UNIT – III 5 Hrs

Introduction to Radiation: Where does Radiation

Come from, Types of Radiation, Types of Ionizing
Radiation, X-rays for Medical Use and Generators,
Types of Electromagnetic Waves, Ionization of
Radiation – Property of Ionizing Radiation, Types of
Radiation and Biological Effects, Penetrating
Power of Radiation, Penetrating Power of Radiation
within the Body, Penetrating Power and Range
of Effects on the Human Body.
Introduction to Radiation
• Radio activity
• EM Radiations
Radio activity

• Is the emission of sub atomic particles and atomic energy

spontaneously
• Radioactivity is the process of unstable nuclei spontaneously
decomposing to attain a more stable nuclear status. The decaying
process continues until the unstable nuclei gain stability. Alpha, beta,
and gamma, as named by Rutherford, are three such processes.
α,β particles
• Alpha Particles
• Alpha (α) is the largest particle with the least penetrative power. Alpha
particles carry a positive charge. An alpha particle consists of two neutrons
and two protons bound together. The alpha particle later got identified as
the helium-4 nucleus.
• Alpha particles have the greatest mass among the three types of
radioactive emissions. The mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times
more than the mass of a beta particle. This large size reduces the
penetrative power of an alpha particle.
• Beta Particles
• Beta particles (β) are high-energy electrons or positrons that carry a
negative charge. Considerably smaller in size than alpha particles, beta
particles have higher penetrative power.
Gamma(γ) rays
• Gamma rays (γ) are not particles with a mass. They are a kind of
electromagnetic radiation that is considerably higher in energy than
x-rays. As a form of energy, gamma rays have no size or mass.
• Gamma rays are far more harmful to humans than x-rays. The charge
of gamma rays, however, is neutral.
(X-rays and gamma rays have the same basic properties but come from
different parts of the atom. X-rays are emitted from processes outside
the nucleus, but gamma rays originate inside the nucleus. They also are
generally lower in energy and, therefore less penetrating than gamma
rays)
Types of Radiation
• Ionizing radiation- has the ability to ionize atoms that make up a
substance eg. Gamma rays

• Nonionizing radiation- do not cause ionization, eg. Visible light, infra

red rays.

Types of Ionizing Radiation

X-rays for Medical Use and Generators

Characteristic radiation or characteristic x-ray is emitted when

outer-shell electrons fill a vacancy in the inner shell of an atom
Exposure to α particles
Exposure to β particles
Exposure to γ and X Rays
Neutron beams
Q&A
1. List the sources of radiation
2. Differentiate b/n
(i) α and β particles
(ii)X-Rays and γ- Rays
(iii) Becquerel and Sievert
3. List and explain (i)Types of Radiation (ii) Types of exposure
4. Explain the use of X-Rays in medical application and their generation
5. With neat diagram showing spectrum, explain what are different
types of EM waves
6. Explain the biological effects of different types of radiation w.r.t
penetrating power and also range of effects on human body
• Any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy to ionize an atom
is called non-ionizing radiation. An atom becomes ionized when it loses or gains an electron.
• Ionizing radiation causes a chemical change and thus causes more damage than non-ionizing
radiation. Still, observable effects can be tracked from non-ionizing radiation.
• Visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves are some examples of non-ionizing
radiation. The light from the sun that reaches Earth is largely non-ionizing radiation, yet some
• ultraviolet rays (which have the ability to ionize) do reach the surface of Earth as well.
• Infrared or laser light can cause burns to skin and damage to eyes, depending on the levels
of energy they carry. Laser light energy levels can also be controlled to avoid skin and eye
damage.
Typical household laser pointers are designed to do no damage to skin. Microwaves carry enough energy to
heat surfaces, which is why they are used in microwave ovens.
Some sources say that the energy levels found near low-frequency electrical fields by power lines
can cause nerves and muscles to respond erratically.
What is ionizing radiation?

• Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms that travels in the form of
electromagnetic waves (gamma or X-rays) or particles (neutrons, beta or alpha).
The spontaneous disintegration of atoms is called radioactivity, and the excess
energy emitted is a form of ionizing radiation. Unstable elements which
disintegrate and emit ionizing radiation are called radionuclides.
• All radionuclides are uniquely identified by the type of radiation they emit, the
energy of the radiation, and their half-life.

• The activity — used as a measure of the amount of a radionuclide present — is

expressed in a unit called the becquerel (Bq): one becquerel is one disintegration
per second. The half-life is the time required for the activity of a radionuclide to
decrease by decay to half of its initial value. The half-life of a radioactive element
is the time that it takes for one half of its atoms to disintegrate. This can range
from a mere fraction of a second to millions of years (e.g. iodine-131 has a half-
life of 8 days while carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years).
Radiation sources
People are exposed to natural radiation sources as well as human-made sources on a daily basis.
Natural radiation comes from many sources including more than 60 naturally-occurring radioactive
materials found in soil, water and air. Radon, a naturally-occurring gas, emanates from rock and soil
and is the main source of natural radiation. Every day, people inhale and ingest radionuclides from
air, food and water.

People are also exposed to natural radiation from cosmic rays, particularly at high altitude. On
average, 80% of the annual dose of background radiation that a person receives is due to naturally
occurring terrestrial and cosmic radiation sources. Background radiation levels vary geographically
due to geological differences. Exposure in certain areas can be more than 200 times higher than the
global average.

Human exposure to radiation also comes from human-made sources ranging from nuclear power
generation to medical uses of radiation for diagnosis or treatment. Today, the most common
human-made sources of ionizing radiation are medical devices, including X-ray machines.
Exposure to ionizing radiation
• Radiation exposure may be internal or external, and can be acquired
through various exposure pathways.
• Internal exposure to ionizing radiation occurs when a radionuclide is
inhaled, ingested or otherwise enters into the bloodstream (for
example, by injection or through wounds). Internal exposure stops
when the radionuclide is eliminated from the body, either
spontaneously (such as through excreta) or as a result of a treatment.
• External exposure may occur when airborne radioactive material
(such as dust, liquid, or aerosols) is deposited on skin or clothes. This
type of radioactive material can often be removed from the body by
simply washing.
Exposure situations
The first, planned exposure situations, result from the deliberate
introduction and operation of radiation sources with specific purposes,
as is the case with the medical use of radiation for diagnosis or
treatment of patients, or the use of radiation in industry or research.
The second type of situation, existing exposures, is where exposure to
radiation already exists, and a decision on control must be taken – for
example, exposure to radon in homes or workplaces or exposure to
natural background radiation from the environment.
The last type, emergency exposure situations, result from unexpected
events requiring prompt response such as nuclear accidents or
malicious acts.
Health effects of ionizing radiation
• Radiation damage to tissue and/or organs depends on the dose of
radiation received, or the absorbed dose which is expressed in a unit called
the gray (Gy). The potential damage from an absorbed dose depends on
the type of radiation and the sensitivity of different tissues and organs.
• The effective dose is used to measure ionizing radiation in terms of the
potential for causing harm. The sievert (Sv) is the unit of effective dose that
takes into account the type of radiation and sensitivity of tissues and
organs. It is a way to measure ionizing radiation in terms of the potential
for causing harm. The Sv takes into account the type of radiation and
sensitivity of tissues and organs.
• The Sv is a very large unit so it is more practical to use smaller units such as
millisieverts (mSv) or microsieverts (μSv). There are one thousand μSv in
one mSv, and one thousand mSv in one Sv. In addition to the amount of
radiation (dose), it is often useful to express the rate at which this dose is
delivered (dose rate), such as microsieverts per hour (μSv/hour) or
millisievert per year (mSv/year).
Beyond certain thresholds, radiation can impair the functioning of tissues and/or organs
and can produce acute effects such as skin redness, hair loss, radiation burns, or acute
radiation syndrome. These effects are more severe at higher doses and higher dose rates.
For instance, the dose threshold for acute radiation syndrome is about 1 Sv (1000 mSv).

If the radiation dose is low and/or it is delivered over a long period of time (low dose rate),
the risk is substantially lower because there is a greater likelihood of repairing the damage.
There is still a risk of long-term effects such as cancer, however, that may appear years or
even decades later. Effects of this type will not always occur, but their likelihood is
proportional to the radiation dose. This risk is higher for children and adolescents, as they
are significantly more sensitive to radiation exposure than adults.

Epidemiological studies on populations exposed to radiation, such as atomic bomb

survivors or radiotherapy patients, showed a significant increase of cancer risk at doses
above 100 mSv. More recently, some epidemiological studies in individuals exposed to
medical exposures during childhood (paediatric CT) suggested that cancer risk may
increase even at lower doses (between 50-100 mSv).
Prenatal exposure to ionizing radiation may induce brain damage in
foetuses following an acute dose exceeding 100 mSv between weeks 8-
15 of pregnancy and 200 mSv between weeks 16-25 of pregnancy.
Before week 8 or after week 25 of pregnancy human studies have not
shown radiation risk to fetal brain development. Epidemiological
studies indicate that the cancer risk after fetal exposure to radiation is
similar to the risk after exposure in early childhood.