Chapter 3: Geometrical Optics (Our goal for this chapter is to learn about reflection, refraction, total internal reflection and dispersion of light. ‘The futute of optics is without any doubt very bright. New optical devices and techniques appear every day. They are even replacing and. complementing electronic devices with advantage. Lasers and holograms find new applications every day, not only in the laboratory, but also in telecommunications, industry, administration, and even in domestic instruments, lke the digital compact disc players. Some day in the near future, the hybrid optical-electronic computer may be a reality. Geometrical Optics Geometrical Optics is concemed with how light is propagated, reflected, and refracted, and the formation of images. Light is assumed to consist of rays. Rays are merely the paths taken by light. Experimental facts have resulted in some basic postulates of geometrical optics: 1, light is propagated in straight lines in a homogeneous medium, 2 the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence, 3, the ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction is a constant that depends only on the media, and 4, two Independent beams of light that intersect each other will in no way affect one anotherThe Electromagnetic Spectrum Electromagnetic radiation ranges from electrical waves with a wavelength of 10° m, to cosmic rays of wavelength 10" m. Energy is transported by all electromagnetic radiation at a constant velocity in vacuum of ¢ = 2.998 x 10° m/sec. Since c =Af, the frequencies range from 3 Hz to 3x40? Hz. Visible radiation (light) Gamma} X-rays uv IR Radar FM) Tv] Short | ay rays wave to = 1073 t07! 10 10° 10° 10” 10° 10% = 10° 10'(nm)UV radiation Visible radiation (light) A (near): 320-400 nm 380-700 nm B: 280-320 nm C: 100-280 nm EN radiation is emitted in discrete packages of energy referred to @s photons or quanta, The amount of energy in a photon is given by E=ht where Eis the amount of energy per photon and h = 6.6 x 10-*J. s is Planck's constant. Is the frequency of the EM radiation, vis the speed of the EM radiation, and A is the wavelength of the EM radiation. Electric field Magnetic field Fig. 3.5 Electromagnetic radiation consists of a wave of ‘electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the direction Cf propagation {in this case the x direction), and mutually perpendicular to each other. This illustration shows a plane polarized wave, wit the electric and magnetic fields oscilat ing in the xy- and xzplanes, respectively.Light Sources «Incandescent sources + Electric Ares and Discharges + Fluorescent lamps * Lasers Optical Media ‘Transparent optical glass is homageneous and isotropic, Le., has the same optical properties in all directions. Glass and water are isotropic substances. Certain crystals such as calcite and quartz are transparent but anisotropic. They have different optical properties in different directions. A substance is opaque if it only absorbs and reflects light. Ordinary glass is opaque to short ultraviolet light; black glass is opaque to visible light. Refractive Index By definition, the refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to its corresponding value in the medium. ‘As light travels from one medium to another, its frequency does not change butts wavelength does. Af = V, Ay fy = ¢ (because f= fo) therefore \ = ** ‘So that the wavelength of light is shorter inside a medium, we usually take the refractive index of air to be equal to one, but this is only anFermat's Principle Fermat's principle states that the time a ray takes in traveling from one point to another along its actual path is stationary with respect 10 ‘small changes of that path. Consider refraction of a ray at an interface between two media of refractive indices n and n’, as illustrated in Figure bellow. The optical ‘path length of a ray in propagating from a point A to another point A’ after refraction at a point lis given by d= (nit —n'w') ‘is a unit vector along the incident ray in the medium to the let ofthe surface. + ‘u’ is aunit vector along the refracted ray in the medium to the right of the surface.According to Fermat's principle, the derivative of the optical path length is Zero. In this section, we derive from Fermat's principle the three laws of geometrical optics, namely, rectilinear propagation in a homogeneous medium, refraction at an interface between two homogeneous media, and reflection at an interface. Rectilinear Propagation Principle of Reversibility Refraction Consider refraction of a ray at an interface between two media of refractive indices n and n’, as illustrated in Figure, 1 Y ‘The refraction equation is usually called Snell's law and is written as sini=n'sinr Where and rare the angles of incidence and refraction of the incident and refracted rays from the surface normal at the point of incidence. The Incident ray, the reflected ray, and the surface normal are coplanar.Reflection Now consider the reflection of a ray from a reflecting surface, as illustrated in Figure. Experiments and theory show that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence: f= This relationship is called the law of reflection. Optical systems ‘An optical system consists of a succession of elements, which may include lenses, mirrors, light sources, detectors, projection screens, reflecting prisms, dispersing devices, filters and thin films, and fibre-optics bundles. Plane Mirror Aplane mirror is a smooth or highly polished surface that reflects light in order to form an image.‘When a plane mirror is rotated through an angle a the reflected ray turns through the angle 2a. Refraction through a Transparent Sheet Let the ray is incident at face A. Apply the Snell's law at faces A and B,‘The incident ray and emerging ray are parallel. It shows that the deviation of ray is not affected by the refractive index of the sheet (a Slab); it depends by ny and m3. n2 only causes lateral displacement which is given by = ‘Shift Due to a Glass Slab (Double Refraction from Plane Surfaces). A: object, Image given by media Dy(n.n) Calculate the distance A. For weak angles,AA = e(1— 1 ‘Optical Fibers Another intresting application of total i another. As indicated in Figure bellow, light is confined to traveling within a rod, even around curves, as the result of successive total intemal reflections. Such a light pipe is flexible if thin fibers are used rather than thick rods. A flexible light pipe is called an optical fiber. lernal reflection is the use of glass or transparent plastic rods to “pipe light from one place to tight royFront view ‘Side view in the meridian plane