INTRODUCTION :

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a material

caused by electromagnetic radiation (light). Electrons emitted in this
manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied in condensed
matter physics, solid state, and quantum chemistry to draw inferences about
the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use in
electronic devices specialized for light detection and precisely timed
electron emission.
The experimental results disagree with classical electromagnetism,
which predicts that continuous light waves transfer energy to electrons,
which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An
alteration in the intensity of light would theoretically change the kinetic
energy of the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a
delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are
dislodged only when the light exceeds a certain frequency—regardless of the
light’s intensity or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a
high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce
photoelectrons, as would be the case if light’s energy accumulated over time
from a continuous wave, Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not
a wave propagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets,
known as photons—term coined by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926.
Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals requires a few
electron-volt (eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or
ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons

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approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and
the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons for core
electrons in elements with a high atomic number. Study of the photoelectric
effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light
and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle
duality. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric
charges include the photoconductive effect, the photovoltaic effect, and the
photoelectrochemical effect.

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HISTORY:
When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a
certain threshold frequency(typically visible light for alkali metals, near
ultraviolet for other metals, and extreme ultraviolet for non-metals), the
radiation is absorbed and electrons are emitted. Light, and especially ultra-
violet light, discharges negatively electrified bodies with the production of
rays of the same nature as cathode rays. Under certain circumstances it can
directly ionize gases. The first of these phenomena was discovered by Hertz
and Hallwachs in 1887. The second was announced first by Philipp Lenard
in 1900.
The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an
arc lamp, or by burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction coil
between zinc or cadmium terminals, the light from which is very rich in
ultra-violet rays. Sunlight is not rich in ultra- violet rays, as these have been
absorbed by the atmosphere, and it does not produce nearly so large an
effect as the arc-light. Many substances besides metals discharge negative
electricity under the action of ultraviolet light: lists of these substances will
be found in papers by G. C. Schmidt and O. Knoblauch.

➢ 19TH CENTURY:
In 1839, Alexander Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic
effect while studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells. Though not
equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was
instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic
properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered
photoconductivity in selenium while testing the metal for its high resistance
properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph
cables.
Johann Elster and Hans Geitel, students in Heidelberg, developed the
first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity
of light. Elster and Geitel had investigated with great success the effects
produced by light on electrified bodies.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric effect and the
production and reception of electromagnetic waves. He published these
observations in the journal Annalen der Physik. His receiver consisted of a
coil with a spark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of

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electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the
spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was
reduced when in the box. A glass panel placed between the source of
electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that
assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark
length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he
replaced glass with quartz, as quartz does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz
concluded his months of investigation and reported the results obtained. He
did not further pursue investigation of this effect.
The discovery by Hertz in 1887 that the incidence of ultra- violet light
on a spark gap facilitated the passage of the spark, led immediately to a
series of investigations by Hallwachs, Hoor, Righi and Stoletov, on the effect
of light, and especially of ultra- violet light, on charged bodies. It was proved
by these investigations that a newly cleaned surface of zinc, if charged with
negative electricity, rapidly loses this charge however small it may be when
ultra-violet light falls upon the surface; while if the surface is uncharged to
begin with, it acquires a positive charge when exposed to the light, the
negative electrification going out into the gas by which the metal is
surrounded; this positive electrification can be much increased by directing
a strong air blast against the surface. If however the zinc surface is positively
electrified it suffers no loss of charge when exposed to the light: this result
has been questioned, but a very careful examination of the phenomenon by
Elster and Geitel has shown that the loss observed under certain
circumstances is due to the discharge by the light reflected from the zinc
surface of negative electrification on neighbouring conductors induced by
the positive charge, the negative electricity under the influence of the electric
field moving up to the positively electrified surface.
With regard to the Hertz effect, the researches from the start showed
a great complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue — that is, the
progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces.
According to an important research by Wilhelm Hallwachs, ozone played an
important part in the phenomenon. However, other elements enter such as
oxidation, the humidity, the mode of polish of the surface, etc. It was at the
time not even sure that the fatigue is absent in a vacuum.
In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed analysis
of photo effect was performed by Aleksander Stoletov with results published
in 6 works; four of them in Comptes Rendus, one review in Physikalische
Revue (translated from Russian), and the last work in Journal de Physique.
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First, in these works Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was
more suitable for a quantitative analysis of photo effect. Using this setup, he
discovered the direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the
induced photo electric current (the first law of photo effector: Stoletov’s law)
. One of his other findings resulted from measurements of the dependence of
the intensity of the electric photo current on the gas pressure, where he
found the existence of an optimal gas pressure P m corresponding to a
maximum photocurrent; this property was used for a creation of solar cells.
In 1899, J.J.Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes.
Thomson deduced that the ejected particles were the same as those
previously found in the cathode ray, later called electrons, which he called
“corpuscles”. In the research, Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in
a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high frequency radiation. It was thought
that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms’ field to resonate
and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a subatomic “corpuscle” to
be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied
with the intensity and colour of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or
frequency would produce more current.

➢ 20TH CENTURY:
The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultra-violet light was made
by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several
centimetres of air and made very great positive and small negative ions, it
was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as did J.J.Thomson, as a Hertz
effect upon the solid or liquid particles present in the gas.
In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted
electrons increased with the frequency (which is related to the colour) of
the light.
This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell’s wave theory of light, which
predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to the intensity of
the radiation.
Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency
using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large
changes in intensity, and that had sufficient power to enable him to
investigate the variation of potential with light frequency. His experiment
directly measured potentials, not electron kinetic energy: he found the

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electron energy by relating it to the maximum stopping potential (voltage)
in a phototube. He found that the calculated maximum electron kinetic
energy is determined by the frequency of the light. For example, an increase
in frequency results in an increase in the maximum kinetic energy calculated
for an electron upon liberation –ultraviolet radiation would require a higher
applied stopping potential to stop current in a phototube than blue light.
However Lenard’s results were qualitative rather than quantitative because
of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the experiments needed to
be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it
oxidised in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The
current emitted by the surface was determined by the light’s intensity, or
brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of
electrons emitted from the surface.
The researches of Langevin and those of Eugene Bloch have shown
that the greater part of the Lenard effect is certainly due to this ‘Hertz effect’.
The Lenard effect upon the gas itself nevertheless does exist. Refound by
J.J.Thomson and then more decisively by Frederic Palmer, Jr., it was studied
and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it
by Lenard.
In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this apparent paradox by describing
light as composed of discrete quanta, now called photons rather than
continuous waves. Based upon Max Planck’ s theory of black-body radiation,
Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the
frequency multiplied by a constant, later called Planck’s constant. A photon
above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single
electron, creating the observed effect. This discovery led to the quantum
revolution in physics and earned Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
By wave-particle duality the effect can be analysed purely in terms of waves
though not as conveniently.
Albert Einstein’ s mathematical description of how the photoelectric
effect was caused by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his 1905
papers, named “On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and
Transformation of Light”. This paper proposed the simple description of
“light quanta”, or photons, and showed how they explained such phenomena
as the photoelectric effect. His simple explanation in terms of absorption of
discrete quanta of light explained the features of the phenomenon and the
characteristic frequency.

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 The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck’s published law of
black-body radiation(“On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal
Spectrum”) by assuming that Hertzian oscillators could only exist at energies
E, proportional to the frequency ν, of the oscillator by:
E = hν
Where , H is Planck’s constant. By assuming that light actually
consisted of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the
photoelectric effect that agreed with experimental results. It explained why
the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only on the frequency of the
incident light and not on its intensity: a low-intensity, high-frequency source
could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a high-intensity, low-
frequency source would supply no photons of sufficient individual energy to
dislodge any electrons. This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the
concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave
theory of light that followed naturally from James Clerk Maxwell’ s equations
for electromagnetic behaviour, and more generally, the assumption of
infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. Even after experiments
showed that Einstein’s equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate,
resistance to the idea of photons continued, since it appeared to contradict
Maxwell’s equations, which were well-understood and verified.
Einstein’s work predicted that the energy of individual ejected
electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps
surprisingly, the precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By
1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with
increasing frequency of incident light and is independent of the intensity of
the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally
determined until 1914 when Robert Andrews Millikan showed that
Einstein’s prediction was correct.
The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept
of wave–particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously
possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being
manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to
understand in terms of the classical wave description of light, as the energy
of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident
radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would ‘gather up’
energy over a period of time, and then be emitted.

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EMISSION MECHANISM:
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, called photon
energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the
photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the
energy of a photon and acquires more energy than its binding energy, it is
likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to
escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light
will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in
intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge
an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend
on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the
energy of the individual photons.
While free electrons can absorb any energy when irradiated as long as
this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in the Compton effect, in
quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the
process is allowed by quantum mechanics—or none at all (“all or nothing”
principle). Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from
its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron’s kinetic energy
as a free particle. Because electrons in a material occupy many different
quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can
sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons
will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied
states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be
emitted from the Fermi level.
When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a
vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a
vacuum is distinguished as external photoemission.

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EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most
readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the
process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current
flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely
ceases. The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by
nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments
and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in
evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents
gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes.
As sunlight, due to atmosphere’s absorption, does not provide much
ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by
burning magnesium or from an arc lamp. At the present time, mercury-
vapour lamps, noble-gas discharge UV lamps and radio-frequency plasma
sources, ultraviolet lasers, and synchrotron insertion device light sources
prevail.
The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light
source, a set of filters to monochromatize the light, a vacuum tube
transparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode C exposed to the light,
and a collector A whose voltage Vc can be externally controlled.

Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short

wavelength passes through the window W and falls on the photosensitive
plate C (emitter). A transparent quartz window is sealed on to the glass tube,

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which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate the
photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are
collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the
battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C
and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed
by a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive
or negative potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is
positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it.
The emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit. The
potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by
a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is
measured by a microammeter (µA). The photoelectric current can be
increased or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with
respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident
light can be varied, as can the potential difference V between the emitter C
and the collector A.
We can use the experimental arrangement to study the variation of
photocurrent with:
(a) Intensity of radiation
(b) Frequency of incident radiation
(c) The potential difference between the plates A and C, and
(d) The nature of the material of plate C.
Light of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate
coloured filter or coloured glass in the path of light falling on the emitter C.
The intensity of light is varied by changing the distance of the light source
from the emitter.

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 ➢ EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF LIGHT ON PHOTOCURRRENT:

The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to

emitter C so that electrons ejected from C are attracted towards collector A.
Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the accelerating
potential fixed, It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly with
intensity of incident light as shown graphically. The photocurrent is directly
proportional to the number of photoelectrons emitted per second. This
implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

➢ SATURATION CURRENT & STOPPING POTENTIAL:

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 The plate A is kept at some positive accelerating potential with respect
to the plate C and the plate C is illuminated with light of fixed frequency ν
and fixed intensity I1. Next, the positive potential of plate A is varied
gradually and the resulting photocurrent is measured each time. The
photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating (positive)
potential.
At some stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted
electrons are collected by the plate A and the photoelectric current becomes
maximum or saturates. If we increase the accelerating potential of plate A
further, the photocurrent does not increase. This maximum value of the
photoelectric current is called saturation current. Saturation current
corresponds to the case when all the photoelectrons emitted by the emitter
plate C reach the collector plate A.
Then, a negative (retarding) potential is applied to the plate A with
respect to the plate C and make it increasingly negative gradually. When the
polarity is reversed, the electrons are repelled and only the most energetic
electrons are able to reach the collector A. The photocurrent is found to
decrease rapidly until it drops to zero at a certain sharply defined, critical
value of the negative potential VO on the plate A. For a particular frequency
of incident radiation, the minimum negative (retarding) potential VO given
to the plate A for which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called the
cut-off or stopping potential.
All the photoelectrons emitted from the metal do not have the same
energy. Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is
sufficient to repel even the most energetic photoelectrons, with the
maximum kinetic energy (Kmax), so that
Kmax = e VO
Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping
potential is independent of its intensity. In other words, the maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light source and the emitter
plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.

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 ➢ EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT RADIATION ON STOPPING
POTENTIAL:

We suitably adjust the same intensity of light radiation at various

frequencies and study the variation of photocurrent with collector plate
potential. The stopping potentials are in the order V O3 > VO2 > VO1 if the
frequencies are in the order ν3 >ν2 > ν1 .
The graph shows that:
(i) The stopping potential VO varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency νO for which
the stopping potential is zero.
These observations have two implications:
(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies
linearly with the frequency of incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
(ii) For a frequency ν of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off
frequency νO, no photoelectric emission is possible even if the
intensity is large.
This minimum, cut-off frequency νO, is called the threshold frequency.
It is different for different metals.

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 If frequency of the incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency,
the photoelectric emission starts instantaneously without any apparent time
lag, even if the incident radiation is very dim. It is now known that emission
starts in a time of the order of 10-9 s or less.

LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION:

On the basis of experimental results on photoelectric effect, Lenard
and Millikan gave the following laws of photoelectric emission:
(i) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
(ii) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
(iii) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain
minimum cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the
threshold frequency, below which no emission of
photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident
light is. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or
equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without
any apparent time lag (∼10-9 s or less), even when the incident
radiation is made exceedingly dim.

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MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION:

The maximum kinetic energy Kmax of an ejected electron is given by:

Kmax = hν - φ
Where h is the Planck constant and ν is the frequency of the incident
photon. The term φ is the work, which gives the minimum energy required
to remove a delocalised electron from the surface of the metal. The work
function satisfies:
φ =h νΟ
where νΟ is the threshold frequency for the metal. The maximum
kinetic energy of an ejected electron is then:
Kmax = h (ν – νΟ)
Kinetic energy is positive, so we must have ν > νΟ for the
photoelectric effect to occur.

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FAILURE OF CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY TO EXPLAIN PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT:

According to the wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave

consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of
energy over the region over which the wave extends. This wave picture of
light could not explain the basic features of light as explained below:
(i) According to the wave theory, when a wavefront of light strikes
a metal surface, the free electrons at the surface absorb the
radiant energy continuously. Greater the intensity of incident
radiation, greater is the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic
fields, and greater is the energy density of the wave. Hence
higher intensity should liberate photoelectrons with kinetic
energy. But this is contrary to the experimental result that the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not depend
on the intensity of the incident radiation.
(ii) No matter what the frequency of the incident radiation is, a light
wave of sufficient intensity (over a sufficient time) should be
able to impart enough energy required to eject the electrons
from the metal surface. Thus the wave theory fails to explain the
existence of threshold frequency.
(iii) The energy of light wave is smoothly and evenly distributed
across its advanced wavefront. Each electron intercepts an
insignificantly small amount of this energy and so it should

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require a finite time to escape from the metal surface. But
actually, the emission is almost instantaneous.

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EINSTEIN’S THEORY:

In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s

Quantum Theory according to which radiation travels in the form of discrete
photons. The energy of each photon is hν, where h is Planck’s constant and ν
is the frequency of light.
The main points of Einstein’s Theory of Photoelectric Effect are:
(i) Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two
particles- one a photon of radiation and the other an electron of
the photosensitive metal.
(ii) The free electrons are bound within the surface of the metal due
to restraining forces of the surface. The minimum energy
required to liberate an electron from the metal surface is called
work function WO of the metal.
(iii) Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy hν of the
incident photon is used up in two parts:
a) A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the
electron from the metal surface, which is equal to the work
function of the metal.
b) The remaining energy of the photon is bused in imparting
kinetic energy to the ejected electron.
(iv) Very few (< 1%) photons, whose energy is greater than the work
function are capable of ejecting photoelectrons.
By the conservation of energy,

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 Energy of the incident photon = maximum KE of photoelectron + work
function
hν = mv2max + WO
Kmax = mv2max = hν – WO
If the incident photon is of threshold frequency νO , then it’s energy
hνO is just sufficient from the metal surface and doesn’t give it any kinetic
energy. So hνO = WO . Hence,
Kmax = mv2max = hν – hνO = h(ν – νO)
The above equation is called Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation and
can be used to explain the laws of photoelectric effect as follows:
➢ EXPLANATION OF EFFECT OF INTENSITY: the increase of intensity
means the increase in the number of photons striking the metal
surface per unit time. As each photon ejects only one electron, so the
number of ejected electrons increases with increase in intensity of
incident radiation.

➢ EXPLANATION OF THRESHOLD FREQUENCY: if v < vO , the

frequency of incident radiation is less than the threshold frequency,
the KE of photoelectrons becomes negative. This has no physical
meaning. So photoelectron emission does not occur below the
threshold frequency.

➢ EXPLANATION OF KINETIC ENERGY: if v > vO then,

Kmax = mv2max α ν
i.e., above threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the
electrons increases linearly with increase in the intensity increases
only the number of incident photons and not their energy. Hence the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of incident radiation.

➢ EXPLANATION OF TIME LAG: photoelectric emission is the result of

an elastic collision between a photon and an electron. Thus the
absorption of energy from a photon by a free electron inside the
metal is a single event which involves transfer of energy in one lump
instead of continuous absorption of energy as in wave theory of light.

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Hence there is no time lag between the incidence of a photon and the
emission of a photoelectron.

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PHOTOEMISSION FROM ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND SOLIDS:
Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy
distinct states of well-defined binding energies. When light quanta deliver
more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may
be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that is hν higher than
the electron’s binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus
reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the
atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state
at binding energy EB is found at kinetic energy Ek = hν – EB .This distribution
is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for
further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics.

MODEL OF PHOTOEMISSION FROM SOLIDS:

The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined

by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and
momentum—the electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models
of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part,
preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenological three-step
model for ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into
these steps:
(i) Inner photoelectric effect in the bulk of the material that is a direct
optical transition between an occupied and an unoccupied electronic state.
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This effect is subject to quantum-mechanical selection rules for dipole
transitions. The hole left behind the electron can give rise to secondary
electron emission, or the so-called Auger effect, which may be visible even
when the primary photoelectron does not leave the material. In molecular
solids phonons are excited in this step and may be visible as satellite lines in
the final electron energy.
(ii) Electron propagation to the surface in which some electrons may
be scattered because of interactions with other constituents of the solid.
Electrons that originate deeper in the solid are much more likely to suffer
collisions and emerge with altered energy and momentum. Their mean-free
path is a universal curve dependent on electron’s energy.
(iii) Electron escape through the surface barrier into free-electron-like
states of the vacuum. In this step the electron loses energy in the amount of
the work function of the surface, and suffers from the momentum loss in the
direction perpendicular to the surface. Because the binding energy of
electrons in solids is conveniently expressed with respect to the highest
occupied state at the Fermi energy EF ,and the difference to the free-space
(vacuum) energy is the work function of the surface, the kinetic energy of
the electrons emitted from solids is usually written as:
Ek = hν – W – EB
There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain
peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more
elaborate one-step model treats the effect as a coherent process of
photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave
function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying
envelope inside.

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MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
➢ PHOTOMULTIPLIER:

These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coated

photocathode inside the envelope. The photo cathode contains
combinations of materials such as caesium, rubidium, and antimony
specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even
by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By
means of a series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these
electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number through
secondary emission to provide a readily detectable output current.
Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must
be detected.

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 ➢ IMAGE SENSORS:

Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the

photoelectric effect, for example, Philo Farnsworth’s “Image dissector” used
a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image
into a scanned electronic signal.

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➢ PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY:

Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the

energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron’s
binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be
determined by shining a monochromatic X-ray or UV light of a known
energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons. The
distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum
properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the
elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy
and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for
the complete determination of the electronic band structure in terms
of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern
instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are
capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1
meV and 0.1°.

Photoelectron spectroscopy measurements are usually

performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons
would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However,
some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in
air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron
radiation source.

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 The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron
energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to
change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on
their kinetic energies.

➢ GOLD- LEAF ELECTROSCOPE:

Gold-leaf electroscopes are designed to detect static electricity.

Charge placed on the metal cap spreads to the stem and the gold leaf
of the electroscope. Because they then have the same charge, the stem
and leaf repel each other. This will cause the leaf to bend away from
the stem.
The electroscope is an important tool in illustrating the
photoelectric effect. For example, if the electroscope is negatively
charged throughout, there is an excess of electrons and the leaf is
separated from the stem. If high-frequency light shines on the cap, the
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 electroscope discharges and the leaf will fall limp. This is because the
frequency of the light shining on the cap is above the cap’s threshold
frequency. The photons in the light have enough energy to liberate
electrons from the cap, reducing its negative charge. This will
discharge a negatively charged electroscope and further charge a
positive electroscope. However, if the electromagnetic radiation
hitting the metal cap does not have a high enough frequency (its
frequency is below the threshold value for the cap), then the leaf will
never discharge, no matter how long one shines the low-frequency
light at the cap.

➢ NIGHT VISION DEVICES:

Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor

material such as gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the
ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are
accelerated by an electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor coated
screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the
signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by
increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as
with a micro-channel plate.
Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional
kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band

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 and into the vacuum level. This is known as the electron affinity of the
photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the
forbidden band, explained by the band gap model. Some materials such
as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the
level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to
the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the
material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These
materials are known as negative electron affinity materials.

➢ SPACE CRAFT:

The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to

develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the
spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a
negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through
delicate electrical components. The static charge created by the
photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not
give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does.

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➢ MOON DUST:

Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively
charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself
and lifts off the surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation. This
manifests itself almost like an “atmosphere of dust”, visible as a thin haze
and blurring of
distant features,
and visible as a
dim glow after the
sun has set. This
was first
photographed by
the Surveyor
program probes in
the 1960s, and
most recently the
Chang’e 3 rover
observed dust
deposition on
lunar rocks as high
as about 28 cm. It
is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometres from the
surface and that the particles move in “fountains” as they charge and
discharge.

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 ➢ CCD SENSORS:

Once the sensor has captured the light’s electrons, it can then read the
value (accumulated charge) within each pixel across the CCD. The total
amount of charge (number of electrons) that accumulate in each pixel is
linearly proportional to the amount of light incident upon it—the more light
intensity emanating from the photographic subject, the more charge ends up
stored in the pixel.
An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) then turns each pixel’s value into
a digital value by measuring the amount of charge in each pixel or photosite
and converting that measurement to binary form. This creates what is
essentially a digital, machine-readable copy of the light patterns that have
fallen on the device, recreating the original image.
Alternating currents through the aluminium strips move the stored
electrons row by row to the edge of the sensor, where the charge is
registered and recorded in the camera’s memory. This leaves the CCD sensor
empty and ready for the next photographic exposure.
Capturing light intensity with a CCD sensor produces black and white
images. For colour imaging, filters are used to separate the incoming light
into its distinct wavelengths of colour—red, green, and blue—so each can be
captured and measured to recreate a full-colour photographic image.
Radiant colorimeters use a tristimulus filter wheel system matched to
human perception (“tri”-stimulus standing for the three primary filters that
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are used to match the response of the three different cones in our eyes), as
defined in the CIE colour space.

➢ PRODUCTION OF SOLAR ELECTRICITY:

Photovoltaic solar energy is generated by converting sunlight into

energy, a type of clean, renewable, and inexhaustible energy that can be
produced in installations ranging from small panels on the top of houses to
large photovoltaic plants. This is achieved using a technology based on the
photoelectric effect.
Photovoltaic energy is a clean, renewable source of energy that uses
solar radiation to produce electricity. It is based on the photoelectric effect—
the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiation (i.e. light) hits a
material. Electrons that are emitted in this manner are known as
photoelectrons and they generate an electric current.
To harvest electromagnetic radiation and turn it into useable
electricity, a semiconductor device known as a photovoltaic cell is used.
These are commonly made from monocrystalline, polycrystalline, or
amorphous silicon, however, other thin-film semiconductor materials can
also be used.

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 The type of material used has an impact on how efficient the solar cell
is. Those made from monocrystalline, for example, are obtained from a single
crystal of pure silicon and can achieve a maximum efficiency of between 18
% and 20 % on average. In contract, those made from amorphous silicon
have a disordered crystalline network and this leads to a lower performance
efficiency of between 8 % and 9 % on average (but they are also much
cheaper).

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OTHER APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

i. Automatic fire alarm

ii. Automatic burglar alarm
iii. Scanners in television transmission
iv. Reproduction of sound in cinema film
v. In paper industry to measure the thickness of
the paper
vi. To locate holes or flaws in finished goods
vii. In astronomy
viii. To determine the opacity of solids and liquids
ix. Automatic switching of street lights
x. To control the temperature of furnace
xi. Light metres used in cinema industry to check the light

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COMPETING PROCESSES AND PHOTOEMISSION CROSS-SECTION:

When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of 511
keV, yet another process, Compton scattering, may occur. Above twice this
energy, at 1.022 MeV, pair production is also more likely. Compton scattering
and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms.
Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular
interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject
to quantum statistics and is not guaranteed. The probability of the
photoelectric effect occurring is measured by the cross section of the
interaction, σ. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of
the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon
energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given
by:
σ = constant. Zn/ E3
Here Z is the atomic number and n is a number which varies between
4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the
gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also
more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently, high-Z
materials make good gamma-ray shields, which is the principal reason why
lead (Z = 82) is preferred and most widely used.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

➢ NCERT class 12 Physics textbook

➢ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect

➢ https://www.scribd.com/document/287898097/The-Photoelectric-
Effect

➢ https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/the-photoelectric-effect-
191665232/191665232

➢ https://www.slideshare.net/ChinmayJagadev1053/photoelectric-
effect-made-bychinmay-jagadev-pattanayak

➢ https://www.radiantvisionsystems.com/blog/ccd-sensors-albert-
einstein-and-photoelectric-effect

➢ https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/photoelectric-effect-
important-class-10-physics-cbse-60235b22f865ac1e018cdae3

➢ https://www.power-and-beyond.com/the-photoelectric-effect-and-
its-role-in-solar-photovoltaics-a
ed89bb3f856ceb245963a222daebeb5d/#:~:text=Photovoltaic%20s
olar%20energy%20is%20generated,based%20on%20the%20photo
electric%20effect.

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