Industrial Instrumentation and Control

(INSTR F343)
Lecture-22
BITS Pilani Gautam Bacher
K K Birla Goa Campus Dept. of EEE
 Feedforward Control

 Feedforward control is to measure important disturbance variables

and take corrective action before the upset the process.
 In contrast, a feedback controller does not take corrective action
until after the disturbance has upset the process and generated a
non-zero error signal.

Feedforward Control Feedback Control

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Feedforward Control

Feedforward control has several disadvantages:

1. The disturbance variables must be measured. In many
applications, this is not feasible.
2. To make effective use of feedforward control, at least a crude
process model should be available. In particular, we need to know
how the controlled variable responds to changes in both the
disturbance and manipulated variables. The quality of
feedforward control depends on the accuracy of the process
model.
3. Ideal feedforward controllers that are theoretically capable of
achieving perfect control may not be physically realizable.
Fortunately, practical approximations of these ideal controllers
often provide very effective control.
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 Feedforward Control

Example :

The conventional feedback control system is

shown in Fig. The level of the boiling liquid
is measured and used to adjust the feed
water flow rate.

• This control system tends to be quite

sensitive to rapid changes in the
disturbance variable, steam flow rate.

The feedback control of the liquid level • Rapid disturbance changes can occur as a
in a boiler drum.
result of steam demands made by
downstream processing units.

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 Feedforward Control

Example :

• The feedforward control scheme in

Fig. can provide better control of the
liquid level.

• Here the steam flow rate is

measured, and the feedforward
controller adjusts the feedwater flow
rate.
The feedforward control of the
liquid level in a boiler drum.

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Feedforward Control

• In practical applications,
feedforward control is normally used
in combination with feedback
control.

• Feedforward control is used to

reduce the effects of measurable
disturbances, while feedback
compensates for inaccuracies in the
process model, measurement error,
and unmeasured disturbances.
The feedfoward-feedback control of
the boiler drum level.

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Design of Feedforward Control

Uncontrolled process

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Design of Feedforward Control

Feedforward loop
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Design of Feedforward Control

Disturbance rejection:
the controller should be capable of
completely eliminating the impact of a
disturbance change on the process output.
This implies that the coefficient of d should be
zero.

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Design of Feedforward Control

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Feedforward-feedback Control

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Feedforward-feedback Control

The stability of the closed loop response is determined by the roots of the
characteristics equation, which depends on the transfer functions of the feedback
loop only

The stability characteristics of a feedback system will not change with the addition of
a feedforward loop.
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Ratio Control

• Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control where

two disturbances are measured and held in a constant ratio to
each other.
• Used to control the ratio of flow rates of two streams.
• Both flow rates are measured but only one can be controlled.
• The stream whose flow rate is not under control is usually
referred to as wild stream.
• We measure both flow rates and take their ratio. This ratio is
compared to the desired ratio (set point) and the deviation
(error) between the measured and desired ratios constitutes
the actuating signal for the ratio controller.

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Ratio Control

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Ratio Control

We measure the flow rates of

the wild stream A and multiply
it by the desired ratio. This
result is compared to the
measured flow rate of the
stream B. The deviation
constitutes the actuating signal
for the controller, which adjust
appropriately the flow of B.

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Ratio Control

The examples of the ratio control are:

1. Control the ratio of the reactants entering reactor at a

desired value.
2. Hold the ratio of two blended streams constant, in order
to maintain the composition of the blend at the desired
value.
3. Keep the ratio of fuel/air in a burner at its optimum
value.

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Adaptive Control

• Adaptive is called a control system, which can adjust its

parameters automatically to compensate for variations in the
characteristics of the process it controls.
• The various types of adaptive control systems differ only in
the way the parameters of the controller are adjusted.
Need in chemical processes
1. Most chemical processes are non-linear.
• The linearized models that are used to design linear controller
depend on the particular steady state.
• As the desired steady state operation of a process changes,
the best values of the controller’s parameters change
• This implies the need for controller adaptation.

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Adaptive Control

Most of the chemical processes are nonstationary (Their

characteristics change with time).
Examples: The decay of the catalyst activity in a reactor and the
decrease of the overall heat transfer coefficient in a heat exchanger.
This will affect the performance of the linear controller, thus
requiring adaptation of the controller parameters.
Objective of the adaptation
• Not to keep the controlled variable at the specified set point. This
will be done by the control loop, however badly.
• We need a criterion to guide the adaptive tuning of the controller
for best adjustment of the controller parameters.
• Criteria such as one quarter decay ratio, Integral of the square
error, gain or phase margins and etc.

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Adaptive control System

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 Programmed or scheduled adaptive control

• The process is well known and that an

adequate mathematical model for it is
available.
• If there is an auxiliary process variables
correlates well with the changes in
process dynamics.

• Measuring the value of the auxiliary

variable we can schedule the
adaptation of the controller
parameters.

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Gain scheduling adaptive control

In a normal feedback control

loop, the control valve or
another of its components
may exhibit a nonlinear
character

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Gain scheduling adaptive control

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Model Reference adaptive control

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Self-Tuning Regulator (STR)

• The inner loop consists of the

process and an feedback
controller.
• The outer loop is used to adjust
the parameters of the feedback
controller and is composed of
(1) Parameter estimator
(2) Adjustment mechanism for the
controller parameters.

The parameter estimator assumes a simple linear model for the process:

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 Inferential Control
What happens, If the disturbance cannot be measured ?

• None control configurations

studied so far can be used for
unmeasured process output in
the presence of unmeasured
disturbance.
• For such type of control
problem, inferential control is
the only solution.

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Inferential Control

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Interaction of control loops

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Relative Gain Array (RGA)
The relative gain array provides a methodology, whereby we select pairs of
input and output variables in order to minimize the amount of interaction
among the resulting loops.

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We can define the following three remaining relative gains between the
two inputs and two outputs of the process we have been considering:

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Selection of loops
Consider a process with two inputs and two outputs, there are two
different loop configuration shown in figure below.

Now we can use the relative gains to select the configuration with
minimum interaction between the loops.

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Selection of loops

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RGA Analysis

The amount of interaction between the two loops is the same in both configuration.
It does not matter we couple inputs and outputs, the interaction remains the same.

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RGA analysis

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Example 1:

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Bristol’s Method (RGA)
• The relative gains can easily be calculated from either steady state data
or process model.
• Consider a 2×2 process with steady state model
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Design of Non-interacting Control Loops

• The relative gain array indicates how the inputs should be coupled
with the outputs to form loops with the smaller amount of interaction.

• The two control loops affect each other operation very seriously
even if there is small interaction.

• When the designer is confronted with two strongly interacting loops,

he or she introduces in the control system a special new elements
called decouplers.

• The purpose of decouplers is to cancel the interaction effects

between the two loops and thus render two non-interacting control
loops.
 Decouplers
• Initially both outputs are at the desired set-point values. Suppose a
disturbance or set point change causes the controller of loop 2 to vary
the value of m2 as a result y1 to deviate from its desired value.

• However, we could change m1 by such an amount as to cancel the

interaction effect from m2.
Process with decoupler
 PROGRAMMABLE
LOGIC CONTROLLERS
 Introduction

Fig: Block diagram of Process Control

3
 Contd..

Fig: Discrete Control Fig: Analog Control

4
 Contd..

Binary World Analog World

Relay control controllers

I1

A
B

C
P1
P2

combinatorial sequential Regulation, controllers

discrete processes continuous processes

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 Need for PLCs

• Hardwired panels were very time consuming to wire, debug and

change.

• GM identified the following requirements for computer controllers

to replace hardwired panels.
– Solid-state not mechanical
– Easy to modify input and output devices
– Easily programmed and maintained by plant electricians
– Be able to function in an industrial environment

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 Historical Background

 General Motors Corporation specified the design criteria

for the first programmable controller in 1968.

 Their primary goal to eliminate the high costs

associated with inflexible, relay-controlled systems.

 The controller had to be designed in modular form, so

that sub-assemblies could be removed easily for
replacement or repair.

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 Contd..

 The control system needed the capability to pass

data collection to a central system.

 The system had to be reusable.

 The method used to program the controller had to be

simple, so that it could be easily understood by plant
personnel.

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 Programmable Controller Development

1968 Programmable concept developed

Hardware CPU controller, with logic instructions,

1969
1 K of memory and 128 I/O points

Use of several (multi) processors within a PLC - timers

1974 and counters; arithmetic operations; 12 K of memory and
1024 I/O points
Remote input/output systems introduced
1976

Microprocessors - based PLC introduced

1977

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 Contd..

Intelligent I/O modules developed Enhanced

communications facilities Enhanced software features (e.g.
1980 documentation) Use of personal microcomputers as
programming aids

1983 Low - cost small PLC’s introduced

Networking of all levels of PLC, computer and machine

1985
using SCADA software.

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 PLC: Programmable Logic Controllers

• Programmable logic controllers are the most widely used

electronic devices in the control of production and
assembly process in most automated factories due to its
simplicity and versatility.

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 Definition of PLC

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a user-friendly,

microprocessor-based, specialized computer carrying out
control functions of many types and levels of complexity in
industrial applications.
According to National Electrical manufacturers’ Association
a PLC is:

A digital electronic device using a programmable memory

to store instructions and to implement specific functions
such as logic, sequence, counting, timing and arithmetic to
control machines and processes.

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 PC vs. PLC

• In the late 1980’s, PCs have been begun to be used in

automatic industrial control, and this led a competition
between PLCs and PCs. What distinguishes a PLC from
a PC are majorly:

• PLCs are constructed for a specific purpose with a

smaller program, whereas PCs perform general tasks.

• PLCs are sequential-type controllers which can process

individual steps in a program in order

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 PC vs. PLC

• Both PLCs and PCs have their particular strengths and

weaknesses indeed.

• In general, what is seen and done in industrial control of

today is that:
 PLCs do majority of the control jobs.

 PCs handle most of the data and math functions

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 PC vs. PLC

• PLCs can be programmed, controlled and operated by a

person unskilled in operating computers.

• The PLC can operate any system that has input/output

devices that go on and off as well as any system with
variable input/outputs.

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 Advantages PLCs

 Increase in flexibility
 Faster implementation of changes and correction
 Lower cost
 Easy visualization of process running
 Increased visual observations
 Increased operation speed
 Increased reliability and maintainability
 Increased security
 Reprogramming capability
 Elimination of wiring.

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 Disadvantages of PLC

On the contrary the disadvantages are:

• Fixed program applications,

• High initial investment cost.

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 Leading Brands Of PLC
AMERICAN
1. Allen Bradley
2. Texas Instruments
3. General Electric
4. Westinghouse JAPANESE
1. Toshiba
5. Cutter Hammer
2. Mitsubishi

EUROPEAN
1. Siemens
2. Festo
3. Telemechanique

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 Areas of Application

• Manufacturing / Machining

• Food / Beverage

• Metals

• Petrochemical / Chemical

• Power Generation

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 PLC Size

1. SMALL - it covers units with up to 128 I/O’s and

memories up to 2 Kbytes.
- these PLC’s are capable of providing
simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. MEDIUM - have up to 2048 I/O’s and memories up
to 32 Kbytes.
3. LARGE - the most sophisticated units of the PLC
family. They have up to 8192 I/O’s and
memories up to 750 Kbytes.
- can control individual production
processes or entire plant.

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 Parts of PLCs

A PLC system contains four main parts,

which are:

• CPU module
• Input and Output modules(I/O modules)
• A power supply module

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 Parts of PLCs

POWER
SUPPLY

I M O M
N O U O
P D T D
U U PROCESSOR P U
T L U L
From E T E
To
SENSORS
OUTPUT
Pushbuttons, Solenoids,
contacts, contactors,
limit switches, alarms
etc. etc.
PROGRAMMING
DEVICE

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 PLC Architecture

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 Parts of PLCs

CPU Module:

This module consists of

a central processing unit
(CPU) which acts as the
brain of the system and
its memory

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 Parts of PLCs

Input/output Modules(I/O Modules):

I/O modules allow the

PLC to read sensors
and control actuators.
There exists a wide
variety of I/O module
types offered by the
PLC manufacturers.

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 Parts of PLCs

Power Supply Module:

Power supply module provides power to the CPU

and often provides power to drive sensors and low
power actuators connected to I/O modules.

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 Parts of PLCs

Various production equipment that can be connected to PLCs

include:

 Thermocouples
 Strain gauge
 Position encoder
 Valves
 Electrical motors
 Stepping motors

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 PLCs communication

• Several production equipment such as transducers and sensors

can be interfaced with the PLCs. These interfaces generally
include:
 RS-232C Interface,

 RS-422A Interface,

 IEEE-488/GPIB Bus Interface,

 Twisted-pair cable,

 Co-axial cable,

 Optical fiber cable.

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 PLC Function

• PLC performs the functions of conventional relays, timers,

counters.

• Capable of storing instructions, such as sequencing, timing,

counting, arithmetic, data manipulation, and communication,
to control industrial machines and processes.

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 PLC Operation

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 PLC Operation

• Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute
the user program stored in application memory, then, based on
whatever control scheme has been programmed by the user,
turn the field output devices on or off, or perform whatever
control is necessary for the process application.

• This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the

program in memory, and updating the outputs is known as
scanning.

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 PLC Operation

• While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the

following four phases, which are repeated continuously as
individual cycles of operation:
PHASE 1
Read Inputs
Scan
PHASE 2
Program
Execution
PHASE 3
Diagnostics/
Comm
PHASE 4
Output
Scan
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 PLC Operation
PHASE 1 – Input Status scan
 A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status of its inputs.
PHASE 2– Logic Solve/Program Execution
 The application program is executed using the status of the inputs
PHASE 3– Logic Solve/Program Execution

 Once the program is executed, the CPU performs diagnostics and

communication tasks
PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan

•An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored output
values are sent to actuators and other field output devices. The cycle
ends by updating the outputs.

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 Effect of scan on response: Best Case

Output updated
Inputs read

Plant input Output image

*
changes here

Plant Real output

output changes here

Program Scan

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 Effect of scan on response: worst Case

Input changes But not seen

here here

Output image
*
changes here

Real output
changes here

Program scan Program scan

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 Ladder logic Diagrams

The ladder logic diagram is used to represent the logic in a

PLC control program widely in industry. The ladder logic
diagram makes use of representations similar to electrical
circuits in which a series connection represents a logical
AND, and a parallel connection represents a logical OR.

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 Relays and Contactors

+Ve - ve
Power
Busbar

Solenoid
Lamp
Motor

Relay Logic

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 Relay Ladder

Rung Logic

Rung

Virtual
Power
Rail

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 Simple elements of relay ladder logic

• Input contacts: Externally exercised (real)

• Auxiliary Contacts: Exercised when an output coil is

energized.

• Output Coil: signifies an action using a device, eg.

Lamp, motor

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 Types of input contacts

NO contact: closed when energized

NC contact: Open when energized

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 Simple Example

Forward Reverse Control

OP001
IN001 IN002
Forward

OP002

OP001

IN001 IN003 OP001 OP002

Reverse

OP002

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 Ladder Logic Elements

AND:
• Simply represents “and” operator in simple logic. It is
put between two statements when the output is
dependent on whether BOTH of the statements are true
or BOTH of the statements are false. It is represented by
the symbol:

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 Ladder Logic Elements

Circuit Diagram

In this AND gate logic, it can be said that only if the switches X1 and
X2 change their states form opened to closed, the current can go to the
lamp.
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 Ladder Logic Elements

OR
• Simply represents “or” operator in simple logic. It is put
between two statements when the output is dependent on
either one statement or the other. For a number of
statements that are connected in series by “or” operator, if
one statement required by the output is true, then output is
true. It is represented by the symbol:

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 Ladder Logic Elements

In this OR gate logic, it can be said that if either one of the switches X1
or X2 change its state form opened to closed,the current can go to the
lamp.
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 Ladder Logic Elements

NOT
• Simply states that the output depends on whether that
statement is not true. If that statement is not satisfied,
then the output will be realised. It is represented by the
symbol:

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 Ladder Logic Elements

Circuit Diagram

From this circuit, it can be said that the current goes to the lamp
provided that the state of the switch does NOT change.
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 Timers

Set time delay value

Run Logic
Preset
Goes High
Reg.
When TR=PR
Output
Timing coil
Reg.
Enable/Reset
Logic

Enable/Reset Logic: Timing Reg. held at ‘0’ when de-enerzised,

timer enable when ‘1’.
Run Logic: Timing Reg. increments with internal clock, when ER
logic 1 and run logic is 1.

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 On Delay Timer

Input

Output

Delay

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 On Delay Timer

IN001 OP001

OP001

OP001

PR=delay OP002
value OP002

OP001

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 Off Delay Timer

Input

Output

Delay Delay

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 Off Delay Timer

IN001 OP001

IN001

PR=delay
value OP002

IN001
OP003
IN001

OP002

OP003

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 Counters

Set Count value

Count Logic
Count logic Preset
CR Reg. Goes High
incremented When CR=PR
by ‘1’ every
time count Output
logic goes coil
high Count
Reg.

Enable/Reset
Logic
Stores current
count

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 Example 1

When the lights are turned off in a building, an exit

door light is to remain on for an additional 45
seconds. In additional, the parking lot lights are to
remain on for addition 3 minutes after the door
lights goes out.

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 Solution

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 Solution Contd..

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 Example 2

• A motor and lubrication pump are running.

Lubrication for main motor bearing is required
during motor coast-down. After the main motor
is shut off, the lubrication pump remains on for
a time corresponding to coast-down time. In
this example, a lubrication pump remains on
for 20 seconds after the main system is shut
down.

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Example 3

A package dual stamping operation.

• Stamping times of 8 and 14 seconds are required.
When the package arrives in place, IN001 is
actuated & stops the conveyer. The end is
stamped for 8 seconds, o/p M, & the top for 14
seconds, o/p N. turning off IN001 & IN002
releases the package to continue along the
conveyer

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Example 4

Figure shows a P&ID of a chemical vat in which a mixture must be cooked

at a temperature greater than100°C for 10 minutes. Due to external
influences, the temperature might fall below100°C periodically, and this
should not be counted in the cooking time. After the vat is filled, a Start push
button (NO) starts the cooking. It is terminated by an NC Stop push button.
A thermal switch goes high when the temperature is above 100°C. When
the mixture has been cooked for 10 minutes at , the heater should be turned
off and the drain valve opened.

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 Counters

Set Count value

Count Logic
Count logic Preset
CR Reg. Goes High
incremented When CR=PR
by ‘1’ every
time count Output
logic goes coil
high Count
Reg.

Enable/Reset
Logic
Stores current
count

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 Example 5

A time process that occur after a certain process

count is reached. After count of 15 from a sensor,
paint spray is to run for 25 seconds

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 Solution

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 Example 3

• Use of a combination of two counters.

Suppose that we wanted an output indicator to go on when
six of part C and eight of part D are on a conveyor. IN002
and IN003 are proximity devices that pulse on when a part
goes by then. To repeat the process, turn IN001 off to reset
the system.
IN002

Conveyor
IN003

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 Solution

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 Sequential Function Chart
(SFC)
• SFC is a graphical method
• Represents the functions of a sequential automated
system as a sequence of steps and transitions.
• Defines the architecture of the software modules and
how they are to be executed.
Steps
• Each step is a control program module which may be
programmed in RLL or any other language.
• Two types of steps may be used in a sequential function
chart: initial and regular.

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 Steps

An initial step regular step

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 Transitions

• Each transition is a program module like a step that finally

evaluates a transition variable.
• Once a transition variable evaluates to true the step(s)
following it are activated and those preceding it are
deactivated.
• Only transitions following active states are considered active
and evaluated during a scan.

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Parking Gate System Operation

When a car approaches the gate, a ticket is issued. The gate is opened
when the ticket is taken. When the car passes the gate, the gate is
closed, and the system returns to the initial state. A display panel is
used to display status messages. Transitions between actions are
initiated by inputs from the sensors.

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Example

Draw a sequential function diagram for the system shown below

so that the actuators perform the following sequence.
It starts with everything off (retracted). Closing the push
button switch PB1 starts the cycle.
Next B goes ON (B+) and then when reaching full stroke it
goes OFF (B-)
When B is fully retracted (OFF) it is switched ON again.
When B reaches its full stroke for the second time, A is
switched ON.
When A reaches full stroke both cylinders are switched OFF
together and retract together.
The cycle stops until PB1 is pushed again. A0, A1, B0 and
B1 are the limit switches.
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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Introduction
• The concept of Fuzzy Logic (FL) was conceived by Lotfi Zadeh, a
professor at the University of California at Berkley.
• He presented FL, not as a control methodology, but as a way of
processing data by allowing partial set membership rather than crisp
set membership or non-membership.
• Professor Zadeh reasoned that people do not require precise,
numerical information input, and yet they are capable of highly
adaptive control.
• If feedback controllers could be programmed to accept noisy,
imprecise input, they would be much more effective and perhaps
easier to implement.

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What is Fuzzy Logic?

• FL is a problem-solving control system methodology that

gives itself to implementation in systems ranging from simple,
small, embedded micro-controllers to large, networked, multi-
channel PC or workstation-based data acquisition and control
systems.
• It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a
combination of both.
• FL provides a simple way to arrive at a definite conclusion
based upon vague, ambiguous, imprecise, noisy, or missing
input information.
• FL's approach to control problems mimics how a person
would make decisions, only much faster.

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• FL incorporates a simple, rule-based IF X AND Y THEN Z
approach to a solving control problem rather than attempting
to model a system mathematically.
• The FL model is empirically-based, relying on an operator's
experience rather than their technical understanding of the
system.
• For example, rather than dealing with temperature control in terms
such as "SP =500F", "T <1000F", or "210C <TEMP <220C", terms
like "IF (process is too cool) AND (process is getting colder) THEN
(add heat to the process)" or "IF (process is too hot) AND (process
is heating rapidly) THEN (cool the process quickly)" are used. These
terms are imprecise and yet very descriptive of what must actually
happen.

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Why use FL?
FL offers several unique features that make it a particularly good choice
for many control problems.
1) It is inherently robust since it does not require precise, noise-free inputs
and can be programmed to fail safely if a feedback sensor quits or is
destroyed. The output control is a smooth control function despite a
wide range of input variations.
2) Since the FL controller processes user-defined rules governing the
target control system, it can be modified and tweaked easily to improve
or drastically alter system performance. New sensors can easily be
incorporated into the system simply by generating appropriate
governing rules.
3) FL is not limited to a few feedback inputs and one or two control
outputs, nor is it necessary to measure or compute rate-of-change
parameters. Any sensor data that provides some indication of a
system's actions and reactions is sufficient. This allows the sensors to
be inexpensive and imprecise thus keeping the overall system cost and
complexity low. BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
4) Because of the rule-based operation, any reasonable number of inputs
can be processed (1-8 or more) and numerous outputs (1-4 or more)
generated, although defining the rulebase quickly becomes complex if
too many inputs and outputs are chosen for a single implementation
since rules defining their interrelations must also be defined. It would be
better to break the control system into smaller chunks and use several
smaller FL controllers distributed on the system, each with more limited
responsibilities.
5) FL can control nonlinear systems that would be difficult or impossible to
model mathematically. This opens doors for control systems that would
normally be deemed unfeasible for automation.

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How is FL used?

1) Define the control objectives and criteria

2) Determine the input and output relationships and choose a minimum
number of variables for input to the FL engine (typically error and rate-
of-change-of-error).
3) Using the rule-based structure of FL, break the control problem down
into a series of IF X AND Y THEN Z rules that define the desired
system output response for given system input conditions.
4) Create FL membership functions that define the meaning (values) of
Input/Output terms used in the rules.
5) Create the necessary pre- and post-processing FL
6) Test the system, evaluate the results, tune the rules and membership
functions, and retest until satisfactory results are obtained.

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Linguistic Variables

• In 1973, Professor Lotfi Zadeh proposed the concept of linguistic

or "fuzzy" variables.
• The sensor input is a noun, e.g. "temperature", "displacement",
"velocity", "flow", "pressure", etc. Since error is just the
difference, it can be thought of the same way.
• The fuzzy variables themselves are adjectives that modify the
variable (e.g. "large positive" error, "small positive" error ,"zero"
error, "small negative" error, and "large negative" error). As a
minimum, one could simply have "positive", "zero", and
"negative" variables for each of the parameters.
• Additional ranges such as "very large" and "very small" could
also be added to extend the responsiveness to exceptional or
very nonlinear conditions.

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 FL Control System
• suppose we want to design a simple proportional temperature controller
with an electric heating element and a variable-speed cooling fan. A
positive signal output calls for 0-100 percent heat while a negative signal
output calls for 0-100 percent cooling. Control is achieved through proper
balance and control of these two active devices.

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DEFINITIONS:
INPUT#1: ("Error", positive (P), zero (Z), negative (N))
INPUT#2: ("Error-dot", positive (P), zero (Z), negative (N))
CONCLUSION: ("Output", Heat (H), No Change (-), Cool (C))
INPUT#1 System Status Error = Command-Feedback P=Too cold, Z=Just
right, N=Too hot
INPUT#2 System Status Error-dot = d(Error)/dt P=Getting hotter Z=Not
changing N=Getting colder
OUTPUT Conclusion & System Response
Output H = Call for heating - = Don't change anything C = Call for cooling

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The Rule Matrix

The fuzzy parameters of error (command-feedback) and error-dot (rate-

of-change-of-error) were modified by the adjectives "negative",
"zero", and "positive".

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

The Rule Matrix

The fuzzy parameters of error (command-feedback) and error-dot (rate-

of-change-of-error) were modified by the adjectives "negative",
"zero", and "positive".

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Membership Functions
• The membership function is a graphical representation of the
magnitude of participation of each input. It associates a weighting
with each of the inputs that are processed, define functional overlap
between inputs, and ultimately determines an output response.
• The rules use the input membership values as weighting factors to
determine their influence on the fuzzy output sets of the final output
conclusion.
• Once the functions are inferred, scaled, and combined, they are
defuzzified into a crisp output which drives the system.
• There are different membership functions associated with each input
and output response. Some features to note are:

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SHAPE - triangular is common, but bell, trapezoidal and, exponential have
been used. HEIGHT or magnitude (usually normalized to 1) WIDTH (of
the base of function), SHOULDERING (locks height at maximum)
Shouldered functions evaluate as 1.0 past their center) CENTER
points (center of the member function shape) OVERLAP (N&Z, Z&P,
typically about 50% of width but can be less).

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Error function membership
The degree of membership for an "error" of -1.0 projects up to the middle
of the overlapping part of the "negative" and "zero" function so the result is
"negative" membership = 0.5 and "zero" membership = 0.5. Only rules
associated with "negative" & "zero" error will actually apply to the output
response. This selects only the left and middle columns of the rule matrix.

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Error-dot function membership

For an "error-dot" of +2.5, a "zero" and "positive" membership of 0.5 is

indicated. This selects the middle and bottom rows of the rule matrix. By
overlaying the two regions of the rule matrix, it can be seen that only the
rules in the 2-by-2 square in the lower left corner (rules 4,5,7,8) of the
rules matrix will generate non-zero output conclusions. The others have
a zero weighting due to the logical AND in the rules.

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The Rule Matrix

The fuzzy parameters of error (command-feedback) and error-dot (rate-

of-change-of-error) were modified by the adjectives "negative",
"zero", and "positive".

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Fuzzy output

• As inputs are received by the system, the rulebase is evaluated. The

antecedent (IF X AND Y) blocks test the inputs and produce
conclusions.

• The consequent (THEN Z) blocks of some rules are satisfied while

others are not.

• The conclusions are combined to form logical sums. These

conclusions feed into the inference process where each response
output member function's firing strength (0 to 1) is determined.

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Input degree of membership
"error" = -1.0: "negative" = 0.5 and "zero" = 0.5
"error-dot" = +2.5: "zero" = 0.5 and "positive" = 0.5
antecedent & consequent blocks (e = error, er = error-dot or error-rate)

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1. If (e < 0) AND (er < 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.0 = 0.0
2. If (e = 0) AND (er < 0) then Heat 0.5 & 0.0 = 0.0
3. If (e > 0) AND (er < 0) then Heat 0.0 & 0.0 = 0.0
4. If (e < 0) AND (er = 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
5. If (e = 0) AND (er = 0) then No_Chng 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
6. If (e > 0) AND (er = 0) then Heat 0.0 & 0.5 = 0.0
7. If (e < 0) AND (er > 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
8. If (e = 0) AND (er > 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
9. If (e > 0) AND (er > 0) then Heat 0.0 & 0.5 = 0.0

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 Inferencing
• The last step completed in the example was to determine the firing
strength of each rule.

• It turned out that rules 4, 5, 7, and 8 each fired at 50% or 0.5 while rules
1, 2, 3, 6, and 9 did not fire at all (0% or 0.0).

• The logical products for each rule must be combined or inferred (max-
min'd, max-dot'd, averaged, root-sum-squared, etc.) before being passed
on to the defuzzification process for crisp output generation. Several
inference methods exist.

• The ROOT-SUM-SQUARE (RSS) method combines the effects of all

applicable rules, scales the functions at their respective magnitudes, and
computes the "fuzzy" centroid of the composite area

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 Defuzzification - Getting back to crisp
numbers
The RSS method was chosen to include all contributing rules since there are
so few member functions associated with the inputs and outputs. For the
ongoing example, an error of -1.0 and an error-dot of +2.5 selects regions
of the "negative" and "zero" output membership functions. The respective
output membership function strengths (range: 0-1) from the possible rules
(R1-R9) are:
"negative" = (R1^2 + R4^2 + R7^2 + R8^2) (Cooling) = (0.00^2 + 0.50^2 +
0.50^2 + 0.50^2)^.5 = 0.866
"zero" = (R5^2)^.5 = (0.50^2)^.5 (No Change) = 0.500
"positive" = (R2^2 + R3^2 + R6^2 + R9^2) (Heating) = (0.00^2 + 0.00^2 +
0.00^2 + 0.00^2)^.5 = 0.000
(neg_ * neg_strength + zero_ * zero_strength + pos_ * pos_strength) = OUTPUT
(neg_strength + zero_strength + pos_strength)

(-100 * 0.866 + 0 * 0.500 + 100 * 0.000) = 63.4%

(0.866 + 0.500 + 0.000)

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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus