SCHOOL OF BIO & CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – Heat Transfer – SCHA1301

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 1. Introduction to Heat Transfer
Practically all the operations that are carried out by the chemical engineers involve the
production or absorption of energy in the form of heat. The study of temperature distribution
and heat transfer is of great importance to engineers because of its almost universal occurrence
in many branches of science and engineering. The first step in the optimal design of heat
exchangers such as boilers, heaters, refrigerators and radiators is a detailed analysis of heat
transfer. This is essential to determine the feasibility and cost of the undertaking, as well as the
size of equipment required to transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time. Difference
between thermodynamics and heat transfer Thermodynamic tells us (i) How much heat is
transferred (ii) How much work is done (iii) Final state of the system.

Heat transfer tells us: (i) How much heat is transferred (with what modes) (ii) At what rate heat
is transferred (iii) Temperature distribution inside the body.

The various modes of heat transfer are (i) conduction (ii) convection (iii) radiation. Conduction
Heat transfer by the actual but invisible movement of molecules within the continuous substance
due to temperature gradient is known as conduction. When a current or macroscopic particle of
fluid crosses a specific surface, it carries with it a definite quantity of enthalpy. Such a flow of
enthalpy is called convection. Convection is the mode of heat transfer in which the heat flow is
associated with the movement of fluid. Transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic
waves is known as radiation.

1.1 Applications of heat transfer

Energy production and conversion -steam power plant, solar energy conversion etc.
Refrigeration and air-conditioning Domestic applications -ovens, stoves, toaster Cooling of
electronic equipment Manufacturing / materials processing -welding, casting, soldering, laser
machining Automobiles / aircraft design

1.1.1 Conduction: It is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic diffusion and collisions of
particles or quasi-particles within a body due to a temperature gradient. The microscopically
diffusing and colliding objects include molecules, electrons, atoms, and phonons. They transfer
disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, which are jointly known as internal
energy. Conduction can only take place within an object or material, or between two objects that
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are in direct or indirect contact with each other. On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs
as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and
molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other
words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as
electrons move from one atom to another.

Fourier’s law of heat Conduction

The rate of heat transfer due to conduction is governed by Fourier’s Law, as shown

𝜟𝑻
𝒒 = 𝒌𝑨 (𝜟𝒙)

The terms in Eqn. 1 are:

q – rate of heat transfer (W)

k – thermal conductivity (W/m∙K)

A – surface area across which heat is transferred (m2)

ΔT – difference in temperature over which heat is transferred (K)

Δx – distance over which heat is transferred (m)

Thermal conductivity indicates the ease of heat transfer through a material and is a material
dependent property. The ΔT term is the driving force for heat transfer.

1.1.2 Convection

The rate of heat transfer due to convection is described by

𝒒 = 𝒉𝑨(𝜟𝑻)

In Eqn. 2 the new term is:

h –heat transfer coefficient (W/m2∙K)

In Eqn. 2, the heat transfer coefficient replaces the k/Δx term in Eqn. 1. The reason this happens
is because convection has a mobile phase, and thickness is no longer an effective way of
describing how the heat is transferred. The heat transfer coefficient can be thought of as the
inverse of the resistance to heat transfer. Also, because temperature is a function of distance
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from a surface, the ΔT term is calculated between the surface and the bulk temperature of the
mobile phase.

1.1.3 Radiation

The concept for radiation is that all materials are constantly emitting infrared radiation that is
absorbed by other materials. For this module, we will assume that radiation is emitted directly
outward from the surface of objects. While conduction and convection are driven by a
temperature gradient, radiation is only based on the temperature of the object emitting
radiation.

The rate of heat transfer due to radiation can be described by

Radiation Emitted: 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝛆𝑨𝝈(𝑻𝒔 𝟒 )

Radiation Absorbed: 𝒒𝒊𝒏 = 𝜶𝑨𝝈(𝑻𝒐 𝟒 )

Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate
of heat transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the
intervening medium through which the heat is transferred. The three fundamental modes of
heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.

Heat transfer, the flow of energy in the form of heat, is a process by which a system changes its
internal energy, hence is of vital use in applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Conduction is also known as diffusion, not to be confused with diffusion related to the mixing of
constituents of a fluid. The direction of heat transfer is from a region of high temperature to
another region of lower temperature, and is governed by the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Heat transfer changes the internal energy of the systems from which and to which the energy is
transferred. Heat transfer will occur in a direction that increases the entropy of the collection of
systems. Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bodies and the surroundings reach
the same temperature. Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in
response to a change in temperature.

Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference
in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. As such, it is equivalent to a statement
that the heat transfer coefficient, which mediates between heat losses and temperature

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differences, is a constant. This condition is generally true in thermal conduction (where it is
guaranteed by Fourier's law), but it is often only approximately true in conditions of convective
heat transfer, where a number of physical processes make effective heat transfer coefficients
somewhat dependent on temperature differences. Finally, in the case of heat transfer by thermal
radiation, Newton's law of cooling is not true.

Thermal conductivity (often denoted k, λ, or κ) is the property of a material to conduct heat. It is

evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Heat transfer occurs at a
lower rate across materials of low thermal conductivity than across materials of high thermal
conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in heat
sink applications and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The
thermal conductivity of a material may depend on temperature. The reciprocal of thermal
conductivity is called thermal resistivity. Thermal conductivity is actually a tensor, which means
it is possible to have different values in different directions.

Table 1: Thermal conductivity at room temperature for some metals and non-metals

Metals Ag Cu Al Fe Steel
k [W/m-K] 420 390 200 70 50
Non-metals H2 0 Air Engine oil H2 Brick Wood Cork
k [W/m-K] 0.6 0.026 0.15 0.18 0.4 -0 .5 0.2 0.04

1.2 Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the physical property of the substance. It depends upon temperature
gradient. For pure metals, thermal conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature. For
gases and insulators, thermal conductivity increases with an increase in temperature. For small
ranges of temperature, k may be considered constant. For larger temperature ranges, thermal
conductivity can be approximated by an equation of the form k = a + bT, where a and b are
empirical constants.

Steady-State Conduction It is the form of conduction which happens when the temperature
difference driving the conduction is constant so that after an equilibrium time, the spatial
distribution of temperatures (temperature field) in the conducting object does not change any
further. In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of

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heat coming out. Unsteady state conduction It is the form of conduction which happens when the
temperature difference driving the conduction is not constant so that after an equilibrium time,
the spatial distribution of temperatures (temperature field) in the conducting object changes as a
function of time. Heat flux is denoted as q/A and it is defined as the rate of heat flow passing
through a material per cross-sectional area and its unit is w/m2.

Silver is the material which possess highest thermal conductivity and being a solid it is composed
of closed packing arrangement and due to this more molecular interactions within the molecules
and hence the thermal conductivity is high.
Thermal conductivity is ability of a material to transport heat energy through it from high
temperature region to low temperature region. The heat energy, Q, transported across a plane
of area A in presence of a temperature gradient ΔT/Δl is given where k is the thermal
conductivity of the material. It has units as W/m.K. It is a microstructure sensitive property. •
Its value range o for metals 20-400 for ceramics 2-50 for polymers order of 0.3 Mechanisms -
Thermal conductivity
Heat is transported in two ways – electronic contribution, vibrational (phonon) contribution. In
metals, electronic contribution is very high. Thus metals have higher thermal conductivities. It is
same as electrical conduction. Both conductivities are related through Wiedemann-Franz law
where L – Lorentz constant (5.5x10-9 cal.ohm/sec.K2) • As different contributions to conduction
vary with temperature, the above relation is valid to a limited extension for many metals. • With
increase in temperature, both number of carrier electrons and contribution of lattice vibrations
increase. Thus thermal conductivity of a metal is expected to increase. However, because of
greater lattice vibrations, electron mobility decreases. The combined effect of these factors leads
to very different behavior for different metals. Eg.: thermal conductivity of iron initially
decreases then increases slightly; thermal conductivity decreases with increase in temperature
for aluminium; while it increases for platinum.

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1.3.1 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A PLANE WALL

Let us consider a plane wall of thickness L, thermal conductivity k, inside surface temperature
Ti, outside surface temperature To. Let Q be the rate of heat transferred through the plane wall.

By Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Q = -kA dT/dx

Fig. 1: Heat flow through a metal wall

On integrating the above eqn, Q = KA(Ti-To) / L

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Q = KA ΔT / L i.e Q = ΔT / (KA/L) where KA/L = Rth where Rth – thermal resistance measured
in oC / Watts or K / Watts. Hence Q = ΔT / Rth.

1.3.2 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A HOLLOW CYLINDER

Let us consider a hollow cylinder. The inside radius of the cylinder is r1, the outside radius is r2,
and the length of the cylinder is L. The thermal conductivity of the material of which the
cylinder is made is k. The temperature of the outside surface is T2, and that of the inside surface
is T1.

By Fourier’s law of heat conduction,

Fig. 2 Heat flow through a cylinder

Q = -kA dT/dr

integrating the above eqn,

1.3.2.1 LOGARITHMIC MEAN RADIUS AND ARITHMETIC MEAN RADIUS

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Logarithmic mean radius is the radius that when applied to the integrated equation for a flat
wall, will give the correct rate of heat flow through a thick walled cylinder. It is given by the
expression

where is the logarithmic mean radius of the cylinder

ro is the outer radius of the pipe and

ri is the inner radius of the pipe.

Hence using the above expression Q = 2∏ k L (Ti-To) * (ro-ri) / ln (ro/ri) *(ro-ri)

Using the Logarithmic mean radius expression in above, we get

Q = 2∏ k L ΔT * rlm / (ro-ri) hence, Q = ΔT / (ro-ri) / Alm * k

Where Alm = 2∏ L * rlm , Alm is the logarithmic mean area which is used for thin cylinders.

1.3.3 COMPOUND RESISTANCES IN SERIES

(I) Heat Transfer Through A Composite Plane Wall

Let us consider a flat wall constructed of a series of 3 layers as shown. Let the thickness of the
layers be L1, L2, L3 and the average thermal conductivities of the materials of which the layers
are made be k1, k2, k3 respectively. Let us consider a hot fluid at a temperature Ta and heat
transfer coefficient ha inside the wall and cold fluid at a temperature Tb and heat transfer
coefficient hb outside the wall. Let T1, T2, T3 and T4 be the interface temperatures. It is desired to
derive an equation for calculating the rate of heat flow through the series of resistances.

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Fig. 3 Heat flow through a composite wall
Rate of heat flow from the hot fluid to the inner surface of the wall
By Newton’s law of cooling
Q = ha A (Ta – Tb)
By rearranging the above eqn, we get

Rate of heat flow through the I layer, by Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
Q = KA(T1-T2) / L On rearranging this,
Q = (T1-T2) / (L1/K1.A)
Rate of heat flow through the II layer,
Q = (T2-T3) / (L2/K2.A)
Rate of heat flow through the III layer,
Q = (T3-T4) / (L3/K3.A)

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Rate of heat flow from outer surface of the wall to the cold fluid By Newton’s law of cooling
Q = hb A (T4 – Tb) and Q = (T4 – Tb) / 1/ hb A

Overall rate of heat flow =overall thermal resistance / overall temperature drop

In steady state heat conduction through a composite wall, this can be written as

Q = (T1 – T4) / (L1/K1.A + L2/K2.A + L3/K3.A )

i.e Q = ΔT / Rth1 + Rth2 + Rth3

Hence, Q = ΔT / ∑ Rth

Table 2 Various flows and their driving forces

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It was observed in the previous discussion that for the given plane wall the area for heat
transfer was constant along the heat flow direction. The plane solid wall was one of the
geometries but if we take some other geometry (tapered plane, cylindrical body, spherical
body etc.) in which the area changes in the direction of heat flow. Now we will consider
geometrical configuration which will be mathematically simple and also of great engineering
importance like hollow cylinder and hollow sphere. In these cases the heat transfer area
varies in the radial direction of heat conduction. We will take up both the cases one by one in
the following sections.

1.4 ) Heat transfer through co-axial cylinder Provided with one layer of insulation

Fig. 4 Heat flow through a composite cylinder

Let us consider coaxial cylinders constructed of a series of 3 layers as shown in fig. Let R o R1
and R2 be the radii of the cylinders and the average thermal conductivities of the materials of
which the layers are made be k1 and k2 respectively. Let us consider a hot fluid at a
temperature Tb and heat transfer coefficient hb inside the cylinder and cold fluid at a
temperature Ta and heat transfer coefficient ha outside the cylinder. Let To, T1 and T2 be the
interface temperatures. It is desired to derive an equation for calculating the rate of heat flow
through the composite cylinder provided with series of resistances.

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Rate of heat flow from the hot fluid to the inner surface of the wall
By Newton’s law of cooling,

Q = hb A (Tb – T0 )

Q = hb 2 ∏RL (Tb – To)

By rearranging the above,

Q = (Tb – To) / 1/ 2п Ro L

Rate of the heat flow through the cylinder By Fourier’s law of heat conduction

using the above conditions from the fig,

Q = 2∏ k1 L (To – T1) / ln (R1/Ro)

By rearranging the above,

Q = (To – T1) / ln (R1/Ro) / 2∏ k1 L

Rate of the heat flow through the II layer By Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Q = (T1 – T2) / ln (R2/R1) / 2∏ k2 L

Rate of heat flow from the outer surface of the wall to the cold fluid
By Newton’s law of cooling
Q = ha A (T2 – Ta)
Q = ha 2пR2L (T2– Ta) on rearranging, Q = (T2– Ta) / 1 / ha 2∏ R2L

Overall rate of heat flow =overall thermal resistance / overall temperature drop

Hence overall rate of heat flow is given by

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Q = (Tb-Ta) / (1/ hb 2 Ro) + (ln (R1/Ro) / 2∏ k1 L) + (ln (R2/R1) / 2∏ k2 L) +(1/ ha 2∏ R2L)

For steady state conduction , heat transfer coefficients can be neglected and the heat flow is
given by

Q = (Tb-Ta) / (ln (R1/Ro) / 2∏ k1 L) + (ln (R2/R1) / 2∏ k2 L)

Hence Q = ΔT / Rth1 + Rth2

Where Rth1 = (ln (R1/Ro) / 2∏ k1 L) and Rth2 = (ln (R2/R1) / 2∏ k2 L)

Q = ΔT / ∑ Rth

1.5 Insulation
The addition of insulation material on a surface reduces the amount of heat flow to the
ambient. There are certain instances in which the addition of insulation to the outside surface
of cylindrical of spherical walls does not reduce the heat loss. Under certain circumstances it
actually increases the heat loss up to a certain thickness of insulation. It is well known fact
that the rate of heat transfer will approach zero if an infinite amount of insulation are added.
This means that there must be a value of radius for which rate of heat transfer is maximum.
This value is known as the critical radius of insulation, rc.

Variation of thermal conductivity with respect to solids, liquids and gases

In solids, solids, heat conduction conduction is due to two effects effects: the lattice lattice
vibrational vibrational waves induced by the vibrational motions of the molecules positioned
at relatively fixed positions in a periodic manner called a lattice, and the energy transported
via the free flow of electrons in the solid. • The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by
adding the lattice and electronic components. The relatively high thermal conductivities of
pure metals are primarily due to the electronic component. The lattice component of th l
erma cond ii uct v ty strongly d d epen s on the way the molecules are arranged. For example,
diamond, which is a highly ordered crystalline solid has the highest known thermal
conductivity at room. Conduction crystalline solid, has the highest known thermal
conductivity at room temperature.

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The thermal thermal conductivities conductivities of materials materials vary with
temperature temperature. The variation of thermal conductivity over certain temperature
ranges is negligible for some materials, but significant for others. The thermal conductivities
of certain solids exhibit dramatic increases at temperatures near absolute zero, when these
solids become superconductors.

5.1 CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION IN PIPES

Let us consider an insulating layer in the form of a hollow cylinder of length L. Let ri and ro
be the inner and outer radii of insulation. The thermal conductivity of the material of which
the layer is made be k. Let the inside surface of insulation be at a temperature Ti, and the
outside surface at a temperature To be dissipating heat by convection to the surroundings at a
temperature Tb with a heat transfer coefficient h. Then the rate of heat transfer Q through
this insulation layer is

Fig. 5 Heat flow through a cylindrical pipe for critical radius

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1.6 VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Let us a hollow cylinder. The inside radius of the cylinder is ri, the outside radius is ro, and
the length of the cylinder is L. The thermal conductivity of the material of which the cylinder
is varies with temperature as k= ko(1 + αT). The temperature of the outside surface is To and
that of the inside surface is Ti. This can be used with many equations such as

k = ko (α + βT)

k = ko (α + βT + γT2 )

k = ko (a +bT)

k= ko (a + bT + cT2 )
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By Fourier’s law of heat conduction
1.7 Introduction to Unsteady state heat transfer

A solid body is said to be in a steady state if its temperature does not vary with time. If
however there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature or environment it takes some
time before the body to attain an equilibrium temperature or steady state. During this interim
period the temperature varies with time and the body is said to be in an unsteady or transient
state. The analysis of unsteady state heat transfer is of great interest to engineers because of
its widespread occurrence such as in boiler tubes, rocket nozzles, automobile engines, cooling
of IC engines, cooling and freezing of food, heat treatment of metals by quenching, etc. For
practical purposes it is necessary to know the time taken to attain a certain temperature when
the environment suddenly changes. The solution of an unsteady sate problem will be more
complex than that of steady state one because of the presence of another variable time, t.

Transient heat conduction problems can be divided into periodic heat flow and non periodic
heat flow problems. Periodic heat flow problems are those in which the temperature varies on
a regular basis, eg., the variation of temperature of the surface of the earth during a twenty
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four hour period.. In the non periodic type, the temperature at any point within the system
varies non linearly with time.

Introduction to this point, we have considered conductive heat transfer problems in which the
temperatures are independent of time. In many applications, however, the temperatures are
varying with time, and we require the understanding of the complete time history of the
temperature variation. For example, in metallurgy, the heat treating process can be
controlled to directly affect the characteristics of the processed materials. Annealing (slow
cool) can soften metals and improve ductility. On the other hand, quenching (rapid cool) can
harden the strain boundary and increase strength. In order to characterize this transient
behavior, the full unsteady equation is needed.

Where is the thermal diffusivity. Without any heat generation and considering
spatial variation of temperature only in x-direction, the above equation reduces to:

1.8 Systems with negligible internal resistance – Lumped Heat Analysis

Heat transfer in heating and cooling of a body is dependent upon both the internal and
surface resistances. The simplest unsteady state problem is one in which the internal
resistance is negligible, that is, the convective resistance at the surface boundary is very large
when compared to the internal resistance due to conduction. In other words, the solid has an
infinite thermal conductivity so that there is no variation of temperature inside the solid and
temperature is a function of time only. This situation cannot exist in reality because all the
solids have a finite thermal conductivity and there will always be a temperature gradient
inside whenever heat is added or removed. Problems such as heat treatment of metals by
quenching, time response of thermocouples and thermometers, etc can be analyzed by this
idealization of negligible internal resistance. The process in which the internal resistance is
ignored being negligible in comparison with its surface resistance is called the Newtonian
heating and cooling process. In Newtonian
19 heating and cooling process the temperature
throughout the solid is considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called the
lumped heat capacity analysis.

1.9 Systems with negligible surface resistance

Another class of transient problems met with in practice is one in which the surface resistance
is negligible compared to the overall resistance. This amounts to saying that the convective
heat transfer coefficient at the surface is infinity. For such a process the surface temperature
remains constant for all the time and its value is equal to that of ambient temperature.

Dimensionless parameters:

The Biot number is dimensionless, and it can be thought of as the ratio to the internal and
external heat flows. Whenever the Biot number is small, the internal temperature gradients
are also small and a transient problem can be treated by the “lumped thermal capacity”
approach. The lumped capacity assumption implies that the object for analysis is considered
to have a single mass-averaged temperature.

In general, a characteristic length scale may be obtained by dividing the volume of the solid
by its surface area: L = V/As

Using this method to determine the characteristic length scale, the corresponding Biot
number may be evaluated for objects of any shape, for example a plate, a cylinder, or a
sphere. As a thumb rule, if the Biot number turns out to be less than 0.1, lumped capacity
assumption is applied. In this context, a dimensionless time, known as the Fourier number,
can be obtained by multiplying the dimensional time by the thermal diffusivity and dividing
by the square of the characteristic length:

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 Lumped heat capacity
analysis: temperature distribution inside or outside the solid is neglected.

The cases considered so far have been those in which the heat conducting solid is free of
internal heat generation. However, the situations where the internal heat is generated are
very common cases in chemical industries for example, the exothermic reaction in the solid
pallet of a catalyst.

We have learnt that how the Fourier equation is used for the steady-state heat conduction
through the composites of three different geometries that were not having any heat source in
it. However, the heat generation term would come into the picture for these geometries. It
would not be always easier to remember and develop heat conduction relations for different
standard and non-standard geometries. Therefore, at this point we should learn how to
develop a general relation for the heat conduction that should be applicable to the entire
situation such as steady-state, unsteady state, heat source, different geometry, heat
conduction in different direction, etc. Again here we will consider that the solid is isotropic in
nature, which means the thermal conductivity of the material is same in all the direction of
heat flow.

To get such a general equation the differential form of the heat conduction equation is most
important. For simplicity, we would consider an infinitesimal volume element in a Cartesian
coordinate system. The dimensions of the infinitesimal volume element are dx , dy , and dz in
the respective direction as shown in the fig

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b is a positive quantity having dimension (time)-1. The reciprocal of b is usually called time
constant, which has the dimension of time.

1.10 Heat conduction through spherical surface 6

Fig. 7 Heat flow through a spherical surface

Consider a spherical shell with inside radius r1 and outside radius r2. Let T1 be the inside
temperature and T2 be the outside temperature. K be the thermal conductivity of the
material. Q be the heat flow through the spherical shell with a cross sectional area to be A.
based on Fourier’s law of heat conduction and following the assumptions,

(i) Heat flow is uniform

(ii) Heat flow is normal to the surface
(iii) The material is uniform and possess constant thermal conductivity
(iv) Heat flow is uni-directional
Let us consider a differential element of thickness dr which is lying between inside
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and outside radius. For such an element the heat flow is given by
Q = -kA dT/dr where area of the sphere is 𝑨 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐

Q = ΔT / (r2 – r1) / 4𝝅k r1r2 where the resistance is given by (r2 – r1) / 4𝝅k r1r2

Geometric mean radius is given by rm2 = r1.r2 and hence

Rth = (r2-r1) / Am . k where Am = 4𝝅 rm2 and Am is the geometric mean area.

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Similarly, rate of heat flow for a composite spherical shell with one layer of insulation is given
by Q = ΔT / [(r2 – r1) / 4𝝅k1 r1r2 + (r3 – r2) / 4𝝅k2 r2r3]

In a plane wall the area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow adding more insulation to
a wall always decreases heat transfer. If thicker is insulation, the lower is the heat
transfer rate. This is due to the fact the outer surface have always the same area.
But in cylindrical and spherical coordinates, the addition of insulation also increases the outer
surface, which decreases the convection resistance at the outer surface. Moreover, in some
cases, a decrease in the convection resistance due to the increase in surface area can be more
important than an increase in conduction resistance due to thicker insulation. As a result
the total resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat flow.
The thickness upto which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decreases is termed
as critical thickness. In the case of cylinders and spheres it is called critical radius. It can be
derived the critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulation
k and the external convection heat transfer coefficient h.
Optimum thickness of insulation
The radius of insulation at which the total annual cost is minimum corresponds to optimum
thickness of insulation.
Assume a steel pipe of r1 = 10 mm, which is exposed to natural convection at h = 50 W/m2.K.
This pipe is insulated by material of thermal conductivity k = 0.5 W/m.K. Determine the
critical thickness of this combination:

Hence rcr > r1 and heat transfer will increase with the addition of insulation up to a thickness
of rcr – r1 = (0.010 – 0.005)m = 0.005 m

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1.11 Analogy between heat flow and electricity:

Heat flow is represented by Fourier’s law of heat conduction whereas electrical flow is
represented by ohm’s law.

Heat flow = Temperature gradient / thermal resistance

Ohm’s law is given by

Electrical flow = voltage drop / electrical resistance

The various parameters analogous to each other in both the laws are heat flow and electrical
flow, voltage drop with temperature gradient, thermal and electrical resistance.

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SCHOOL OF BIO & CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II – Heat Transfer – SCHA1301

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 2.0 Convective Heat transfer
When a current or macroscopic particle of fluid crosses a specific surface, it carries with it a
definite quantity of enthalpy. Such a flow of enthalpy is called convection. Convection can refer
to the flow of heat associated with the movement of fluid, such as when hot air from a furnace
enters a room, or to the transfer of heat from a hot surface to a flowing fluid. The two types of
convection are Natural convection and forced convection.
2.1 Natural convection: If the convection currents are the result of buoyancy forces generated
by the differences in density and the differences in density are in turn caused by temperature
gradients in the fluid mass, the action is called natural convection.

2.2 Forced convection: If the convection currents are set in motion by the action of a mechanical
device such as pump or agitator, the flow is independent of density gradients, it is called forced
convection. Heat flux, average temperature of fluid stream Heat flux: Heat transfer calculations
are based on the area of the heating surface area. The rate of heat transfer per unit area is
called the heat flux. Bulk mean temperature: When a fluid is heated or cooled the temperature
will vary throughout the cross section of the stream. Because of these temperature gradients
through out the stream it is necessary to state what is meant by the temperature of the stream.
It is the temperature that will be at a fluid stream flowing across the section are withdrawn and
mixed adiabatically to a uniform temperature. This is also called as average or mixing cup
stream temperature.

Film temperature: It is the average between the temperature of the surface and the fluid. indeed
if the entire Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Let us consider a plane wall of thickness x w and
thermal conductivity kw. The warm fluid at a mean temperature of T h is flowing through the
inside surface of the wall. The cold fluid at a mean temperature of T c is flowing through the
outside surface of the wall. The inside surface temperature is Twh and outside surface
temperature is Twc. The overall heat transfer coefficient is constructed from the individual
coefficients and the resistances of the wall in the following manner. (i) Overall Heat transfer
Coefficient based on outside surface area. The rate of heat transfer from the warm fluid to the
inner surface of the wall in differential form:

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By rearranging the above,

. The rate of heat transfer through the wall in differential form is

given by

on rearranging,

the rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of the wall to the
cold fluid in differential form is given by

on rearranging,

If the eqns are solved for the temperature differences and the temperature differences added,
the result is

3
Assume that the heat transfer rate is arbitrarily based on the outside area. If the eqn is solved
for dQ, and if both sides of the resulting equations are divided by dAo, the result is

Then the above Eqn becomes

2.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside surface area The rate of heat transfer from
the warm fluid to the inner surface of the wall in differential form:

On rearranging,

4
 The rate of heat transfer through the wall in differential form

By rearranging the above,

The rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of the wall to the cold fluid in differential form:

On rearranging

If the eqns to are solved for the temperature differences and the temperature differences
added, the result is

5
Assume that the heat transfer rate is arbitrarily based on the inside area. If the Eqn is solved
for dQ, and if both sides of the resulting equations are divided by dAi, the result is

The above eqn becomes

the overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area is,

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside surface area

The rate of heat transfer from the warm fluid to the inner surface of the wall in differential
form

On rearranging,
6
The rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of the wall to the cold fluid in differential form:

on rearranging,

substituting the above equations,

Assume that the heat transfer rate is arbitrarily based on the inside area. If the eqn is solved for
dQ, and if both sides of the resulting equations are divided by dAi, the result is

7
Hence, the overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside area is

2.4 Fouling factors

In actual service, heat transfer surfaces do not remain clean. Scale, dirt and other solid deposits
form on one or both the sides of the tubes, provide additional resistances to heat flow and
reduce the overall coefficient. The effect of such deposits is taken into account as fouling factors
in design calculation of heat exchangers. hdi, hdo are the fouling factors for the scale deposits on
the inside and outside tube surfaces.

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside surface area

8
Concept of heat transfer by convection, natural and forced convection
When a current or macroscopic particle of fluid crosses a specific surface, it carries with it a
definite quantity of enthalpy. Such a flow of enthalpy is called convection. Convection can refer
to the flow of heat associated with the movement of fluid, such as when hot air from a furnace
enters a room, or to the transfer of heat from a hot surface to a flowing fluid.
The two types of convection are Natural convection and forced convection.

Natural convection: If the convection currents are the result of buoyancy forces generated by
the differences in density and the differences in density are in turn caused by temperature
gradients in the fluid mass, the action is called natural convection.
Forced convection: If the convection currents are set in motion by the action of a mechanical
device such as pump or agitator, the flow is independent of density gradients, it is called forced
convection.

2.5 Newton’s law of cooling

According to Newton’s law of cooling, convective heat flux is proportional to the difference
between the surface temperature and the temperature of the fluid.
Q = h A (Ts – Tf)
Where
Q = rate of heat transfer
h= heat transfer coefficient
A = heat transfer area
T = (Ts – Tf) = temperature difference
Ts = surface temperature
Tf = bulk temperature of fluid

2.6 Application of dimensional analysis for convection

9
Many engineering problems can’t be solved completely by theoretical or mathematical methods.
Problems of this type are common in fluid flow, heat flow. One method of attacking a problem
for which no mathematical equation can be derived is that of empirical experimentation. The
empirical method of obtaining an equation, is laborious, and it is difficult to organize or
correlate the results so
obtained into a useful relationship for calculation. There exists a method intermediate between
mathematical equation and empirical equation. It is based on the fact that if a theoretical
equation does exist among the variables involved in the process, that equation must be
dimensionally homogeneous. It is possible to group many factors into a smaller number of
dimensionless groups of variables. The groups themselves appear in the final equation. This
method is called dimensional analysis.
(i) Natural convection
Let us consider the case of natural convection from a vertical plane wall to
an adjacent fluid.

10
Number of 𝝅 groups = number of variables(N) – number of fundamental dimensions(m)
Number of ∏ groups = 9-4 = 5

By equating the net dimensions of mass, length, time and temperature to zero, we get

11
Hence,

By equating the net dimensions of mass, length, time and temperature to zero and solving those
equations, we get

12
(ii) Forced Convection

13
Let us consider the flow of fluid through a hot tube.

Number of 𝝅 groups = number of variables (N) – number of fundamental dimensions(m)

Number of ∏ groups = 7-4 = 3

14
2.7 Heat transfer coefficient for convective transfer processes

15
16
b,n are constants.

2.8 Heat transfer to fluids without phase change

condensation,
A vapour may condense on a cold surface in one of two ways, which are drop-wise and film-wise
condensation. In film wise condensation, the liquid condensate forms a film, or continuous layer
of liquid that flows over the surface of the tube under the action of gravity.
In drop-wise condensation, the condensate begins to form at microscopic nucleation sites. The
drops grow and coalesce with their neighbors to form visible fine drops. The fine drops in turn,
coalesce into rivulets, which flow down the tube under the action of gravity.
In drop-wise condensation, large areas of the tube surface are covered with an extremely thin
film of liquid of negligible thermal resistance. Because of this the heat transfer coefficient at
these areas is very high the average coefficient for Drop-wise condensation may be 5 – 8 times
that for film-type condensation. For normal design, film-type condensation is assumed.

Fig. 1 Film-wise and drop-wise condensation

Heat transfer coefficient in drop-wise condensation is 10 times higher than in Film-wise

condensation.

17
Much of the experimental work on the drop-wise condensation of steam is summarized as
follows:
(1) Film-type condensation of water occurs on tubes of the common metals if both the steam and
the tube are clean, in the presence or absence of air, on rough or on the polished surfaces.
(2) Drop-wise condensation is obtainable only when the cooling surface is not wetted by the
liquid. In the condensation of steam it is often induced by contamination of the vapour with
droplets of oil. It is more easily maintained on a smooth surface than on a rough surface.
(3) The quantity of contaminant or promoter required to cause drop-wise condensation is
minute, and apparently only a monomolecular film is necessary.
(4) Effective drop promoters are strongly adsorbed by the surface, and substances that merely
prevent wetting are ineffective. Some properties are especially effective on certain metals.
(5) The average coefficient obtainable in pure drop-wise condensation may be as high as 115
kw/m2K.

2.9 The effect of non condensable gases on condensation.

The presence of even small amounts of non-condensing gas in a condensing vapour seriously
reduces the rate of condensation. When a vapour containing non-condensable gas condenses,
the non- condensable gas is left at the surface.
Any further condensation will occur only after the incoming vapour has diffused through this
non-condensable gas which does not move toward the condensate. As condensation proceeds,
the relative amount of this inert gas in the vapour phase increases significantly. The non-
condensable gas acts as a thermal resistance to the condensation process.

Heat transfer coefficients calculation for film-type condensation

The assumptions used in Nusselt’s equation for condensation to determine film thickness.
(i) The vapour and liquid at the outside boundary of the liquid layer are in thermodynamic
equilibrium.
(ii) The only resistance to heat flow is offered by the layer of condensate flowing in laminar flow.
(iii) The velocity of the liquid at the wall is zero.
(iv) The temperatures of the wall and the vapour are constant.
(v) Condensate is assumed to leave the tube at the condensing temperature.
18
(vi) The fluid properties are taken at the mean film temperature.

2.10 Heat Transfer To Boiling Liquids

Heat transfer to a boiling liquid is a necessary step in evaporation, distillation, and steam
generation, and it may be used to control the temperature of a chemical reactor. Boiling occurs
at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a
temperature sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid.
Saturated Boiling Boiling of liquid When the temperature of the liquid is equal to the saturation
temperature.

19
 Fig. 2 Regimes of boiling

When boiling is accomplished by a hot immersed surface, the temperature of the mass of the
liquid is same as the boiling point of the liquid under the pressure existing in the equipment.
Bubbles of vapour are generated at the heating surface, rise through the mass of liquid, and
disengage from the surface of the liquid. Vapour accumulates in a vapour space over the liquid,
a vapour outlet from the vapour space removes the vapour as fast as it is formed. This type of
boiling can be described as pool boiling of saturated liquid since the vapour leaves the liquid in
equilibrium with the liquid at its boiling temperature.
Consider a horizontal, electrically heated wire immersed in a vessel containing a boiling liquid.
Assume that q, heat flux, and ΔT, the difference between the temperature of the wire surface,
Tw and that of the boiling liquid T are measured. Start with a very low temperature drop. Now
raise Tw and increase the temperature drop by steps, measuring q and ΔT at each step, until
very large values of ΔT are reached. A plot of q vs ΔT on logarithmic coordinates will give a
curve of the type shown in figure. This curve can be divided into four segments.
Each of the four segments of the graph corresponds to a definite mechanism of boiling. In the
first section, at low temperature drops, the mechanism is that of heat transfer to a liquid in
natural convection. Bubbles form on the surface of the heater, are released from it, rise to the
surface of the liquid, and are disengaged into the vapour space, but they are too few to disturb
20
the normal currents of free convection. This segment is called natural convection zone. At larger
temperature drops the rate of bubble production is large enough for the stream of bubbles
moving up through the liquid to increase the velocity of circulation currents in the mass of
liquid, and the coefficient f heat transfer becomes greater than in undisturbed natural
convection. As ΔT is increased, the rate of bubble formation increases and the coefficient
increases rapidly.
The action occurring at temperature drops below the critical temperature drop is called
nucleate boiling, in reference to the formation of tiny bubbles on the heating surface. During
nucleate boiling, the bubbles occupy a small portion of the heating surface at a time, and most
of the surface is in direct contact with the liquid. The bubbles are generated at localized active
sites, usually small pits or scratches on the heating surface. As the temperature drop is raised,
more sites become active, improving the agitation of the liquid and increasing the heat flux and
the heat transfer coefficient.

Eventually, however, so many bubbles are present that they tend to coalesce and cover portions
of the heating surface with a layer of insulating vapour. This layer has highly unstable surface.
This type of action is called transition boiling. The heat flux and the heat transfer coefficient
both fall as the temperature drop is raised. Near the Leidenfrost point another distinct change
in mechanism occurs. The hot surface becomes covered with the film vapour, through which
heat is transferred by conduction and by radiation. The random explosion characteristic of
transition boiling disappear and are replaced by the slow and orderly formation of bubbles at
the interface between the liquid and the film of hot vapour. As temperature drop increases, the
heat flux rises, slowly at first and then more rapidly as radiation heat transfer becomes
important. The boiling action in this region is known as film boiling.
Sub-cooled Boiling
In some types of forced-circulation equipment, the temperature of the mass of the liquid is
below that of its boiling point, but the temperature of the heating surface is considerably above
the boiling point of the liquid. Bubbles form on the heating surface, but on release from the
surface are absorbed by the mass of the liquid. This type of heat transfer is called subcooled
boiling, even though the fluid leaving the heat exchanger is entirely liquid.
2.11 Extended surfaces : Heat transfer through fins

21
Heat transfer between a solid surface and a moving fluid is governed by the Newton’s cooling
law: q = hA(Ts-Tα), where Ts is the surface temperature and Tα is the fluid temperature.
Therefore, to increase the convective heat transfer, one can Increase the temperature difference
(Ts-Tα) between the surface and the fluid. Increase the convection coefficient h. This can be
accomplished by increasing the fluid flow over the surface since h is a function of the flow
velocity and the higher the velocity, the higher the h. Example: a cooling fan. Increase the
contact surface area A. Example: a heat sink with fins. Many times, when the first option is not
in our control and the second option (i.e. increasing h) is already stretched to its limit, we are
left with the only alternative of increasing the effective surface area by using fins or extended
surfaces. Fins are protrusions from the base surface into the cooling fluid, so that the extra
surface of the protrusions is also in contact with the fluid. Most of you have encountered cooling
fins on air-cooled engines (motorcycles, portable generators, etc.), electronic equipment (CPUs),
automobile radiators, air conditioning equipment (condensers) and elsewhere.

Heat Transfer From a Fin

Fins are used in a large number of applications to increase the heat transfer from surfaces.
Typically, the fin material has a high thermal conductivity. The fin is exposed to a flowing fluid,
which cools or heats it, with the high thermal conductivity allowing increased heat being
conducted from the wall through the fin. The design of cooling fins is encountered in many
situations and we thus examine heat transfer in a fin as a way of defining some criteria for
design.

Fig. 3 Geometry of heat transfer through longitudinal fin

22
A model configuration is shown in Figure. The fin is of length . The other parameters of the

problem are indicated. The fluid has velocity and temperature . We assume (using the
Reynolds analogy or other approach) that the heat transfer coefficient for the fin is known and
has the value . The end of the fin can have a different heat transfer coefficient, which we can

call .

The approach taken will be quasi-one-dimensional, in that the temperature in the fin will be
assumed to be a function of only. This may seem a drastic simplification, and it needs some
explanation. With a fin cross-section equal to and a perimeter , the characteristic

dimension in the transverse direction is (For a circular fin, for example, ).

The regime of interest will be taken to be that for which the Biot number is much less than

unity, , which is a realistic approximation in practice.

The physical content of this approximation can be seen from the following. Heat transfer per

unit area out of the fin to the fluid is roughly of magnitude per unit area. The
heat transfer per unit area within the fin in the transverse direction is (again in the same
approximate terms)

where is an internal temperature. These two quantities must be of the same magnitude.

If , then . In other words, if , there is

a much larger capability for heat transfer per unit area across the fin than there is between the
fin and the fluid, and thus little variation in temperature inside the fin in the transverse
direction. To emphasize the point, consider the limiting case of zero heat transfer to the fluid,

23
i.e., an insulated fin. Under these conditions, the temperature within the fin would be uniform
and equal to the wall temperature.

Fig 4: Element of fin showing heat transfer

If there is little variation in temperature across the fin, an appropriate model is to say that the

temperature within the fin is a function of only, , and use a quasi-one-

dimensional approach. To do this, consider an element, , of the fin as shown. There is heat

flow of magnitude at the left-hand side and heat flow out of magnitude

at the right hand side. There is also heat transfer around the perimeter
on the top, bottom, and sides of the fin. From a quasi-one-dimensional point of view, this is a
situation similar to that with internal heat sources, but here, for a cooling fin, in each elemental

slice of thickness there is essentially a heat sink of magnitude ,

where is the area for heat transfer to the fluid.

The heat balance for the element can be written in terms of the heat flux using , for a
fin of constant area:

24
The quantity of interest is the temperature difference , and we can change variables

the temperature variation along the fin. It is a second order equation and needs two boundary
conditions. The first of these is that the temperature at the end of the fin that joins the wall is
equal to the wall temperature.

The second boundary condition is at the other end of the fin. We will assume that the heat
transfer from this end is negligible. The boundary condition at is

The relation between derivatives that is needed to cast the equation in terms of is

25
There is one non-dimensional parameter and it is m

The equation for the temperature distribution we have obtained is

This second order equation has the solution

the boundary condition at is given by

The boundary condition at is that the temperature gradient is

zero or

Solving the two equations given by the boundary

conditions for and gives an expression for in terms of the hyperbolic cosine or
:

26
This is the solution to above Equation for a fin with no heat transfer at the tip. In terms of the
actual heat transfer parameters it is written as

The amount of heat removed from the wall due to the fin, which is the quantity of interest, can
be found by differentiating the temperature and evaluating the derivative at the wall, x = 0

this is the expression for heat flow through a longitudinal fin.

It can also be derived for fin with an insulation and fin provided with free convection off the
end.

PROBLEMS

Water heated to 80.C flows through a 2.54cm I.D and 2.88cm O.D steel tube ( k = 50 W/m K).
The tube is exposed to an environment which is known to provide an average convection
coefficient of ho = 30800 W/m2 K on the outside of the tube. The water velocity is 50 cm/s.
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer area of the pipe. Properties of

27
water at bulk mean temperature of 80 .C: =974 kg/m3, = 0.364 x 10- 6 m2/sec, k= 668.7 x
10- 3 W/m K, Pr = 2.20.

2. Air at 2 atm and 200.C is heated as it flows at a velocity of 12m/s through a tube with a
diameter of 3cm.The tube wall temperature is 20.C above the air temperature all along the
length of the tube. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit length of the tube. The properties
of air at bulk mean temperature are; Pr = 0.681; µ = 2.57 x 10-5 kg/ms; k = 0.0386 W/m K and
Cp = 1.025 kJ/kg K
Solution:

28
3. A horizontal cylinder, 3.0 cm in diameter and 0.8 m length is suspended in water at 20.C.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer if the cylinder surface is at 55 .C. Given Nu = 0.53 (Gr x Pr)
0.25. The properties of water at average temperature are as follows: Density = 990 kg/m3,
Viscosity = 2.47 kg/hr.m, k = 0.534 kcal/hr.m .C, Cp = 1 kcal/kg.C,
Solution:

29
Newton’s law of cooling
Q = hAdT= h∏DL dT = 3240.03kcal/h

4. Liquid sodium is to be heated from 120 oC to 149o C at a rate of 2.3 kg/sec in a 2.5 cm
diameter electrically heated tube (constant heat flux). Calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
The properties of sodium at 134.5oC are: density =916 kg/m3, Cp= 1.3565 kJ/kg K, √ = 0.594 x
10-6 m2/sec, k=84.90 W/m K, Pr= 0.0087. Given NNu =4.82 + 0.0185 NPe 0.827

30
Solution: Calculate h

h = NNu * k
using Peclet number, NNu = 14.22
NPe = NPr * NRe
NRe = Di u / µ = 215067.34 NPr = 0.0087
NPe = 1871.08 (Reynolds * Prandtl)
Hence h = 48291.12 w/m2 k.

Reynolds and Colburn Analogy:

Reynolds has taken the following assumptions to find the analogy between heat and momentum
transport.

1. Gradients of the dimensionless parameters at the wall are equal.

2. The diffusivity terms are equal. That is

References:

1. McCabe M.L. and Smith J.C., Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering, 7 th Edition,
McGraw Hill, 2009.

31
32
SCHOOL OF BIO & CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III – Heat Transfer – SCHA1301

1
 1.0 Heat Exchangers

In any process industry, we need to transfer heat for different operations (like cooling, heating,
vaporizing, or condensing) to or from various fluid streams in various equipment like condensers,
water heaters, re-boilers, air heating or cooling devices etc., where heat exchanges between the two
fluids. In a chemical process industry, the heat exchanger is frequently used for such applications. A
heat exchanger is a device where two fluids streams come into thermal contact in order to transfer the
heat from hot fluid to cold fluid stream.

In this chapter, we will discuss about the technical analysis of the heat exchangers along with the
method for predicting heat exchanger performance and operational parameters. Moreover the
discussion on heat exchanger size will also be discussed. However, we will not discuss the economics
(though discuss the heat exchanger size) of the heat exchanger. We will consider that the heat transfer
will primarily be taken by conduction and convection only. We will describe the commonly used heat
exchangers and their important characteristics.

In general heat exchangers may be categorized into two general classes depending on the relative
orientation of the flow direction of the two fluid streams. If the two streams cross one another in space,
usually at right angles, the heat exchangers are known as cross flow heat exchanger as shown in the
fig.1(a).

In the second class of heat exchanger the two streams move in parallel direction in space. The usual
shell and tube heat exchanger or concentric pipe exchanger or double tube exchanger is the most
frequently used exchanger in the class. Two situations may arise when the fluid flow in the parallel
direction, one in which the fluids flow in same direction and the other in which the fluids flow in
opposites direction. “Parallel –flow” or “Co-current flow” is used when the flow is in same direction
and counter current is used when the fluid flow is in the opposite direction.

Before understanding the principle of heat exchanger we would first understand it from the point of
construction.

1.1 Elements of shell and tube heat exchanger

We will discuss shell and tube heat exchanger as they or the most commonly used heat exchangers in
the chemical process industries. Schematic of a typical shell and tube heat exchanger is shown in fig.2.
2
 Fig.1: Orientation of fluid stream in heat exchanger (a) cross flow (b) counter current flow (c)
parallel flow

The heat exchanger as shown in fig.2 consists of a bundle of tubes properly secured at either ends in
tube sheets. The tube sheets are drilled plates into which the tubes are fixed up using different
technique to have leak proof joints. The entire tube bundles shown in the fig.3 is placed inside a
closed shell, which seals around the tube sheet periphery to form the two immiscible zones for hot and
cold fluids are shown in fig.4.

3
Fig.2: A schematic of (a) one-shell pass, one tube pass heat exchanger; (b) parallel flow; and (c)
counter flow

4
 Fig.4: Tube bundle inside a shell

One fluid flows through the tubes while the other fluid flows around the outside of the tubes, it is the
space between the tube sheets and enclosed by the outer shell.

For a thorough distribution of the shell side fluid, baffles are placed normal to the tube bundle. This
baffle creates turbulence in the shell side fluid and enhances the transfer coefficients for the shell side
flow.

Fig.2 shows the simplified diagram of a shell and tube heat exchanger, showing a few of the important
components. Infact, the present heat exchanger used in the process industry are quite complex and
have improved design such as factors for thermal expansion stresses, tube fouling due to contaminated
fluids, ease of assembly and disassembly, size, weight, etc.

5
The heat exchanger shows in fig.2 is having one shell and one tube pass since both the shell and tube
side fluid make a single traverse through the heat exchanger. Thus, this type of shell-and-tube heat
exchangers is designated as 1-1 exchanger. If we desire to pass the tube fluid twice, then it is
designated as 1-2 exchangers. Similarly, if there are 2 shell pass and 4 tube pass, the designation will
be 2-4 exchanger. The number of pass in tube side is done by the pass partition plate. A pass
particular plate or pass divider as shown in fig.5. The shell side pass can be creator by a flat plate as
shown in fig.6.

The three most common types of shell-and-tube exchangers are (1) fixed tubesheet design, (2) U-tube
design, and (3) floating-head type. In all three types, the front-end head is stationary while the rear-end
head can be either stationary or floating depending on the thermal stresses in the shell, tube, or
tubesheet, due to temperature differences as a result of heat transfer. The exchangers are built in
accordance with three mechanical standards that specify design, fabrication, and materials of unfired
shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Class R is for the generally severe requirements of petroleum and
related processing applications. Class C is for generally moderate requirements for commercial and
general process applications. Class B is for chemical process service. The exchangers are built to
comply with the applicable ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII (1998), and other
pertinent codes and/or standards. The TEMA standards supplement and define the ASME code for
heat exchanger applications. In addition, state and local codes applicable to the plant location must
also be met. The TEMA standards specify the manufacturing tolerances for various mechanical
classes, the range of tube sizes and pitches, baffling and support plates, pressure classification,
tubesheet thickness formulas, and so on, and must be consulted for all these details. In this book, we
consider only the TEMA standards where appropriate, but there are other standards, such as DIN 28
008. Tubular exchangers are widely used in industry for the following reasons. They are custom
designed for virtually any capacity and operating conditions, such as from high 14
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS FIGURE (a) Shell-and-tube exchanger (BEM) with
one shell pass and one tube pass; (b) shelland-tube exchanger (BEU) with one shell pass and two tube
passes. vacuum to ultrahigh pressure [over 100 MPa (15,000 psig)], from cryogenics to high
temperatures [about 11008C (20008F)] and any temperature and pressure differences between the
fluids, limited only by the materials of construction. They can be designed for special operating
conditions: vibration, heavy fouling, highly viscous fluids, erosion, corrosion, toxicity, radioactivity,
multi-component mixtures, and so on. They are the most versatile exchangers, made from a variety of
6
metal and nonmetal materials (such as graphite, glass, and Teflon) and range in size from small [0.1
m2 (1 ft2) to supergiant [over 105 m2 (106 ft2 )] surface area. They are used extensively as process heat
exchangers. in the petroleum-refining and chemical industries; as steam generators, condensers, boiler
feed water heaters, and oil coolers in power plants; as condensers and evaporators in some air-
conditioning and refrigeration applications; in waste heat recovery applications with heat recovery
from liquids and condensing fluids; and in environmental control

7
Fig 6: 2-4 exchanger showing shell and tube passes

It can be understood that for a given number of tubes; the area available for flow of the tube side fluid
is inversely proportional to the number of passes. Thus, on increasing the pass the area reduces and as
a result the velocity of fluid in the tube increases and henceforth the Reynolds number increases. It
would result in increased heat transfer coefficient but at the expense of high pressure drop. Generally,
even numbers of tube passes are used for the multi-pass heat exchangers.

Figure 2 shows some baffles. These baffles (or shell-side baffles) are a metal plate usually in the form
of the segment of a circular disc having holes to accommodate tubes. Shell-side baffles have two
functions. The first is to create turbulence in the shell side fluid by changing the flow pattern parallel
or cross flow to the tube bundles and thus increases the shell side heat transfer coefficient. The second
major function of these baffles is to support the tube all along its length otherwise the tube may bend.
Moreover, these baffles may have horizontal or vertical cuts (segmental baffle) as shown in fig.7.

8
Fig.7: Baffles; (a) horizontal cut baffles; (b) Vertical cut baffles; (c, d and e)the shaded region
show the baffle area

The cut portion of the baffle, which is called baffle window, provides the area for flow of the shell
fluid. The baffle window area ranges from 15% to 50%. At 25% cut segmental baffle means that the
area of the cut-out portion is 25% of the area of the baffle. The spacing between the baffles is an
important aspect. A larger baffles spacing reduces the shell side pressure drop but at the same time
decreases the turbulence and heat transfer coefficient. Smaller baffle spacing increases the turbulence
and heat transfer coefficient. However, the pressure drop may increase significantly, thus the
advantage attained due to the higher heat transfer coefficient may be nullified. Therefore baffle
spacing is selected considering the allowable shell side pressure drop and the heat transfer coefficient
desired. A rule of thumb is that the minimum spacing of segmental baffles is one by fifth of the shell
diameter or 5 cm, whichever is larger.

1.2 Thermal design of heat exchangers

The mechanical design is done by the mechanical engineers on the inputs of chemical engineers and
using the codes. The most widely used code in Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Associations
(TEMA). This USA code along with ASME selection VIII (unfired pressure vessel) code is used

9
together for the mechanical design of the heat exchanger. The Indian code for the heat exchanger
design IS 4503.

Here we would discuss about the process design (or thermal design) leading to the sizing of the heat
exchanger. Before understanding design steps, it is necessary to understand the following for the heat
exchanger.

1.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient

As understood by the previous discussion that generally heat exchangers are tubular in nature (Note:
we are not discussing about plate type heat exchangers). Thus we can easily find out the overall heat
transfer coefficient based on our previous knowledge. Figure.8 shows a simplest form (double pipe
heat exchanger) of tubular heat exchanger, where fluid A is being heated by fluid B in a co-current
flow pattern. The inside and outside radii of the inner tube is represented ri and ro. The length of the
exchanger for heat transfer is considered as L for section 1 to 2.

10
 Fig.8: (a) Schematic of a double pipe heat exchanger (b) thermal resistance network for overall
heat transfer

Thus the rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid will be represented by eq.1,

(1)

The overall heat transfer coefficient;

Based on inside area of the inner pipe (eq.2)

(2)

Based on outer side area of the outer pipe (eq.3)

(3)

1.4 Fouling factor or dirt factor

Over a time period of heat exchanger operation the surface of the heat exchanger may be coated by the
various deposits present in the flow system. Moreover, the surfaces may become corroded or eroded
over the time. Therefore, the thickness of the surface may get changed due to these deposits. These
deposits are known as scale. These scales provide another resistance and usually decrease the
performance of the heat exchangers. The overall effect is usually represented by dirt factor or fouling
factor, or fouling resistance, Rf (Table.1) which must have included all the resistances along with the
resistances due to scales for the calculation of overall heat transfer coefficient.

The fouling factor must be determined experimentally using eq.4,

11
 (4)

Thus to determine the Rf, it is very important to know Uclean for the new heat exchanger.
TheUclean must be kept securely to obtain the Rf, at any time of the exchanger’s life.

Table-1 Fouling factor of a few of the industrial fluids

1.5 Temperature profiles in heat exchangers

Fig.9 shows the temperature profile along the length of a 1-2 exchangers and 2-4 exchangers.
12
 Fig.9 Temperature-length curve corresponding to (a) 1-2 exchanger ; (b) 2-4 exchanger

The nomenclature used in the fig.9 is described below

Tha: Inlet temperature of hot fluid

Thb: Outlet temperature of hot fluid
Tca: Inlet temperature of cold fluid
Tcb: Outlet temperature of cold fluid
Tci: Intermediate temperature of cold fluid

13
In the above arrangement it is assumed that the hot fluid is flowing in the shell side and cold fluid is
flowing in the tube side of the exchangers. The fig.9 (a) shows the 1-2 exchangers in which the hot
fluid enter into the exchanger from the left side and exits from the right side. The cold fluid enters
concurrently that is from the left side to the tube of the exchangers and goes up to right end of the
exchangers and returns back to make two tube pass, and exits from the left end of the exchangers. The
temperature profile all along the length of the exchanger is shown in the corresponding temperature
length profile. Figure.9 (b) shows the flow direction and corresponding temperature length profile for
2-4 exchangers. The shell side fluid two passes and the tube side fluid has 4-passes in the exchangers.

It can be easily understood that whenever the number of passes is more than one, the flow cannot be
truly co-current or counter current. Thus it will be a mix of co-current and counter current flows in any
multi pass heat exchangers.

Though the temperature profile of the hot and cold streams can be easily predictable for single pass
heat exchangers but for the complex flow modes, the prediction of temperature distribution will be
difficult as shown in fig.9. As can be seen when 1-2 exchangers was (fig.9 (a)) used in co-current
mode, the temperature profile was given in the figure. However, if the fluid streams enter in counter
current mode a temperature cross may occur sometimes. Temperature cross is described as the positive
temperature difference between the cold and the hot fluid, when these fluids leave the exchangers. In
that case the cold fluid will attain the maximum temperature inside the exchanger instead of at the exit
(fig.10).

14
 Fig. 10: 1-2 flow pattern and temperature profile in exchanger showing cross flow

At this temperature cross, the cold fluid temperature reaches the maximum at a point inside the
exchanger and not at its exits. This temperature cross point also coincides with the point of intersection
of the temperature profile of the hot fluid and the co-current zone of the cold fluid. The difference
(Tc2 - Th2) is called the temperature cross of the exchanger. However, if the temperature cross does not
appear then the (Tc2 - Th2) is called the approach. Moreover, on careful evaluation it can be seen that

15
for the multi shell side pass a significant length of the exchanger have cross flow pattern in the tube
flow when the shell side fluid is migrating from one shell pass to another shell pass. Although the
parallel flow or counter flow are quite similar, the parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers
differ greatly in the manner in which the fluid temperatures vary as the fluid pass through. The
difference can be understood in the figure 11.

The fig.11 shows an important parameter, mcp, the product of mass flow rate (m) and the specific heat,
cp, of the fluids. The product mcp is called the rate of heat capacity.
The overall energy balance of the heat exchanger gives the total heat transfer between the fluids, q,
expressed by eq.5,

(5)

The fig.11 shows the relative variation of the two fluid temperatures through the heat exchanger,

which is influenced by whether is greater or less than .

In particular, for counter flow, examination of the sketches in fig.11 shows that limiting condition for

maximum heat transfer is determine by whether is greater or less than . When,

> the maximum possible heat transfer is determined by the fact that the hot fluid can be cooled

to the temperature of the cold fluid inlet. Thus, for >

16
17
 Fig.11: Temperature profiles of (a) parallel flow, and (b) counter flow, for different
inequalities

For the other case when the limit is determined as the cold fluid is heated to the inlet temperature of
the hot fluid:

For,

Thus for the counter flow exchanger, the above two set equations show that the maximum possible
heat exchanger is determined in terms of the inlet parameters. The maximum possible heat exchange
may be determined (eq.6) by the fluid stream having low heat capacity rate;

(6)

The subscript ccf denotes counter current flow. The is for the fluid having lower value

of

In case of parallel flow, regardless of the relative sizes of the two stream the limiting heat transfer
condition is determine by the fact that the two fluid streams approach the same outlet temperature.
Thus,

Tho → Tco condition can be found out by the weighted average of the inlet stream.

Thus, the maximum possible heat transfer may be,

18
or,

(7)

The subscript pf represents parallel flow (co-current). From the above discussion and qmax equations (6
and 7) it can be calculated for a given inlet conditions the counter current flow arrangement always has
a better potential for heat transfer as compared to parallel flow arrangement.

1.6 Why multi-pass exchangers?

The simplest type of heat exchangers is double pipe heat exchangers, which is inadequate for flow
rates that cannot readily be handled in a few tubes. If several double pipes are used in parallel, the
metal weight required for the outer tubes becomes so large that the shell and tube construction, such as
1-1 exchanger will be helpful. In that one shell serves for many tubes, is economical. The heat transfer
coefficient of tube side and shell side fluid is very important and the individual heat transfer
coefficients must be high enough to attain high overall heat transfer coefficient. As the shell would be
quite large as compared to the tubes, the velocity and the turbulence of the shell side fluid is important.

In contrast, the 1-1 exchanger has limitations also. When the tube side flow is divided evenly among
all the tubes, the velocity may be quite low, resulting in low heat transfer coefficient. There it may be
required to increase the area to have the desired heat exchange for this low heat transfer coefficient.
The area may be increased by increasing the length of the tube. However, the tube length requirement
may be impractical for a given situation. Thus the number of tubes should be increased without
increased the tube length. The increased number of tubes would also provide the increased velocity in
the shell side resulting in the higher heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, multi-pass construction is
needed, which would permit to use the practical and standard tube lengths. However, the
disadvantages are that,

19
1. The construction of the exchangers become complex.
2. Parallel flow cannot be avoided.
3. Additional friction losses may occur.

It should be noted that generally even number of tube passes are used in multi pass exchanger.

1.7 LMTD correction factor

In the earlier chapter, we have seen for co-current or counter current flow system. The average driving
force for heat transfer was defined by log mean temperature difference (LMTD). Thus the LMTD can
be used for 1-1 exchangers for co-current and counter current. However, for multi pass exchangers (1-
2, 2-4, etc.) the fluids are not always in co-current or counter current flow. The deviation for co-
current or counter current flow causes a change in the average driving force. Therefore, in order to use
true heat transfer driving force, a correction factor is required into the LMTD. Thus, the heat transfer
rate can be written as (eq.8),

q = UdA(FTΔTm) (8)

where,

Ud = overall heat transfer coefficient including fouling/dirt

A = heat transfer area
FT ΔTm = true average temperature difference.
FT = LMTD correction factor

It is to be noted that the following assumption have been considered for developing LMTD,

1. The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant throughout the exchanger

2. In case any fluid undergoes for phase change (e.g., in condenser), the phase change occurs throughout
the heat exchanger and the constant fluid temperature prevails throughout the exchanger.
3. The specific heat and mass flow rate and hence the heat capacity rate, of each fluid is constant.
4. No heat is lost in to the surroundings.
5. There is no conduction in the direction of flow neither in the fluids nor in the tube or shell walls.
6. Each of the fluids may be characterized by a single temperature, at any cross section in the heat
exchanger that is ideal transverse mixing in each fluid is presumed.

20
FT, the LMTD correction factor can be directly obtained from available charts in the literature. These
charts were prepared from the results obtained theoretically by solving the temperature distribution in
multi-pass heat exchangers.

Figures 12 and 13 show the two generally used heat exchangers and their corresponding plots for
finding FT. It may be noted that the given figures have the representative plots and any standard book
on heat transfer may be consulted for the accurate results.

Fig.12: FT plot for 1-2 exchanger; t: cold fluid in the tube; T: hot fluid in the shell; 1: inlet; 2:
outlet

21
 Fig. 13 FT plot for 2-4 exchanger; t: cold fluid in the tube; T: hot fluid in the shell; 1: inlet; 2:
outlet

It should be noted that in case of condensation or evaporation the correction factor becomes unity
(FT =1). While designing a heat exchanger, the rule of thumb is that the FT should not be less than 0.8.

1.8 Individual heat transfer coefficient

we have seen that the overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated provide the parameters are
known including individual heat transfer coefficients. In this, section we will discuss how to find out
the individual heat transfer coefficient, which is basically based on the well-established correlations
and discussed earlier also.

The heat transfer coefficient (hi) for the tube side fluid in a heat exchanger can be calculated either by
Sieder-Tate equation or by Colburn equation discussed in earlier chapter.

However, the shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho) cannot be so easily calculated because of the
parallel, counter as well as cross flow patterns of the fluid. Moreover, the fluid mass velocity as well
as cross sectional area of the fluid streams vary as the fluid crosses the tube bundle. The leakages
between baffles and shell, baffle and tubes, short circuit some of the shell fluid thus reduces the
effectiveness of the exchanger.
22
Generally, modified Donohue equation (eq.9) (suggested by D.Q. Kern) is used to predict the ho,

(9)

where,

h0= shell side heat transfer coefficient

Dh= hydraulic diameter of the shell side
k0= thermal conductivity of the shell side fluid
Gs= mass flow rate of the shell side

The Dh and Gs can be easily calculated if the geometry of the tube arrangement in the shell is known.
The tubes may be generally arranged as a square or triangular pitch, as shown in figure 14.

Fig.14: Tube arrangement in the shell (a) triangular pitch (b) square pitch

The hydraulic diameter (Dh) for tubes on square pitch

Dh For 60° triangular pitch=

where,

d0 = outer diameter of tube

p = tube pitch

23
where,

= flow rate of shell fluid

as = shell side flow area

Shell side flow area can be calculated using baffle information number of tubes in the shell and tube
arrangement. If 25% cut baffles are used, that means the shell side flow will be from this 25% area.
However we have to reduce the area of the pipes which are accumulated in this opening. So depending
upon the information we may determine the shell side fluid flow area. It may also be found out by the
following way,

where,

C = tube clearance
B = baffle spacing
Ds= inside diameter of shell
p = pitch of the tube
1.9 Pressure drop in the heat exchanger
Pressure drop calculation is an important task in heat exchanger design. The pressure drops in the tube
side as well as shell side are very important and quite a few co-relations are available in the literature.
One such co-relation is given below in the subsequent subsection.

Correlation for tube side pressure drop (eq. 10)

(10)

where,

ΔPt,f = total pressure drop in the bundle of tube

24
 f = friction factor (can be found out from Moody’s chart)
Gt = mass velocity of the fluid in the tube
L = tube length
n = no of tube passes
g = gravitational acceleration
ρt = density of the tube fluid
di = inside diameter of the tube
m=0.14 for Re > 2100
0.25 for Re < 2100

The above correlation is for the pressure drop in the tubes owing to the frictional losses. However in
case of multi pass flow direction of the flow in the tube changes when flow is from 1-pass to another
pass and the pressure losses due to the change in direction is called return-loss. The return-loss (ΔPt,r)
is given by eq.11,

(11)

n = no of tube pass
vt = velocity of the tube fluid
ρt = density of the tube fluid

Therefore, the total tube side pressure drop will be,

Δpt = ΔPt,f + ΔPt,r

Correlation for shell side pressure drop

The following correlation (eq.12) may be used for an unbaffled shell,
(12)

The above equation can be modified to the following form (eq.13) for a baffled shell,

(13)

where

25
 L = shell length
ns = no of shell pass
nb = no of baffles
ρs = shell side fluid density
Gs = shell side mass velocity
Dh = hydraulic diameter of the shell
Dsi = inside diameter of shell
fs = shell side friction factor

The hydraulic diameter (Dh) for the shell can be calculated by the following equation (eq.14),

(14)

where,

nt = number of tubes in the shell

do = outer diameter of the tube

The friction factor (fs) can be obtained by the Moody’s chart for the corresponding Reynolds

number

1.10 Heat transfer effectiveness and number of transfer units (NTU)

The LMTD is required to be calculated for the evaluation of heat exchanger performance. However,
the LMTD cannot be directly calculated unless all the four terminal temperatures (Tc,i, Tc,o, Th,i, Th,o) of
both the fluids are known.

Sometimes the estimation of the exchanger performance (q) is required to be calculated on the given
inlet conditions, and the outlet temperature are not known until q is determined. Thus the problem
depends on the iterative calculations. This type of problem may be taken care of using performance
equivalent in terms of heating effectiveness parameter (η), which is defined as the ratio of the actual
heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer. Thus,

(15)

26
For an infinite transfer area the most heat would be transferred in counter-current flow and the qmaxwill
be dependent on the lower heat capacity fluid as such,

The actual heat transfer

The capacity ratio, which is the relative thermal size of the two fluid streams, is defined as,

On careful analysis, we can say that

U·A: Heat exchange capacities per unit temperature difference.

This thermal sizing (U·A) can be non-dimensionalised by dividing it to the storage capacity of one of

the fluid streams. Given limits the maximum heat transfers. The non-dimensional term
obtained is known as the number of transfer units (NTU)

It should be noted that

The actual determination of this function may be done using heat balances for the streams. For a
parallel flow exchanger the relation is shown below

27
The above relation is true for both the condition

Similarly the functional relationship for counter –current exchanger is

(16)

(17)

The previous relation (eq.16 and 17) were for 1-1 exchanger. The relation for 1-2 exchanger (counter
current) is given by eq.18, 19),

(18)

(19)

When the fluid streams are condensing in a 1-1 pass exchanger (fig.15) as shown below,

Fig.15: Condenser with the temperature nomenclature

the following relation arrives.

28
Problems

Deionized water flows through the inner tube of 30-mm diameter in a thin-walled concentric tube heat
exchanger of 0.19-m length. Hot water at 95 °C flows in the annulus formed with the outer tube of 60-
mm diameter. The deionized water is to be heated from 40°C to 60°C at a flow rate of 5 kg/s. The
thermo physical properties of the fluids are:

(a) Considering a parallel-flow configuration of the heat exchanger, determine the minimum flow rate
required for the hot process water. (b) Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient required for the
conditions of part a. (c) Considering a counter flow configuration, determine the minimum flow rate
required for the hot process water. What is the effectiveness of the exchanger for this situation?

Solution

29
30
2. Calculate log mean temperature difference for the following shell and tube heat exchanger for two
possible arrangements (i) counter-current and (ii) co-current flow patterns.Hot fluid in temperature
TH1 = 100 0C Hot fluid out temperature TH2 = 90 0C Cold fluid out temperature TC2 = 50 0C Cold
fluid in temperature TC1 = 30 0C

(LMTD),
ΔT1 → the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at one end of the heat exchanger
ΔT2 → the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at the other end of the heat exchanger
(i) For counter current heat exchanger,
ΔT1 = TH1 - TC2 = 100 - 50 = 500C (At one end hot fluid enters and cold fluid exits.)
ΔT2 = TH2 - TC1 = 90 - 30 = 600C

(At the other end cold fluid enters and hot fluid exits.)
by definition given above, LMTD for counter current flow = (60-50) / ln(60/50) = 10 / 0.1823 =
54.850C.
(ii) For co-current heat exchanger,
ΔT1 = TH1 - TC1 = 100 - 30 = 700C (At first end hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger.)
ΔT2 = TH2 - TC2 = 90 - 50 = 400C

31
SCHOOL OF BIO & CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV – Heat Transfer – SCHA1301

1
 1.0 Radiation Heat Transfer

It has been observed that the heat transfer studies were based on the fact that the temperature of a
body, a portion of a body, which is hotter than its surroundings, tends to decrease with time. The
decrease in temperature indicates a flow of energy from the body. In all the previous chapters,
limitation was that a physical medium was necessary for the transport of the energy from the high
temperature source to the low temperature sink. The heat transport was related to conduction and
convection and the rate of heat transport was proportional to the temperature difference between the
source and the sink.

Now, if we observe the heat transfer from the Sun to the earth atmosphere, we can understand that
there is no medium exists between the source (the Sun) and the sink (earth atmosphere). However, still
the heat transfer takes place, which is entirely a different energy transfer mechanism takes place and it
is called thermal radiation.

Thermal radiation is referred when a body is heated or exhibits the loss of energy by radiation.
However, more general form “radiation energy” is used to cover all the other forms. The emission of
other form of radiant energy may be caused when a body is excited by oscillating electrical current,
electronic bombardment, chemical reaction etc. Moreover, when radiation energy strikes a body and is
absorbed, it may manifest itself in the form of thermal internal energy, a chemical reaction, an
electromotive force, etc. depending on the nature of the incident radiation and the substance of which
the body is composed.

In this chapter, we will concentrate on thermal radiation (emission or absorption) that on radiation
produced by or while produces thermal excitation of a body.

There are many theories available in literature which explains the transport of energy by radiation.
However, a dual theory is generally accepted which enables to explain the radiant energy in the
characterisation of a wave motion (electromagnetic wave motion) and discontinuous emission
(discrete packets or quanta of energy).

An electromagnetic wave propagates at the speed of light (3×108 m/s). It is characterised by its
wavelength λ or its frequency ν related by

2
 c = λv (1)

Emission of radiation is not continuous, but occurs only in the form of discrete quanta. Each quantum
has energy

E = hv (2)

where, = 6.6246×10-34 J.s, is known as Planck’s constant.

Table 1 shows the electromagnetic radiation covering the entire spectrum of wavelength

Table 1: Electromagnetic radiation for entire spectrum of wavelength

Type Band of wavelength (µm)

Cosmic rays upto 4×10⁻7

Gamma rays 4×10⁻7 to 1.4×10⁻4

X-rays 1×10⁻5 to 2×10⁻2

Ultraviolet rays 5×10⁻3 to 3.9×10⁻1

Visible light 3.9×10⁻1to 7.8×10⁻1

Infrared rays 7.8×10⁻1 to 1×103

Thermal radiation 1×10⁻1 to 1×102

Microwave, radar, radio waves 1×103 to 5×1010

It is to be noted that the above band is in approximate values and do not have any sharp boundary.

1.1 Basic definition pertaining to radiation

Before we further study about the radiation it would be better to get familiarised with the basic
terminology and properties of the radiant energy and how to characterise it.

As observed in the table 1 that the thermal radiation is defined between wavelength of about 1×10 -
1
and 1×102 μm of the electromagnetic radiation. If the thermal radiation is emitted by a surface, which

3
is divided into its spectrum over the wavelength band, it would be found that the radiation is not
equally distributed over all wavelength. Similarly, radiation incident on a system, reflected by a
system, absorbed by a system, etc. may be wavelength dependent. The dependence on the wavelength
is generally different from case to case, system to system, etc. The wavelength dependency of any
radiative quantity or surface property will be referred to as a spectral dependency. The radiation
quantity may be monochromatic (applicable at a single wavelength) or total (applicable at entire
thermal radiation spectrum). It is to be noted that radiation quantity may be dependent on the direction
and wavelength both but we will not consider any directional dependency. This chapter will not
consider directional effect and the emissive power will always used to be (hemispherical) summed
overall direction in the hemisphere above the surface.

1.2 Emissive power

It is the emitted thermal radiation leaving a system per unit time, per unit area of surface. The total
emissive power of a surface is all the emitted energy, summed over all the direction and all
wavelengths, and is usually denoted as E. The total emissive power is found to be dependent upon the
temperature of the emitting surface, the subsystem which this system is composed, and the nature of
the surface structure or texture.

The monochromatic emissive power Eλ, is defined as the rate, per unit area, at which the surface emits
thermal radiation at a particular wavelength λ. Thus the total and monochromatic hemispherical
emissive power are related by

(3)

and the functional dependency of Eλ on λ must be known to evaluate E.

1.3Radiosity
It is the term used to indicate all the radiation leaving a surface, per unit time and unit area.

(4)

where, J and Jλ are the total and monochromatic radiosity.

The radiosity includes reflected energy as well as original emission whereas emissive power consists
4
of only original emission leaving the system. The emissive power does not include any energy leaving
a system that is the result of the reflection of any incident radiation.

1.4 Irradiation

It is the term used to denote the rate, per unit area, at which thermal radiation is incident upon a
surface (from all the directions). The irradiative incident upon a surface is the result of emission and
reflection from other surfaces and may thus be spectrally dependent.

(5)

where, G and Gλ are the total and monochromatic irradiation.

Reflection from a surface may be of two types specular or diffusive as shown in fig.1.

Fig. 1: (a) Specular, and (b) diffusive radiation

Thus,

J = E + ρG (6)

1.5 Absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmittivity:

The emissive power, radiosity, and irradiation of a surface are inter-related by the reflective,
absorptive, and transmissive properties of the system.
When thermal radiation is incident on a surface, a part of the radiation may be reflected by the surface,
a part may be absorbed by the surface and a part may be transmitted through the surface as shown in
5
fig.2. These fractions of reflected, absorbed, and transmitted energy are interpreted as system
properties called reflectivity, absorptivity, and transmissivity, respectively.

Fig. 2: Reflection, absorption and transmitted energy

Thus using energy conservation,

(7)

(7)

where, are total reflectivity, total absorptivity, and total transmissivity. The subscript
λ indicates the monochromatic property.

In general the monochromatic and total surface properties are dependent on the system composition,
its roughness, and on its temperature.

Monochromatic properties are dependent on the wavelength of the incident radiation, and the total
properties are dependent on the spectral distribution of the incident energy.

Most gases have high transmissivity, i.e. (like air at atmospheric pressure).
However, some other gases (water vapour, CO2 etc.) may be highly absorptive to thermal radiation, at
least at certain wavelength.

6
Most solids encountered in engineering practice are opaque to thermal radiation Thus for
thermally opaque solid surfaces,

ρ+α=1 (6)

Another important property of the surface of a substance is its ability to emit radiation. Emission and
radiation have different concept. Reflection may occur only when the surface receives radiation
whereas emission always occurs if the temperature of the surface is above the absolute zero.
Emissivity of the surface is a measure of how good it is an emitter.

1.6 Blackbody radiation

In order to evaluate the radiation characteristics and properties of a real surface it is useful to define an
ideal surface such as the perfect blackbody. The perfect blackbody is defined as one which absorbs all
incident radiation regardless of the spectral distribution or directional characteristic of the incident
radiation.

A blackbody is black because it does not reflect any radiation. The only radiation leaving a blackbody
surface is original emission since a blackbody absorbs all incident radiation. The emissive power of a
blackbody is represented by , and depends on the surface temperature only.

Fig. 3: Example of a near perfect blackbody

7
It is possible to produce a near perfect blackbody as shown in fig.3.

Figure.2 shows a cavity with a small opening. The body is at isothermal state, where a ray of incident
radiation enters through the opening will undergo a number of internal reflections. A portion of the
radiation absorbed at each internal reflection and a very little of the incident beam ever find the way
out through the small hole. Thus, the radiation found to be evacuating from the hole will appear to that
coming from a nearly perfect blackbody.

1.6.1 Planck’s law

A surface emits radiation of different wavelengths at a given temperature (theoretically zero to infinite
wavelengths). At a fixed wavelength, the surface radiates more energy as the temperature increases.
Monochromatic emissive power of a blackbody is given by eq.10.

(7)

where, h = 6.6256 X 10-34 JS; Planck’s constant

c = 3 X 108 m/s; speed of light
T = absolute temperature of the blackbody
λ = wavelenght of the monochromatic radiation emitted
k = Boltzmann constant

Equation.10 is known as Planck’s law. Figure.4 shows the representative plot for Planck’s distribution.

8
 Fig. 4: Representative plot for Planck’s distribution

1.6.2 Wien’s law

Figure.4 shows that as the temperature increases the peaks of the curve also increases and it shift
towards the shorter wavelength. It can be easily found out that the wavelength corresponding to the
peak of the plot (λmax) is inversely proportional to the temperature of the blackbody (Wein’s law) as
shown in eq.11.

λmax T = 2898 (11)

Now with the Wien’s law or Wien’s displacement law, it can be understood if we heat a body, initially
the emitted radiation does not have any colour. As the temperature rises the λ of the radiation reach the
visible spectrum and we can able to see the red colour being height λ (for red colour). Further increase
in temperature shows the white colour indicating all the colours in the light.

1.6.3 The Stefan-Boltzmann law for blackbody

9
Josef Stefan based on experimental facts suggested that the total emissive power of a blackbody is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Later, Ludwig Boltzmann derived the
same using classical thermodynamics. Thus the eq.12 is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law,

Eb = σT4 (12)

where, Eb is the emissive power of a blackbody, T is absolute temperature, and σ (= 5.67 X 10-
8
W/m2/K4) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law for the emissive power gives the total energy emitted by a blackbody
defined by eq.3.

Special characteristic of blackbody radiation

It has been shown that the irradiation field in an isothermal cavity is equal to Eb. Moreover, the
irradiation was same for all planes of any orientation within the cavity. It may then be shown that the
intensity of the blackbody radiation, Ib, is uniform. Thus, blackbody radiation is defined as,

Eb = πIb (13)

where, is the total intensity of the radiation and is called the spectral radiation
intensity of the blackbody.

1.6.4 Kirchhoff’s law

Consider an enclosure as shown in fig.2 and a body is placed inside the enclosure. The radiant heat
flux (q) is incident onto the body and allowed to come into temperature equilibrium. The rate of
energy absorbed at equilibrium by the body must be equal to the energy emitted.

10
where, E is the emissive power of the body, is absorptivity of the of the body at equilibrium
temperature, and A is the area of the body.

Now consider the body is replaced by a blackbody i.e. E → Eb and = 1, the equation.14 becomes

Eb= q (15)

Dividing eq.14 by eq.15,

(16)

At this point we may define emissivity, which is a measure of how good the body is an emitter as
compared to blackbody. Thus the emissivity can be written as the ratio of the emissive power to that
of a blackbody,

(17)

On comparing eq.16 and eq.17, we get

(18)

Equation 18 is the Kirchhoff’s law, which states that the emissivity of a body which is in thermal
equilibrium with its surrounding is equal to its absorptivity of the body. It should be noted that the
source temperature is equal to the temperature of the irradiated surface. However, in practical purposes
it is assumed that emissivity and absorptivity of a system are equal even if it is not in thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding. The reason being the absorptivity of most real surfaces is relatively
insensitive to temperature and wavelength. This particular assumption leads to the concept of grey
body. The emissivity is considered to be independent of the wavelength of radiation for grey body.

1.7 Grey body

If grey body is defined as a substance whose monochromatic emissivity and absorptivity are
independent of wavelength. A comparative study of grey body and
blackbody is shown in the table.2.
11
 Table-2: Comparison of grey and blackbody

Blackbody Grey body

Ideal body Ideal body
Emissivity (∈) is independent of Emissivity (∈) is independent of
wavelength wavelength
Absorptivity (α) is independent of Absorptivity (α) is independent of
wavelength wavelength
ε=1 ε<1
α=1 α<1

1.8 Radiative heat exchanger between surfaces

Till now we have discussed fundamental aspects of various definitions and laws. Now we will study
the heat exchange between two or more surfaces which is of practical importance. The two surfaces
which are not in direct contact, exchanges the heat due to radiation phenomena. The factors those
determine the rate of heat exchange between two bodies are the temperature of the individual surfaces,
their emissivities, as well as how well one surface can see the other surface. The last factor is known
as view factor, shape factor, angle factor or configuration factor.

1.8.1 View factor

In this section we would like to find the energy exchange between two black surfaces having area
A1and A2, respectively, and they are at different temperature and have arbitrary shape and orientation
with respect to each other. In order to find the radiative heat exchange between the bodies we have to
first define the view factor as

F12 = fraction of the energy leavings surface 1 which reaches surface 2

F21 = fraction of the energy leaving surface 2 which reaches surface 1 or in general,
Fmn = fraction of the energy leaving surface m which raches surface n

Thus the energy leaving surface 1 and arriving at surface 2 is Eb1A1F12 and the energy leaving surface
2 and arriving at surface 1 is Eb2A2F21. All the incident radiation will be absorbed by the blackbody
and the net energy exchange will be,
12
 Q = Eb1A1F12 - Eb2A2F21

At thermal equilibrium between the surfaces Q12 = 0 and Eb1 = Eb2, thus

0 = Eb1 (A1F12 - A2F21)

A1F12 - A2F21 (19)

Equation.19 is known as reciprocating relation, and it can be applied in general way for any blackbody
surfaces.

AiFij - AjFji (20)

Though the relation is valid for blackbody it may be applied to any surface as long as diffuse radiation
is involved.

Relation between view factors

In this section we will develop some useful relation of view factor considering fig..5

Fig. 5: Exchange of energy between area A1 and A2 (A is area of blackbody)

View factor for radiation from A1 to the combined area A2,

F12 = F13 + F14 (21)

13
and using the reciprocating relations for surface 1 and 4,

A1F14 = A4F41 (22)

Using eq..21 and22,

Thus the unknown view factor F14 can be estimated if the view factors F12 and F13, as well as their
areas are (A1, A2) known.

Now, consider a flat plate (for eg.) which is emitting the radiation, it can be understood that the
radiation of the flat plat cannot fall on its own surface (partly or fully). Such kind or surfaces are
termed as “not able to see itself”. In such situations,

F11 = F22 = F33 = F44 = 0

However, if the surface can see itself like concave curved surfaces, which may thus see themselves
and then the shape factor will not be zero in those cases.

Another property of the shape factor is that when the surface is enclosed, then the following relation
holds,

(23)

where, Fij is the fraction of the total energy leaving surface i which arrives at surface j.

In case of N-walled enclosure, some of the view factors may be evaluated from the knowledge of the
rest and the total N2 view factors may be represented in square matrix form shown below,

14
1.9 Heat exchange between non blackbodies
Evaluation of radiative heat transfer between black surfaces is relatively easy because in case of
blackbody all the radiant energy which strikes the surface is absorbed. However, finding view factor is
slightly complex, but once it can be done, finding heat exchange between the black bodies is quite
easy.

When non blackbodies are involved the heat transfer process becomes very complex because all the
energy striking on to the surface does not get absorbed. A part of this striking energy reflected back to
another heat transfer surface, and part may be reflected out from the system entirely. Now, one can
imagine that this radiant energy can be reflected back and forth between the heat transfer surfaces
many times.

In this section, we will assume that all surfaces are in the analysis are diffuse and uniform in
temperature and that the reflective and emissive properties are constant over all surfaces.

Fig. 6: (a) Surface energy balance for opaque surface (b) equivalent electrical circuit

15
It is also assumed that the radiosity and irradiation are uniform over each surface. As we have already
discussed that the radiosity is the sum of the energy emitted and the energy reflected when no energy
is transmitted (as opaque body), or

(24)

where, is the emissivity and Eb is the blackbody emissive power. Because the transmissivity is zero
due to opaque surface and absorptivity of the body (grey) will be equal to its emissivity by Kirchhoff’s
law.

Thus, eq.24 becomes

(25)

The net energy leaving the surface is the difference between the radiosity and the irradiance (fig.6a),

(26)

The eq.26 can be analogous to the electrical circuit as shown in fig.6(b). The numerator of the eq.26 is
equivalent to the potential difference, denominator is equivalent to the surface resistance to radiative
heat, and left part is equivalent to the current in the circuit.

In the above discussion we have considered only one surface. Now we will analyse the exchange of
radiant energy by two surfaces, A1 and A2, as shown in the fig.7a.

16
 Fig. 7: (a) Energy exchange between two surfaces, (b) equivalent circuit diagram

The radiation which leaves surface 1, the amount that reaches surface 2 is

J1A1F12

Similarly, the radiation which leaves system 2, the amount that reaches surface 1 is

J2A2F21

The net energy transfer between the surfaces,

Reciprocity theorem states that

(27)

17
It also resembles an electrical circuit shown in fig.7b. The difference between eq.26 and 27 is that in
eq.27 the denominator term is space resistance instead of surface resistance.

Now, to know, the net energy exchange between the two surfaces we need to add both the surface
resistances along with the overall potential as shown in the fig.8. Here the surfaces see each other and
nothing else.

Fig.8: Radiative nature for two surfaces which can see each other nothing else

(28)

Radiation shield
Till now we have discussed about the radiative heat transfer from one surface to another without any
interfering surface in between. Here we will discuss about an interfering shield in between, which is
termed as radiation shield. A radiation shield is a barrier wall of low emissivity placed between two
surfaces which reduce the radiation between the bodies. In fact, the radiation shield will put additional
resistance to the radiative heat transfer between the surfaces as shown in fig.9.

Fig. 9: Radiation between two large infinite plates (a) without and (b) with radiation shield
18
Considering fig.9(b) and the system is at steady state, and the surfaces are flat (Fij because each plate is

in full view of the other). Moreover, the surface are large enough and may be considered and
the equivalent blackbody radiation energy may be written as Eb = σT4.

Thus, eq.28 becomes

(29)

In order to have a feel of the role of the radiation shield, consider that the emissivities of all the three
surfaces are equal.

Then it can be seen that the heat flux is just one half of that which would be experienced if there were
no shield present.
In similar line we can deduce that when n-shields are arranged between the two surfaces then,

(30)

1.10 Electrical network for radiation through absorbing and transmitting medium
The previous discussions were based on the consideration that the heat transfer surfaces were
separated by a completely transparent medium. However, in real situations the heat transfer medium
absorbs as well as transmits. The examples of such medium are glass, plastic film, and various gases.

Consider two non-transmitting surfaces (same as in fig.8) are separated by a transmitting and
absorbing medium. The medium may be considered as a radiation shield which see themselves and
others. If we distinguish the transparent medium by m and if the medium is non-reflective (say gas)
then using Kirchhoff’s law,

(31)

19
The energy leaving surface 1 which is transmitted through the medium and reaches the surface 2 is,

and that which leaves surface 2 and arrives at surface 1 is,

Therefore, the net exchange in the transmission process is therefore,

Using eq.31,

Thus the equivalent circuit diagram is shown in fig.9

Fig.10. Equivalent electrical circuit for radiation through gas

1.11 Radiation combined with conduction and convection

In industrial processes, in general, the heat transfer at higher temperature has significant portion of
radiation along with conduction and convection. For example, a heated surface is shown in the fig.10
with all the three mechanism of heat transfer.

20
 Fig.11: Radiation combined with conduction and convection

At steady state

Heat flux by conduction = heat flux by convention + heat flux by radiation

where, h is the heat transfer coefficient at the surface in contact (outer surface) with atmosphere due to
natural and forced convection combined together, is the emissivity of the outer surface, andTatm is
the atmospheric temperature.

21
SCHOOL OF BIO & CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – Heat Transfer – SCHA1301

1
 1.0 Evaporation

Evaporation is the vaporization of a liquid. Chemical process industries, in general, use evaporator for
the vaporization of a solvent from a solution. We have already discussed the heat transfer for boiling
liquids in early chapter. However the evaporation is so important operation in chemical process
industry that it is considered an individual operation. In this chapter we will focus on the evaporation
with an objective to concentrate a solution consisting of a non-volatile solute and a volatile solvent. If
we continue the evaporation process, the residual mater will be solid, which is known as drying.
However, our aim is not to dry but to concentrate the solution, moreover, we will also not deal with
the crystallization, in which the evaporation leads to formation of crystal in the solution. It is
suggested that reader should learn the difference between evaporator, drying and crystallization.

As we will deal with the solution for the evaporation process, a few of the facts must be known about
the solution properties.

Solution properties
Knowledge of solution properties is important for the design of the equipment for evaporation. Some
of the important properties of the solution are given below,

Concentration
Initially, the solution may be quite dilute and the properties of the solution may be taken as the
properties of solvent. As the concentration increases, the solution becomes viscous and heat transfer
resistance increases. The crystal may grow on the heating coil or on the heating surface. The boiling
points of the solution also rise considerably. Solid or solute contact increases and the boiling
temperature of the concentrated solution became higher than that of the solvent as the same pressure
(i.e. elevation in boiling point).

Foaming
Many of the materials like organic substance may foam during vaporization. If the foam is stable, it
may come out along the vapor known as entrainment. Heat transfer coefficient changes abruptly for
such systems.

Degradation due to high temperature

The products of many chemical, food, pharmaceutical industries etc. are very temperature sensitive
2
 and they may get damaged during evaporation. Thus special case or technique is required for
concentrating such solution.

Scaling
Many solution have tendency to deposit the scale on the heating surface, which may increase the heat
transfer resistance. These scales produce extra thermal resistance of significant value. Therefore,
scaling in the equipment should not be ignored thus de-scaling becomes an important and routine
matter.

Equipment material
The material of the equipment must be chosen considering the solution properties so that the solution
should neither be contaminated nor react with the equipment material.

Evaporator
Equipment, in which evaporation is performed, is known as evaporator. The evaporators used in
chemical process industries are heated by steam and have tubular surface. The solution is circulated in
the tube and the tubes are heated by steam. In general the steam is the saturated steam and thus it
condenses on the outer tube surface in order to heat the tube. The circulation of the solution in the tube
have reasonable velocity in order to increase the heat transfer coefficient and remove of scales on the
inner surface of the tube. The steam heated tubular evaporators may be classified as natural and forced
circulation evaporators.

1.1 Types of evaporator

Natural circulation evaporator
In this category the main evaporators are,

1. Calandria type or short tube evaporator

2. Long tube vertical evaporator

As the name indicates, the circulation of the solution is natural and the density difference derives it.
The solution gets heat up and partially vaporized as it flows up the tubes. The heated liquid flows up
because of the density difference. Vapor-liquid disengagement occurs above the tube. Thick liquor
comes down from this down comer and withdrawn from the bottom. The natural-circulation
evaporators may be used if the solution is quite dilute. In the dilute solution the natural circulation will
3
be at sufficient speed. It may also be used when the solution does not have suspended solid particles.
As the solution stays in the tube for larger time, the solution should not be heat sensitive.

The Calandria type or short-tube evaporators have short tubes as compared to the long tube
evaporators. The short-tube evaporation uses circulation and solution flows many times in the
evaporators. However, in case of the long tube evaporator the flow is once through.

Forced circulation evaporator

Natural circulation evaporators have many limitations (as mentioned earlier) through they are
economical as compared to forced circulation evaporator. A forced circulation evaporator has a tubular
exchanger for heating the solution without boiling. The superheated solution flashes in the chamber,
where the solution gets concentrated. In forced circulation evaporator horizontal or vertical both type
of design is in- practice. The forced circulation evaporators are used for handling viscous or heat
sensitive solution.
Falling film evaporator
Highly heat sensitive materials are processed in falling film evaporators. They are generally once-
through evaporator, in which the liquid enters at the top, flows downstream inside the heater tubes as a
film and leaves from the bottom. The tubes are heated by condensing steam over the tube. As the
liquid flows down, the water evaporates and the liquid gets concentrated. To have a film inside of the
tube, the tube diameter is kept high whereas the height low to keep the residence time low for the
flowing liquid. Therefore, these evaporators, with non-circulation and short resistance time, handle
heat sensitive material, which are very difficult to process by other method. The main problem in
falling film evaporator is the distribution of the liquid uniformly as a thin film inside the tube.
1.2 Performance of steam heated tubular evaporators
The performance of a steam heated tubular evaporator is evaluated by the capacity and the economy.
Capacity and economy
Capacity is defined as the no of kilograms of water vaporized per hour. Economy is the number of kg
of water vaporized per kg of steam fed to the unit. Steam consumption is very important to know, and
can be estimated by the ratio of capacity divided by the economy. That is the steam consumption (in
kg/h) is

Steam Consumption = Capacity / Economy

4
1.3 Single and multiple effect evaporators

In single effect evaporator, as shown in fig.1, the steam is fed to the evaporator which condenses on
the tube surface and the heat is transferred to the solution. The saturated vapor comes out from the
evaporator and this vapor either may be vented out or condensed. The concentrated solution is taken
out from the evaporator.

Now we can see if we want the further concentrate, the solution has to be sent into another similar
evaporator which will have the fresh steam to provide the necessary heat.

It may be noted that in this process the fresh steam is required for the second evaporator and at the
same time the vapor is not utilized. Therefore it can be said the single effect evaporator does not
utilized the steam efficiently. The economy of the single effect evaporator is thus less than one.
Moreover, the other reason for low economy is that in many of the cases the feed temperature remains
below the boiling temperature of the solution. Therefore, a part of the heat is utilized to raise the feed
temperature to its boiling point.

5
Fig.1: Single effect evaporator

In order to increase the economy we may consider the arrangement of the two evaporators as shown in
the fig.2.

The figure 2 shows that the two evaporators are connected in series. The saturated vapor coming out
from the evaporator-1 is used as steam in the second evaporator. Partially concentrated solution works
as a feed to the second evaporator. This arrangement is known as double effect evaporator in forward
feed scheme. A few of the important point that we have to note for this scheme is that the vapour
leaving evaporator-2 is at the boiling temperature of the liquid leaving the first effect. In order to
transfer this heat from the condensing vapor from the evaporator-1 to the boiling liquid in evaporator-
2, the liquid in evaporator-2 must boil at a temperature considerable less than the condensation

6
temperature of the vaporization, in order to ensure reasonable driving force for heat transfer. A method
of achieving this is to maintain a suitable lower pressure in the second effect so that the liquid boils at
a lower temperature. Therefore, if the evaporator-1 operates at atmospheric pressure, the evaporator-2
should be operated at same suitable vacuum.

Fig.2: Double effect evaporator with forward feed scheme

The benefit of the use of multiple effect evaporators is that in this arrangement multiple reuse of heat
supplied to the first effect is possible and results in improved steam economy.

1.3.1 Boiling point elevation

The evaporators produce concentrated solution having substantially higher boiling point than that of
the solvent (of the solution) at the prevailing pressure. The increase in boiling point over that of water
is known as boiling point elevation (BPE) of the solution. As the concentration increases the boiling
point of the solution also increases. Therefore, in order to get the real temperature difference (or
7
driving force) between the steam temperature and the solution temperature, the BPE must be
subtracted from the temperature drop. The BPE may be predicted from the steam table (in case water
is a solvent).

An empirical rule known as Dühring rule is suitable for estimating the BPE of strong solution. The
Dühring rule states that the boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling point of
the pure water at the same pressure. Therefore, if the boiling point of the solution is plotted against
that of the water at the same pressure, a straight line results. Different lines are obtained at different
concentrations. The fig.3 shows representative Dühring plots for a solution (non-volatile solute in
water).

Fig.3: Representative Dühring lines for a system (non-volatile solute in water) mole fraction of
solute in the solution (a) 0.1 (b) 0.2 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.39 (e) 0.35 (f) 0.45 (g) 0.5 (h) 0.6 (i) 0.7

The fig.3 helps to find out the boiling point of solution at moderate pressure. For example if a solution
having ‘x’ mole fractions of solute have a pressure over it such that water boils at T° C, by reading up

8
from the x-axis at T °C to the line for the x mole fraction solution and then moving horizontally to the
y-axis, the boiling point of the solution can be found at that pressure.

1.3.2 Temperature profile in an evaporator

Let us consider the case of long-tube vertical evaporator heated by steam. After boiling and flashing of
the superheated liquid, the disengagement of the vapor and liquid occur in vapor space of the
evaporator and the recycled liquid flows down the external pipe. A part of this concentrated liquid is
withdrawn as a product and the remaining part get mixed with a feed and again enter the evaporator
tube. If TBP is the boiling of the liquid in the evaporator as the prevailing pressure, then the
temperature of the liquid in the tube will be TBP. The temperature of the recycled stream entering the
tubes will then also be TBP, if the feed is sufficiently hot. Now, we will imagine how the temperature is
changing in the tube. Let us see that when the liquid flows up in the tube, its temperature rises because
at the bottom of the tube the pressure is higher (vapor chamber pressure + hydrostatic pressure +
frictional loss) as compared to the top of the tube. Therefore, a liquid starts boiling at a level when its
temperature rises to its saturation temperature at the pressure at that point. After the boiling in between
the tube, as liquid goes up in the tube, the local temperature drops because of the reduction in the local
pressure. It may also be mentioned that as the liquid moves up it gets concentrated and thus the boiling
point of the solution also increases as the liquid traversed up in the tube. The liquid temperature profile
in the tube is shown in the fig.4 for low (plot i) and high (plot ii) liquid velocity. The liquid
temperature in the tubes increases up to certain height and then the temperature decreases due to the
loss of superheat. At higher velocity the temperature raise is less and the liquid boils near the top of
the tube. The plot (iii) shows the shell side temperature profile where steam is heating the tube. As can
be seen, the slightly superheated steam enters the shell and soon the temperature of the steam losses its
sensible heat and then condenses on the tubes and provide the latent heat of condensation (at
temperature Tsteam) to the tube and before boiling from the shell may get slightly sub-cooled. The plot
(iv) is the boiling temperature of the water (Tw) at the pressure in the vapor chamber. Thus, the
BPE=TBP-Tw and the true temperature during force is the difference between the plot (iii) and the plot
(i) or (ii).

It can be understood with the help of the discussion and fig.4 that the temperature changes all along
the length of the tube. Thus, the real temperature driving force will be the difference in steam
temperature and liquid temperature always the high. However, it is practically not easy to determine
9
the temperature profile in the tube. Therefore, the driving force can be taken as (Tsteam - TBP) for the
design purpose.

1.4 Heat transfer coefficient

The correlation used in the boiling and condensation may be used here. If the evaporator operates at
very high liquid velocity so that the boiling occurs at the top end of the tube, the following correlation
(eq. 9.1) may be used,

where, D is the inner diameter of the tube, k is the thermal conductivity of the liquid or solution.

Fig.4: Temperature profiles in an evaporator

10
Fouling is a concern in the evaporator; therefore the following equation (eq.9.2) may be used for the
overall heat transfer coefficient with time,

(9.2)

where, t is the time for where the evaporator is the operation, α is a constant for a particular liquid,
Udirty and Uclean all the overall heat transfer coefficient of the dirty and clean evaporator.

1.5 Method of feeding: Multiple effect evaporators

The fig.5, 6, 7, and 8 show the four different feeding arrangement of feed to the evaporators. In the
fig.5 the liquid feed is pumped into the first effect and the partially concentrated solution is sent to the
second effect and so on. The heating steam is also sent through the first effect to another effect. This
particular strategy is known as forward feed. In the forward feed the concentration of the liquid
increases from first effect to the subsequent effects till the last effect. It may be noted that the first
effect is that in which the fresh steam is fed, whereas the vapour generated in the first effect is fed to
the next evaporator (connected in series with the first effect) is known as second effect and so on.

The forward feed requires a pump for feeding dilute solution to the first effect. The first effect is
generally at atmospheric pressure and the subsequent effects are in decreasing pressure. Thus, the
liquid may move without the pump from one effect to another effect in the direction of decreasing
pressure. However, to take out the concentrated liquid from the last effect may need a pump.

The backward feed arrangement is very common arrangement. A triple-effect evaporator in backward
arrangement is shown in the fig.6. In this arrangement the dilute liquid is fed to the last effect and then
pumped through the successive effects to the first effect. The method requires additional pumps
(generally one pump in between two effects) as shown in the fig.6. Backward feed is advantageous
and gives higher capacity than the forward feed when the concentrated liquid is viscous, because the
viscous fluid is at higher temperature being in the first effect. However, this arrangement provides
lower economy as compared to forward feed arrangement.

11
The combination of forward-feed and backward-feed is known as mixed feed arrangement. In mixed
feed the dilute liquid enters in between effects, flows in forward feed to the end of the effect and then
pumped back to the first effect for final concentration. Figure 7 shows triple effect mixed feed
arrangement. This mixed feed arrangement eliminates the need of a few of the pumps. Moreover, it
still passes the most concentrated liquid through the first effect, which is having higher temperature
among all the effect (being at highest pressure compared to other effects).

Another common evaporator arrangements, which is more common in crystallization is parallel feed
where feed is admitted individually to all the effects. Figure 7 shows such arrangement.

Fig.5: Forward feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator (dotted line: recycle stream)

12
Fig.6: Backward feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator (dotted line: recycle stream)

13
Fig.7: Mixed feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator (dotted line: recycle stream)

14
 Fig.8: Parallel feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator

1.6 Enthalpy Balance

Single effect evaporator
The latent heat of condensation of the steam is transferred to the boiling solution through the heating
surface in order to vaporize the water. Thus, two enthalpy balances are required one for the liquid and
another for the steam.

The following assumptions are required, in order to make the enthalpy balance,

1. Flow of non-condensable is negligible

2. The superheat and sub-cooling (see fig.4) of the condensable steam is negligible
3. No solid precipitates out from the concentrating solution
15
The enthalpy balance for the steam side is,

Where,

rate of heat transfer through heating surface from steam

= flow rate of steam

λs = latent heat of condensation of steam
hs = specific enthalpy of steam
hc = specific enthalpy of condensate

Enthalpy balance for the liquid side is (eq.9.3),

(9.3)

Where,

rate of heat transfer from heating surface to the liquid

hv = specific enthalpy of vapour
hcl = specific enthalpy of concentrated liquid
hfl = specific enthalpy of liquid feed

flow rate of liquid feed

flow rate of concentrated liquid

The enthalpy balance at steam side and liquid side will be same in the absence of any heat loss
(eq.9.4). Thus,

(9.4)

The area of heat transfer A can be calculated from

16
When ΔT = (Tb - Tc);
Tb = Saturated temperature of steam in the shell
Ts = Boiling point of the solution at the prevailing pressure
UD = Overall coefficient (dirty)

1.6.1 Effect of heat of dilution

Most of the solutions when mixed or diluted at constant temperature do not give significant heat effect.
It is generally true for organic solutions (like sugar). However, many of the inorganic solutions (like
sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide, calcium carbonate etc.) evolve significant heat on dilution.
Therefore, an equivalent amount of heat is required (in addition to the latent heat of vaporization),
when dilute solutions of these inorganic chemicals are concentrated. Enthalpy-concentration diagram
are helpful in order to find the enthalpy of the solution at different concentration of these chemicals in
the solution.

1.7 Multiple effect evaporators

The steam goes into I-effect and heat the solution by the latent heat of condensation. If the heat
required to boil the feed is negligible, it follows that practically all this heat

must appear as latent heat in the vapor that leaves the I-effect and enter into II-effect as steam. The
temperature of the condensate leaving the II-effect will be very near the temperature T1 of the vapors
from the boiling liquid in the I-effect. Thus, in steady state operation all the heat that was expanded in
creating vapor in the I-effect must be given by when this same vapor condenses in the II-effect and so
on.

The heat delivered into the II-effect will be,

17
The
Similarly, for III-effect

(9.5)

It can be seen (eq. 9.5) that the temperature drops in a multiple effect evaporator is approximately
inversely proportional to the heat-transfer coefficient.

The total available temperature drop will be given by eq.9.6,

(9.6)

where,
Ts : Steam temp. (I-effect);
Tv3 : Vapor temperature leaving III-effect
BPE : boiling point elevation in the solution in various effects

1.8 Problems:

1. A triple effect forward feed evaporator is used to concentrate a liquid which has marginal elevation
in boiling point. The temperature of the stream to the first effect is 105°C, and the boiling point of the
solution within third effect is 45°C. The overall heat transfer coefficients are, 2,200 W/m2: in the Ι-
effect, 1,800 W/m2: in the ΙΙ-effect and 1,500 W/m2: in the ΙΙΙ-effect.

Find out at what temperatures the fluid boils in the Ι and ΙΙ effects.

Solution:
Assumptions
1. We may assume that there is no elevation in boiling point in the evaporators.
2. Area of all the three evaporators are same (AΙ = AΙI = AΙII = A)
Total temperature drop=(105-45)°C = 60 °C
the temperature drop across Ι-effect,

18
Similarly, the temperature drop across ΙΙ-effect,

And the temperature drop across ΙΙΙ-effect,

Therefore, the boiling point in the first effect will be = (105 – 15.2) °C = 89.8 °C
Similarly, the boiling point in the second effect will be = (89.8 – 18.6)°C = 71.2 °C.

19