Acknowledgement

I’d like to express my greatest gratitude to the people who have helped
& supported me throughout my project. I will treasure the knowledge
imparted to me by MR.ABHINESH PANDEY, my grateful thanks to him
for the able teaching and guidance, his continuous support for the
project, from initial advice & encouragement to this day.

Special thanks of mine goes to my colleague who helped me in

completing the project by giving interesting ideas, thoughts & made
this project easy and accurate.

I wish to thanks my parents for their undivided support & interest who
inspired me & encouraged me to go my own way, without which I
would be unable to complete my project.

At last but not the least I want to thanks my friends who appreciated
me for my work & motivated me and finally to God who made all the
things possible!!!!
 Certificate
This is to certify that the project work on RAY OPTICS
based on the curriculum of CBSE has been completed
by KRISHNA KUMAWAT of class 12TH SCIENCE of SHRI
BHARTIYA SANSKRITI SHIKSHA SANSTHAN .
The above mentioned project work has been
completed under my guidance during the academic
year 2024-25 .

Teacher's Signature Principal Signature

_______________ _______________
External’s Signature
________________
 Index

1. Introduction To Ray Optics

2. Newton’s Corpuscular theory
3. FOUR LAWS USED IN THE STUDY OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
4. Apparent Depth
5. Speed of Light
6. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
7. Dispersion and Prisms
8. Some Natural Phenomena due to Sunlight
9. REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY A PLANE MIRROR
10. RELATION BETWEEN F AND R
11. IMPORTANT RAY PATHS
12. IMAGE FORMATION BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
13. The LENS
14. Refraction from a spherical surface
15. LENS MAKER’S FORMULA
16. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Introduction To Ray Optics

Optics is a branch of physical science dealing with the propagation and

behavior of light. In a general sense, light is that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that extends from X rays to microwaves and
includes the radiant energy that produces the sensation of vision
(Electromagnetic Radiation, Energy; Spectrum, X Ray). The study of
optics is divided into geometrical optics and physical optics, and out of
these branches, Geometrical Optics or Ray Optics are discussed below.

The Ray Optics, uses the geometry of straight lines to account for
macroscopic phenomenon like rectilinear propagation, reflection,
refraction, etc. That is why Ray Optics is called Geometrical Optics
Light form of energy gives sensation of sight. Study of all aspects of light
related to rectilinear propagation of light is Ray Optics. Lenses and
mirrors using principles of reflection and refraction are used in the
study of Ray Optics.
 Newton’s corpuscular
theory

A source of light continuously emits corpuscles in all directions. These

particles are elastic and travel in straight lines with an enormous
velocity. Corpuscles produce sensation of vision when they fall on the
retina of the eye. Using it, Newton was able to explain the laws of
reflection and refraction, but this theory couldn’t explain the
phenomenon of interference, diffraction, polarization etc.
The following are certain conclusions of corpuscular theory which are
against the experimentally observed facts.

i) This theory assumes that the source of light looses mass as

it emits corpuscles; but no such decrement in mass of the
source of light is detected.
 ii) According to this theory the velocity of light in denser
medium should be greater than that in air. This
assumption was proved wrong by Foucault’s experiment
conducted to measure the speed of light.
iii) This theory proposes that velocity of the corpuscles
increases as the temperature of the source
increases. Experiments have proved that the velocity
of light is independent of temperature.

Newton noticed that reflection and refraction could only be possible if light
is made up of particles (or, as he called them, corpuscles). His theory
of light states that light continuously emits small particles or
corpuscles that seem to change velocity when they pass from one
medium to another with different densities. Therefore, the speed of
light changes depending on the density of the medium it passes
through.
 FOUR LAWS USED IN
THE STUDY OF
GEOMETRICAL
OPTICS

1. Law of Rectilinear propagation of light :

The rectilinear propagation of light is a phenomenon which tells that

light travels in a straight line. It can change its direction only when
either it is reflected from a surface or change its medium of
propagation, i.e. refraction. This concept of rectilinear propagation of
light is used to understand the various optical phenomena.
 2. Law of Independence of light rays :
It states that rays do not disturb each other upon intersection.

3. Laws Of Reflection :

The law of reflection of light states that the reflected ray lies in the
same plane with the incident ray and with the normal to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence, the angle of reflection being equal to
the angle of incidence. The angle of incidence(i) is the angle between
the normal and the incident ray, while the angle of reflection(r) is the
angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

If the beam of parallel rays falls on a flat smooth surface, a parallel

beam will be obtained in the rejection. If a surface is not smooth for
given rays, diffuse reflection is observed since rays incident on such a
surface are reflected in all directions.
 4. Laws Of Refraction :

The law of refraction, which is generally known as Snell’s law,

govems the behaviour of light-rays as they propagate across a sharp
interface between two transparent medium.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and normal to the interface at
the point of incidence lie in the same plane i.e., they all are co-planar.

(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) and that of
the angle of refraction (r) is a constant for any two given media.

This is known as Snell's Law.

This constant is known as the refractive index of the second medium (in
which refracted ray propagates) with respect to the first medium (in
which incidence ray propagates)
Therefore equation (i) can be written as

The refractive index of a substance relative to vacuum (a ray passes

through the vacuum to the given medium) is called absolute refractive
index of the substance. If μ1 and μ2 are the absolute refractive index of
first and the second media respectively.
When light propagate through a series of layers of different media as
shown in the figure, then the Snell’s law may be written as :-
 Apparent Depth

An object placed in a denser medium, when viewed from rarer

medium appears to be at a lesser depth than its real depth due to
refraction of light. Moving into the air, they refracted and refracted
rays come to the eye. If the object is at a depth h in the water, an
observer from the air sees his character at a lower depth h’. It is shown
when the observer looks in the direction of the normal to the surface
of the water (or at a smaller angle relative to the normal), the real and
apparent depths are related by the equation:
If we look at a straight rod partially submerged in water, it appears to
bend at the surface. The reason behind this curious effect is that the
image of the rod inside the water forms a little closer to the surface
than the actual position of the rod, so it does not line up with the part
of the rod that is above the water. The same phenomenon explains
why a fish in water appears to be closer to the surface than it actually
is.

Speed of Light

The rate at which the light travels in free space is called the Speed of
light. For example, light travels 30% slower in water when compared to
vacuum.
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

The picture below shows rays of monochromatic light from a light

source in water incident on the interface between the water and air.
For ray a, which is perpendicular to the interface, part of the light
reflects at the interface and the rest travels through it with no change
in direction. For rays b through d, which have progressively larger
angles of incidence at the interface, there are also both reflection and
refraction at the interface. As the angle of incidence increases, the
angle of refraction increases; for ray e it is 90”, which means that the
refracted ray points directly along the interface. The angle of incidence
giving this situation is called the critical angle a. For angles of incidence
larger than a, such as for ray f, there is no refracted ray and all the light
is reflected; this effect is called total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection has found many applications in medical
technology.
For example, a physician view the interior of an artery of a patient by
running two thin bundles of optical fibers through the chest wall and
into an artery. Light introduced at the outer end of one bundle
undergoes repeated total internal reflection within the fibers so that,
even though the bundle provides a curved path, most of the light ends
up exiting the other end and illuminating the interior of the artery.
Some of the light reflected from the interior then comes back up the
second bundle in a similar way, to be detected and converted to an
image on a monitor’s screen for the physician to view.
 Dispersion and Prisms

The dependence of the index of refraction on wavelength is called

dispersion. Because n is a function of wavelength, Snell’s law indicates
that the angle of refraction made when light enters a material depends
on the wavelength of the light. The index of refraction for a material
usually decreases with increasing wavelength. This means that violet
light (x=400 nm) refracts more than red light (x=650 nm) when passing
from air into a material. To understand the effects of dispersion on
light, consider what happens when light strikes a prism. A ray of light
of a single wavelength that is incident on the prism from the left
emerges
bent away from its original direction of travel by an angle 5, called the
angle of deviation.
Angle of deviation is increased with index of refraction. Now suppose a
beam of white light (a combination of all visible wavelengths) is
incident on a glass prism.

The glass prism split the light into a band of seven colours on his wall.
This band of colours represent ‘spectrum’. The order of colours from
the lower end of spectrum is violet (V), indigo (I), blue (B), green (G),
yellow (Y), orange (O), and red (R).
 Some Natural Phenomena due to
Sunlight

The Rainbow:

Primary Rainbow :- Rainbow is formed due to two times refraction and

one time total internal reflection in water drop present in atmosphere.
Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop, which causes the
different wavelengths of white light to separate. Longer wavelength of
light (red) are bent the least while the shorter wavelength (violet) are
bent the most. Next, these component rays strike the inner surface of
the water droplet and gets internally reflected if the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle. The reflected light is again refracted as
it comes out of the drop. It is found that violet light emerges at an
angle 40° related to the incoming sunlight and red light emerges at an
angle of 42°.
Secondary Rainbow :- When light rays undergoes two internal
refraction inside the rain drop, a secondary raindrop is formed. Its
intensity is less compared to primary due to four stem process. Violet
ray makes an angle of 53° and red light rays makes 50° with related to
incoming sunlight. The order of colours is reversed.

Rayleigh Scattering:
The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power
of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.
Why Sky Is Blue?
As sunlight travels through the earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered
(changes its direction) by the atmospheric particles. Light of shorter
wavelengths is scattered much more than Light of longer wavelengths.
The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power
of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering. Hence, the
bluish colour predominates in a clear sky, since blue has a shorter
wavelength than red and is scattered much more strongly. In fact, violet
gets scattered even more than blue, having a shorter wavelength. But
since our eyes are more sensitive to blue than violet, we see the sky
blue.
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY
A PLANE MIRROR

The following properties of a plane mirror are worth mentioning:-

1. A plane mirror can be used to deviate light from one direction to
another. The angle AOM made by incident ray AO with MM| is
known as the glancing angle (g) with the mirror.

Hence the angle of deviation of a ray by a plane mirror is twice

the glancing angle or a ray is deviated through an angle.

2. When plane mirror is rotated through a certain angle θ, then

the reflected ray turns through an angle 2θ.
3. If the plane mirror moves away or towards an object by a distance
d, then the image moves away or towards the object by a
distance 2d.
 4. If the mirror moves with speed ‘u’ towards or away from a
fixed object, then the image appears to move towards or away
from the object with speed 2u.
5. If the object moves with speed ‘u’ towards mirror. The image
also moves towards the mirror with speed ‘u’. The speed of the
image relative to the object in this case is 2u.
6. The image formed by plane mirror is virtual, erect and
laterally inverted.
7. The magnification of plane mirror is 1 i.e., size of object = size of
image.
8. The left side of an object appears as the right side of the image.
9. Power of a plane mirror is zero.
10. When two plane mirrors are kept facing to each other at
an angle and an object is placed between them, multiple images
of the object are formed as of multiple successive reflection.

11. The minimum size of the mirror required to be fixed on the

wall of a room, so that an observer in the middle of the room
can see full image of wall behind him is 1/3 of the height of the
wall.
12. Reflection from a denser medium causes a phase difference
of π.
 RELATION BETWEEN F AND
R:

A ray AM parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror of small

aperture is reflected through the principal focus F. If C is the centre of
curvature, CM is normal to the mirror at M because the radius of a
spherical surface is perpendicular to the surface.
 IMPORTANT RAY PATHS
Of all the possible rays we could draw from a single point on an object.
There are four rays that are particularly useful in locating the
corresponding image point.
1. A ray passing parallel to principle axis after reflection from the
mirror passes or appear to pass through its focus.

2. A ray initially passing through or directed towards focus after

reflection from the mirror becomes parallel to the principal
axis.
3. A ray initially passing through or directed towards centre of
curvature, after reflection from the mirror retraces its path.

4. Incident and reflected rays at the pole of a mirror are

symmetrical about the principal axis (As for pole principle axis
acts as normal and from laws of reflection i = r)
 IMAGE FORMATION
BY SPHERICAL
MIRRORS
(i) For CONCAVE mirror:

(ii) For CONVEX mirror:

 The LENS
A lens is a piece of transparent material bounded by two refracting
surface out of which at least one is curved. If thickness of a lens is small
and its curved surface is spherical then lens is known as thin spherical
lens.

Refraction from a spherical

surface:
Consider two transparent media having refractive index μ1 and μ2.
Where the boundary between the two media is a spherical surfaces of
radius R. We assume that μ1 < μ1. Let us consider a single ray leaving
point O and focusing at point I.
 LENS MAKER’S FORMULA
Lens is a piece of transparent material with its sides ground to spherical
form. The spherical surfaces may be convex or concave. A biconvex
lens is known as converging lens. A biconcave lens is known as
diverging lens. Sometimes lenses may have a plane and a spherical
surface i.e., we can have Plano-convex or Plano-concave lenses also.
The line joining the centers of curvature of the two surfaces of a lens is
called ‘principal axis’.
The rays traveling parallel to the principal axis’.
The rays traveling parallel to the principal axis when incident on one of
the spherical surfaces converge at a point on the other side on the
principal axis after refraction. This, point is called ‘principal focus’. A
lens has one principal focus on either side of it.
The distance between the optical center and principal focus is called
‘focal length’.
For a thin lens the relation among the object distance, image distance
and focal length is given by

Usually a lens is ground to some specific focal length (f) using glass
material of known refractive index (μ). Then the radii of curvature of
the spherical surfaces R1, R2 are decided according to the equation.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. practically.com
2. brainly.com
3. physicsnotes.com
4. toppr.com
5. Wikipedia
6. quora.com
7. ISC Nootan Class 12th Physics Book

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YOU