1

BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1 Introduction to Heat Transfer
• Thermodynamics deals with systems on the boundaries of which there are heat and work interactions. The
word ‘heat’ in thermodynamics simply means heat transfer, whereas the term ‘heat-content’ of a body
means internal energy which is defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system.
• The internal energy is a property although heat is not a property because a body contains energy, but not
heat. Therefore, heat is energy in transition. A hot metallic body contains energy, but this energy is called
heat when it passes through the outer surface of the body (system boundary) to the surrounding.
• Heat transfer is the science that deals with energy transfer from one system to another or within a system or
from a system to its surroundings by virtue of temperature difference between them. Temperature is known
to be the measure of hotness and coldness.
• Thermodynamics, on the other hand, deals with systems in equilibrium and may be used to predict the
amount of energy required to change a system from one equilibrium state to another. It may not be used to
find how fast this change will take place since the system is not in equilibrium during the process.
• According to the first law of thermodynamics, during an interaction between a system and its surroundings,
the amount of energy lost by a system equals to the amount of energy gained by the surroundings. It deals
with conservation of energy, that is, energy can be transformed from one form to another.
• Heat transfer supplements the first and second laws of thermodynamics by providing additional rules,
which may be used to estimate the rate and mode of heat energy transfer that will take place under certain
specified conditions.

1.1.1 Engineering Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer is widely applied in many branches of Science and Engineering. It plays an important role in the design
and performance of equipments employed in the power and process industries, automobiles, refrigeration and air
conditioning plants, electrical and electronic appliances which in turn determine their feasibility and cost.
• The dimensions of boilers, refrigerators, heaters and heat exchangers depend upon both the amount and rate of heat to
be transferred. Operation of turbine blades, combustion chamber of engines, transformers, computers and several
electronic devices depend mainly on the rate of cooling. Also, heat transfer analysis is done to avoid overheating and
damage of such equipments.
• Modern electric and electronic plants require efficient dissipation of thermal energy. The miniaturization of electronic
systems, from the level of toys to high power computers and automated machines, has caused a drastic increase in the
amount of heat generation comparable in magnitude to that in a nuclear reactor. There failure rate increases drastically
with temperature.
• Problems related to heat transfer during high speed flows in case of aircrafts, rockets, missiles and satellites are of great
concern as this results in extreme rise in the viscous stresses or friction that raise temperature of the surface. A
thorough heat transfer analysis is most important for the proper sizing of fuel elements in the nuclear reactor cores to
prevent burnout. The utilization of solar energy, which is abundantly available, also requires knowledge of heat transfer
and fluid flow for proper design of the related equipments.
 2

1.1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer, namely conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction: Conduction is the energy transfer from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature
which may be within a medium or between media when in direct physical contact. That is, the energy in case of
conduction is transmitted by direct molecular communication without appreciable displacement of the molecules.

Convection: Convection is the energy transfer that takes place in fluids by the combined action of heat conduction,
energy storage and mixing motion. When a fluid flows past a stationary solid surface, the fluid particles touching the
surface come to rest, while the adjacent fluid particles away from the surface try to move with a little higher velocity
until they again reach the free stream value at some distance from the solid surface. Thus, the transfer of energy
from a solid surface to the surrounding fluid that has experienced change in velocity near the surface first takes place
by conduction. The energy thus transferred increase the temperature and the internal energy of these fluid particles,
which then move to a region of lower temperature and mix with, and transfer a part of their energy to the other fluid
particles. The net effect of this process is a transport of energy. And, since this energy transfer occurs as a result of
the temperature gradient, it is also considered as one of the modes of heat transfer. The heat transfer by convection
may be classified as:
(a) Natural Convection, when mixing takes place merely as a result of density difference,
(b) Forced Convection, when the mixing is induced by some external agency like pump or blower, etc.
(c) Mixed Convection, when the mixing is induced at relatively low velocities.

Radiation: Radiation is the energy transfer from a body at higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature when
they are separated in space. The space in between the bodies may be some transmitting medium or a vacuum.
The term radiation is generally referred to all kinds of electromagnetic wave phenomena. But, the radiation
exchange which are as a result of temperature and transfer through a media or space, come under heat transfer. Thus,
the thermal radiation lying in the wavelength (λ) range of 10-4 m to 10-7m (0.1 to 100 μm ) and constitutes the
visible range (λ= 0.35 – 0.75 μm ) and the infrared range (λ= 1 – 1000 μm ) will be of interest in the subject of
heat transfer. Some properties of the radiation heat transfer are:
¾ that all bodies in nature continuously emit radiant heat,
¾ Intensity of the emission of radiation depends on the temperature and nature of the surface,
¾ Radiant energy travels at the speed of light (equal to 3 x 108 m/s = 3 x 105 km/s),
¾ Radiant heat is emitted by a body in the form of finite batches, or quantum of energy,
¾ Motion of radiant heat in space is similar to the propagation of light and can be described by the wave theory,
¾ When the radiant heat, encounter some other object it is absorbed near the surface.
 3

1.1.3 Basic Laws of Heat Transfer; Thermal Conductance and Resistance

All the three modes of heat transfer, conduction, convection and radiation, can be described in the form of
mathematical equations to evaluate the desired parameters.
Fourier's law of heat conduction
According to Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer by conduction will be,
dT (1.57)
q = − kA x
dx
Where, q = Rate of heat transfer, kJ/h or (kW)
k = thermal conductivity of the medium/media in which conduction is taking place, kJ/hmoC or (W/moC)
Ax = Cross-sectional area or the area normal to the heat flow direction, m2
dT = temperature gradient oC/m or (K/m)
dx
The temperature gradients according to the heat flow direction are shown on the (T– x) diagram in Figs.1.21(a & b).

T T
q q

- ve +ve

dT/ dx dT/ dx

x x
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.21 Temperature Profile on the T-x diagrams showing

positive and negative gradients

Considering, one dimensional heat conduction through a plane wall, shown in Fig. 1.22 (a). The variables in
equation (1.57) are separated and then integrated between the limits at the sections 1 and 2 as follows:

kA x (T1 − T2 )
T2
x2
kA x ΔT ΔT
∫x1
qdx = ∫ − kA
T1
x dT or q=
(x 2 − x 1 )
or q=
L
=
⎛L ⎞
(1.58)
⎜ kA ⎟
⎝ x ⎠

where,
ΔT = driving force = (T1 − T2 )

L
= Resistance to heat flow due to conduction (Rk ) and,
kA x
kA x Conductance to the heat flow (C )
= k
L
Equation (1.58) can also be represented by an electrical network shown in Fig. 1.23 with q, ΔT and Rk representing
current, Voltage drop and resistance, respectively.
 4

T
Ax
T1

T2 ⎛L ⎞
⎜ kA ⎟
q ⎝ x ⎠
q

L T1 Rk T2
x
Fig. 1.22 One dimensional heat conduction Fig. 1.23 Electrical network for one
in a plane wall dimensional conduction heat transfer

Newton’s law of cooling and heating

It states that the rate of heat transfer during convection is expressed as:

q = hAΔT (1.59)
Where, q = Rate of heat transfer, kJ/h (W)
h = heat transfer coefficient, kJ/hm2oC (W/m2oC)
A = heat transfer area subjected to convection boundary.

ΔT = Temperature difference = ( Ts − T∞ ) [refer Fig. 1.24]

Since the velocity of fluid layer while flowing over a stationary surface, becomes zero due to no slip condition, the
heat must be transferred also by conduction within the layer where there is zero or reduced velocity of the fluid
particles. Thus, there will exist, change in velocity and temperature of the fluid particles in the direction normal to
the fluid flow, as shown in Fig. 1.24.
U T∞
U
T
y T∞
u T ⎛ ∂y ⎞
⎜ ⎟
uu ⎝ ∂T ⎠ y =0

Ts
x Stationary surface

q
Fig. 1.24 Fluid layer in which velocity (u) and temperature (T) gradients exist

Heat transfer due to conduction in y-direction of the fluid layer, shown in Fig. 1.24, will be
∂T
q = − kA y =o (1.60)
∂y
Combining equations (1.59) and (1.60) for the conduction and convection process in the fluid layer we will get,
k ∂T
h=− y =0 (1.61)
Ts − T∞ ∂y
 5

In convection temperature gradient will depend upon the rate at which the fluid carries the heat away, which in turn
depends upon the velocity and other thermal properties of the fluid. Convection heat transfer during free and forced
flow are shown in Figs. 1.25 (a & b) respectively. Also, effect of convention in cooling a wall is shown in Fig. 1.26.
Approximate range of the heat transfer coefficients for different types of convection are given in Table 1.3.

Ti Pure Conduction
Wall at Ts Wall at Ts Ts
Increasing Wind speed
q q
Free Convection
Forced Convection
Tair

Wall

Fig.1.25(a) Free Fig.1.25 (b) Forced

Convection Convection Fig. 1.26 Effect of convection in cooling a wall

Table 1.3 Approximate Range of Heat Transfer Coefficients (h)

S. No. Type of Convection h in W/m2 oC
gases liquids
1. Natural Convection 5 - 25 50 - 1000
2. Forced Convection 15 - 250 50 – 20,000
3. Boiling and Condensation 2500 -100,000 4000-25,000

Equation 1.59 can also be represented by an electrical circuit shown in Fig.1.27; the equivalent resistance and
driving force for which can be obtained as follows:

ΔT ΔT
q = hAΔT = = ΔTCc = (1.62)
1 Rc
hA
Where, ΔT = driving force= (Ts − T∞ )

1 = Resistance to heat flow (Rc)

hA
Cc = Conductance to heat flow (hA)

(1hA )
q q
Ts T∞
Rc
Fig. 1.27 Electrical network for convection
heat transfer
 6

Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation

Stefan-Boltzmann law states that all bodies in nature emit radiation at the rate given by,

q = σAT 4 (1.63)
Where, σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6703 x 10-8 W/m2K4
A = Emitting surface area of the body, m2
T = Absolute temperature of body, Kelvin (K)
Equation (1.63) was first discovered experimentally by Josef Stefan in (1879) and later in 1884 it was confirmed
theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann.
If the black body of area A1 at temperature T1 radiates to an enclosure at a lower temperature T2 which completely
surrounds it and whose surface is also black, that is it absorbs all the radiant energy incident upon it, the net heat
exchange between the black body and the black enclosure is then given by,

(
q 1 = σA 1 T14 − T24 ) (1.64)
If the emitting body has a gray surface and that all of its radiation is not reaching the black enclosure, the net heat
exchange then will be,
(
q 1− 2 = σA 1ε 1 F12 T14 − T24 ; ) (1.65)

ε1 = emissivity of the real surface

F12 = Shape factor (body 1 facing body 2)

The radiant heat transfer can also be expressed in terms of resistances as:
ΔT
q1−2 = h r A1 ( T1 − T2 ) = = Cr ΔT (1.66)
Rr
And, will be represented in the form of an electrical network as shown in Fig.1.28.
Equations (1.65) and (1.66) then give expression for the radiation heat transfer coefficient as,

hr =
(
σε1 F12 T14 − T24 ) (1.67)
(T1 − T2 )
⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
⎝ hr A⎠
q1− 2 q1− 2
T1 Rr T2
Fig. 1.28 Electrical network for radiation heat
t f
 7

1.1.4 Combined Heat Transfer

Let us consider water flowing through a tube which is being heated by hot gas in the annulus combustion chamber
of a boiler, as shown in Fig. 1.29. The exchange of heat between the hot gas, the tube wall and water are also shown
in Fig. 1.30. The heat transfer from the hot gas is assumed to be due to convection and radiation both, while through
the tube wall is by conduction and to the water is by convection alone.

cooling
hot gas water hot gas
Hot Gas film Tube Wall Water film

T T
g T g
g
Tsg

q cw
T
sg Tsg Radiation Convection
Tsw Tsw qr hw
Tw h r Radiation qk Tsw
Tw
Conduction
hot gas hot gas q cg Convection
k
h g Convection Convection
cooling
water
L
Rr
Rk R cw
T g
Tw
T Tsw
R cg sg

Fig.1.29 Heat exchange between hot gas and Fig. 1.30 Temperature distribution and resistances in heat
cooling water in a Concentric tube exchange between the hot gas and the cooling water

Let, Tg = Temperature of the gas

Tsg = Temperature of the wall surface on the gas side
Tsw = Temperature of the wall surface on the water side
Tw = Temperature of the water, and
L = Tube wall thickness
εg = Emissivity of the gas

Fgs = Geometric view factor between the gas volume and the tube wall surface.

Let us also assume that the tube surface on the gas side be black so as to absorb all the radiation.
Also, let the tube wall thickness be small, then Ai=Ao=A.
Where, Ai = Inner surface area of the tube
Ao = Outer surface area of the tube
Making use of the heat transfer relations for conduction, convection and radiation, we can write equation for each
section in the Fig. 1.30.
(i) The total heat transfer which is from the gas by radiation and convection to the tube wall,

( )
q = q r + q cg = σAε g Fgs Tg4 − Tsg4 + h g A (Tg − Tsg ) (1.68)
 8

Equation (1.68) can also be written in terms of resistances (refer electrical network in the Fig. 1.30 as:

⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
q = q r + q cg = ⎜
⎜R
+ (T − Tsg )
⎟ g
(1.69)
⎝ r R cg ⎠
(ii) The total heat transfer (as above) will now pass through the tube wall due to conduction as,

kA ( Tsg − Tsw )
q = qk =
L
( Tsg − Tsw ) =
Rk
(1.70)

(iii) The total heat transfer from the tube wall to the water due to convection will be,

q = q cw = h w A ( Tsw − Tw ) =
( Tsw − Tw )
(1.71)
R cw
The temperatures given by the equations (1.69) to (1.70) can be arranged as:
q
Tg − Tsg = = R 1q (1.72)
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ + ⎥
⎢⎣ R r R cg ⎥⎦

Also, Tsg − Tsw = qR k (1.73)

and, Tsw − Tw = qR cw (1.74)

On summing the equations (1.72 to1.74), we get

Tg − Tw = q{R 1 + R k + R CW } (1.75)

(T g − Tw )
which gives, q= (1.76)
(R 1 + R k + R cw )
1
=
1
+
1
=
(
σε g AFgs Tg4 − Tsg4 )
(Tg − Tsg ) + h cg A
where, (1.77)
R 1 R r R cg

L and 1
Rk = R cw = (1.78)
kA hwA
 9

1.4 Physical properties of solids, liquids and gases

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a physical (intensive) property of a substance that characterizes its ability to transfer heat by

conduction given by the Fourier’s law as: k = ( q A ) ⎡− dT

⎣
⎤
dx ⎦ ( ) (1.79)

The thermal conductivity for a given material depends upon its state and varies with the structure, humidity, pressure
and temperature. Thermal conductivity of various substances range as indicated in Fig. 1.31.

Quartz Silicon Diamond

Non-Meatalic Crystals

Zinc Silver
Pure Metals

Nickel Aluminum
Alloys
Plastics Ice Oxides
Non-Meatalic Solids
Foams Fibres
Insulating Material
Oil Water Hg
Liquids
CO 2 H2
Gases

0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000

Fig. 1.31 Ranges of thermal conductivity of various substances

Solid State: From material science it is known that a solid structure consists of free electrons and atoms bound in a
periodic arrangement called, lattice. Therefore in solids heat transfer by conduction is due to the migration of free
electrons (e) and lattice (l) vibration waves, so that their thermal conductivity comprise of sum of the two
components, k=ke+kl. However, at elevated temperatures in the pure metals, thermal vibration of lattice becomes
higher and the motion of free electrons, get retarded. Except for aluminum and uranium, the thermal conductivity of
most pure metals, decrease with increase in the temperature. On the other hand, in alloys the free electron
component ke is less than that of pure metals and the thermal conductivity increases with increase in the
temperature. The thermal conductivity for alloys is less than that of pure metals from which it is made due to the
impurities. However, in non-metals, the lattice component kl becomes pre-dominant. The insulating materials have
low thermal conductivity. Many building and insulating materials like bricks, concrete, asbestos, foams, fibers, slag,
etc. have a porous structure. The thermal conductivity of such materials, therefore, highly depends on the type of gas
or liquid present in the voids, that is, the porous spaces. Thus, heat transfer through the insulating materials may be
due to conduction or convection through the air in the void spaces. And, if the temperature is sufficiently high,
radiation between the surfaces of solid matrix may also take place.
 10

Liquid & Gas States: Thermal conductivity of liquids and gases are relatively less than those of the solids. This is
because of the larger intermolecular spacing present in the gases and liquids.
Materials with high thermal conductivity are called thermal conductors while those with low thermal
conductivity are called thermal insulators. Thermal conductors are used where heat conduction at faster rate is
desired while thermal insulators are used to obstruct the flow of heat between an enclosure and its surrounding.
Materials at low temperature conditions that have very high thermal conductivity are known as superconductors. For
example, aluminum has kAl = 20,000 W/mK at 10K which is 100 times of that at the room temperature, while the
Copper has kcu = 20,000 W/mK at 20 K which is 50 times of that at the room temperature.
Insulating materials are of three kinds: low temperature insulation, high temperature insulation and super-
insulators. Low temperature insulators like cork, rope wool, glass wool, cattle hair, thermocol, etc. are used in a
situation where the enclosure is at a temperature lower than the ambient temperature in order to prevent the
enclosure from gaining heat. High temperature insulators like magnesia, earth, asbestos, diatomaceous, etc. are used
in a situation where the enclosure is at a higher temperature than the ambient air and it is desired to prevent the
enclosure from losing heat to the surroundings. Super insulators include powders, fibers, etc. in which the solid
material is finally dispersed throughout in an air space. It also consists of multiple layers of highly reflective
materials separated by insulating spacers. The entire system is evacuated to minimize conduction heat transfer
through the air. Thus, thermal conduction as low as 0.3 mW/mK are possible.
Unlike metals, which are good electrical and heat conductors, crystalline solids such as diamond and semi-
conductors (like silicon) are good heat conductors but poor electrical conductors. This is why diamond heat sinks are
used in the cooling of sensitive electronic components. Diamond is highly ordered crystalline solid and highest
known thermal conductivity at the room temperature is 2300 W/mK. Silicon oils and gaskets are used in the packing
of electronic components because they provide both, good thermal contact and good electrical insulation.
Weidemann-Franz law states that the ratio of thermal and electrical conductivities is the same for all metals at the
same temperature, and is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal, (k/σ) α T or (k/σ T) = a
Constant for all metals (= 2.45x10-8 WΩ / K2 ) known as Lorentz number. Here, σ is the electrical conductivity of
the metal (Ωm)-1 and k is the thermal conductivity of the metal (W/mK).
Thermal Diffusivity
Thermal diffusivity, denoted by α is defined as:
Thermal Conductivity k
α= = (1.80)
Thermal Capacity ρC

Thermal diffusivity indicates how fast heat diffuses through a material. Here, k represents thermal conductance

through a material while, ( ρ C ) indicates heat absorbing capacity of the material. Thus, a material with high

thermal conductivity and low heat absorbing or storing capability will have high thermal diffusivity.
 11

1.5 Temperature field and Temperature gradient

The heat transfer occurs in a body when at different points in it, there is different temperature. Conduction heat
transfer in solids takes place due to temperature variation in both space and time. Thus, a temperature field may be
defined as:
T = f1 (x,y,z,t); where x, y, z are the space coordinates and t is time (1.81)
If the temperature at each point in a body is constant with time, the heat flow process is referred to as a steady state
and the temperature then is only a function of space coordinate,
∂T
T = f2(x,y,z) ; =0 (1.82)
dt
If the temperature varies only in two directions and its variation in the third coordinate is negligible, then it is called
two dimensional field and, in that case,

T = f3 (x,y,t); ∂T = 0 (1.83)
∂z
Similarly, for a one dimensional field,

T = f4 (x,t); ∂T ∂T (1.84)
= =0
∂y ∂z
And, for a one dimensional steady state temperature field,

T = f5 (x); ∂T ∂T ∂T (1.85)
= 0, = =0
∂t ∂y ∂z
Isotherm
The locus of the curve joining the same temperature at all points in a body is called an isotherm. Fig. 1.32 shows
isotherms differing by temperature ΔT which never interact. They either end at the surface of the body or are located
completely within it. The greatest temperature variation is in a direction normal to the isothermal surface, and it is
defined as the temperature gradient,
^ ∂T (1.86)
∇.T = gradT = n
∂n
∂T ^
where, = temperature derivative along the normal n and n = unit vector normal to the isotherm.
∂n
∂T
The magnitude of is positive in the direction of increasing temperature. The vector equation (1.86) can be
∂n
written in the scalar form for the co-ordinate axes, ox, oy and oz (refer Fig. 1.32) as:
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T
=l ; =m and =n ; (1.87)
∂x ∂n ∂y ∂n ∂z ∂n
Where l, m, n are direction cosines
 12

Heat flow lines

According to Fourier’s law, the rate of transfer in the direction of heat flow lines is given by,
∂T
q = −kA
∂n
∂T
And heat flux, q" = −k (1.88)
∂n
The heat flux of an isothermal surface is related as
^ ∂T
q" = − n k (1.89)
∂n
The heat flux q" will be normal to the isothermal surface. And according to the second law of thermodynamics,
since heat must flow from hotter to colder body, it will be +ve in the direction of decreasing temperature. Hence, the
vectors grad T and q" are both normal to the isotherms but run in opposite directions, as shown in Fig. 1.33. This
explains the existence of the minus sign in the Fourier’s law (given by the equations 1.57 and 1.89).
Isotherms Heat Flow Lines
y

ΔT

n
Δn

o x
Δx
T + 2ΔT
T + ΔT
z q"
T

T − ΔT T T + ΔT T − ΔT
T − 2ΔT

Fig.1.32 Isotherms Fig. 1.33 Heat flow lines and Isotherms

The greatest heat flow will be along the lines normal to the isothermal surfaces. Thus,
∂T ∂T
q x = −k x A or q "x = − k x (1.90)
∂x ∂x
∂T ∂T
q y = −k y A or q "y = − k y (1.91)
∂y ∂y
∂T ∂T
q z = −k z A or q "z = −k z (1.92)
∂z ∂z

For isotropic materials, kx = k y = kz = k (1.93)

Also, the heat flow vector can be written as:

q " = iq "x + jq "y + kq "z (1.94)

 13

Solved Examples
Example 1.4
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through an aluminium plate of 2 mm thickness whose one face is maintained at
200 oC and the other at 50 oC.

Solution: (Refer Fig. Ex 1.4)

T
Given: kaluminium=204 W/mK (from table 1.11)
T1 = 200 o C
Using Fourier’s law of heat conduction (Equation
q
1.58):
T2 = 50 o C

q k ( T1 − T2 ) 204 ( 200 − 50 ) W
x1 x 2 x = = = 15.3x106 2
A ( x 2 − x1 ) 2x10 −3
m
Fig. Ex1.4 Conduction Heat transfer

Example 1.5
One surface of a hot plate having area 1m x 1m is maintained at 100 oC. If it is exposed to the free atmosphere
having heat transfer coefficient as 10W/m2K at 25 oC, find the heat loss from the exposed surface of the plate due to
convection. Also estimate the thermal resistance due to convection.

Solution:
Using the equation (1.59), heat transfer due convection will be
q = hA ( Ts − T∞ ) = 10 x 1 (100 − 25) = 750 W
1 1
Thermal resistance due to convection, = = = 0.1 K/W
hA 10x1

Example 1.6
A large room has a bulb of 100W fitted at is roof. The bulb is enclosed by a hemispherical shaped transparent cover
of 100 mm diameter that transmits the radiant light from the bulb to the entire room. Find the total heat loss from the
bulb cover to the room, when the cover attains a temperature of 100oC and the room is 20 oC .
( )
Solution: Total heat transfer, q = σεAF1− 2 Tc4 − Tr4 + hA ( Tc − Tr )

q = 5.67x10−8 x0.95x2πr 2 ⎡( 273 + 100 ) − ( 273 + 20 ) ⎤ + 10x2πr 2 (100 − 20 ) = 40.624 + 50.264 = 90.88 W
4 4
⎣ ⎦

Questions for discussion

Q1.4 Explain the phenomenon of conduction, convection and radiation. Whether conduction heat transfer can
also take place in liquids and gases. If so, explain how.
Q1.5 In heat transfer, what is the resistance and the driving force to overcome it.
Q1.6 Define thermal diffusivity. Suggest the type of material that must be used if the energy is to be stored.
 14

Questions of multiple choice

1. A thin flat glass sheet 2m by 2m is fixed on one of the walls of a building. Solar radiation is falling on outer
side of the sheet at the rate of 800 W/m2. If the air inside the building is at 25oC having convective heat
transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2 oC, find the surface temperature of the glass sheet if the total radiation is
dissipated to the building.
a. 50 oC
b. 45 oC Ans.
c. 20 oC
d. 10 oC
2. A sign board 2m by 1m is fixed on the road side. Its one side is facing south and receives an average
radiation of 500 W/m2 while the other side is dissipating heat due to convection. What will be the
convective heat transfer coefficient (in W/m2 oC) of the air film over this board, if its surface temperature
reaches 30oC and the surrounding air is at 25oC.
a. 25
b. 50 Ans.
c. 100
d. 200.
3. A flat plate has thickness 5 cm, thermal conductivity 1 W/mK, convective heat transfer coefficient on its
two faces are 10 W/m2K and 20 W/m2K. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the plate is,
a. 5 W/m2K Ans.
b. 6.33 W/m2K
c. 20 W/m2K
d. 30 W/m2K
4. A 20 cm diameter, 1.2 m long cylinder loses heat from its periphery surface by convection. The surface
temperature is constant at 100oC and the field temperature is maintained at 20 oC. If the average heat
transfer coefficient over the surface of the cylinder is 25 W/m2K, the rate of heat transfer in Watts is,
a. 120 π
b. 240 π
c. 320 π
d. 480 π Ans.
5. Due to which of the following reasons most metals are good conductors of heat ?
a. Capacity to absorb free energy of electrons
b. Energy transport due to molecular vibration
c. Migration of neutrons from hot end to cold end
d. Presence of many free electrons and frequent collision of atoms. Ans.
6. Heat conduction in gases is due to
a. Electromagnetic waves
b. Motion of electrons
c. Mixing motion of the different layers of the gas
d. Elastic impact of molecules. Ans.

Unsolved Problems

Q1.1 Air at 25oC flows over a heated plate maintained at 200oC. If the plate is 1m long and 0.3 m wide, calculate
the rate of heat transfer from the plate to the air. Assume heat transfer coefficient of the air as 50 W/m2K.
Ans. 2.625kW
Q1.2 A disc shaped domestic radiator 300 mm diameter is placed in a large room so that it fully face the room
surfaces. Let the room walls, including the roof and floor, are at a mean temperature of 15oC and behave as black
body (that they absorb all the radiation). If the surface of the radiator having emissivity as 0.95 is at 80oC, determine
(i) Radiant heat emitted by the radiator Ans. 62.38 W
(ii) Radiation heat exchange between the radiator and the room walls. Ans. 32.97 W