About the training manual

This training manual was developed by the Mining Department in conjunction with the
Learning and Development Department. The purpose of the booklet is to serve as a training
guide and handbook for employees and students intending to acquire a Mine Blasting
license as specified by the Explosives regulations S.I. 72 of 1989, amended by SI’s 371/90,
110/92, 34/93, 195/94, 37/95, 393/98, 179/01.
The primary sources of the information used in the authoring of the booklet are the:
Explosives regulations (S.I.72 of 1989), Mining (management and safety) regulations (S.I. 109
of 1990), Pneumoconiosis act (Act 13 of 1971), Mines and minerals act (Acts 38/1961,
24/1962 (s. 2), 18/1963 (s. 24), 19/1963 (s. 12), 7/1964, 22/1964 (s. 54), 10/1966, 9/1967
(s.17), 30/1968 (s. 38), 17/1969, 61/1969, 80/1971 (s. 33), 39/1973 (s. 52), 46/1973,
15/1975, 22/1976, 41/1976, 42/1976 (s. 10), 48/1976, 7/1978, 8/1978, 41/1978 (s. 12),
15/1979, 32/1979, 37/1979, 29/1981, 20/1982, 26/1987, 8/1988, 9/1990, 14/1991, 3/1992,
22/1992 (s. 9), 10/1993, 10/1994; 9/1997 (s. 10); 12/1997 (s. 15;) 22/2001 (s. 4, 12/2006 (s.
46); R.G.N.s 153/1963, 801/1963, 214/1964, 386/1964, 216/1970, 217/1970, 313/1970,
88/1974, 1135/1975, ZCDC SHEQ policy (c 2018) and ZCDC standard operating procedures (c
2018).
The booklet is accompanied by a sample training programme and self-test questions which
can be found at the end. The authors of the document urge the reader to ensure that they
can answer the set objectives found at the beginning of each chapter.

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Contents
Chapter 1: Background to the Mine Blasting license ............................................................................ 5
Procedure for the issuing of a blasting license: ................................................................................ 5
Chapter 2: Safety, Health, Environment and Quality............................................................................ 9
ZCDC SHEQ policy statement ............................................................................................................. 9
Hazards encountered in mining at the ZCDC ................................................................................... 10
Responsibilities of manager ............................................................................................................. 13
Chapter 4: Drilling and Blasting Theory ............................................................................................... 27
Chapter 5: Explosives: Types, Classifications ...................................................................................... 33
Classification ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Types of Explosives used at the ZCDC.............................................................................................. 36
Chapter 6: Handling of explosives - Conveyance, Storage, Destruction ............................................ 43
Conveyance of explosives ................................................................................................................ 43
Storage of explosives ....................................................................................................................... 50
Destruction of old explosives........................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 7: Charging and Blasting......................................................................................................... 66
ZCDC Charging Procedure ................................................................................................................ 67
ZCDC Blasting procedure .................................................................................................................. 71
Re-entry regulations (MMSR) .......................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 8: Gasses ................................................................................................................................. 79
The 6 common gasses in mining operations ................................................................................... 80
Factors Affecting Rate of Gassing .................................................................................................... 86
Action Required On Suspected Gassing Cases ................................................................................ 86
Chapter 9: Equipment .......................................................................................................................... 88
Major components and safety devices............................................................................................ 88
Commissioning of mobile equipment=............................................................................................ 94
Delivery and Storage of Diesel ......................................................................................................... 96
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (ICES) ........................................................................................ 96
Chapter 8: Documentation and legal ................................................................................................... 99
Legal books ....................................................................................................................................... 99
Legal documents............................................................................................................................... 99
Chapter 10: Past and typical MBL Questions .................................................................................... 100

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Definitions
Approved - means approved in writing by the Chief Government Mining Engineer
Authorized person - in relation to a particular function or power, means a competent person
authorized in writing by the manager of the mine concerned to discharge that function or exercise
that power.
Blasting cartridge - means an explosive when enclosed in any case or contrivance or otherwise
adapted or prepared so as to form a cartridge for use in blasting operations.
Blasting License - means a valid license to conduct blasting operations and re-entry procedures issued
in terms of the law relating to explosives e.g. Coal mine blasting license, Full blasting license, surface
endorsed blasting license, restricted blasting license and mine blasting license.
Board - the Board of Examiners established by section four;
Box - in relation to explosives, means a lockable box of a pattern approved by the Chief Inspector,
which is specially provided for the storage of explosives within a reasonable distance of the place
where the explosives are to be used.
Capped fuse - means a length of safety fuse to one end of, which a detonator has been attached.
Charging stick - means an approved wooden charging stick which is clean and free from splinters and
squared off at one end; or a flexible charging rod (nucana) made of approved fabric, rubber or bamboo
or any other non-ferrous material, coupled together by means of copper, brass or aluminum
connections and the end is provided with a rubber stopper.
Chief Inspector - the Chief Inspector appointed in terms of section 12 of the Act
CMGE, CMEG, CGME - the chief government mining engineer
Competent person: - in relation to any duty or function means a person who has had adequate
training and experience to enable him to perform that duty or discharge that function without
avoidable danger to himself or any other person.
Danger Area - means any area or building used for or associated with the manufacture of explosives
at a factory licensed for the manufacture of explosives and danger building shall be constructed
accordingly.
Detonating fuse - means cord like device in blasting operations and containing an explosive which will
explode at high velocity when suitably initiated by a detonator, such explosive initiating explosives in
other lengths of detonating fuse or other explosives in close proximity thereto.
Detonator - means a capsule containing explosives, which is used or designed to initiate an explosion
in other explosives, but does not include a railway fog signal disc detonator or percussion cap.
Direct supervision - a person shall be regarded as being under direct supervision of the holder of a
blasting license only if he is being supervised by that holder and is at all times within sight of and under
the control of that holder.
Hammer – on a percussion/ rotary- percussion, Down-The-Hole drill rig, the part of a drill string that
the percussion is applied to by the percussive piston
Holder of a blasting licence - a person who holds a valid blasting licence issued in Zimbabwe in
accordance with these regulations;
Licence - a licence authorising the keeping or storing of explosives requir4ed by section 7 of the Act
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which is granted in terms of Part IV;
Licensee - a person to whom a licence is granted;
Igniter cord - means a cord like incendiary fuse device which can have different burning speeds and is
used in the ignition of safety fuse by using a connector which is attached to the safety fuse.
In ink - means typewritten or written in ink or with ballpoint pen or in some other manner so as to be
indelible.
In writing - means in all cases in ink.
Magazine - means a building, structure or container whether movable or immovable, which is licensed
for the storage of explosives.
MBL – Mine blasting license
Mine - a place where any operation in connexion with mining purposes is carried on, and
includes a mining location as defined in the Mines and Minerals Act [Chapter 21:05];
mine blasting licence - a mine blasting licence granted in terms of section 15 of these
regulations;
Mining district - an area declared under the Mines and Minerals Act [Chapter 21:05] to be a
mining district;
Official - any competent person appointed, in writing, by the manager to assist him in the control,
supervision and direction of any operation involving the sue or manufacture of explosives and for
complying with these regulations;
Mining - means the extraction or obtaining any mineral by any mode or method, or any purpose
directly or indirectly connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Misfire - in relation to a charge of explosive means a charge which has failed to explode, either wholly
or in part.
Misfired hole - means a hole charged with explosives, which has failed to explode, either wholly or in
part.
Primary blasting - means the act of detonating holes charged with explosives for the purpose of
fragmenting virgin ground at any mine or other working place.
Safety fuse - means a fuse for blasting which burns and does not explode and does not contain its own
means of ignition.
Secondary blasting - means any blasting other than primary blasting and shall include the fragmenting
of large rocks, the blasting of obstacles in ore passes or waste passes, sockets or hitches and the re-
blasting of misfired holes and any blasting to make a place safe.
Socket - means any shot hole or part of a shot hole, known not to be a misfired hole which remains
after having been charged with explosives and blasted or which, for any reason, may be suspected of
having contained explosives at any time and includes any shot hole, or part of any shot hole, from
which all explosives have been extracted in accordance with the procedure prescribed by the
Regulations.
Working place - means a place where blasting operations are being or have been carried out and
includes any place where explosives are being used or intended to be used

4
Chapter 1: Background to the Mine Blasting license

A Mine Blasting License (MBL) is a legal document granted by the ministry of mines to a
competent person that permits them to Prepare, Press home, Charge and Fire explosives,
and conduct blasting operations at a mine sanctioned by the License. The MBL is granted to
an individual who, following application and an oral examination, satisfies the Board (the
Chief Inspector and 4 other members appointed by the Minister) that he:
o is recommended for the grant of such licence by the manager of the mine
concerned;
o has not less than 300 shifts applicable mining experience, including at least 75 shifts
blasting experience under the direct supervision of the holder of a blasting licence
other than a restricted blasting licence;

has a sufficient knowledge of:

o the explosives regulations
o the examination and making safe of any place where blasting operations are
carried out at any mine
o the handling and use of explosives
o the Mining (Management and Safety) Regulations, 1981;
o first aid and safety principles.

By the end of this chapter, the reader is expected to be familiar with the following
objectives:
o The requirements of a Mine Blasting License (MBL)
o The effects of a Mine Blasting License
o The procedure of granting a Mine Blasting License
o Duties of a blasting license holder
o Conditions for the cancellation of a blasting license

Procedure for the issuing of a blasting license:

A person who wishes to obtain a blasting licence shall apply to the inspector of the mining
district in which he resides in the case of an application for a mine blasting licence, on Form
E.L.U.2;
The application for the blasting licence is accompanied by:
o an application fee of ZWL1000;
o 2 copies of a recent unretouched photograph of the applicant which is not less than
35 millimetres and not more than 50 millimetres in either dimension

5
o a certified copy of a valid first-aid certificate issued by either the Zimbabwe Red
Cross Society or St. John Ambulance Association or any other reputed service
provider in this field approved by the Chief Government Mining Engineer.

Figure 1 - Application for mine blasting license form

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The following regulations apply to the MBL:
1. A mine blasting licence shall be endorsed with the name of the mine on which the
holder may use that licence.
2. As soon as an inspector has granted a mine blasting licence in terms of this section,
he shall refer the matter, giving full particulars of the applicant and the mine
concerned, to the Board for its approval.
3. If the Board refuses to approve the grant of a mine blasting licence which has been
referred to in terms of (4), the Board shall direct the inspector to cancel that licence
and the inspector shall forthwith—
o cancel the licence; and
o advise the holder of that licence and the manager of the mine concerned of
such cancellation.
4. A mine blasting licence issued in terms of this section—
o shall be retained by the manager of the mine concerned in his office for the
period during which the holder is employed on that mine;
o shall subject to paragraph (c) be returned by the manager of the mine concerned
to the holder when his employment on the mine is terminated;
o which if cancelled in terms of subsection (5), shall be returned by the manager of
the mine concerned to an inspector within 14 days of his being notified that the
licence has been cancelled.

Duties of the holder of a blasting license holder:

It shall be the duty of the holder of a blasting licence—
1) to take all reasonable steps to ensure that persons under his control or supervision
comply with the provisions of the Act and these regulations; and
2) to report to an inspector any theft, loss or destruction of his blasting, licence;

Conditions for the cancellation of a blasting license

1. If, in the opinion of an inspector—
(a) the holder of a blasting licence—
(i) has been negligent in relation to the storage, use or conveyance of explosives; or
(ii) has contravened a provision of the Act or any regulations made thereunder; or
(iii) is suffering from a disability which renders him unfit to conduct blasting
operations;
or
(b) it is necessary for reasons of public security or the safety of persons or property;
or
(c) the holder of a full blasting licence, a coal-mine blasting licence, a surface
endorsed blasting licence or a mine blasting licence has been without a valid first-
aid certificate for a period exceeding 3 months.
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 (Suspension) he may, by notice, in writing, suspend for a period of 3 months the
licence of that holder and shall immediately report the circumstances thereof to the
Chief Inspector.
2. If, on receipt of a report the Chief Inspector, after affording the person concerned
an opportunity to make representations, is satisfied that—
(a) the holder of the blasting licence—
(i) has been negligent in relation to the storage, use or conveyance of explosives; or
(ii) is suffering from a disability which renders him unfit to conduct blasting
operations;
(iii) has contravened a provision of the Act or any regulations made thereunder.
or
(b) it is necessary for reasons of public security or the safety of persons or property;
or
(c) the holder of a full blasting licence, a coal-mine blasting licence, a surface
endorsed blasting licence or a mine blasting licence has been without a valid first-
aid certificate for a period exceeding 3 months.
(Cancellation) he may cancel that blasting licence.

3. Where the Chief Inspector has cancelled a blasting licence he shall, by notice, in
writing, require the holder thereof to surrender that licence and, if the holder
thereof fails to surrender it within fourteen days of the date of notice, he shall be
guilty of an offence:
Provided that where an appeal is lodged, in writing, against such cancellation, the
provisions of this subsection shall not apply until the appeal is withdrawn or dismissed.
4. An appeal against—
(a) the suspension of a blasting licence shall lie with the Chief Inspector whose
decision shall be final;
(b) the cancellation of a blasting licence shall lie with the Minister whose decision
shall be final.
Period after cancellation or revocation of blasting licence before new one issued
Where a blasting licence has been cancelled in terms of these regulations or revoked in
terms of the Act, a new blasting licence shall not be granted in terms of these regulations to
the person who held that licence within a period of 1 year from date of such cancellation or
revocation.

End of section questions

Q. What are the effects of the MBL and To whom is the MBL granted?
Q. Can a MBL granted whilst the licensee is at the ZCDC be used in any other mine? What
procedures must be followed if the licensee is employed elsewhere?

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Chapter 2: Safety, Health, Environment and Quality
Safety is a major concern in all mining operations. This chapter covers the safety aspects of
mining as guided by the ZCDC SHEQ policy of 2019. By the end of this section, the reader is
expected to be familiar with the following objectives:
o The ZCDC SHEQ policy statement and its implications to mining operations
o The hazards encountered in Drilling, Blasting, Loading and Hauling operations
o QUEBEC safety system
o The importance of Pre-Task risk assessment

ZCDC SHEQ policy statement

Figure 2 - ZCDC SHEQ policy statement

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Hazards encountered in mining at the ZCDC
A hazard is an incident that has the potential to cause injury, damage to property or death. The table
below gives the hazards commonly encountered in drilling and blasting operations at the ZCDC:
Table 1 - Common hazards in Drilling and blasting operations

The importance of the pre-task risk assessment

The pre-task risk assessment is a document outlining the hazards that are likely to be
encountered in the carrying out of tasks in the mine. It includes the type of hazard,
consequence and the mitigation measure that is taken to minimise the likelihood and
impact of hazards in the mining environment.
The pre task risk assessment:
○ Encourages safety consciousness in the participants involved in the task
○ Is a reference point in the case of an accident
○ Shares information about the task with the interested but not involved parties
○ Helps in the identification and improvement of administration and policy gaps
○ Is a legal document (after S.I. 109)
○ Is a requirement of the ISO standards (ISO 45001)

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QUEBEC SAFETY SYSTEM (5-point safety system)
At the ZCDC, the Quebec safety system is used which a set of 5 rules that must be followed
by every employee to maintain safety in all operations:
1. Check the entrance to place of work
Concentrate on what you see as you travel to the place of work. Keep your mind on what is
required and see that it is done promptly.
2. Are working place and equipment in good order?
The supervisor applies his mind on one thing i.e. the place where men are working. Having
corrected any unsafe condition noted in the entrance, he can now turn his full attention and
ability to the working place. Here the items are equipment and order.
3. Are men working properly?
This point has reference to the way men are working; how they handle the tools and
equipment, how they go about their jobs, how well they have corrected unsafe conditions.
A supervisor knows from experience what the safe and efficient way to work is.
4. Do an act of safety
This is one of the most important points in the safety system. It is your tool for building up
safety consciousness in yourself and men. You train your men to do efficient work by
explaining, demonstrating and reminding. Apply the same method to safety. It does not take
long to show a man something about a tool, a piece of equipment or his surroundings which
is important to his safety.
5. Can and will men continue to work safely?
This point is designed to maintain proper ways of working in the absence of the supervisor.
It is of particular importance in the prevention of fatal accidents. It calls for careful
consideration of men and circumstances. Clear understanding instructions must exist
between supervisor and men. A supervisor must have the ability to foresee what will be
going to take place an hour or two after he has left, then he can;
A. Give instructions to cover such possibilities.
B. If necessary revisit the working place if the job is particularly a dangerous one, or if
the men cannot be relied on due to inexperience or a tendency to disobey orders.
End of section questions
Q. Name any 10 hazards likely to be encountered in mining activities.
Q. Why is the pre-task risk assessment important to mining operations?
Q. Which ISO standards does the ZCDC adhere to?
Q. State the 5 rules outlined in the 5-point safety system.

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Chapter 3: General mine operations at the ZCDC
This chapter is a sequel to the previous chapter that is adapted from the mining
management and safety regulations: It outlines the regulations that apply to operations in
quarries and surface mines which guide day to day operations at the ZCDC. The first part of
this section outlines the process flow at the ZCDC from mining operations to the sorting and
sale of diamonds. By the end of the chapter, the reader is expected to be familiar with:
o The generalised process flow at the ZCDC
o Regulations on management and leadership
o Prohibitions on mining operations: Equipment, Operators, Pits, Dams and Dumps,
o Regulations on accidents

Figure 3 - Summarised process flow of ZCDC Portal A mine operations

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

Appointment of manager
1. The manager of a mine shall be appointed—
(a) in the case of a mine which is worked by the registered holder thereof either
personally or through a servant or agent, by such registered holder or his agent;
(b) in the case of a mine which is worked on tribute, by the tributor;
(c) in the case of a mine which is worked by or on behalf of a partnership or
company, by the accredited agent appointed in terms of subsection (3) of section 62
of the MMSR;
(d) in any case not falling within paragraph (a), (b) or (c), by the person for whose
benefit the mining operations are conducted.
2. No person who is responsible for the appointment of a manager shall carry
on mining or allied operations for a period exceeding seven days without
appointing a manager.

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Responsibilities of manager
The manager of a mine shall:
1. Comply with and enforce the requirements of these regulations and any lawful order
given by an inspector in the interests of safety, health and discipline and ensure that
they are observed by every person employed on the mine.
2. Appoint competent persons as may be necessary to assist him in to comply with and
enforce observance of these regulations and any lawful order given by an inspector.
3. Take all reasonable measures to provide for the safety and proper discipline of
persons employed at the mine.
4. As soon as is practicable after the occurrence of a breach of any provisions of the
mining regulations – report such breach to an inspector or take such other disciplinary
steps as that inspector may have directed or approved and in any event of such breach
and of any disciplinary steps taken to be entered in ink in a register kept for the
purpose, which shall be opened at all reasonable times by the inspector.
5. Cause the times of the working shifts and of blasting operations in every section of
the mine to be so arranged that workmen shall not be exposed to fumes and dust
from blasting.
6. Provide, or cause to be provide, such waiting places as may be necessary for the use
of workmen prior to entering their working places, ensure that such waiting places are
at all times clearly marked, ensure that the miner in charge of blasting licence holder
who is responsible for the safety of those working places is the first person to enter
such working places and all approaches thereto.
7. Ensure there is in force a system to enable a determination to be made of the number
of persons in the underground workings at any time.
8. Ensure that ant person who knowingly fails to conform to any systems in force shall
be guilty of an offence.
9. Not allow any miner or competent person to be placed in charge of a complement of
workmen if, taking into account the nature or position of the working places, such
miner or competent person is unable efficiently to supervise the workmen during his
shift in accordance with the requirements of the mining regulations.
10. Not to allow any miner to have charge of more working places or machine drills or
persons than may be determined or approved by the CGME at any mine or section of
a mine where, the opinion of the CGME, such determination or approval is necessary
in the interest safety and health.
11. Where necessary, provide and maintain in working order, both underground and on
surface, adequate and suitable firefighting equipment as directed in writing by an
inspector, which shall be conveniently located and conspicuously marked.
12. Not permit any incompetent or inexperienced workmen to be employed on
dangerous work or work upon the proper performance of which the safety of persons
depends.
13. On taking over a mine acquaint himself with such notices as may have been issued to
his predecessor (s) by an inspector who shall on request supply copies of such notices.
14. Provide, that when any person employed in or about the mine receives an injury by
accident or otherwise, the same shall be reported to him without delay.
15. Cause all plant, material and other things necessary for compliance with the mining
regulations to be provided and maintained in good order and repair.
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Responsibility for the contravention of regulations
1. Whenever a contravention of any provision of these regulations occurs at a mine,
the manager thereof or the person appointed in terms of section 16 of the MMSR to
act in the absence of the manager and any person duly appointed in terms of
sections 7 and 8, in so far as responsibility in regard to the enforcement of the
observance of such provision has been assigned to him shall be deemed to be
responsible for such contravention unless he provides to the satisfaction of the
court that all reasonable means of enforcing such provision and preventing such
contravention were taken.
2. Any person through whose neglect or wrongful act a contravention of any provision
of these regulations occurs shall be deemed to be guilty of such contravention.
3. The provisions of this section shall be without prejudice to any responsibility or
liability on the part of any other person in regard to the provision or contravention
concerned

Regulations to be explained to illiterate employees

Where any employee is unable to read the regulations or the abstract referred to in section
14 of the MMSR, the manager shall ensure that such employee is made acquainted with the
regulations concerning him or appertaining to his particular occupation and duties.

Appointment of acting manager during manager’s absence

Whenever a manager is absent from a mine for a period exceeding twenty-four hours, he
shall appoint in writing in the manner prescribed in section 7 of the MMSR a suitable person
to act as manager during his absence, and during his absence the person so appointed shall
be liable for the due observance of these regulations in the same manner as if he were the
manager

Duties of person in charge

In any mine or working place—
a. a person who is employed where rock drilling and blasting operations are being
carried out, or who is employed in any other operation where danger may arise from
the presence of explosives shall be under the supervision of the holder of an
appropriate blasting licence;
b. the holder of a blasting licence in charge shall—
1. be the first person to enter each working place assigned to him and
the immediate approaches thereto; and
2. examine and make safe or cause to be made safe each such working place
and the immediate approaches thereto before permitting any work to take
place; and

14
 3. ensure that these regulations are observed by any person in such
working place and the immediate approaches thereto whether such person is
under his personal supervision or not
c. an official who holds a blasting licence may, in the execution of his duty, enter any
working place before the person in charge and if he observes anything that is unsafe
he shall immediately take such precautions as may be necessary to prevent any
person entering until such time as he has either made the place safe or informed the
blasting licence holder in charge of the working place of the unsafe condition;
d. the blasting licence holder in charge shall, whilst making safe any working place and
the approaches thereto, be responsible for the safe disposition of his workers in
suitable and safe places;
e. notwithstanding paragraph (b), the blasting licence holder in charge may be
accompanied by one or more persons to assist him in making any working place
safe, and shall be responsible for the safety of any person assisting him in such
operation;
f. in his examination in terms of paragraph (b), the blasting licence holder in charge
shall—
a. satisfy himself that there is adequate ventilation;
b. thoroughly wash down, or where no water is available scrape down, and
ensure by physical examination that the roof, walls and face of such working
place and approaches thereto are free from all loose rock which may cause
danger;
c. plug any misfired hole or hole that may have misfired that is visible with an
approved plug and mark such misfired hole or hole that may have misfired
with chalk, paint or other suitable marking material:

Provided that where the requirement of subparagraphs (ii) and (iii) can only
be partially complied with because of the presence of rock from a blast in
such working place, then he shall comply with these requirements as he is
able and when, by virtue of the rock being removed, the walls and face are
increasingly exposed, he shall, from to time, take steps to further comply with
such subparagraphs;

d. ensure the adequacy of any support, barricade and platform within

such working place and the approaches thereto;
e.take such other measures as may be necessary to ensure the safety and
health of any person who may work therein or pass there-through;

g. the blasting licence holder in charge, having made safe in accordance with paragraph
(f) shall, during the time any person is working in any working place under his
charge, take all reasonable precautions for the safety of any such person present in
such working place until he is relieved of responsibility by another holder of a
blasting licence;
15
 h. a holder of a blasting licence taking charge and responsibility for any working place
shall re-examine it and take any necessary action in accordance with paragraph (f);
i. no person, except the blasting licence holder in charge or an official, shall enter any
working place until such person has received definite instructions or permission to
do so from the blasting licence holder in charge or official for the time being
responsible for the safety of such working place;
j. no person shall work or remain or be permitted or ordered to work or remain in a
working place if the air contains dust, smoke or fumes which are perceptible by
sight, smell or other senses.

PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: Pits

Prohibition of undercutting and other precautions
1. In any opencast working or quarry, no person shall—
a. undercut or permit the undercutting of any face or sidewall; or
b. permit any face or sidewall to have a vertical height of more than one
comma five metres unless such face or sidewall is terraced or sloped at an
angle sufficient to ensure the safety of persons or is adequately supported:
Provided that this subsection shall not apply where—
i. the working or digging is done by mechanical equipment which does not
expose the operator of such equipment or any other person to danger from
such face or sidewall; or
ii. having regard to the natural and physical properties and other circumstances
of such face or sidewall, no fall or dislodgement of any earth or other
materials is likely to occur so as to endanger persons employed there.
2. In every opencast working or quarry, any waste or other loose material and any
stone on the surface shall be kept cleared to a distance of at least two metres from
the edges of such opencast working or quarry.
3. In digging any trench, pit or other similar working in gravel, clay, soils, tailings,
slimes, ash, debris or other such ground or deposit, no person shall—
a. undercut or permit the undercutting of any face or sidewall; or
b. permit any face or sidewall to have a vertical height of more than one
comma five metres unless such face or sidewall is terraced or sloped at an
angle sufficient to ensure the safety of persons:
Provided that this subsection shall not apply—
i. where such digging is done by mechanical equipment which does not expose
the operator of such equipment or any other persons to danger from the face
or sidewall; or

16
 ii. where permission has been granted in writing by an inspector and under
such terms
and conditions as may be imposed by the inspector.
4. At every trench, pit or other similar workings, all waste and other loose material
and stones on the surface shall be kept cleared to a distance of at least one metre
from the edge thereof to avoid danger to any person occurring from such waste or
loose material falling into such trench, pit or working.
5. In every trench, pit or other similar working where any vertical face or sidewall is of
a weak nature, such face or sidewall shall be adequately shored up and additionally,
or alternatively, effectively supported.

PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: Construction of dams and dumps

1. Every dam and dump which has been approved in terms of section 225 of the MMSR
and is to be built for the purpose of impounding tailings, slimes, sand or water shall
be constructed under the supervision of a competent person in such a manner as
not to endanger life or limb or to cause damage to property and shall be provided
with an adequate penstock, spillway or some other suitable installation.
2. Every dam or dump constructed in terms of 1. shall be maintained under the
supervision of a competent person, who shall at intervals not exceeding three days,
carry out inspections of such dam, or dump, and shall satisfy himself that there are
no signs of breaching or collapse thereof.
3. If, during the course of an inspection carried out by a competent person in terms of
2., there are observed any possible breaching or collapse of any dam or dump, the
competent persons shall immediately—
a. report his observation to the manager; and
b. take appropriate action to prevent, or to minimize the effect of, such
breaching or collapse
4. Details of all inspections carried out in terms of 2, and all reports made and action
taken in terms of paragraphs (a) and (b) of 3 respectively, shall be recorded in ink in
a book to be provided for the purpose, and entries in such book shall be
countersigned in ink by an official of the mine at intervals not exceeding seven days,
and shall at all times be available for inspection by an inspector.

Design, construction and maintenances of dams, dumps and water channels

1. all water channels, pipelines, spillways, penstocks, dams, tailing dams, dumps,
sluices and hydraulic appliances at or ancillary to any mine shall be properly
designed and constructed and adequately maintained.
2. If, in the opinion of an inspector, any works referred to in subsection (1) are
unsatisfactory, such maintenance, additions or modifications as are necessary to
rectify the situation shall be made.

17
Drain for liquid (Section 225 of the MMSR)
Every pressure vessel in which liquid may collect shall be provided with a suitable drain at
the lowest part of the vessel the discharge from which shall be controlled by a cock or valve
and shall be led to a safe place.

PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: Making safe of abandoned areas

Where it is necessary to enter abandoned, disused or discontinued workings, no person
shall enter or be caused or permitted to enter such workings or any part thereof until an
examination has been carried out by a competent person and it has been found that the
safety of persons will not be endangered by the presence therein of:
o noxious or inflammable gases
o an atmosphere deficient in oxygen
o a dangerous accumulation of water
o or any other dangerous conditions

PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: Complaints, Reports and Safety

Safety complaints book
1. A book or books shall be kept at or near each shaft, or in some other appropriate
place, in which any person shall record in ink any complaint with regard to the safe
working of the mine.
2. Every Safety Complaints Book shall be inspected and initialled in ink daily by the
official in charge and at least once a month by the manager and shall be available at
any time for inspection by an inspector
Complaints and reports and safety
1. If any person complains that his working place is dangerous, the miner or competent
person in charge shall not cause him or any other person to remain or work in the
place complained of until he has made such place safe or has had it examined by an
official and has obtained the concurrence of that official as to the safety of such
place.
2. If any person has reason to believe that any part of the mine in which he is working
or through which he has to travel to get to his work is in a dangerous condition, he
shall at once inform the miner or competent person in charge who shall immediately
take any necessary steps to remove the danger if such danger exists.

No work in harmful air

No person shall enter or remain in or be caused or permitted to enter or remain in any part
of the workings of a mine if the air in that part contains smoke, gas, fumes or dust which is:
18
 A. perceptible by sight, smell or any other sense;
B. harmful to persons;

unless he is wearing effective apparatus to prevent the inhalation of such smoke, gas
fumes or dust

Action required when person exposed to smoke, gas, fumes, dust or harmful
temperatures
1. If at any time a miner in charge or a blasting licence holder becomes aware of the
fact that a person has been exposed to conditions arising from excessive amounts of
harmful smoke, gas, fumes or dust or from harmful temperatures, he shall—
a. take such steps as may be necessary immediately to remove such person
from such exposure; and
b. ensure that the appropriate official or the manager is informed without
delay of the circumstances of such exposure.

2. Any official or manager receiving information of any person’s exposure to conditions

referred to in 1 shall immediately take all further steps necessary to—

a. ensure the safety and health of that person and of any other person who
may subsequently be so exposed; and
b. terminate and prevent the recurrence of such conditions

Precautions against harmful dust

1. Where rock, ore, coal or other mineral or mineral compound is reduced in size,
screened, moved, handled or otherwise subject to any process which may produce
dust harmful to persons-
a. the liberation of such dust into the atmosphere shall be effectively controlled
by the use of water or other dust allaying agent or by a dust extraction
system; and
b. every building in which any of these processes takes place shall be
adequately ventilated and the floor and other surfaces at any place, as well
as machinery, shall be regularly cleaned so as to prevent the accumulation of
such dust
2. Every drill sharpening shop or other workshop necessary and incidental to the
sharpening of drills and any other building or shed where harmful dust may be
produced shall be kept clean and adequately ventilated and the liberation of such
dust into the atmosphere effectively controlled by use of water or other dust
allaying agent or by a dust extraction system

19
 3. Where sand blasting is done, approved protective breathing equipment shall be
worn by every person exposed or likely to be exposed to the dust.
4. Where an inspector is satisfied that any mining operation upon any mine has caused
or is likely to cause the presence of dust in such quantity as may be injurious to
health, he may, in writing, direct the manager, within such period as shall be
specified by the inspector, to install apparatus for the prevention or abatement of
such dust to the satisfaction of the inspector.
5. Without derogation from the responsibility of the manager, such direction shall be
deemed to be a direction to the person actually carrying on the business of mining
upon the mining location concerned, whether he is the holder or the lessee or
assignee of the rights of such holder.
Safety in working places (start of shift, after blast)
(1) At any mine—
a. no person, other than an official or person of higher rank, who shall be the holder of
a blasting licence shall, either at the beginning of a shift or after blasting, enter a
working place until he has received definite instructions or permission to do so from
the miner or blasting licence holder in charge who for the time being is responsible
for the safety of such place;
b. the miner or blasting licence holder in charge, whose responsibility it is to examine
or repair or make safe any working place at the commencement of his shift, shall
take all reasonable precautions to ensure that any person assisting him is
safeguarded against falls of ground and other dangers while carrying out such work;
c. if at any time, working place or part thereof becomes or is found to be unsafe during
a shift, the miner or blasting licence holder in charge shall take all reasonable
measures for making it safe and for safeguarding every person in the working place
against such danger as may have arisen;
d. in making safe a working place the miner or blasting licence holder in charge shall
remove or cause to be removed all dangerous, loose or loosened rock or ground, in
which work he may be assisted by persons working under his personal supervision
and control and, where deemed by him necessary for the safety of such person, in
his actual presence.

PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

Footwear
1. Every person shall wear footwear designed to provide adequate protection for
the type of work or activity being performed.
2. the footwear referred to in subsection (1) shall be supplied by the manager
Wearing of hard hats

20
 1. No person shall enter or remain in or be caused or permitted to enter or remain in
the workings of a mine or at any place at a mine where there is danger from falling
objects unless he wears a hard hat in good condition and of an approved type.
2. Hard hats as required in terms of subsection (1) shall be supplied by the manager

PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: EQUIPMENT & OPERATORS

General requirements on machinery
1. No machinery shall be used at any mine unless it is of good construction, sound
material, adequate strength, free from patent defect and maintained in good
condition.
2. Efficient guards shall be provided to such parts of machinery and electrical
apparatus as may be a source of danger to persons.
3. The manager shall ensure that such guards are kept in position and suitably
maintained: Provided that, when such guards are temporarily removed for the
purpose of repairs, proper precaution shall be taken for the safety of persons and,
on completion of such repairs the guards shall be securely and immediately
replaced.
Riding on trucks, et cetera
No person shall do, or cause or permit any other to do any one or more of the following in
or about a
mine—
a. ride in or on a vehicle or drive a vehicle in such a position as to endanger himself or
any other person;
b. ride in or on a vehicle or loaded truck unless authorised in writing to do so by the
manager or
an official;
c. get on to or off a vehicle while it is in motion, except during shunting operations on
the surface in which he is directly employed;
d. ride on a haulage rope;
e. drive or operate a vehicle unless he is competent to do so and has been authorised
in writing by the manager or an official in terms of section 176 of the MMSR;
f. wilfully damage or interfere with or order any other person to damage or interfere
with any vehicle or part thereof;
g. neglect to inspect or maintain any vehicle which he is required to inspect or
maintain in terms of these regulations.

21
Safety devices for trucks or cars
1. On every inclined track excluding tracks in shafts where trucks or cars are attached
to a rope or chain adequate safety devices shall be provided and maintained in good
order to prevent danger from such trucks or cars in the event of a runaway.
2. On any inclined plane or portion of an inclined plane exceeding a gradient of 1 in 50
where vehicles are used there shall be provided and used on the vehicle or on the
inclined plane an adequate number of effective devices to prevent such vehicle
endangering the safety of persons should the vehicle run out of control.
3. As far as practicable every device provided in terms of 2 shall be of a type to operate
automatically.
4. Where a device provided in terms of 2 is hand operated, any person operating it
shall be properly instructed in its operation and shall be afforded adequate
protection from any moving truck or car.
5. Daily inspections of all safety devices shall be undertaken by a person appointed by
the manager or an official.
Moving vehicles down inclines by hand and devices for holding vehicles
1. No person when moving a vehicle by hand down a gradient exceeding 1 : 12, shall
precede the
vehicle.
2. No person shall move any vehicle by hand down an incline in circumstances in which
he cannot by his own strength control the vehicle from behind unless there is
provided such a contrivance as to enable him to control it from behind
3. A sufficient supply of a suitable sprags, lockers or drags shall be provided,
maintained and used for
the purpose of holding vehicles—
a. at the top of every incline on which vehicles are moved by gravity operated
rope haulage
apparatus; and
b. at every place at which vehicles are coupled or uncoupled from the haulage
apparatus.

Duties of driver of vehicle

It shall be the duty of the driver in charge of any self-propelled vehicle to ensure that—

a. the brakes are in good working order and that the vehicle is not moved if the
brakes are not in
good working order; and
b. the warning signals and lights are in good working order and affixed and, if they are
not in good working order or are not affixed, that such vehicle is not moved except
to the nearest place where repairs can be effected; and

22
 c. all attachment devices are in good working order and effective

Vehicles not be left unattended

The driver of any self-propelled vehicle shall not leave the vehicle unattended, other than
at the place where it is normally kept when not in use, unless he has taken reasonable
precautions to ensure it cannot inadvertently be set in motion.

Scheme for testing of vehicles to be instituted

1. The manager of a mine shall ensure that there is in force at the mine a scheme for
the systematic inspection, examination and testing of all self-propelled vehicles in
use which is sufficient to ensure that the external parts of the engine or motor, the
condition and operation of all controls, safety devices and signal arrangements are
in all respects in proper working order.
2. The results of an inspection, examination or test carried out in terms of (1) shall be
recorded in ink in a book provided by the manager for the purpose.
3. The book referred to in (2) shall at all times be open to inspection by an inspector.

Charging batteries
1. No person shall charge or change any batter of any storage-battery locomotive or
storage-battery vehicle at any mine except at a place recognised for the purpose
which for the purpose of this section, shall be called a “charging station”:
Provided that this subsection shall not apply to any combined battery and trolley line
locomotive which is designed for battery charging while in use.
2. Every charging station shall be—
a. constructed of non-flammable material; and
b. provided with suitable and sufficient apparatus for fighting outbreaks of fire;
and
c. under the control of a competent person; and
d. adequately lighted; and
e. provided with a clean water supply.
3. Every charging station and all battery chargers shall be so arranged that the gases
evolved in charging are adequately dispersed.
4. (4) Any person spilling any water or electrolyte on any battery or any electrolyte on
the floor of any
charging station shall forthwith remove it or cause it to be removed.
5. (5) No unauthorised person shall interfere with any battery charging equipment at
any charging station.

23
 6. (6) No person shall smoke or use any light, other than an adequately protected
electric lamp, in or within ten meters of any charging station, and a suitable notice
to this effect shall be conspicuously displayed.
7. Every charging station shall be provided with suitable first aid equipment.
8. No material other than that required for charging operations shall be stored in a
charging station.

Surface drilling
In surface drilling every person in charge of drills shall be responsible for the proper
erection and maintenance where necessary of proper and well-fenced platforms from
which workers can attend to water swivel, change of tools, drill lengths, casings, et cetera
and for the provisions of ladders thereto
Noise control
1. The manager shall take all reasonable measures to ensure that noise levels at any
working place do not exceed ninety decibels 90 dB and where the noise exceeds this
level, the manager shall provide approved protective ear equipment to persons
working at that place.
2. Any person who is supplied with protective ear equipment in terms of 1 who fails to
wear it at the working place shall be guilty of an offence.
3. The Chief Government Mining Engineer may stipulate in writing to the manager at
which working places approved protective ear equipment shall be worn maximum
hours of work for machine supervisors
Working hours
No person in charge of any machinery which, for the safety of life or limb requires
continuous supervision shall be caused or permitted to work for more than ten hours
during any continuous period of twenty-four hours:
Provided that this limit when ordered by the manager or other person in authority in cases
of emergency or when written permission has been granted by an inspector, may be
exceeded. Also provided that during the normal changeover of his working shift such person
may work, within one twenty-four-hour period two shifts of not more than eight hours’
duration each, which shall be separated by a period of not less than eight hours between
the end of the first shift and the start of the second shift.

24
PROHIBITIONS ON OPERATIONS: Accidents
Notification of accidents to persons (section 268)
1. The accidents to be notified for the purposes of this section shall be as follows—
a. any mining accident involving—
i. the death of any person; or
ii. an injury to any person which is likely to be fatal;
b. any mining accident in which any person becomes unconscious from heat
stroke, heat exhaustion, electric shock or the inhalation of fumes or
poisonous gas;
c. any mining accident involving an injury to any person which
i. incapacitates him from performing his normal or a similar occupation
for a period totalling fourteen days or more; or
ii. causes him to suffer the loss of a limb or part of a limb or to sustain a
permanent disability.
2. On the occurrence at any mine of an accident referred to in (a) or (b) of (1) the
manager shall—
a. immediately give notice thereof to an inspector by the quickest means
available; and
b. without delay, give written confirmation to an inspector of such notice on the
form specified in the Second Schedule.
3. When an accident referred to in (c) of (1) becomes notifiable for the purposes of this
section, the manager of the mine at which the accident occurred shall—
a. immediately give notice thereof to an inspector by the quickest means
available; and
b. within four days of the accident becoming notifiable, confirm such notice in
writing on the form specified in the Second Schedule.
4. In the case of a mining accident at a mine which involves the death of any person,
the manager shall ensure that the police are notified thereof immediately by the
quickest means available.
5. If an accident referred to in (1) occurs at a mine and involves a person engaged in
mining operations on the mine but not directly employed by the mine, it shall be
the duty of that person’s employer to ensure that the accident is immediately
reported to the manager.

Report of death resulting from injury: scene of accident not to be disturbed

1. Where any person involved in an accident at any mine subsequently dies as a result
thereof, the
death shall, without delay, be reported to an inspector and the police.
2. After the occurrence of an accident involving the death of any person or the injury of
any person which results in or is likely to result in death, the place where the
accident occurred shall not, without the consent of an inspector, be disturbed or
25
 altered before it has been examined by an inspector: Provided that this subsection
shall not apply to such disturbance or alterations as is unavoidable to prevent
further accidents, to remove bodies or to rescue persons from danger.

Notification of non-casualty accidents (section 268)

Whether personal injury results or not, on the occurrence at a mine of any accident
specified in the Third Schedule the manager shall—
a. immediately give notice thereof to an inspector by the quickest means
available; and
b. without delay, give written confirmation to an inspector of such notice.
Register of accidents
1. At every mine a register shall be kept in which there shall be recorded in ink,
without delay, the particulars of all accidents at that mine which are required to be
reported in terms of section 268 or 270.
2. The register referred to in (1) shall be available for inspection by an inspector.

End of section questions

Q. What are the responsibilities of a manager?

Q. What requirements must be met in the construction of dams and dumps?

Q. What are the duties of drivers of vehicles?

Q. What are the requirements to be met by charging stations in mines?

Q. What is the procedure to be followed in the reporting of accidents?

26
Chapter 4: Drilling and Blasting Theory
Drilling and Blasting are key mining activities that serve to extract ore fragments from the
in-situ ore in the ground. By the end of this section, the reader is expected to be familiar
with the following objectives:
1. The objectives of drilling and drilling procedure
2. Drilling patterns
3. Timing patterns and blast results
4. The chain reaction sequence
5. The composition of explosives

Drilling theory
Drilling is the boring of hard ground to produce boreholes that are to be charged with
explosives. The drilling process involves bench dressing, bench marking and drilling as
guided by the drilling layout.
Bench-dressing is the removal of all loose material and exposing hard ground to allow for
efficient drilling and easier tracking of equipment with the use of a track/ wheel dozer. The
bench is then inspected for misfires and sockets before drilling – all misfires found are
marked and barricaded off, in compliance with the Explosives Regulations (S.I. 72 of 1989).
Benchmarking is the physical marking of the locations at which holes must be drilled by the
drill rig. The benchmarks follow a selected drilling pattern - the square and staggered drilling
patterns are shown in the figure below. At the ZCDC, the staggered pattern is preferred over
the square pattern as it produces less boulders.

Figure 4 - Drilling patterns: staggered (top) and square (bottom)

27
Patterns with larger burden and spacing are typically used on waste benches whilst patterns
with smaller spacing and burden are typically used on ore. Table 1 shows the burden and
spacing commonly used at the ZCDC.
Table 2 - Common drilling patterns at the ZCDC

Pattern (Burden x Spacing) Typical location

1.6 x 1.9 ore bench

1.9 x 2.2 ore bench

2.2 x 2.5 ore bench

4.9 x 5.7 waste bench

5.3 x 6.1 waste bench

Regulations on the marking of drill holes

Marking of drill holes
No hole shall be pointed out or marked for drilling except by the holder of a blasting
licence.

Requirements before holes are marked and drilling commences

The person in charge of blasting operations at a working place shall, before the
commencement of drilling operations and before marking the position of the holes to be
drilled at such working place—
1. remove or cause to be removed all loosened rock, mineral or ground and
thoroughly wash over with water if available under a pressure of not less than
150 kilopascals all surfaces to a distance of at least 2 metres in all directions from
the proposed position or mark for the purpose of exposing any misfired hole and
socket or, when the ground to be examined is under way, blow it over with
compressed air for the purpose of exposing any misfired hole and socket;
2. search for any misfired hole and socket within a distance of at least 2 metres from
the proposed position or mark;
3. thoroughly examine every socket or drill hole, whether finished or unfinished, to
ascertain its depth and direction and if water under adequate pressure of not less
than 200 kilopascals or compressed air together with water:
i. is available, wash out each such socket or drill hole by means of blow
pipe of a design approved by the Chief Inspector made of copper, brass
or such other material as he may approve;

28
 ii. is not available, examine and ascertain by cleaning with a wooden or
copper scraper that each such socket or drill hole does not contain any
explosives: Provided that, where blasting operations are carried out at a
quarry or opencast working with holes drilled on a surveyed pattern, an
inspector may grant exemption from the provisions of this subsection on
such conditions as he considers to be necessary or desirable.

(2) Where any explosives are found on an examination in terms of subsection (1) they shall
be dealt with in terms of section 38 and each such socket or drill shall be plugged as
provided for in section 36.

Drilling procedure
The objective of drilling is to drill straight holes according to drilling layout, to the correct
depth, with minimal hole collapse. The drill rig operator tracks the drill rig to the drilling
location with the aid of the drilling assistant as an escort. The operator begins the pre- task
checks. If the rig operator is satisfied with the condition of the drill rig, he begins drilling
work. For each drill hole, the operator sets the boom on the ground, and collars the hole at
half the feed pressure and half speed of rotation. Once the collar, of 0.5m length, is finished
the drill rig operator drills with full feed and rotation on the hole. The operator monitors the
penetration rate and the depth counter on a monitor in the cabin. The operator adheres to
the hole depths on the drilling layout. When the hole depth is reached, the operator flushes
the hole to remove drill chips: The operator then tracks to the next hole peg, and repeats
the process. The finished holes are plugged using empty fertiliser sacks to prevent hole
collapse. If the holes are not to be blasted soon, a "NO ENTRY TO VEHICLES, DRILLED HOLES
AHEAD" sign is put up so as to avoid unnecessary hole losses.

Explosives theory
An Explosive is a chemical compound or mixture which releases a large volume of gases at
high temperature and pressure on application of a shock or stimulus. Most explosives
consist of an oxidizer and fuel.
Figure 5 - the composition of ANFO an Emulsion

29
Most modern blasting techniques make use of a series of explosives through which energy is
passed until it reaches the blasting agent where the rock fracturing detonation takes place:
The sequence, from initiation to explosion, is termed the chain reaction sequence.

Figure 6 - the chain reaction sequence

Ignition is the lighting of the explosive charge by a non-explosive material, usually matches
or a lighter. The flame of the lighter comes into contact with the pyrotechnic material in the
ignitor cord and sets its core aflame.
Initiation involves the initial generation of shock from a burning flame. The safety fuse,
which consists of a fuse and a detonator propagates the burning from ignition and the
detonator generates the initial shock which can then be propagated.
Propagation is the transmission of the shock generated by a detonator. The shock initiates
the detonation of other detonators/ explosives further down the chain. The ultimate
objective of the propagated shock is initiating the detonation of the primer - A system of
connected shock tubes or detonator cord can be used to supply the energy.
Blasting agents cannot reliably initiate with the energy released from the cap of a detonator,
priming involves the addition of energy by the use of another explosive that readily initiates
from the cap. The energy output from the explosion of the primer is then used to initiate
the detonation of the column charge.

30
The blasting agent is the explosive whose detonation provides the borehole pressure and
energy required to do rock fracturing work (Blasting).
Take note of the definitions below

1. Combustion is a reaction in which matter burns to produce heat and carbon dioxide
i.e. complete combustion or carbon monoxide for incomplete combustion.
2. Deflagration it is an instantaneous reaction that is similar to burning and its velocity
is below sonic velocity. The flow of products is opposite the direction of
decomposition propagation
3. Detonation is the process of propagation of a shock wave through an explosive,
which is accompanied by a chemical reaction that furnishes energy to maintain the
shock wave propagation in a stable manner.

Timing the round

After charging the blast-holes, they must be timed so that they detonate according to a
pattern that delivers the desired blast results. The timing patterns employed at the ZCDC are
the box cut and the Chevron pattern. The box cut is used when there was no free face. The
box cut also required the drilling of air-holes/ breather-holes which were a sequence of
uncharged drill holes, with half the spacing of the other drill holes. The advantage of the box
cut was that it could be used when there was no free face. A series of holes in the centre of
the round, which are timed to detonate first, create the free face in advance of the other
holes’ detonation. The creation of the free face is aided by the breather-holes. On benches
with free faces, the chevron pattern was used - open or closed. The open chevron (figure 7)
was used on corner blasts (2 free faces) and was advantageous in that it offered a heaped
muck-pile as per the timing sequence.

Figure 7 - Open Chevron timing pattern (linked holes detonate at the same time)

The closed chevron (figure 8) is used on face blasts (1 free face) and is advantageous in that
it offers greater fragmentation and the muck pile produced mounds up in the centre in front
of the shot. A heaped muck pile reduces the cost of using a dozer to gather the material and
lowers the time taken by the excavator in scraping together material for loading.

31
 Figure 8- the closed chevron timing pattern (linked holes detonate at the same time)

Figure 9 - a sample timed bench on paper

In timing the round, the blaster has to consider and factor in the delays of the shock tubes.
As a rule of thumb, the maximum number of rows that could be initiated from the same
initiation point is equal to the down-the-hole delay divided by the surface delay. The blaster
therefore has to count the number of shock tubes connected in series from an initiation
point to ensure that the number was not exceeded.
𝐷
𝑁 =
𝑆
Where:
N - Maximum number of shock tubes in series (rows)
D – Down-the-hole delay of 1 shock tube
S – Surface delay of 1 shock tube
For the shock tubes used at the ZCDC, the number of rows is 20 (500ms/ 25ms). A large
bench, with more than the 20 rows therefore has to be divided, by having multiple initiation
points. Exceeding 20 rows would result in cut-off misfires and disturbance to the intended
blast results.
End of section questions
Q. Which drilling pattern is preferred at the ZCDC and why?
Q. Give a comparison of the results of the 2 timing patterns commonly used at the ZCDC?
Q. Draw and time a bench using the closed chevron timing pattern.

32
Chapter 5: Explosives: Types, Classifications
An Explosive is a chemical compound or mixture which releases a large volume of gases at
high temperature and pressure on application of a shock or stimulus. Most explosives
consist of an oxidizer and fuel. By the end of this section, the reader is expected to be
familiar with the following objectives:
1. Classes of explosives
2. Explosives used at the ZCDC
3. Storage of explosives
4. Transportation of explosives
5. Disposal of explosives

No explosives must be kept in one’s

possession without a permit to
purchase, acquire or possess
explosives

Regulations on the Permit to purchase, acquire or possess explosives

1. An inspector may on application issue to a person who—
(a) has the necessary storage facilities which comply with the provisions of the
storage of explosives section of the explosives regulations
(b) has a valid licence to store explosives granted as outlined in the explosives
regulations
(b1) has paid a fee of $50;
(c) is a suitable person to be in possession of explosives; a permit in the form set
out in the Fifth Schedule to purchase, acquire or possess exploives.
2. A permit issued in terms of (1)—
(a) shall not be valid until the person to whom it is issued has signed his name
thereon;
(b) shall expire on the 30th June following the date of issue;
3. A permit issued under the Explosives (General) Regulations, 1970, for the purchase,
sale or acquisition of explosives which is valid immediately before the date of
commencement of these regulations shall be deemed to have been issued in terms
of subsection (1).

33
Classification
All explosives can be broadly classified as high and low explosives:

○ High explosives - speed of reaction is faster than the speed of sound. They detonate
or explode producing a shattering sound effect. Examples are ANFO, Tovex, Emgel,
○ Low explosives - Speed of reaction is slower than the speed of sound. They burn or
deflagrate. Examples are safety fuse, igniter cords

Explosives can also be classified as Cap sensitive and non-cap sensitive explosives
o Cap Sensitive Explosives - Those that can be reliably initiated by a 6D detonator e.g.
Dynamite and other Nitro-glycerine based explosives.
o Non-Cap Sensitive Explosives - All those not reliably initiate
o d by 6D detonator e.g. ANFEX, ANFO. More powerful priming is required and this is
attained by using an 8D detonator.

34
A more specific classification (after the 6th schedule) is the classification into 7 classes based
on the chemical composition of the explosives.
Table 3 - The 7 classes of explosives

To aid in remembering the classes better the reader can construct an acronym based on the
first letters of the seven classes, as shown in the example below:

35
Types of Explosives used at the ZCDC
(After the chain reaction sequence from chapter 3)

Ignition - the Ignitor cord

Ignitor cords are thin, flexible, incendiary fuse devices which burn with a vigorous flame.
They consist of a powder pyrotechnic core and a waterproof polyethylene sheath. They are
used for igniting any number of connector capped fuses and therefore eliminate the need to
light fuses individually. Igniter cords have different burning speeds - At the ZCDC the slow
igniter cord with a burning speed of 30-45s/m is used. The pyrotechnic material in the cord
reliably burns at the nominal burning speed before the burning front reaches the capped
fuse. Where igniter cord is used in the preparation of charges for firing, it shall be laid as
close as is practicable to the face and shall not be laid on or be in contact with, timber or
other combustible material or inflammable substance not forming part of the charge.

Table 4 - Ignitor cords and their corresponding burning speeds

Initiation – the Capped fuse

Capped fuse -Means a length of safety fuse to one end of, which a detonator and an igniter
cord connector has been attached. The Capped fuse consists of a core of blasting gunpowder
tightly insulated with coverings of textile, asphalt and plastics attached to a detonator. Once
the flame from the ignitor cord reaches the capped fuse, the gunpowder in the fuse burns at
a nominal burning speed, until reaching the detonator. At the ZCDC, the green capped fuse
is used with a burning speed of 111-114 s/m. The covering, which helps identify the fuse’s
burning rate also protects the black powder core against water and other materials which can
change the burning speed or desensitise the powder. Once the fuse has burnt, the detonator
goes off, generating shock that is passed on to the detonating cord/ shock-tube system.
36
 Figure 10 - the green capped fuse (Base image: Intrachem)

In instances where the capped fuse must be made from a detonator and a safety fuse, a
blasting license holder must follow a procedure as outlined in the Explosives regulations.
Preparation of a capped fuse
The holder of a blasting licence shall:
a. when capping a fuse with a detonator, cut the fuse end off square with a sharp
knife or other sharp tool
b. Remove all saw dust out of the detonator, press the fuse gently into the detonator
as far as it will go and securely fasten the detonator to the fuse by means of a
crimping tool.

Energy supply/ propagation

Shocktubes – Famesa Explosivos, Primadet Nonel
The shocktubes used at the ZCDC have an in-hole delay of 500ms and surface delay of 25ms.
The Famesa Explosivos shocktubes or the Primadet Nonel Shocktubes are used with lengths
varying from 9m to 23m. The aluminium cap on the connector end of the shocktube
contains a pyrotechnic charge which, when initiated by the shock from trunk-line/ capped
fuse, generates a shockwave that travels the length of the shocktube to the detonator down
in the hole. The detonator in the hole contains a primary charge and base charge. Upon
reaching the detonator, the shockwave initiates the primary charge (Lead Azide) which then
detonates along with the base charge (PETN): The detonation initiates the detonation of the
explosives in the cartridge.

37
 Figure 11 - Primadet Nonel shocktubes (Base image: Intrachem)

Trunk lines
Trunk lines are used in conjunction with shocktubes as bridging devices which propagate the
shock from one row of shocktubes to the next. Trunk lines have a nominal delay - 17ms
delay trunklines are used at the ZCDC. The trunk lines receive shock from the safety fuse or
previous shocktube and pass it on to the next shocktube.

Detonating cord – SB cord, power cord, zap cord

Detonating cord is a strong, flexible, continuous detonator that consists of an inner core of
PETN enclosed in a plastic encasement and wrapped in a braid of waterproof textiles. It
serves the same purpose as detonators - directly initiating the high explosives - but it needs
a detonator for initiation. Detonating cord has a VOD of 7000 m/s and variable core load,
from 8g/m to 12g/m. 10g/m of detonating cord will initiate detonator sensitive explosive
but requires a primer to initiate blasting agents such as ANFO. It comes in many brand
names Primacord, S/B cord, Zap-cord as per varying core load. Detonator cords generally
38
produce more powerful blast compared to shocktubes, but however cause fly-rock and
disturbance of stemming material. The whole length of the cord also detonates at once and
cannot be timed.
NB: The explosive charge in every hole drilled to depth of more than three metres in the
underground workings of any mine shall be primed by means of detonating fuse, which shall
extend to the end of the charge and be of length sufficient to protrude at least one
hundred and fifty millimetres (15cm) from the collar of the hole concerned.

Figure 12 - Detonating cord on reel

Primer – Emex 70 cartridges + detonator

A primer is a unit, package, or cartridge of explosives used to initiate other explosives or
blasting agents. It typically consists of a detonator or detonating cord and cap-sensitive
explosive. At the ZCDC the Emex 70 cartridges, manufactured by Sasol and Dyno Nobel are
used in conjunction with shocktubes or detonator cord as the primer. When used with
shocktubes, the cartridge’s plastic sheath is pricked and the detonator of the shocktube is
inserted well into the cartridge and secured with a knot. When used with detonating cord,
the cord is tied securely around the periphery of the cartridge. The primer is then placed at
the bottom of the blast-hole.

Figure 13 - the Emex 70 cartridge (Base image: Intrachem)

Preparation of Primers Procedure

Steps:

The holder of a blasting licence shall when preparing a primer comprising blasting cartridge
and detonator,
1. Make a hole of sufficient diameter and depth in the cartridge with a
sharpened wooden stick or prick of non–ferrous material
2. Press the detonator into the cartridge,

39
 3. Securely fasten the detonator to the cartridge by means of string or other
suitable material so that it cannot inadvertently be withdrawn.
NB: No person shall make up a charge or primer cartridge or cause or permit a charge or
primer cartridge to be made up in a magazine, underground distribution store or otherwise
than in safe place and dry place.

Figure 14 - Priming procedure summary

Booster – Pentolite booster

Pentolite booster are designed to initiate non-cap sensitive explosives in bulk form or
packaged. They contain a mixture of TNT and PETN, have a high VOD (6000-000m/s) and are
exceptionally powerful, yet much less sensitive to shock, friction and impact than N.G.

Figure 15 - Pentolite boosters

The Blasting Agents

AN/FO
AN/FO is a commercial high explosive that uses Ammonium nitrate as an oxidizer and diesel
as a fuel. The diesel and ammonium nitrate are mixed in the ratio 6:94. The abbreviation
AN/FO was adopted from the phrase “ammonium nitrate - fuel oil”. The ammonium nitrate

40
(AN) is formed by the neutralization of ammonia with nitric acid, it is available in solid form
as powder or prills and is widely used as fertilizer in agriculture in Zimbabwe.
AN/FO has a nominal VOD of 4500m/s. The AN/FO is mixed on site, just before charging –
the ammonium nitrate and diesel can therefore be stored indefinitely prior to mixing and
are not explosive in isolation.

Mixing ratio AN/FO

At the ZCDC, 7 Litres of diesel are used with 100kg of 34.5% Ammonium Nitrate. The mixing
ratio must be accurately measured as there are effects on the energy released by the
explosive charge and the environment.

EMULSION
Emulsion consists of:
1. Oxidiser
2. Ammonium Nitrate-97%
3. Fuel Oil
4. Diesel
5. Sodium Nitrate -3%
6. Sensitizer.

Other explosives to know

Electric detonators

Figure 16 - Electric detonator structure

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Precautions to be taken when blasting electrically
a) Operations in connection with the preparation or firing of explosives shall not be
started or continued on the approach of or during an electrical storm.
b) During an electrical storm no person shall remain at a place where he may be injured
by the accidental detonation of explosives, which may be occasioned by such electrical
storm.
c) Use only a blasting cable, which is in good order and of sufficient length to provide
for the firing of charges from a safe distance.
d) Ensure as far practicable that the firing cable cannot come into contact with any other
cable or electrical apparatus.
e) Carry with him during his hours of work the operating handle or key of the shot –
exploder or if such operating handle or key cannot be removed or some other shot-
firing apparatus is used, carry with him the key of the locking arrangement for securing
the shot exploder or other shot firing apparatus against unauthorized use.
f) Shall not connect the firing cable to the detonator wires of a charge until he has
completed all firing preparations.
g) Shall not except with the written permission of an inspector; apply any electrical test
to the firing circuit except through the firing cable and from a place of safety, or
h) Connect the firing cable to the terminals of the shot –firing apparatus until
immediately before firing or attempting to fire a charge.
i) Shall not, after he has connected the firing cable to the detonator wires of any charge
and before such charge has been fired remain or approach or cause or permit any
person to remain or approach within an unsafe distance of such charge except for the
purpose of examining the firing circuit, or
j) Examine the firing circuit or cause or permit the firing circuit to be examined, unless
both leads of the firing cable are disconnected from any source whether for firing or
for testing the firing circuit
k) Shall, immediately after firing or attempting to fire a charge disconnect both leads of
the firing cable from the shot exploder or other shot firing apparatus and there and
there remove the operating handle or key of the shot- exploder or secure the locking
arrangement of the shot exploder or other shot -firing apparatus and remove the key,
as the case may be.
l) Testing of dets can be dispensed with if the manufacturer guarantees. It should be
done in a two inch steel pipe filled with sand and enclosed in concrete with a minimum
of two detonators at a time (use blasting ohmmeters to test).
m) Electrical test not to be conducted at the round but at a safe place using an approved
testing pipe. No testing should be conducted in any explosives magazine

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Chapter 6: Handling of explosives - Conveyance, Storage,
Destruction
For explosives to be used in blasting operations, they must be conveyed, and stored. After
explosives disintegrate or are left over, they must be destroyed. This chapter details the
Conveyance, Storage and destruction of explosives. By the end of this section, the reader is
expected to be familiar with the following objectives:
o Conveyance of explosives
o Storage of explosives
o Destruction of explosives

Conveyance of explosives
(1) All explosives when first imported into our country shall immediately after being
unloaded be conveyed directly to a magazine which is licensed or the destination of
the explosives.
(a) Explosives shall always be in the charge of the holder of the permit
authorizing the purchase, possession, or acquisition of such explosives or
(b) An employee of the holder of the permit referred to in paragraph (a) who has
been authorized in writing by the holder thereof to convey explosives or
(c) Where the firm or transport company has been contracted to transport
explosives on behalf of the holder of the permit the firm or transport company
which has an authorization in writing from the holder, stating the holder’s
permit number, which must be endorsed with his approval by an inspector of
explosives.
(2) The person in charge of a vehicle carrying explosives shall at all times remain with the
vehicle until such time as the explosives have reached their destination and have been
unloaded.
(3) Where a firm or transport company has been contracted to transport explosives by
the holder of a permit, it shall be the duty of the firm or transport company to ensure
that the driver of the vehicle is aware of and observes the explosive regulations
(4) Where the explosives to be transported exceed five thousand kilograms in mass and
the distance exceeds one hundred kilometers the driver of the vehicle shall be
accompanied by at least one other competent person.
(5) No person shall convey or allow any person to convey explosives in any vehicle
which is at the same time used for the carriage of passengers, mail or any other
substance, matter or thing which is likely to cause fire, detonation including goods
of a dangerous nature such as inflammable materials, acids, chemicals, compressed
gases, forage, matches, substances liable to spontaneous combustion, waste,
machinery or parts thereof, metal implements such as tools, plough shares, iron
standards and the like or any materials having exposed iron or steel.
(6) A person who is in charge of the magazine or other place of storage from which
explosives are being removed shall be responsible for the loading of the vehicle and
shall ensure that explosives are loaded only on a vehicle which is in good order and

43
 that the loading of explosives thereon is done accordance with the Explosives
Regulations.
(7) The explosives must be covered with a tarpaulin or other suitable material; and
(8) The mass of explosives, together with any other non-inflammable goods or articles
being carried in the vehicle does not exceed the carrying capacity thereof.

RESTRICTION ON CONVEYANCE OF EXPLOSIVES

a) A person who is in charge of the magazine or other place of storage from which
explosives are being removed shall be responsible for the loading of the vehicle and
shall ensure that explosives are loaded only on a vehicle which is in good order and
that the loading of explosives thereon is done accordance with the explosives
regulations.
b) No person shall convey or allow any person under his control or supervision to convey
detonators or capped fuses with any other explosives other than safety fuse or
igniter cord.
c) Detonators or capped fuses do not exceed two thousand in number.
d) The other explosives do not exceed five hundred kilograms in total mass.
e) The detonators or capped fuses are carried in separate compartments, which are
separated by a distance of not less than seven hundred and fifty millimetres.
f) No person shall load, unload or convey explosives between the hours of sunset and
sunrise.
g) No person shall smoke in or any vehicle in which explosives are being conveyed or
within twenty metres or any vehicle onto or from which explosives are being loaded
or unloaded.
h) No person shall load onto or convey in any vehicle any barrel, case, box, parcel or
other receptacle containing explosives if such receptacle is found to be leaky or
damaged, unless- authority in writing to do so has been obtained from an inspector
and any conditions fixed by the inspector in granting such authority are compiled with.
Provided that in an emergency, leaky or damaged receptacles containing explosives
may be loaded and transported if such loading and transportation is under the
control of a competent person.
i) When explosives are being loaded onto or unloaded from any road vehicle, the engine
of such vehicle shall be switched off and due care shall be taken by the person in
charge to ensure that no person other than a person assisting him in loading or
unloading the explosives shall have access to such explosives.
j) No person shall unload explosives from a vehicle en route except in the event of a
breakdown of such vehicle, provided that-
(a) Where it becomes absolutely necessary to unload the whole or part of a
consignment of explosives en route, all possible care shall be taken to protect the
explosives from fire, shock or damp.
(b) No explosives be placed near inhabited buildings, and the person in charge shall
warn persons against loitering near the explosives.
(c) The explosives conveyance shall be continued as soon as possible
(d) An inspector of explosives shall be notified as soon as possible of the full
circumstances necessitating the unloading of the explosives en route.
44
k) An inspector of explosives shall be notified as soon as possible of the full
circumstances necessitating the unloading of the explosives en route.

Conveyance of explosives within area under jurisdiction of local authority

(1) A person who conveys explosives shall avoid towns and villages as far as practicable.
(2) No person shall load, unload or convey explosives between the hours of sunset and
sunrise.
(3) Where the Minister has, after consultation with a local authority concerned, by notice
in the Gazette specified the routes along which and the hours during which
explosives may be conveyed through the area under the jurisdiction of that local
authority, no person shall convey or allow any person under his control or supervision
to convey explosives through that area otherwise than by the route and during the
hours so specified except- in a case of an emergency and with the permission in
writing of, and subject to such conditions as may be fixed by an inspector. Provided
that in granting any authority or fixing any conditions in terms of this subsection, an
inspector shall, if possible, first consult the local authority.
(4) Subject to any by-laws of the authority concerned, no person driving a vehicle in which
explosives are being conveyed shall stop that vehicle within the area under the
jurisdiction of a local authority unless compelled to do so by circumstances beyond
his control.
(5) The driver of a vehicle conveying explosives within the area under the jurisdiction of
a local authority shall not –
(a) In the case of a mechanically-propelled vehicle, drive the vehicle at more than
fifty kilometres per hour
(b) In the case of an animal-drawn vehicle, proceed at a faster rate than a walking
pace.

Restriction on driver and condition of vehicle

(a) Driver
(1) No person shall be placed in charge of or drive any vehicle conveying explosives unless
he has attained the age of eighteen years.
(2) No person other than the driver of the vehicle or a person in charge of or engaged
about or in connection with the explosives being conveyed shall ride in or upon any
vehicle conveying explosives.
(3) The driver of a vehicle carrying explosives shall maintain a distance of not less than
forty-five metres between his vehicle and any vehicle in front of his vehicle unless the
circumstances render this impracticable.
(4) During a thunderstorm, the driver shall halt off the road a vehicle carrying explosives
at least five hundred metres away from inhabited buildings.

45
(b) The vehicle

(a) All the portions of the vehicle, which are likely to come into contact with
containers of the explosives, are covered with wood, leather, cloth or other
suitable materials, and
(b) The vehicle:
1. must have an earthing chain between the chassis and the ground and
such chain is adequately bonded to the chassis and
2. Runs on at least four wheels; and
3. In a serviceable condition and is provided with efficient brakes;
4. Is provided with one fire extinguisher in the cab mounted in a suitable
carrier or holder so that it is at all times available for use and such
extinguisher is of an approved type and has been inspected at
intervals not exceeding ninety days by a competent person.
(c) No person shall convey or allow any person under his control or supervision
to convey explosives in a public service vehicle unless the explosives are
placed in a compartment of such vehicle which is –
o Lockable;
o Constructed of steel not less than three millimetres thick;
o Securely attached to the vehicle so as to form part thereof;
Provided that an inspector of explosives may convey explosives
in a public service vehicle without complying with the above
conditions.

ZCDC explosives transportation procedure (to the mine, and to the point of use)
1.1 The blasting official shall collect at retain in his/her possession a Permit to Acquire
and transport explosives prior to proceeding to collect explosives from point of sell
or storage
1.2 The blasting official shall proceed to call upon the vehicle to be used for the
transportation of explosives and conduct the following;

o Check the permissible load limits of the vehicle. Explosives loaded per
trip shall be within the load limits,
o Check the state of the vehicle driver (soberness),
o Check for the provision of points to secure flags and anchor earthing
chain

1.3 Upon satisfying self that the requirements are met, the blasting official shall then
generate and review a list of possible routes available for use and select one that
meets the requirement of the Explosives Regulation.

46
1.4 The blasting official shall then proceed to his/her storage area and collect the
following items and secure them onto the explosive transportation vehicle

o Tarpaulin
o Earthing chain
o 2 x Red flags
o Fire extinguisher

1.5 The blasting official shall then inspect the explosive transportation vehicle with
reference to the Explosives Transportation/Blasting Vehicle Checklist IMS-MIN-
SOP-09 F01 and have the checklist approved by a shift boss or any person approved
to act in his/her capacity,
1.6 When transporting fracture explosives together with explosives accessories, the
following must be observed;
o A distance of not less than 750mm shall be left in between accessories and
fracture explosives
o The load of accessories and the load of fracture explosives shall be secured
to ensure that they will be no likelihood of loads convergence during
transportation.

1.7 For transportation of explosives from Mine explosive’s storage facilities to the
point of use

The blasting official must proceed as below:

Generate the necessary Deviation documentation and proceed to the explosive’s
storage area for collection,

1.7.1 With the assistance of the charging assistant (s) withdraw the authorized
quantity of explosives from the storage facility and carefully load them onto
the explosive transportation vehicle stacking them in a manner as guided by
arrows on the explosives packaging
1.7.2 Inspect the loading process to ensure that the total load does not exceed the
vehicle load limits,
1.7.3 Upon completion of loading, firmly cover the loaded explosives by means of
a tarpaulin.
1.7.4 Issue the following instructions to the explosive’s transportation vehicle:

o To follow the route that he would have advised him

o Not to exceed the speed of 40km/hr at any point during
transportation of explosives
o Not to take breaks at any point without your authority
o Not to light up any naked flames for any reason during transportation
of explosives
o To switch off his/her cell phone

47
 1.7.5 Embark the explosives transportation vehicle and remain in it until the
vehicle gets to its destination.
1.7.6 On arrival to the destination, remove the tarpaulin and allow the charging
assistants to carefully offload the explosives.

1.8 For transportation of explosives from outside the Mine (from External supplier) to
the mine

The blasting official must proceed as below:

1.8.1 Through the assistance of the Mining Manager, advise the Regional Mining
Inspectorate office of his/her intentions,
1.8.2 Obtain and return on him/herself a copy of the Permit to Acquire and
transport Explosives from point of storage,
1.8.3 Request for security personnel to accompany him/her for the trip
1.8.4 Inspect the vehicle to be used for transportation and ensure it meets the
Explosives Regulation requirements.
1.8.5 Proceed to where the explosives are to be collected from
1.8.6 Prior to loading of explosives, estimate the travel time to the mine and
ensure that the remaining hour of day time will afford them enough time to
get to the mine before night time. If such is not possible, advise the Regional
Mines Inspectorate of this development and seek permission to park the
vehicle before night time furnishing him/her fully on where the vehicle will
be parked.
1.8.7 Load the explosives into the vehicle stacking the explosives as guided by
arrows on explosives packaging
1.8.8 Upon completion of loading, firmly cover the loaded explosives by means of a
tarpaulin.
1.8.9 Issue the following instructions to the explosive’s transportation vehicle:

o To follow the route that he would have advised him

o Not to exceed the speed of 50km/hr. at any point during transportation of
explosives
o Not to encroach within 45m of any vehicle travelling ahead him where
practical
o Not to take breaks at any point without your authority
o Not to light up any naked flames for any reason during transportation of
explosives
o To switch off his/her cell phone

1.8.10 Embark the explosives transportation vehicle and remain in it until the
vehicle gets to its destination.
1.8.11 On arrival to the destination, remove the tarpaulin and allow the charging
assistants to carefully offload the explosives.
1.8.12 In the event of development of an electric storm, an accident or a break-
down during transportation, proceed as guided by the Explosives Regulations,

48
Figure 17 - The explosives transportation permit (with checklist) used at teh ZCDC

49
Storage of explosives
If explosives are not to be used immediately after the conveyance, they are stored in a
magazine with a construction that meets the requirements of the Explosives regulations.
Construction of an immovable magazine
(a) The walls shall be constructed of reinforced concrete not less than one hundred and
fifty millimetres thick.
(b) No iron or steel used shall in the construction or in the fittings shall be exposed
internally.
(c) The floor shall consist of reinforced concrete not less than one hundred fifty millimetres
thick.
(d) The building shall be covered with a roof of reinforced concrete not less than one
hundred and fifty millimetres thick which shall be securely bonded to the walls.
(e) In the case of a magazine licenced to contain more than two hundred and fifty
kilograms of explosives, the height from the floor to the ceiling shall not be less than
two metres.
(f) There shall be no windows.
(g) Ventilation shall be provided by means of elbow flues* which are –
i. Constructed in the thickness of the walls
ii. fitted with gratings covered with fine wire gauze at both external and internal
openings.
iii. Not lower than seven hundred and fifty millimetres from the floor and not
higher than two hundred and fifty millimetres below the ceiling.
*Provided that if any existing magazine which was licenced at the date of commencement of Explosives
Regulations of 1989 has ventilators which, in the opinion of the Chief Inspector, are satisfactory although
they do not conform with the provisions of the Explosives Regulations, such magazine may continue to be
licenced if it otherwise complies with the regulations.

(h) The door shall

i. be constructed of steel plate not less than five millimetres in thickness and lined
with wood or similar non-ferrous material so that no iron or steel is exposed to
the interior of the magazine.
ii. be hung in a substantial steel frame which is securely set in the concrete of the
building
iii. open outwards, and the hinged edge shall be secured when closed by not less
than five internal fixed dog bolts or lugs engaging with the frame.
iv. be locked by means of two or more concealed and protected security dead
locks each fitted with at least five levers or a bolt mechanism with a concealed
and protected dead lock fitted with at least five levers and such door and lock or
bolt mechanism shall be of a design approved by the Chief Inspector
(i) In the case of the magazine which is to be licenced for the storage of not more than five
thousand kilograms of explosives and where detonators are to be stored in a separate
room or compartment of the magazine, such room or compartment shall be separated

50
 from the main storage chamber by an air space which the Chief Inspector considers
adequate in the circumstances.
(j) each magazine shall be provided with an efficient lighting protection system which shall
be tested for earth resistance at least once in every twelve months
i. such lighting protection system shall conform to the requirements of the
Standard Association Zimbabwe Standard Number CC2 OF 1973,
ii. the test shall be conducted during the months of July, August and September by
a competent person who shall record the results of such test in the magazine
register.
(k) A magazine other than a magazine for the storage of fuse, initiators or detonators only
shall be surrounded by a substantial earthen mound which shall be –
i. at least as high as the eaves of the roof of the building; and
ii. not less than one-metre-wide at the top; and
iii. at a distance of not more than one metre from the magazine, which shall be
measured from the foot of the interior slope of the mound; the exterior slope of
the mound shall be at the natural slope of the earth with the entrance to the
magazine through the mound in a broken line. Provided that a magazine not
surrounded by a mound may be licenced if, in the opinion of the Chief Inspector,
a mound is not necessary for the protection of persons or property;
(l) Provision of the proper drain shall be made.

Fencing of immovable magazine

An immovable magazine, its mound and a space not less than twenty metres wide
surrounding the mound shall be kept clear of vegetation and, unless an inspector gives
written permission to the contrary, shall be securely fenced in.
Alterations to immovable magazine
No structural alterations to—
a. a licensed immovable magazine; or
b. the protecting mound of a licensed immovable magazine, otherwise than by
enlarging it;
shall be made without the approval of the Chief Inspector
Repairs to immovable magazine
No repairs shall be carried out in or upon an immovable magazine while explosives are
stored therein unless—
a. permission in writing has been given by an inspector for such repairs to be carried
out; and
b. any conditions fixed by the inspector in granting such permission are complied with

51
Figure 18 – Artist’s drawing of the ZCDC Portal A magazine (Cutaway: top, Plan: bottom)

Figure 19 - Cross section showing the elbow flues within the magazine wall

52
Storage of explosives in immovable magazine

(a) Explosives shall be stored-

o In regular layers not more than two meters high, unless permission in writing
has been obtained from an inspector to store the explosives in layers more
than two meters’ high
o In such manner as to admit readily of inspection and the removal of
explosives in rotation
(b) Pallets or wooden runners shall be placed between the floor of the magazine and the
bottom layer of cases of explosives.
(c) A space of not less than three hundred millimeters shall be kept between any case of
explosive and the inside of any wall of the magazine.
(d) A space of not less than one hundred and fifty millimeters shall be kept between any
case of explosives and the ceiling of the magazine.

Opening of cases in immovable magazine

1. A case or carton of explosives shall not be opened in the storage chamber or an
immovable magazine.
2. Where a case or carton of explosives is opened in the lobby of an immovable
magazine or elsewhere on the premises only wooden or bronze wedges and
wooden mallets shall be used.

Procedure to be adopted before the construction of an immovable magazine

Any person who wishes to construct an immovable magazine shall submit to the Chief
Inspector, in triplicate—
1. Plans of the Designs and specifications of the proposed magazine.
2. Site plans drawn to scale showing
a. the location of the magazine in relation to nearby roads, power lines, railway
lines and boundary of the property concerned
b. Contours of the land comprising the property concerned
c. Concentric circles drawn on the plan, the magazine as the centre and with a
radii proportionate to the distances specified in the first schedule of the
explosives regulations of 1989

53
 Figure 20 – Plan drawing schematic of immovable magazine used in the application stated above

Construction of a portable magazine

In the construction of a portable magazine-
(a) the sides, top, bottom and door shall consist of mild steel plate, not less than five
millimetres in thickness.
(b) All joints shall be welded.
(c) the door shall:
i. be constructed of steel plate not less than five millimetres in thickness and lined
with wood or similar non-ferrous material so that no iron or steel is exposed to
the interior of the magazine.
ii. be hung in a substantial steel frame which is securely set in the building
iii. open outwards, and the hinged edge shall be secured when closed by not less
than five internal fixed dog bolts or lugs engaging with the frame.
iv. be locked by means of two or more concealed and protected security dead
locks each fitted with at least five levers or a bolt mechanism with a concealed
and protected dead lock fitted with at least five levers and such door and lock or
bolt mechanism shall be of a design approved by the Chief Inspector
and when closed shall be flush with the side.
(d) the magazine shall be lined throughout with tongued and grooved matchboard or
other similar material not less than fifteen millimetres in thickness secured by brass or
copper screws or nails so that there is an airspace of at least thirty-five millimetres
between the lining and the top, bottom and sides of the magazine.

54
(e) Ventilation shall be provided such that –
(i) on opposite sides of the magazine there shall be not less than four openings.
(ii) these openings shall be twenty-five square centimetres in size.
(iii) covered with fine wire gauze.
(iv) protected on the outside by a weather-proof louvre and the inside by a steel
plate not less than five millimetres thick, set back ten millimetres and overlapping
the opening by twenty-five millimetres all round.
(v) placed one hundred and fifty millimetres above the bottom and one
hundred and fifty millimetres below the top on opposite sides of such magazine.
(vi) the wooden or other lining as in paragraph (d) shall be drilled opposite each
opening with eight holes, ten millimetres in diameter
(f) if the magazine contains a separate chamber for detonators or capped fuses, there
shall be an airspace of not less than two hundred and twenty millimetres between the
chambers and if the door of the chamber for detonators or capped fuses does not exceed
five hundred millimetres in either dimension it may notwithstanding the requirements of
paragraph (c) be secured by one lock and three dog bolts.

Figure 21 - Artist's drawing of portable magazine: Plan (top left), bottom left

55
Control of the magazine
1. A magazine shall be in the charge and under the control of
a. the licensee
b. Or a person who has been appointed in writing for the purpose by the
licensee and is acquainted with the Act and all the relevant regulations made
thereunder.
2. The person shall be responsible for
a. the receipt into, storage within and issue from the magazine of any
explosives and the recording of such receipt, storage and issue.
b. The safe custody of the keys to that magazine and to the safe.
3. Where a person has been appointed to be in charge and control of a magazine,
written notice of his appointment together with his signature of acceptance shall be
posted on the inside of the door of the magazine.

Magazine to be kept locked

1. A magazine in which explosives are stored shall be kept securely locked at all
times other than when explosives are being received into or issued out of the
magazine and the keys thereto shall be kept in the custody of the person who is
in charge of that magazine.
2. The keys of any magazine referred to shall, when not in use, be kept securely
locked in a safe.
3. Duplicates of the keys of any magazine shall be kept by the licensee, securely
locked in a safe, and shall be available in case of emergency or for the purpose
of inspection.

Period of validity of licence

A licence in respect of a portable magazine shall expire on 30th June next following the date
on which the licence takes effect.
A licence in respect of an immovable magazine shall expire on—
i. the 5th anniversary of the date on which the licence takes effect; or
ii. the date when the magazine is no longer used as such; whichever is the sooner.

Restrictions on footwear in the Magazine

56
No person wearing boots or shoes, which allow metal to come into contact with the
concrete floor shall enter an immovable magazine without removing such boots or shoes.
Provided that where magazine over boots are available they may be worn over such boots
or shoes.

Storage of detonators or capped fuses in the magazine

No detonators or capped fuses shall be stored in the same storage compartment of a
magazine with any other explosives other than – safety fuse, igniter cord or an initiator
other than detonating fuse.
Magazine temperatures
A magazine, other than a magazine for the storage of detonators, initiators or capped fuse
only shall be:
o provided with a reliable thermometer showing maximum and minimum
o temperatures and shielded from the sun’s rays or provided with other means
so as to ensure that the temperature inside the magazine does not at any
time exceed 35 degrees Celsius or 95 degrees Fahrenheit
Restrictions on storage in magazines
4. Except with the written permission of the Chief Inspector, which shall state the
conditions under which they may be stored or used: No iron or steel, machinery,
contrivance, device, tool, implement or utensil shall be stored or used inside a
magazine
5. No naked light of any description shall be taken into or used inside a magazine.
6. No person shall smoke at any time within a magazine.
7. No scraps or broken portions of cartridges shall be left lying on the floor of, or in
close proximity to a magazine.
8. A magazine shall be kept free from litter and any inflammable material.

Storage of explosives in quantities less than 6 kg

Where explosives in quantities of less than six kilograms are to be stored in a container, the
container shall –
o be of a construction and design which is approved by an inspector,
o have no iron or steel exposed on the inside or
o fitted with an adequate lock.

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Restrictions of explosive storage in certain areas
Where explosives are stored in a container or portable magazine or on any premises within
the area under the jurisdiction of a local authority, the person storing such explosives shall
inform the local authority in writing of the fact of such storage, his name and calling and
the address of such premises and the period for which the container or portable magazine is
to be kept in or on such premises.

Figure 22 - Lightning conductor earth resistance test form

58
Tampering with magazines, removing explosives without permission
9. Any person who without lawful excuse:
1. breaks, forces or tampers with the lock of a magazine storage box or
container or
2. enters an area enclosed by a fence (referred to in fencing of immovable
magazine) shall be guilty of an offence.
10. No person shall remove any explosives from a magazine or other place where they
are being stored or used or a vehicle in which they are being conveyed without the
permission of the person who is the holder of the licence or permit relating to the
storage or acquisition of such explosives.
11. The holder of a licence or permit relating to the storage of explosives may search any
person who is in, on leaving any magazine or other place where such explosives are
being stored or used or vehicle in which they are being conveyed.
12. The holder of a licence or permit who is in possession of explosives shall record in a
register kept in his magazine a record of all such explosives received into and issued
from that magazine and make the register referred to in (y) available for inspection
by an inspector at all times.
13. An immovable magazine, its mound and a space not less than twenty metres wide
surrounding the mound shall be kept clear of vegetation and, unless an inspector
gives written permission to the contrary, shall be securely fenced in.

Magazine documentation
The following legal books and documents are kept in a conspicuous place in the magazine:
o Magazine register
o Temperature log book
o Lightning conductor test
o Magazine master appointment by the Mine manager

Deterioration of explosives in magazine

a. Whenever any explosive is found to show signs of dampness or exudation or it is
seen or suspected that any explosives have deteriorated, such explosives shall not
be used and shall be separated from other explosives in the magazine and all details
thereof shall forthwith be reported to an inspector.
b. Where the packaging of explosives has become damp or in any other way found so
as to render the transportation or storage of such explosives hazardous, the
explosives shall be repacked in a sound package or slip over bag as directed by an
inspector.
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 c. Explosives in a damaged or deteriorated condition shall not be issued from any
magazine.
d. An inspector may order the destruction of any explosives which he considers to
be unsafe for storage or use and the licensee shall be responsible for such
destruction which shall be carried out by the holder of a blasting license in
accordance with the manager’s written instruction prescribing the manner for such
destruction and no compensation shall be paid for such explosives so destroyed.

Destruction of old explosives

The legal destruction of explosives falls under the Chief Inspector or the Government Mining Engineer.

The Chief Inspector of explosives.

1. Controls the manufacture, storage and transportation of all explosives and their use
on sites not covered by the Mines and Works Act. These explosives must be
destroyed in a manner prescribed by him.
2. No person other than a blaster as defined in the explosives regulations, or a person
specially authorized in writing by an inspector to do so, shall destroy or attempt to
destroy any blasting materials.
3. Explosives shall be destroyed only in a manner previously approved, in writing by an
Inspector and the person carrying out the destruction shall adhere in every detail to
the method so approved.
4. Whenever blasting cartridges in excess of one case (25kg), or 1000 detonators (all
types) or one reel of detonating fuse have to be destroyed for any reason, the
destruction shall not be proceeded with until the circumstances have been reported
to an inspector and his written authority obtained for the destruction.

The Government Mining Engineer.

On sites covered by the Mines and Works Act, once the explosives have been drawn
from the magazine, the Chief Government Engineer, through his Assistants and
Inspectors of Mines, has responsibility for their use and destruction. Explosives shall
be destroyed in a manner laid down by the Mine Manager, by the person he has
appointed in writing. This person must be in possession of a valid blasting license.
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Reasons for destroying explosives
1. No longer needed
2. Deteriorated
3. Subject to excessively long storage
4. Damaged during transportation or storage
5. Unexploded product after blast.

NB: Explosives must never be buried in the ground in the hope that they will breakdown
naturally and be rendered safe by the elements: They can remain in a dangerous condition
for many years after such illegal and dangerous disposal.

METHODS OF DESTRUCTION
(1) Detonation
(2) Burning
(3) Dissolving in Water
Where possible, those accessories whose primary function is to detonate should be
destroyed by detonation, and pyrotechnic accessories should be destroyed by burning.
Attempts to destroy pyrotechnic accessories by detonation are likely to result in burning
debris being scattered over a wide area around the site. The various categories of blasting
accessories are listed in the table below together with the preferred method of destruction.
Table 5 - Appropriate destruction of explosives by type

Blasting accessory Detonation Burning

Detonators- all types Yes No

Detonating fuse Yes Yes

Blasting Gunpowder No Yes

Igniter Cord No Yes

Pentolite Boosters Yes No

Safety Fuse (not capped fuse) No Yes

Nonel + tubing (without detonators attached No Yes

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NB:

o The products listed in the Explosives Regulations as Blasting Explosives must be transported
and stored as such, although detonating fuse in particular is used more as an accessory than
as a primary explosive.
o Only short lengths (< 3metres) of detonating fuse may be destroyed by burning and not
more than 20 per burning bed.
o Detonators on capped fuse must be removed and then the detonators treated separately
from the remaining fuses.
o Nonel tubing on its own is not classified as an explosive. However, once it is connected to a
detonator, or other explosive device, it becomes an explosive and must be disposed of in
the manner prescribed for the attached device.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED

1. The site should be sufficiently far from buildings, public rods, and power lines etc. to
avoid possible damage from shrapnel, ground vibrations and air blast. The site should also
be free from all loose stones and rocks to reduce the chance of Flyrock causing injury or
damage.
2. The site selected must be free of vegetation, so that there is no risk of grass or bush fires.
3. The remaining accessories to be destroyed must be stored far enough from the
destruction site to prevent any possibility of accidental detonation or catching fire.
4. After the destruction the blaster must ensure that the material has been completely
destroyed. If a detonation occurred whilst burning accessories, then a thorough search of
the area must be made for unburnt material.
5. The usual precautions, such as the placing of guards and warnings must be observed. It
should be remembered that certain explosives can detonate.
6. Most pyrotechnic accessories are highly flammable and generate intense heat, flame and
hot gasses, which can be spread out over an unexpectedly large area. Extra care is
especially necessary when gunpowder and igniter cord are burnt, due to their extreme
flammability and rapid burning rate.
7. Do not use same pit for destruction of explosives.

DESTRUCTION BY DETONATION

(For all accessories with detonators attached to them)

Detonator Destruction Procedure

1. The lead wires, safety fuse or Nonel tubing must first be cut off about fifty millimetres from
detonators.
2. A small number of detonators or (up to 100) can be destroyed by tying them in small
bundles using, using elastic bands.
3. Insert a live detonator in the middle
4. The detonator should face downwards when placed in the hole, 0.6m deep
5. Cover with sand
6. Detonate from a safe place.

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NB: Detonators which suspected of being insensitive or are in a poor condition, can be
destroyed by placing the loose detonators in a paper bag, then place two or three fresh primers in a
hole, 0.6m deep pit. Two or three made up primers are placed on top of the detonators and the
charge covered with paper followed by sand to ground level. It is important that the detonators are
below the explosives to avoid any possibility of unexploded detonators being scattered far and
wide.

Inert Wax Primer Destruction Procedure

These are detonators, which have been encased in inert wax and are commonly used in shaft
sinking.

1. Cut leads to fifty millimetres from the detonators and stack it in cardboard box with their
protruding ends pointing upwards.
2. Weigh the primers to five kilograms.
3. Place box in a pit about 0.6m deep.
4. Cover over with fresh blasting cartridges. (Not more than five kgs)
5. Place a piece of paper above primed cartridges.
6. Fill pit with sand.
7. Detonate from a safe distance

Detonating Chord Destruction Procedure

1. A maximum of one reel should be destroyed at any one time. The Cordtex should not be
removed from the reel, which is placed in the bottom of a 0.6 m deep pit.
2. Attach detonator to dry portion of detonating fuse away from any possible insensitive wet
ends.
3. Fill pit with sand.
4. Detonate from a safe distance

Pentolite Boosters Destruction Procedure

These must only be destroyed by detonation and never by burning due to their power and intensity
of detonation. They are treated in the same way as blasting cartridges.

1. Place guards in all access points/roads to the site.

2. Clear the danger area of all personnel
3. Sound the necessary warning (audible device siren) signals for 5 minutes and then detonate
the charge. If initiating with capped fuse, and more than one pit is being detonated, return
only after the required half hour delay following the last blast heard.
4. Detonate the charge from the downwind side.
5. The pit and surrounding area must be examined to ensure that no exploded material or
detonators remain.

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 Table 6 - Advantages and disadvantages of destruction by detonation

DESTRUCTION BY BURNING

This method is preferred for destroying incendiary products such as safety fuse igniter cords and
electric starters.

Preparing The Burning Bed:

1. Make a bed using wood shavings, sawdust and well crumpled newspaper. Wood shavings
are preferred as these burn the best. The bed size should be 200mm wide, 25mm deep and
long enough to accommodate accessories being burnt. It should be aligned parallel to the
wind direction
2. Lay accessories on the bed
3. Sprinkle lighting paraffin (not power paraffin, diesoline or petrol) over whole bed using
watering can 0.5 litres per metre of bed.

Burning Procedure by Type of Explosive

Safety fuse: Cut the safety fuse from the detonators about 50mm from the crimp. The detonators
must be destroyed by detonation. The lengths of fuse are laid out on the burning bed so that they do
not touch each other. The bed is lit in the normal manner

Ignitor cord: This should be left on the reel and burnt on vegetation free ground in quantities not
exceeding one 200m reel at a time. Sufficient igniter cord should be unreeled and lit to allow the
blaster to walk to a safe distance.

Blasting Gunpowder: This burns very quickly and very fiercely. The blasting gunpowder should be
sprinkled evenly over the bed, to a maximum thickness of 6mm, and lit by means of igniter cord or
paper train from a safe distance. Never attempt to ignite directly with a match. Not more than 5 kg
should be burnt at a time in this way.

Electric starters for igniter cord: These should be scattered loosely and individually on the bed in a
single layer.

Blasting cartridges: maximum diameter for burning is thirty-two millimetres. Great diameter would
detonate due to extensive heat of centre.

Water gels and Emulsion explosives: do not burn well, strip from cartridges and mix one part of
explosive to three parts of sawdust. Thinly spread out on bed then sprinkle with paraffin.

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NB: ANFO/ANFEX can be neutralized by dissolving in water (black powder can be dissolved in water
as well)

Old explosive boxes

1. The manager shall provide, convenient to where the sorting takes place, two secure
wooden boxes in which the explosives found, shall be placed, blasting cartridges in one and
detonators in the other.
2. The boxes shall be of robust construction
3. Five hundred millimetres square by six hundred millimetres high, with a lid on top having a
hole of forty-five millimetres in diameter in the centre.
4. Provided with an effective locking arrangement
5. Painted red clearly marked with words indicating the type of explosives to be placed and
kept in them.
6. Every box provided shall be cleared of its contents daily by the holder of a blasting licence
who shall cause immediate destruction on the surface under his supervision of such
contents

End of section questions

Q. What is a contraband box?
Q. What is meant by magazine master?
Q. How would you open a case of explosives in a magazine?
Q. What is meant by weeping explosives?
Q. Why do mounds overlap the entrance to the magazine?
Q. What type of explosives can be stored together?
Q. Why are dates stamped on explosives cartons?

65
Chapter 7: Charging and Blasting
By the end of this section, the reader is expected to be familiar with the following objectives:

o Charging, Blasting and Re-entry procedures

o Charging, Blasting and Re-entry documentation
o Treatment of misfires

Regulations on Charging and Blasting

A holder of a blasting license shall—

a. satisfy himself that before charging any drill hole with explosives such drill hole is clean
b. during any charging operation be responsible for the safety of any person assisting him in
such operations and the removal of all other persons not engaged in assisting him to a safe
place so as to ensure that such persons are not endangered by such operation: Provided that
an official in the course of his duties may remain;
c. charge any holes to be blasted at primary blasting time only within a reasonable time
before blasting and if such charged holes for any reason whatsoever are to be left
unattended before being blasted, cause all entrances to that place where such holes are
situated—
a. (i) to be effectively barricaded with a NO ENTRY sign prominently displayed; or
b. (ii) to be effectively guarded.
d. prepare any charges for secondary blasting only in accordance with these regulations, and
the charges so prepared shall be blasted as soon as possible thereafter and at no time shall
they be left unattended.
e. before firing any charges—
i. give or cause to be given audible warning in every direction;
ii. satisfy himself that no person, other than those required to assist him in firing the
charges, remain where he might be exposed to danger from such firing
iii. take all reasonable precautions to safeguard from accident due to blasting
operations those persons assisting him;
iv. subject to subsection (2), cause all avenues of approach to the place or places
where such charges are to be fired or where the safety of persons may be
endangered by such firing to be effectively guarded so as to prevent access to that
place or those places whilst the charges are being fired.

Where blasting operations at a quarry, trench or other opencast working are being carried out, the
avenues of approach to a place or places referred to in subparagraph (iv) of paragraph (e) of section
shall be deemed not to be effectively guarded for the purpose of that subparagraph unless—

a) a responsible person carrying a red flag is stationed at each such avenue of

approach at a point well beyond the likely range of any flying material to be
projected by the blast; and
b) such person warns persons not to proceed beyond the point referred to in
paragraph (a).

66
(3) Any person who disregards a warning given for the purposes of subparagraph (iv) of paragraph
(e) of subsection (1) or paragraph (b) of subsection (2) shall be guilty of an offence.

ZCDC Charging Procedure

i. On a day on which charging and blasting operations are to be conducted,
communication of the planned charging and blasting operations shall be made to
mine personnel in the manner prescribed in the Blasting Notification and
Clearance Procedure IMS-MIN-SOP-12.
ii. The blasting official shall check the state of the weather and outlook on the day.
Where there are signs of or information on the likelihood of rain on that day, the
blast shall be postponed to a later day. Where, during charging operation, signs of
the likelihood of rain are observed, the blasting official shall stop charging
operation forthwith, disconnect the charged area, barricade the charged zone
through the use of reflective cones, collect remaining explosives and accessories
and return them to the magazine and evacuate self and all persons working within
800m from the charged area out of the blast zone. Through the on-duty Shift Boss
and within 30minutes of his/her knowledge, communication of blast cancellation
and the reason of cancellation shall be made to the Mining Production
Superintendent and all heads of functional department to ensure that other
operations continued guided accordingly.
iii. Charging operation shall be conducted in manner and time such that all charging
activities will be completed, inspected and certified for readiness of blast at least
1 hours prior to the scheduled time of blast.
iv. The blasting official shall proceed to the bench to be charged and conduct the
following
a) Inspect the high walls on bench edges and log the safety status in the
book meant expressly for that purpose. Where there are any safety
concerns noted, measures shall be taken to render the bench safe for
charging operations prior to commencement of any work.
b) Count the number of holes to be charged;
c) Review the charging layout if any or review the drilling layout to check
the depths of the holes to be charged,
d) Inspect drilled holes for cleanliness and compliance to the drilling
layout. Where any deviations to the drilling layout are noted, initiate
corrections prior to charging.
e) Inspect the bench free-face or the bench centre-line for adequacy. The
bench free-face or bench centre-line shall be such that it will enable the
blast to propagate effectively with sufficient expansion space.

67
 f) Quantify the amount of explosive and accessories needed for the
charging operation and proceed to order the explosives and accessories
needed.
g) Generate a deviation for the authorization of withdrawal and
transportation of explosives and accessories from the magazine to the
charging. The deviation shall be authorized by the Security Manager
and the Mine Manager or any person standing in their capacity prior to
withdrawal of explosives and accessories.

v. The blasting official shall proceed and test the blasting siren prior to collection of
explosives and accessories. The test shall be through one short ring of the siren to
confirm its working status. No explosives shall be collected for charging operations
when the blasting siren is found to be not functional. The blasting siren test shall
be conducted before 0915hrs.
vi. The blasting official shall inspect the blasting vehicle for fitness of use as guided by
the Explosives Transportation/Blasting Vehicle Checklist IMS-MIN-SOP-09-F01.
Where that vehicle is found to be non-compliant, the blasting official shall
implement ‘Stop and fix’ or seek for vehicle replacement.
vii. The blasting official shall task the charging assistant(s) to collect ‘CHARGING IN-
PROGRESS’ signs, ‘DANGER EXPLOSIVES’ signs, Red cons and a contraband box
and have the above items posted as below;

1. CHARGING IN-PROGRESS sign – shall be posted 50m away from the

bench on all access leading to the bench. Care shall be made to ensure that
the sign(s) are not be damaged by other equipment using the access way.
2. DANGER EXPLOSIVE sign – shall be posted on conspicuous points at
least 2m away from bench boundary holes to be charged. At least 1 sign
shall be available per bench.
3. Red Cones – shall be placed around the bench in a manner defining the
boundary of the bench to be charged.
4. Contraband box – shall be placed at least 50m away from the outside
perimeter of the bench at a point visible to men working on the bench. Care
shall be taken to ensure that the box is not placed in harm’s way owing to
other operations close to the charging area. All persons proceeding within
50m of the bench during charging operations or after the bench is charged
shall deposit all contrabands in their possession in the contraband box.

viii. The blasting official shall collect magazine keys from security and in the company
of a security detail proceed to the magazine, collect and convey the explosives and

68
 accessories in the manner prescribed in the Transportation of Explosives
Procedure IMS-MIN-SOP-09 to the bench to be charged.
ix. On the bench to be charged, the blasting official shall stop all operations with 50m
from the area to be charged that are not directly linked to the charging operations
and have all equipment and personnel not directly linked to the charging
operations cleared outside the 50m radius from the bench.
x. The blasting official shall supervise preparation primers and priming of drilled
holes for charging by charging assistants which shall be done in the manner
outlined below;

a. where boosters are used;

the in-hole detonator on the shock tube or fuse shall be
carefully inserted through the booster top hole and back into the
bottom hole until the detonator is not visible. This assembly will
make constitute a booster primer.
The primer shall then be steadily lowered to the bottom
of drilled hole and held in position with the lowered length of the
shocktube free from kinks. Care shall be taken to prevent drill hole
sidewalls collapse during this process.

b. Where cartridge explosives are used;

Where there is need to cut the cartridge to smaller sizes, a sharp knife
made of non-ferrous material shall be used. No piece smaller than
15cm in length shall be used for priming.
A hole shall be pricked in the middle of the cartridge and the in-hole
detonator on the shock tube or fuse shall be carefully and fully inserted
into the cartridge through the hole made.
The shock tube or fuse shall then be wound around the cartridge such
that the detonator remains securely within the cartridge.
The primer shall then be steadily lowered to the bottom of drilled hole
and held in position with the lowered length of the shocktube free from
kinks. Care shall be taken to prevent drill hole sidewalls collapse during
this process.
A charging stick of adequate length shall then be used to press home
to the hole bottom the primer.

xii. Where emulsion explosives are to be used, priming shall be done in the
manner prescribed in the Emulsion Charging procedure.

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 xiii. Where a detonating cord is to be used in place of shock tube detonators or
capped fuses, the detonator end shall be considered as the in-hole
detonator with the primer preparation and priming process done as in
9.1.9.1.

xi. The blasting official shall supervise column charging of primed holes by charging assistants
which shall be done in the manner outlined below;
1. The column charge shall be either Emulsion explosives, Ammonium nitrate
blasting agent or blasting cartridges.
2. The length of the primed hole to be charged shall be as on the charging layout.
Where no charging layout is available, the length of the primed hole to be charged
shall be as directed by the blasting official. The blasting official shall use the length
to be charged to determine the amount of explosive to be used per hole.
3. Where emulsion explosives are to be used for column charging, column charging
shall be in the manner prescribed by the Emulsion Charging procedure.
4. Where Ammonium nitrate blasting agent (ANBA) is used as column charge,
charging shall be as outlined below;
A. Where pre-mixed ANBA is used, the determined amount of ANBA
needed per hole shall be steadily poured into the primed hole while the
shocktube is held straight and firm to prevent kinking.
B. Where site-mixed ANBA is used, care should be taken to ensure that
the mixing rations of Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil (Diesel) are 94.5% :
5.5%. The determined amount of site-mixed ANBA needed per hole shall
be steadily poured into the primed hole while the shocktube is held
straight and firm to prevent kinking.
5. Where Blasting cartridges are used as column charge, charging shall be as outlined
below;

The shock tube or fuse or detonating cord shall be held straight, and firm and lengths
of blasting cartridges inserted individually into the holes and allowed to drop to the
bottoms of the hole.
The column charge within 2m from the hole collar shall then pressed home by means
of a charging stick of adequate length one-after-the-other.

xii. Upon completion of column charging, the blasting supervisor shall inspect the charged
holes for adequacy of charge and initiate necessary corrections where variations are noted.

xiv. Where the column charge is found to be adequate, the blasting official shall then
instruct charging assistant to conduct hole stemming of all charged holes using

70
 approved stemming material. All holes shall be stemmed to the hole collar. Care shall
be taken to prevent shock tube or fuse or detonating cord cut-offs during stemming.
xv. On completion of charged holes stemming, the blasting official shall with the assistance
of charging assistants connect blasting accessories for charged hole timing as directed
by the charging layout. Where no charging layout is available, a closed V-pattern shall
be used. Other timing patterns shall be employed only after instruction and/or
authorization by the Mining Production Superintendent in writing.
xvi. The blasting official shall inspect the timing of all holes and satisfy self that the timing
has been done adequately and correctly before connecting the round-up for blasting.
xvii. The blasting official shall assign at least one valid blasting license holder to stand
guard on the charged bench and await bench lighting-up for blasting.

ZCDC Blasting procedure

i. Primary blasting shall be conducted between the hours of day time unless with written
consent of an inspector of mines. On the day of the blast, the scheduled time of blast
shall be posted on blasting notice boards. No blasting operations shall take places
within 3hours of posting of the scheduled time of blast.
ii. Primary blasting shall progress guided by and with reference Blasting Checklist IMS-
MIN-SOP-11 F01.
iii. The blasting official shall visit all active working areas within the blasting zones and
stop all operations at least 30 minutes before the scheduled time of blast and advise
the persons on areas to evacuate to for the blast. No person shall evacuate self or advise
others to evacuate to any area other than the area advised by the blasting official.
iv. It shall be the responsibility of the functional section head or any person acting in their
capacity to ensure that all persons working under their charge evacuate to specified
evacuation areas outside the blasting zone at least 15 minutes prior to the scheduled
time of blast.
v. The blasting official shall assign persons to assist him/her in checking for, as far as
practical, presence of any stray animals within the blasting zone. No blasting
operations shall take place prior to removal of any identified animal out of the blasting
zone.
vi. The blasting official shall post blasting guards at all avenues leading into the blasting
zone in the manner outlined below;

a. Place each blasting guard in the position he/she is to guard;

b. Instruct the blasting guard not to leave such position until instructed to do
so by the blasting official.
c. Instruct the blasting guard not to permit any person to proceed beyond the
guard point for any reason;
d. Where practical, to count the number of shots that explodes.

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 vii. The blasting official shall proceed to sound the blasting siren at least 15 minutes prior
to scheduled blasting time. The siren shall remain sounding until such a time that the
blasting official has satisfied self that the blast went on well and/or any necessary
precautions has been taken to prevent harm to persons and/or equipment that might
have risen following the taken blast.
viii. The blasting official shall conduct clearance of the blasting zone in the manner
prescribed in the Blasting Notification and Clearance Procedure IMS-MIN-SOP-12. No
blasting operation shall proceed if the requirements of the Blasting Notification and
Clearance Procedure IMS-MIN-SOP-12 have not been observed fully.
ix. The blasting official shall visit all points where guards have been posted to confirm that
the have been no breaches.
x. Once satisfied that the blasting zone has been effectively cleared, the blasting official
shall collect the Blasting token book and make entries therein as guided by the Blasting
Token Book IMS-MIN-SOP-12 F02 and submit it to the on-duty Shift Boss for signing and
authorization for blasting. The Shift Boss shall only authorize the blast with reference
to the Blasting Checklist.
xi. Where the blast is to be conducted by manual lighting-up of an ignitor cord, the blasting
official shall in the company of 2 blasting vehicles proceed to the bench and conduct the
following
a. Park the 2 blasting vehicles at least 50m from the bench. Both vehicles shall be
turned to face the escape direction and maintained running.
b. Proceed to the bench and connect accessories for lighting-up of the charge.
c. With the assistance of the valid blasting license holder who was standing guard of
the bench, light-up the charge and retreat from the lighted bench in the blasting
vehicle to a safe point outside the blasting zone. Where practical, the safe shall be
where the blast can be seen go off.
xii. Where more than a single charge was lit up independently, the blasting official shall
count the number of individual shots that go off. No one shall return into the blasting
zone until all shots have been heard explode.
xiii. Upon satisfying self that all shots went off, the blasting official shall conduct re-entry
into the blasted area(s) in the manner prescribed in the Re-entry Procedure IMS-MIN-
SOP-03
xiv. Where misfired holes are observed during re-entry, the blasting official shall proceed in
the manner prescribed in the Re-entry Procedure IMS-MIN-SOP-03 and where
authority has been granted to blast the misfired holes conduct the blasting of misfired
holes as outlined below;

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 a. Expose all misfired holes as far as practical by manual means,
b. Collect explosives accessories adequate to connect the exposed misfires and
connect the misfired holes in a timing manner that fosters an effective blast.
c. Observe section 9.2.11

xv. Upon satisfying self that all necessary precautions have been taken to prevent harm to
persons and/or equipment from exposure to hazard and associated risks that might
have risen owing to blasting operations, the blasting official shall proceed;
a. Switch off the blasting siren,
b. Visit all guard points and relieve all blasting guards of their duties.

xvi. The blasting official shall then proceed to return all explosives and accessories that may
have been left during charging and blasting operations to the magazine and log the
returns in the Magazine Explosives record books.
xvii. The blasting official shall complete the blasting checklist in full and submit it to the Shift
Boss for review and signing.
xviii. The blasting official shall generate a blasting report on a Blasting Report form IMS-MIN-
SOP-11 F02 and submit the form for review and signing to the Shift Boss.

Re-entry regulations (MMSR)

1. Where re-entry is after a primary blast, the miner in charge or a competent
person shall ensure that the area is safe from noxious fumes and potential falls of
ground before any person is allowed into such an area.
2. Where re-entry is after secondary blasting, the person who initiated such
secondary blasting shall carry out a re-entry.
3. Where blasting has not taken place and the area is not affected by blasting fumes
a re-entry shall be carried out by—
a. a blasting licence holder; or
b. a miner in charge; or
c. an official who holds a blasting licence

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 Figure 23 - Blasting notification form

ZCDC re-entry procedure

Prohibitions
o No person shall enter the blast zone unless permitted to do so by guard posted by
the blasting official.
o No person shall be permitted into the blasting zone before the lapse of 15 minutes
from the time the last shot went off.
o No person shall permit any person to access the blasting zone for the purpose of
conducting re-entry while the atmosphere around him still contains gases, dust or
fumes perceptible by eyes.
o No re-entry operations shall be conducted in the absence of a competent assistant.
o No blasting guard shall leave his/her post without being advised to do so by the
blasting official.

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Procedure (Re-entry after blast)
1. A re-entry time interval of 15 minutes shall be observed before any person can enter the
blast zone for purposes of inspecting the blast and making safe the area after primary or
main blasting. If after the lapse of the stipulated re-entry time the atmosphere around the
blast zone still contains gases, dust or fumes perceptible by eyes, re-entry shall no progress
up until such a time the atmosphere has cleared.
2. After the lapsing of the re-entry time, a blasting official in the company of competent
assistant(s) shall proceed to the blast area in the blasting vehicle to inspect the blasted
area(s) and make safe the area(s) for men to work thereon and thereat.
3. The blasting official shall inspect the blast zone and check the access to the pit, the pit
walls and nearby infrastructure for any damages.
4. The blasting official shall do a blasted bench/area walk-around, visually inspecting the
area for any misfired explosives and holes. In the event of a misfire, the blasting official
shall:
a. Notify the on-duty Shift Boss or any person appointed to act in his/her capacity
and agree on the manner to proceed (whether treatment of the misfire or
barricading-off of the misfired areas). The Shift Boss shall then notify and seek
authority on the manner to proceed from the Mining Production Superintendent or
any person acting in his capacity,
i. Where authority is granted to treat the misfire, the blasting official shall proceed
connect and blast the misfired holes in the manner outlined in the Charging and
Primary Blasting Procedure IMS-MIN-SOP-11, and after which conduct re-entry as per
requirement of section
ii. Where authority is grated to barricade the misfired area, the blasting official shall,
1. Use red reflective cone or re-and-white chevron tape to establish a
barricade around the misfired area. The barricade shall be such that at
least a 2m space is maintained in between the established barricade and
misfired holes along the outside perimeter of the misfired area.
2. Post a competent person to guard the misfired zone until such time
the guard has been relieved of his duties.
3. Advise the oncoming shift of the misfire and instruct them to maintain
the misfired area guarded by a competent person to as to prevent any
person(s) from tampering with explosives. The misfired are shall remain
guarded until such time the misfired is treated by blasting.
5. Where unexploded explosives are observed scattered on the blasted bench, collect all
explosives and accessories separately and deposit them into separate old explosives boxes
for destruction later in the manner prescribed in the Explosives Regulations.

75
6. Where any unsafe condition which might have developed owing to the blasting
operations is observed, the blasting official shall where practical, barricade that affected
area using a red-and-white chevron tape and advise the shift boss of this development.
The shift boss shall, if it is within his capacity, take such reasonable steps to make the
affected area safe else report the issue to the Mining Production Superintendent for
further management.
6. Upon satisfying self that the blast went well and that no hazards and/or risk have risen
owing to the blast, the blasting official shall log in the Re-entry log book in the manner
prescribed on the Re-entry Log Book IMS-MIN-SOP-03 F01 declaring the blast zone safe for
men to return into for any purpose and proceed to switch off the blasting siren. He/she
shall then personally proceed to all guard point to relieve all his/her blasting guards of their
duties and authorize them to permit any person to gain assess into or via the blasting zone
for any purpose.

Procedure (re-entry into any working area, not after blasting)

i. The Supervisor responsible shall proceed to the all sites of work under his/her
charge first, in the company of a competent assistant and conduct checks on but
not limited to the following;
a. State of access roads leading to the working area;
b. State of services installations of route to the working area (water pipes,
electricity lines and cabling)
c. State of pits (flooded or not)
d. State of pit high walls,
e. State of ramps leading into pits,
f. State of waste dumps
ii. If any unsafe condition pertaining the above is observed, the supervisor shall take
any reasonable steps to correct or have the unsafe condition corrected by the
responsible authorities.
iii. Upon satisfying self that all the work places are safe for men to work therein, the
supervisor shall then log in the Re-entry log book declaring the work site safe for
men to work thereon and/or thereat.

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Misfired Holes regulations
Approaching misfired charges
No person shall approach or cause or permit a person to approach a charge which has
misfired until at least half an hour has elapsed from the time of lighting of the fuse:
Provided that where the charge is fired by an electric detonator, a person may approach the
charge after at least ten minutes if the conducting wires have been disconnected and made
safe.
Drilling in vicinity of misfired holes
No person shall drill or cause or permit to be drilled any hole in any shaft, drive, cross cut,
winze, raise or other similar confined space where there is a misfired hole or hole
containing explosives until:
i. such hole has again been blasted; or
ii. the explosives have been extracted as provided for in these regulations.
No person shall drill or cause to be drilled any hole, within 2 metres of any misfired hole or
holes containing explosives.
Deepening of holes or sockets prohibited
No person shall deepen or bore into—
i. a misfired hole; or
ii. a socket or other hole which has contained explosives:
Provided that a hole which—
1. is not finished at the end of a shift; and
2. has not been charged with explosives; and
3. has been clearly described by the blasting licence holder in
charge of the shift leaving off work to the blasting licence
holder in charge of the shift about to commence work;
may be deepened

On use of sockets and misfired holes

No person shall deepen or bore into a misfired hole or cause or permit to be inserted, an
anchor – bolt or other metal implement, other than a scraper or blow pipe approved by an
inspector.

77
 ○ A misfired hole shall be effectively plugged with a wooden or concrete plug
provided that an inspector may if he considers that the working conditions permit,
approve the use of a plug of another material.
○ In raises of an inclination of more than 450 a socket, which cannot be plugged, shall
be clearly ringed with red chalk, paint or other suitable marking material to show
that it is a misfired hole.
○ Examine every socket whether finished or unfinished to ascertain its depth,
direction and cleanliness.
○ No person shall drill or permitted to drill any hole adjacent to a misfired hole unless
such hole is placed more than two metres away from the misfired hole.
○ No person shall remove or attempt to remove the plug with which a misfired hole
has been plugged without the permission of the holder of a blasting licence.

Extraction of Explosives from Misfired Holes

○ No person shall extract or attempt to extract explosives from a hole that has been
charged unless he is the holder of a blasting license.
○ The holder of a blasting license extracts explosives from a hole that has been charged
he shall do so by means of water or compressed air and water applied through a
blowpipe.
○ Any explosives extracted from a misfired hole or recovered from broken ground shall
be placed by the holder of a blasting license in an appropriate box provided for the
purpose by the manager.
○ No explosives extracted from misfired holes or recovered from broken ground shall
be used in charging any hole.
○ In the case of a misfire in which an electric detonator has been used other than in
shaft sinking where the hole has been bottom-primed with an inert inverted wax
primer electric detonator. The hole shall be re-primed and re-blasted.
○ No person shall approach or cause or permit a person to approach a charge, which has
misfired until at least thirty minutes has elapsed from the time of lighting of the fuse.
○ Where the charge is fired by an electric detonator, a person may approach the charge
after at least fifteen minutes if the conducting wires have been disconnected and
made safe.

End of section questions

Q. What is re-entry?
Q. What is the purpose of having a re-entry time after blasting?
Q. What do you know about storm warning in a quarry?
Q. What is the purpose of a blasting notification?

78
Chapter 8: Gasses
By the end of this section the reader must be familiar with the six common gasses, which
are encountered in most mining operations namely; Carbon dioxide, Carbon Monoxide,
Nitrous Fumes, Hydrogen Sulphide, Ammonia, Methane and the corresponding:

o Sources
o Maximum permissible quantities (MPQ)
o Specific gravity
o Chemical composition
o Chemical properties
o Physical properties
o Testing for the gas
o Dispersal
o Physiological effects

The following are the key characteristics that must be known for the 6 gasses:
1. Source - origin or formulation of gas
2. Maximum permissible quantities - permissible quantities of gas in the general
body of air (Parts per million of air by volume) where persons are to work or travel
under normal working conditions.
3. Specific gravity - the gasses’ heaviness or lightness relative to air.
4. Chemical composition: - Components that comprise the gas
5. Chemical property: - how the gas reacts with other gasses.
6. Physical property: - Human detection through five senses.
7. Testing/ Detection: - use of instruments to measure the exact quantities.
8. Physiological effects: - effects on the human metabolism.
9. Dispersal: - means of getting rid of the gas.

Table 7 - Chemical and Physical properties

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Poisonous Density
Toxicity Colour
Combustibility Odour
Inflammable Taste
Solubility

79
The 6 common gasses in mining operations
CARBON DIOXIDE

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS.
The gas is referred to as miner’ friend because it gives warning. The affected man may have
the following signs and symptoms:

o Headache
o Palpitation and gasping (deep breathing)
o Foaming and tongue out
o Dizziness
o Unconsciousness
o Suffocation (man can die from lack of oxygen

80
 CARBON MONOXIDE

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

○ Extremely poisonous – it attacks the limbs and makes man unable to walk.
○ CO has a great affinity for haemoglobin in the blood it displaces oxygen resulting in
death. It absorbs CO 300 times more than oxygen, then it forms a compound called
Carboxy-haemoglobin.
○ The gas has a cumulative effect.
○ A dead gassed person will turn pale and shows signs of muscular strains.

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 NITROUS FUMES

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

○ This gas has a delayed action.

○ It causes Irritations of the nose, eyes and throat.
○ More exposure to the gas result in headache, chest pains and coughing.
○ The person may feel all right upon exposure to fresh air, but might develop
inflammatory dropsy of the lungs, which will result in spitting of bloodstain septum
and may drown in his own fluid within 48 hrs.

The lungs are moist when nitrous are inhaled. They react with this moisture to produce an acidic
solution. This acidic solution acts on the lung tissues to cause blisters, which will, with time burst and
flood the lungs, a condition commonly known as pulmonary oedema. The danger part of the gas is
the delayed action. Gassed persons must remain under observation for 48 hrs at the hospital.

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 AMMONIA

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

○ Irritations in the eyes, nose, throat

○ It causes chest pains
○ Dissolves upon contact with moisture in the lungs, forming blisters on the lungs and
flooding of lungs
○ Gassed persons must remain under medical observations for 48 hrs at the hospital.

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 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

o It causes irritation of eyes, nose and throat.

o The person may experience headache and chest pains.
o The gas damages the lungs too.
o At 0.15% it kills the sense of smell.
o It has more or less the same effects with CO because it unites with the alkali in the
blood and attack the nervous system.
o It has a delayed action and gassed person must be detained to hospital for 48 hrs.

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 METHANE

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
The affected man may have the following signs and symptoms:

o Head ache, Palpitation and gasping (deep breathing)

o Foaming and tongue out
o Dizziness and unconsciousness
o The gassed person may suffocate and eventually die from lack of oxygen.

85
Factors Affecting Rate of Gassing
o The concentration of the gas.
o Rate of doing work
o Time of exposure
o Human Physiology

Action Required On Suspected Gassing Cases

If at any time a blasting license holder becomes aware of the fact that a person has been
exposed to conditions arising from excessive amounts of harmful smoke, gas, fumes or dust
or from harmful temperatures, he shall:
o Take such steps as may be necessary as may be necessary immediately to remove
such person from such exposure; and
o Ensure that the appropriate official or the manager is informed without delay of
the circumstances of such exposure.

Any official or manager receiving information of any person’s exposure to conditions

referred to above shall immediately take all further steps necessary to –
o Ensure the safety and health of that person and of any other person who may
subsequently be so exposed; and
o Terminate and prevent the recurrence of such conditions.

Any action or steps taken shall be recorded in ink in the book, which shall at all times be
available for inspection by an inspector.

Drager tester
USE: is used to determine the amount of gas present in the air in ppm.
PRINCIPLE: a bellow is used to suck air thru the detector tube broken on both
ends. Different tubes are used for different gases.
HOW TO USE:
Test the bellows by inserting an unbroken tube into squeezed bellows. The bellows should
remain deflated.
Break off both ends of the detector tube and insert the tube with the arrow on the detector
tube facing the bellows.
For 1 pump read on N=1 scale
For 10 pumps read on N=10 scale

86
Auer tester
GAS TESTING USING AUER TESTER AND DETECTOR TUBES
Pre-test
Before commencing any tests the following checks should be undertaken.
o Check that the correct tube is being used for the gas test required.
o Ensure that the correct tube is being used for the gas test required.
o Check the number of pumps required for the test tube.
Auer Tester
o To ensure that the Auer tester is in good working order, take an unopened tube,
squeeze the tester bellows and hold in this position.
o Insert the tube into the pump head.
o Release the bellows, it should not inflate if it is in good working order.

Testing
Every test will be recorded in a book to be kept by the overseer miner. Person conducting
the test will record in the book the following:
o Place of test e.g.; 9L 9E37 x/c N peg Sh2164 + 15m N.
o Time and date of test.
o Number of test tubes and gases being tested.
o Number of pumps.
o The gas concentration reading from the tester.

End of section questions

Q. State the six common gasses encountered in mining operations
For each of the gases stated:
Q. Is the gas lighter or heavier than air?

Q. What are some of its properties?

Q. What is the effect of the gas on a person?

Q. How do you test for the presence of the gas?
Q. What is the permissible quantity?
Q. Which is the most dangerous of the six?

87
Chapter 9: Equipment
By the end of this section, the reader should be familiar with:

o The major components and safety devices of drilling, loading, hauling and mine service
equipment
o Commissioning of mobile equipment
o Delivery and storage of diesel
o The function of catalytic converters and scrubber boxes

Major components and safety devices

Drilling equipment
Drill rig major components

Figure 24 - Drill rig Main components

1 - The Operator’s cabin

2 - The Engine
3 - The extendable boom system
4 - The rotary head
5 - The feed beam and feed motor
6 - The compressor
7 - The Rod handling system
8 - The Dust collecting system
9 - The undercarriage

88
Safety devices
○ Rear view mirrors, camera and monitor
○ Fire extinguishers
○ Boom lights
○ Guard rails
○ A retractable rear Jack
○ Vibration dampers on the cabin
○ An inclination indicator
○ Air conditioning system
○ Hand brakes
○ Operator’s Cabin with a screen guard
○ Horn
○ Reverse alarm
○ Master switch

Loading equipment
Excavator major components

Figure 25-Excavator main components

1 – The Operator’s Cab

2 – The Engine
3 and 4 – The Boom and Stick
5 – The bucket
6 – The slewing ring
7 – The undercarriage
8 – The hydraulic system

89
Safety devices
The excavators at the ZCDC are equipped with the following safety devices:
o Mirrors
o Boom lights
o Beacon lights
o Steel cage over the operator cab
o Belly plates
o Kill switch
o Guard rails
o Mounted Fire extinguishers in a conspicuous place
o Air conditioning systems
o Inclination indicators
o Horn
o Reverse alarm

Hauling equipment
Dump-truck main components

Figure 26 - Rigid Dump-truck main components

1 – The operator’s cabin

2 – The engine
3 – Hydraulic controlled bin/ dump body
4 – Suspension and Tyres

90
Safety devices
o Brakes and retarders
o Cruise control lever
o Fire extinguishers
o Lights
o Tonnage indicator lights
o Guard rails
o Camera and monitor
o Air conditioning system
o Lightning detector system
o Horn
o Reverse alarm
o Choke block

Mine service equipment

Figure 27 - Water bowser main components

Water bowser main components

1 – Operator’s cabin
2 – Engine
3 – Tank
4 – Sprinkler system
5 – Suspensions and wheels

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Safety devices

o Brakes and retarders

o Cruise control lever
o Fire extinguishers
o Lights
o Tonnage indicator lights
o Guard rails
o Air conditioning system
o Horn
o Reverse alarm
o Choke block

Figure 28 - Grader main components

Grader main components

1 – Operator’s cabin
2 – Engine
3 – Blades
4 – Frame
5 – Suspensions and wheels

Safety devices

o Brakes and retarders

o Fire extinguishers
o Lights
o Air conditioning system
o Horn
o Reverse alarm
o Choke block
o Master switch
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 Figure 29 - Compactor main components

Compactor main components

1 – Operator’s cabin
2 – Engine
3 – Roller
4 – Suspensions and wheels

Safety devices

o View mirror
o Reverse alarm
o Fire extinguisher
o Chock block
o Lights
o Master switch
o Vibration dampers

Figure 30 - Wheel dozer major components

93
Wheel dozer (FEL) main components

1 – Engine
2 – Operator’s Cabin
3 – Hydraulic controlled arms with Blade (or bucket)
4 – Tyres and Suspension

Safety devices

o Brakes and retarders

o Fire extinguishers
o Lights
o Tonnage indicator
o Guard rails and steps
o Air conditioning system
o Horn
o Reverse alarm
o Choke block

Commissioning of mobile equipment=

The commissioning of mobile equipment is a task carried out for every new piece of
equipment or for equipment that has been lying idle that must be reintroduced into the
mining operations. The commissioning of mobile equipment is led by a SHEQ representative
and requires the approval of the SHEQ and Engineering managers.

94
Figure 31 - Equipment release form for mobile equipment

95
Delivery and Storage of Diesel
o Diesel shall be delivered underground in such a manner that no spillage can take place
during delivery.
o The pipes must be drained each time after use.
o Diesel shall be stored only in robust closed containers, which do not leak.
o Diesel stored underground shall not exceed the estimated consumption for three
days, except with the written permission of an inspector.

Refuelling of Diesel – Powered Units

The filling station where diesel – powered units are fuelled shall –
o Be adequately ventilated
o Be constructed of non-inflammable materials and have an impervious concrete floor,
which shall at all times be kept clean.
o Equipment for extinguishing fire shall be kept at every place where diesel engine are
fuelled and every diesel mobile unit used underground shall be equipped with suitable
and adequate means for extinguishing fires.
o Be of sufficient design to permit free movement of vehicles and persons.
o Be provided with safe and suitable facilities for inspection the unit from below.
o Be Provided with equipment for extinguishing fire
o Be Keep free from spillage and waste materials

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (ICES)

REQUIREMENTS:
No internal combustion engine, other than a mobile diesel engine unit, shall be used
underground in any mine. unless;
1. There is sufficient ventilation to render harmless the exhaust gases produced;
2. It is an approved design and construction.
3. Its use has been permitted in writing by the Chief Government Mining Engineer.
4. It is used in accordance with such conditions and subject to such restrictions as
the CGME specify in writing.

96
Every diesel engine used underground shall be provided with means whereby the air entering
the engine is cleaned, the exhaust gases before being expelled are cooled, the concentration
of toxic gases in the exhaust gases reduced and the emission of flames or sparks prevented,
and those means shall be maintained in an effective condition. Gas sampling shall be taken
at;
1. intervals not exceeding one month, of the general body of the air, while the engine
is running, at representative places and at times laid by the manager. CO – 100
PPM and NOx – 5 PPM
2. intervals not exceeding three months, of gas emitted from the exhaust of the
machine, both when the engine is developing maximum power and when it is
idling. CO – 2000 PPM and NO x–1000 PPM.
3. The operation of a diesel engine shall be discontinued until conditions have been
remedied if ventilation is poor (gases exceeds maximum permissible quantities)
and the engine is found to have any defect, which may cause danger to persons.
The engine of a diesel-powered unit underground shall not be kept running idle except while
being tested or during brief halts while in use. Where a diesel engine other than a mobile
diesel engine is required to be used underground in a mine, it shall only be used with the
written permission of the CMGE and under such terms and conditions as the CMGE may
stipulate.

Catalytic converter
Function
The catalytic converter is a device that was implemented in the 1970s as a means of reducing
the impact of Internal combustion engines on the environment by reducing the amount of
toxic gases in exhaust emissions. The device is fitted to the last part of the exhaust and has a
structure as shown in the diagram.
Mode of action/ mechanism
The Vanadium plates inside the catalytic converter act as a catalyst for the conversion of:
o Carbon monoxide to Carbon dioxide (Oxidation)
o Nitric oxides to Nitrogen (Reduction)
o Hydrocarbons

97
NB: The Catalytic converter works best when the exhaust temperatures (188-260) are 200
degrees or higher.

Figure 32 - cross section through a catalytic converter

Scrubber box
Function
The scrubber box is an air pollution control device that works to cool down exhaust gases,
remove sparks and flames, and reduce the ratios of soluble gases (CO2, SO2 etc.)
before exhaust gases are released into the atmosphere.

Figure 33 - cross section through a scrubber box

NB: A Turbo- charger with an inter cooler can be used in place of a catalytic converter or
scrubber box.

98
Chapter 8: Documentation and legal
By the end of this section, the reader must be familiar with:

o The legal books and documents used in the mining operations at the ZCDC
o Responsibilities of a mine manager

Legal books
1. Mine management and safety regulations
2. Explosives regulations
3. Safety complains book
4. Accident record book
5. Machinery record book
6. Magazine log book
7. Magazine temperature record book
8. Blasting token book
9. Miner’s log book
10. Employee register
11. Appointment of miner’s log book
12. Accident register
13. Visitors log book

Legal documents
1. Manager’s certificate of appointment
2. Magazine master’s letter of appointment
3. Licence to store explosives
4. Licence to manufacture explosives
5. Permit to purchase, acquire and possess explosives
6. Blasting notification

99
Chapter 10: Past and typical MBL Questions
Past Questions:
Q. If you, as the blasting licence holder at the ZCDC, were to be told that ZCDC explosives
were found at Bambazonke by the community security team. What procedure would you
follow to recover the explosives to the mine?
A. Trick question. The magazine is kept locked at all times so it is near impossible to steal
explosives from the magazine. No explosives can be stolen during conveyance because they
are transported in locked compartments in the transportation vehicle.

Q. If an excavator operator were to load material containing a misfire into a dump truck
and you as the blasting license holder were called to correct the error, what procedure
would you follow to remove the material containing the misfire from the dump truck?
A. Trick question. It is not possible to load and haul material containing misfired holes as the
material has not been blasted.

Q. You are charging holes at Chikwarukwaru, and a lion approaches whilst you are
charging. What procedure would you follow?
A. Trick question. It is unlikely to find a Lion in such an area because before a mine is
established all game and the other occupants of the area are relocated to other areas e.g.
ZCDC relocated the local people to Arda Transau.

Q. Why is the Maximum permissible quantity of carbon dioxide so high (at 5000ppm)?
A. Carbon dioxide is relatively harmless and is encountered in day to day activities in
exhaled breadth

Q. State any 2 dangerous gases that you know? Specify the body parts that they affect in
humans?
A. Carbon monoxide – Brain (Blood is unable to carry oxygen to the brain), Nitrous fumes –
Lungs (Pulmonary oedema)

Q. Draw a schematic diagram showing the:

o Conveyance of explosives from magazine to bench
o Conveyance of ore to crushing point at the ZCDC

100
Q) What do you test for on a lightning conductor?

Resistance

Q. What is the difference between a 6d and an 8d detonator?

A. An 8d detonator has a larger base charge than a 6d detonator while an 8d detonator has
got 0.78g PETN while a 6d detonator contains 0.35g PETN. An 8d detonator is used for
initiating the less sensitive Anfex while a 6d detonator is used for initiating N.G based
explosives.

Q. What would you do if you were exposed to Nitrous Fumes?

A. Immediately report and be admitted to hospital for 48 hours for observation. Medical
treatment is available to “dry up” excess fluids
Q. When does an explosive become a hazard?
A. As soon as it interacts with an incompetent person

Test yourself 1
1. Tell us your brief mining history
2. What are the requirements for one to get a mine blasting licence?
3. Tell us the effects of an MBL.
4. List six common gases that are encountered in mining and their corresponding SGs and
MPQ.
5. Give us the sources of CO2
6. What crucial information should be known about the gases encountered in mines?
7. Which gas is the most dangerous among the common gases, explain in detail what you
know about it?
8. Detail the physiological effects of NXOY.
9. List 10 sources of gases.
10. How do you test the functionality of an Auer gas tester?
11. Which gas is found at battery bays?
12. Explain in detail what you know about H2S
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13. List the factors that affect rate of gassing.
14. List the gases which are associated with the delayed effect
15. What is a competent person?
16. What is required of a refuelling station?
17. Tell us all that you know about delivery and storage of diesel.
18. What is your procedure when you want to commission MOBILE machine?
19. What is the size of the fire extinguishers that are found in dump trucks?

Test yourself 2
1. Draw a typical bench and show your pattern & the timing sequence when using:
a. Shock tubes
b. Detonating cord
2. What are the advantages of using shock tubes over detonating cord?
3. How would you transport explosives from Intrachem Harare to ZCDC mine?
4. Tell us in detail what you know about the types of explosives that are used at
ZCDC.
5. List the 7 classes of explosives and give their corresponding examples
6. What is a misfire?
7. List at least 6 safety devices found on:
a. An excavator
b. A dump truck
c. A track dozer
8. Give a detailed description of a portable magazine.
9. How do you dispose of the following types of explosives at ZCDC:
a. Ignitor cord
b. Capped fuse
c. Detonating cord
d. Nonel shocktubes
e. ANFO/ ANFEX
f. Emulsion
10. What are the major components of a drill rig?
11. Detail the construction of an immovable magazine.
12. Describe your re-entry procedure after primary & secondary blasting at your mine?
13. Detail a rescue procedure for a person gassed by nitrous fumes?
14. List 10 legal books that you know.
15. What are the duties of a miner in charge?
16. What are the duties of a mine manager?
17. Explain the function of a catalytic convertors and their importance to surface
mobile equipment?

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 18. Give a procedure for charging a round that has been drilled and completed.
19. What is a misfire or a misfired hole?

Test yourself 3
1. Procedure for transporting explosives from main magazine to where blasting operations
are carried.
2. What are the duties of the magazine master?
3. Give the procedure for cleaning, marking and drilling
4. What are the dangers of blasting?
5. What are the sources of dust in a mine, and how do minimize the dust?
6. Re-entry and drilling procedure
7. How do you treat a misfire?
8. What are the dangers associated with blasting?
9. Which gas affects the lungs and what are its effects.
10. What are the effects of Co to men Why do u need an MBL?
11. What do u see at the gate of a magazine?
12. Define safety, first aid certificate
13. Why do u test the resistance of the lightning conductor of the magazine during the July,
august +sept and how do u test it
14. Why is the magazine flat on top?
15. How do u ventilate an immovable magazine?
16. How do u test a round using an ohmmeter?
17. Expiry of a licence to store, manufacture explosives
18. Define delayed action – cumulative effect and miner’s friend
19. Name 10 gases found in mine environments

Test yourself 4
1. Who shall tell the routes to be followed if u where to transport explosives
2. What are the duties of a miner in charge?
3. Draw the open and closed chevron patterns and show how u connect using detonating
relays
4. Requirements of a vehicle carrying explosives
5. Provision of a service station in a mine
6. Draw a plan showing an immovable magazine
7. What must be there for an explosion to take place?
8. The gas must be produced, there must be sufficient oxygen, the gas must reach its
explosive range and the gas must be ignited by a spark
9. Draw a sketch of an elbow flue and show the interior and exterior and why it is shaped
like that?
10. List five items that you find in an immovable magazine?

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Maximum and minimum thermometer, Appointment letter for the Magazine master,
explosives, wooden pallets.
11. Draw a sketch plan of an immovable magazine and all features around it?
12. State 6 responsibilities of a manager
13. Name the types of igniter cords, colours and burning speeds. Define ‘burning front
distance’
14. How do u prevent accidental firing when using a shot exploder?
15. What is the procedure for purchasing explosives?
16. When will the permit to purchase or possess explosives expire
17. What instructions do u give to a guard during sec blasting?
18. 4 conditions under which detonators or capped fuses may be stored or carried together
with other types of explosives
19. How are blasting cables treated at your mine
20. How do treat a misfire from gunpowder.
21. Name 4 factors which affect the rate of gassing
22. Explain: high & low explosive
23. What is a reportable accident?
24. How does carbon dioxide kill men?
25. Dangers associate with a blast. (gasses, fly rocks, noise etc)

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Figure 34 - training program sample

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