port lines and 24 of
these lines are dual purpose (P0, P1, P3). Each can
operate as I/O, or as a control line or part of the address
or data bus. Eight lines in each port can be used in
interfacing to parallel devices like printers, DAC etc., or
each line the port can be used in interfacing to single bit
devices like LED’s, switches, transistors, solenoid,
motors and loudspeakers.
PORT 0 (32-39 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port ( P0.0-P0.7). For simple design it
is used as I/O ports. For larger design with external
memory, it is used as multiplexed address and data bus
(AD0-AD7)
PORT 1(1-8 Pins )
It is a dedicated I/O port ( P1.0-P1.7). It is used only to
inferface with the external devices.
PORT 2 (21-28 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port (P2.0-P2.7). It is used as I/O port
or higher byte of address bus (A8-A15).
PORT 3 (10-17 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port (P3.0- P3.7) It is used as I/O
port, or used to special features of 8051 (Table 1)
Table 1
BIT Name BIT Address Alternate function
223
Fig 2
RAM Byte
address Bit address
Byte 7F
Bit address
address
38
27 3F 3E 3D 3C 3B 3A 39
Bit – addressable locations
26 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30
25 2F 2E 2D 2C 2B 2A 29 28 General
Purpose
24 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 RAM
23 IF IE ID IC IB IA 19 18
22 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
21 0F 0E 0D 0C 0B 0A 09 08
20 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 30
Bit-addressable locations
Summary 2F 7F 7E 7D 7C 7B 7A 79 78
1F
Bank 3
of the 8051 18
2E 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70
on-chip 2D 6F 6E 6D 6C 6B 6A 69 68
17
data Bank 2
10 2C 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60
memory
(RAM) 0F 2B 5F 5E 5D 5C 5B 5A 59 58
Bank 1
08 2A 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50
07 Default register 29 4F 4E 4D 4C 4B 4A 49 48
bank for R0-R7
00 28 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.6.212 to 218
224
SCON (98H) : Serial port control register, bit addressable • Low standby current
SBUF (99H) : Serial data buffer, byte addressable • Serial input and output via I2C- bus
P2 (A0H) : Port 2, bit addressable • I2C address selection by 3 hardware address pins
IE (A8H) : Interrupt enable, bit addressable • Max sampling ratte given by I2C- bus speed
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
225
226
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
227
DIV AB Divide A by B 1 4
DA A Decimal adjust accumulator 1 1
228 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227 229
JBC bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set and clear bit 3 2
CJNE A, direct, rel Compare direct byte to A and jump if not equal 3 2
CJNE Rn, #data, rel Compare immed. to reg. and jump if not equal 3 2
CJNE @Ri, #data, rel Compare immed. to ind. and jump if not equal 3 2
DJNZ direct, rel Decrement direct byte and jump if not zero 3 2
NOP No operation 1 1
Theory :
Program 1: 16 - bit addition
As there is only one 16- bit register in 8051, 16-bit addition
Objective
is performed by using ADDC instruction twice, i.e adding
To perform 16-bit additoin of the two 16-bit data using LSD first and MSD next.
immediate addressing and store the result in memory.
230 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
231
232 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
4104 88 (4573) = 99
(4574) = 01
4105 A4 MUL AB
Program 4 - 8 bit division
4106 90 MOV DPTR, # 4500
Objective
4107 45
To divide an 8-bit number by another 8-bit number and
4108 00 store the quotient and remainder in memory.
Theory
4109 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
The 8051 has a “DIV” instruction unlike many other 8-bit
410A A3 INC DPTR processors. DIV instruction divides the unsigned eight -
410B E5 MOV A, B bit integer in A by unsigned 8-bit integer in register B. The
accumulator receives the integer part of the quotient and
410C F0 register B receives the integer remainder. The carry and
flags will be cleared.
410D F0 MOVX, @DPTR, A
Example
410E 80 Here : SJMP here
Let the divisor and dividend be in registers B and A
410F FE respectively.
Data : DATA 1 = 65 - Dividend
Procedure
DATA2 = 08 - Divisor
i. Enter the above opcode from 4100
Result : (4500) = 0C - Quotient
ii. Execute the program; see that the result is stored
correctly. (4501) = 05= Remainder
iii. Change data and check if the results are correct each Flow Chart
time.
8 bit by 8- bit division
Exercises
Start
i. Obtain the square of a number stored in memory
↓
Sample : (4500) = 0A
Geet dividend in A
Result : (4600) = 64
↓
ii. Obtain the fourth power of 08 using MUL instruction
Get divisor in B
and store the result in memory.
↓
Result : (4500) = 10 (MSB)
Divide A by B
(4501) = 00 (LSB)
↓
iii. Do a decimal multi - byte addition in 32-bit and store
the result in memory. Store LSB & MSB of the result in memory
Data : (4500) = 04 - Count ↓
Stop
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
233
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
234
(4304) = 10 4105 45
(4305) = 20 4106 00
(4306) = 40 4107 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
(4307) = 80
4108 80 Here; SJMP here
Program 6
4109 08
Objective
To perform AND function of an 8 bit number. 410A 41
Theory Procedure
The ANL instruction of 8051 can be used to reset bits. i. Enter the opcodes from 4100 and execute the program.
AND ing with zero prodcues a cleared bit. ANDing with
one does not change the status of the bit. ii. Check whether the result is 06 at 4500
Example Discussion
To mask bits 0 and 7, the 8- bit data has to be ANDed The ANL instruction can be used to check whether a
with 7E, which is 01111110 in binary. particular status is reached in the peripheral device just
like the ORL instruction. The other logical instruction
Sample data : DATA 1 = 87 available in the instruction set of 8051 is the XRL
DATA 2 = 7E (Exclusive -OR). The CLR (clear operand) instruction is
also a logical instruction which can be used to initialize
Result : (4500) = 06 registers in counter operations.
Program
MOV A, #DATA 1
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
235
236
238
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
239
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.7.219 to 227
240
8524 C0 82 PUSH DPL 854D 64H, 08H, 00H, 04H (North way)
8551 24H, 03H, 02H, 00H (West way)
8555 End
Note : The schematics sections given is, traffic light
connected to port 1 and port 3 the sample program is
given based on 8255
There are different types of sensors and transducers use really depends upon the quantity being measured or
available in the market, and the choice of which one to controlled. The more common types given in the table 1.
Table 1
Physical quantity being Input Device (Sensor) Output Device (Actuator)
measured by the sensor
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 243
RTD Configuration
An RTD can be connected in a two, three or four-wire
configuration. The two-wire configuration is the simplest
and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is
LEVEL SENSORS
connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit
and the two output voltage is measured. The disadvntage
Generally these sensors are connected to an output unit
of this circuit is that the two connecting lead wire
for sending out the results to a monitoring system The
present technologies use wireless transmission of
information to the monitoring system, which is very useful
in imprtant and hazardous locations that cannot be simply
accessed by common workers.
244 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
When the water raises the float raises and the attached,
lever pushes the knob of micro switch open/disconnect
the electrical circuit. Thus the pump motor is switched
OFF.
Whenever the water level decreases the float comes down, mechanism forces the lever to close the valve and shut
there by the micro switch is automatically connect power off the water flow.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
246
Thermistors
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define thermistor and its types
• define construction and working principle, salient
features of the thermistor
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):
• describe the application, advantages &
disadvantages.
Thermistor:
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor
whose resistance is dependent on temperature. The term
is a combination of "thermal" and "resistor". It is made of
metallic oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical
shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable
material such as epoxy or glass.
A thermistor is a temperature sensor constructed of
semiconductor material that exhibits a large modification
in resistance in proportion to a tiny low modification in
temperature. Thermistor is inexpensive, rugged, and
reliable and responds quickly. Because of these qualities
thermistors are used to measure simple temperature
measurements, but not for high temperatures. Thermistor
is easy to use, cheap, and durable and responds Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor, when
predictably to a change in temperature. Thermistors are the temperature increases, resistance decreases.
mostly used in digital thermometers and home appliances Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance
such as refrigerator, ovens, and so on. Stability, sensitivity increases as shown in the fig 1. This type of thermistor is
and time constant are the final properties of thermistor used the most.
that create these thermistors sturdy, portable, cost- Positive Temperature coefficient (PTC):
efficient, sensitive and best to measure single-point
temperature. Thermistors are available in different shapes
like rod, disc, bead, washer, etc. This article gives an
overview of thermistor working principle and applications.
Types of thermistor:
There are a number of ways in which thermistors can be
categorised into the different thermistor types. The first is
dependent upon the way they react to heat. Some
increase their resistance with increasing temperature,
while others exhibit a fall in resistance.
It is possible to use a very simplified equation for the
curve of a thermistor to expand this idea:
Δ R = k x ΔT
Where
Δ R = change in resistance. A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When
temperature increases, the resistance increases, and
Δ T = change in temperature.
when temperature decreases, resistance decreases as
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance. shown in the fig 2.This type of thermistor is generally
used as a fuse.
In most cases the relationship between temperature and
resistance is non-linear, but over small changes a linear Construction
relationship can be assumed. The device is manufactured from materials like sintered
There are two types of thermistor mixtures of oxides of metals such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, and iron. Their resistances range from 0.4 ohms
1 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
to 75 mega-ohms and they may be fabricated in wide
2 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) variety of shapes and sizes. Smaller thermistors are in
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
247
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 249
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
250
Resistance Temperature Detectors In RTD devices Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD), as the name used metals. These three metals are having different
implies, are sensors used to measure temperature by resistance variations with respect to the temperature
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with variations. That is called resistance-temperature
temperature. characteristics as shown in fig.2. Platinum has the
temperature range of 650°C, and then the Copper and
RTDs are relatively immune to electrical noise and Nickel have 120°C and 300°C respectively. The figure-2
therefore well suited for temperature measurement in shows the resistance-temperature characteristics curve
industrial environments, especially around motors, of the three different metals. For Platinum, its resistance
generators and other high voltage equipment. changes by approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance of temperature.
Temperature Detector is a device which is used to
determine the temperature by measuring the resistance
of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature
with high accuracy, RTD is the only one solution in
industries. It has good linear characteristics over a wide
range of temperatures. The physical appearances of
different RTDs are shown in fig 1a & 1b.
251
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
252
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
254
Thermocouple
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define thermocouple and its working principle
• explain the various type of thermocouple .
• describe the application, advantages & disadvantages
• explain the characteristics curve graph of mV Vs temperature measured.
255
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
256
Applications Disadvantage :
1 Temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine 1 Thermocouples measure their own temperature.
exhaust, diesel engines.
2 Thermocouples can error in reading their own
2 Temperature measurement of industrial processes and temperature, especially after being used for a while,
fog machines. or if the insulation between the wires loses its
3 For process temperature measurement of Steel, resistance due to moisture or thermal conditions
Cement , Petro chemical etc., 3 Beware of electrical hazards using thermocouples, they
Advantage: are electrical conductors. RTD's are less sensitive to
electrical noise.
1 Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large
temperature range, from - 270 up to 3000 °C (for a 4 Thermocouples DO NOT MEASURE AT THE
short time, in inert atmosphere). JUNCTIONS! They can't, it is physically impossible to
have a temperature gradient at a point.
2 They are less suitable for applications where smaller
temperature differences need to be measured with high 5 The distance between thermocouple and heater
accuracy, for example the range 0-100 °C with 0.1 °C element will generate a thermal lag which can be
accuracy compensated by the temperature controller.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
257
258
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260 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
261
Proximity sensors
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define proximity switches
• explain the different types of proximity switches
• describe the selection, advantages and disadvantages.
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
263
264 Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 265
Electronic Mechanic -NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.8.228 to 232 267
268 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Fig 1 Fig 2
Chart Showing all types of special tool/ crimping tools used for SMD soldering /
Desoldering work.
Fig 1
Fig 2
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 269
Fig 7
Fig 6
Fig 8 Fig 9
90 ° SMD tweezer
Curved tweezer
Fig 10 Fig 11
270 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Fig 14
Fig 15
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 271
Fig 1
Fig 2
Fig 3 Fig 4
Curved tweezer
90° Forming tool
Fig 6
Fig 5
Fig 7
Fig 8
272 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Fig 1 Fig 2
Fig 3 Fig 4
Fig 5 Fig 6
Fig 7 Fig 8
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
273
Dry Joints
274 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Fig 3
Fig 4
F- CONNECTOR
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 275
RJ45 PLUG
RJ45 SOCKET
Fig 9
RJ11
Fig 10 Fig 11
276 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Chart - 1 Showing rear panel of multimedia Chart - 2 : Showing internal ports and slots
computer of mother board of multimedia computer
Fig 1
Fig 2
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 277
278 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Chart showing all types of Sensors, with colour codes and other details
(EX.No.3.8.228 to 232)
Fig 4
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 279
280 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232 281
Color Coding
ANSI/ Symbol Overall jacket Magnetic Environment
Generic Names Individual
ASTM Single extension Yes/No (Bare Wire)
Conductor
grade wire
Mild Oxidizing,
Copper
Reducing,
Constantan,
TP Blue X Vacuum or Inert,
T Nominal Blue
TN Red X Good where
Composition:
moisture is
55% Cu, 45% Ni
present
Reducing
Vacuum, Inert,
Iron Constantan, Limited use in
Nominal White X oxidizing at High
J JP JN Black
Composition : Red X Temperatures,
55% Cu, 45% Ni Not
recommended
for low temps.
Chromel &,
Nominal
Composition: Oxidizing or
EP 90% Ni, 10% Cr Purple Inert, Limited
E Purple X
EN Constantan, Red use in Vacuum
Nominal or Reducing
Composition :
55% Cu, 45% Ni
282 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232
283
284 Electronic Mechanic - NSQF Level 5 - Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.180 to 3.8.232