Atomic force microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very high-resolution
type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of
a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.

An atomic force microscope on the left with controlling computer on the right.

Overview

Block diagram of atomic force microscope using beam deflection detection. As the cantilever is displaced via its
interaction with the surface, so too will the reflection of the laser beam be displaced on the surface of the
photodiode.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very high-resolution
type of scanning probe microscopy(SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of
a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.
Abilities of an AFM
Using an atomic force microscope (AFM), it is possible to measure a roughness of a sample surface
at a high resolution, to distinguish a sample based on its mechanical properties (for example,
hardness and roughness) and, in addition, to perform a microfabrication of a sample (for example,
an atomic manipulation).
In the field of semiconductor physics, for example, (a) an identification of atoms at a surface, (b)
evaluation of an interaction between a specific atom and its neighboring atoms, and (c) a change in
physical properties arisen from a change in an atomic arrangement through the atomic manipulation
have been studied.
In a field of a cellular biology, for example, (a) an attempt to distinguish cancer cells and normal cells
based on a hardness of cells, and (b) an attempt to evaluate of an interaction between a specific cell
and its neighboring cells in a competitive culture system have been made.
In some variations, electric potentials can also be scanned using conducting cantilevers. In more
advanced versions, currents can be passed through the tip to probe the electrical conductivity or
transport of the underlying surface, but this is much more challenging with few research groups
reporting consistent data (as of 2004).[1]
The information is gathered by "feeling" or "touching" the surface with a mechanical
probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but accurate and precise movements on (electronic)
command enable the very precise scanning.
Operation Modes
The operation modes of AFM are generally classified into image formation and the others. The
image formation is a plotting method as a color mapping (Similar kind or color mapping is introduced
as a function of the Origin (R) [1]) through changing the x-y position of the tip by scanning and
corresponding some particular amount (a measured variable/the intensity of control signal) to each
x-y coordinate. In this respect, the color mapping is a method which corresponds a value (a
measured value, etc.) to each coordinate and shows it. It means the image which especially
expresses the intensity of a value as a hue. Usually, the correspondence between the intensity of a
value and a hue is shown as a color scale in the explanatory notes. The other group includes various
matters such as force spectroscopy and potential mapping.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Examples of competitive technologies of the atomic force microscope include an optical microscope
and an electronic microscope. The major difference from these is that the atomic force microscope
has no lens and beam irradiation. Therefore, it is not suffered from a limitation of space resolution
due to a diffraction limit and an aberration and an ensuring a space for guiding the beam (such as
vacuum drawing) and a staining of the sample are not required.
There are several types of Scanning Microscopy including an Scanning Probe Microscopy, Scanning
Probe Microscopy (including AFM and STM), Scanning Near Field Optical
Microscopy(SNOM), STED microscopy(STED), and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Among them,
SNOM and STED use Visible light as prove however, resolution of them are not limited by diffraction
limit.
Details are described in the following section titled "Advantages and disadvantages".
Configurations
As shown in Fig.3. AFM is typically consisted of following features.;[2]
Fig.3: Typical configurations of AFM. Here, (1):Cantilever ,(2):Support(Configured to support
cantilever.), (3):Piezoelectric element(Configured to oscillate cantilever at its eigen frequency.),(4):Tip (Fixed to
open end of a cantilever, work as a probe of AFM,(5):Detector (Configured to detect the deflection and motion
of the cantilever.),(6): Sample (Will be measure by AFM),(7):xyz-drive, (Moving a Sample (6) and Sample (8)
Stage to be displaced in x, y, and z directions with respect to a tip apex(4)), and (8):Stage.

 Cantilever ((1) of Fig.3) : Small spring-like cantilever ((1) of Fig.3) is

supported on the support ((2) of Fig.3) by means of a piezoelectric
element ((3) of Fig.3) so as to oscillate the cantilever ((1) of Fig.3) at
its eigen frequency ;
 Sharp tip ((4) of Fig.3) which is fixed to open end of a cantilever ((1)
of Fig.3) .
 Detector ((5) of Fig.3) configured to detect the deflection and motion
of the cantilever ((1) of Fig.3) .
 Sample ((6) of Fig.3) will be measure by AFM are mounted on
Sample stage ((8) of Fig.3).
 xyz-drive ((7) of Fig.3) which permits a sample ((6) of Fig.3) and
Sample stage ((8) of Fig.3) to be displaced in x, y, and z directions
with respect to a tip apex((4) of Fig.3)
 Controllers and plotter (Not shown in Fig.3) .
Here, numbers surrounded by parentheses like "(1)" on Fig.3 are sign to indicate feature (See Fig.3).
Datum coordination (0) indicates the x-y-z direction.
According to aforementioned configuration, "tip - sample interaction" (in some cases, it could be
atomic scale phenomenon) are transduced into the "change of the motion of cantilever" (that is
macro scale phenomenon).
◆Detector
The detector ((5) of Fig.3) of AFM measures the deflection (displacement) of cantilever and converts
it into an electrical signal. So, during the oscillating (that is to say a change in the defection of
cantilever with respect to time) motion, the output of the detector of AFM is a Time-Intensity curve,
the Intensity will be proportional to the displacement of cantilever.The motion of cantilever is
regarded mostly as a sinusoidal vibration in the steady state. So, the output will approximately
regarded as a sine wave. As the sinusoidal vibration (sine wave) is characterized by three factors
(hereinafter referred to as “Three Factors of Waves”); frequency, amplitude, and phase, the
controller of AFM further comprising functionality which extracts at least a value of frequency,
amplitude of vibration and phase from the output signal of AFM detector and outputs it as an
electrical signal.
There are various embodiments of Detector ((5) of Fig.3), for example, Interferometer, optical lever,
piezoresistive method, tuning - fork method, and STM-based detector are available(see detail for
following section titled "AFM cantilever deflection measurement".).
◆Controllers and Operation mode
In some embodiments, Controllers further comprising z-Feedback loop.When the sample has
concavity and convexity, the distance between the probe and the sample varies in accordance with
the concavity and convexity accompanied with a scan of the sample along x-y direction (without
height regulation in z-direction).
Operation mode of Image forming of the AFM are generally classified into two groups from the
viewpoint whether or not it use z-Feedback loop (not shown) to maintain the tip-sample distance to
preserve motions of the cantilever. First one (do not use z-Feedback loop) is said to be “constant
height mode”. Second one (using z-Feedback loop), said to be “constant force mode” (force is
controlled by monitoring the deflection of the cantilever, which is also something kept by z-Feedback
loop).
Image forming of AFM

Fig.4: X-Y scan of AFM. Here,(1):Tip, (2):Sample, (3):Cantilever, and(4):X-Y Orbit of tip apex.

The image formation is a plotting method as a color mapping through changing the x-y position of
the tip by scanning and corresponding some particular amount (a measured variable/the intensity of
control signal) to each x-y coordinate. In this respect, the color mapping (similar kind or color
mapping is introduced as a function of the Origin (R) [2])is a method which corresponds a value (a
measured value, etc.) to each coordinate and shows it. It means the image which especially
expresses the intensity of a value as a hue.
The image formation methods which use AFM are classified broadly into the ones which use z-
Feedback loop and the others. The former method is called "Topographic Image Formation Mode"
and the latter one is called "Constant Height Mode".
Fig.5: Schematics of Topographic image forming by AFM. Here, (1):Tip apex, (2):Sample surface, (3):Z-Orbit
of Tip apex, and (4):Cantilever.

In Topographic Image Formation Mode, z-Feedback loop controls the relative distance between the
probe and the sample through outputting control signals to keep constant one of frequency, vibration
and phase which typically corresponds to the motion of cantilever. For instance, voltage is applied to
the piezoelectric element Z and it moves the sample up and down towards the Z direction (It will be
detailed later).
In Constant Height Mode, the distance between the probe and the sample is not controlled and the
probe x-y coordinate is changed by scanning. Accordingly, the distance between the sample stage
and the tip-apex becomes constant. That distance is to say, “height”. Then, the distance between the
probe and the sample surface changes according to the undulation of the sample as it scans. The
distance “a measured variable” (any of frequency, vibration amplitude, phase or variables produced
after processing them under any calculation) between the tip-apex and the sample surface changes
in each x-y coordinate. Constant Height Mode is a plotting method as a color mapping through
corresponding.
History
AFM was invented by IBM Scientists in 1986.The precursor to the AFM, the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM), was developed byGerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in the early 1980s at IBM
Research - Zurich, a development that earned them the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1986. Binnig
invented[2] the atomic force microscope and the first experimental implementation was made by
Binnig, Quate andGerber in 1986.[3]
The first commercially available atomic force microscope was introduced in 1989. The AFM is one of
the foremost tools for imaging, measuring, and manipulating matter at the nanoscale.

Principles

Electron micrograph of a used AFM cantilever image width ~100 micrometers...

and ~30 micrometers

The AFM consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip (probe) at its end that is used to scan the specimen
surface. The cantilever is typically siliconor silicon nitride with a tip radius of curvature on the order of
nanometers. When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample surface, forcesbetween the tip and
the sample lead to a deflection of the cantilever according to Hooke's law.[4] Depending on the
situation, forces that are measured in AFM include mechanical contact force, van der Waals
forces, capillary forces, chemical bonding, electrostatic forces, magnetic forces (see magnetic force
microscope, MFM), Casimir forces, solvation forces, etc. Along with force, additional quantities may
simultaneously be measured through the use of specialized types of probes (see scanning thermal
microscopy, scanning joule expansion microscopy,photothermal microspectroscopy, etc.). Typically,
the deflection is measured using a laser spot reflected from the top surface of the cantilever into an
array of photodiodes. Other methods that are used include optical interferometry, capacitive
sensing or piezoresistive AFM cantilevers. These cantilevers are fabricated with piezoresistive
elements that act as a strain gauge. Using a Wheatstone bridge, strain in the AFM cantilever due to
deflection can be measured, but this method is not as sensitive as laser deflection or interferometry.
[citation needed]

Atomic force microscope topographical scan of a glass surface. The micro and nano-scale features of the glass
can be observed, portraying the roughness of the material. The image space is (x,y,z) = (20 µm × 20 µm ×
420 nm).

If the tip was scanned at a constant height, a risk would exist that the tip collides with the surface,
causing damage. Hence, in most cases afeedback mechanism is employed to adjust the tip-to-
sample distance to maintain a constant force between the tip and the sample. Traditionally the tip or
sample is mounted on a 'tripod' of three piezo crystals, with each responsible for scanning in
the x,y and z directions.[5]In 1986, the same year as the AFM was invented, a
new piezoelectric scanner, the tube scanner, was developed for use in STM.[6] Later tube scanners
were incorporated into AFMs. The tube scanner can move the sample in the x, y, and z directions
using a single tube piezo with a single interior contact and four external contacts. An advantage of
the tube scanner is better vibrational isolation, resulting from the higher resonant frequency of the
single-crystal construction in combination with a low resonant frequency isolation stage. A
disadvantage is that thex-y motion can cause unwanted z motion resulting in distortion.
The AFM can be operated in a number of modes, depending on the application. In general, possible
imaging modes are divided into static (also called contact) modes and a variety of dynamic (non-
contact or "tapping") modes where the cantilever is vibrated or oscillated at a given frequency.[5]
Imaging Modes
AFM operation is usually described as one of three modes, according to the nature of the tip motion:

 contact mode, also called static mode (as opposed to the other two
modes, which are called dynamic modes)
  tapping mode, also called intermittent contact, AC mode, or
vibrating mode, or, after the detection mechanism, amplitude
modulation AFM
 non-contact mode, or, again after the detection mechanism,
frequency modulation AFM

Contact Mode
In contact mode, the tip is "dragged" across the surface of the sample and the contours of the
surface are measured either using the deflection of the cantilever directly or, more commonly, using
the feedback signal required to keep the cantilever at a constant position. Because the
measurement of a static signal is prone to noise and drift, low stiffness cantilevers (i.e. cantilevers
with a low spring constant, k) are used to boost the deflection signal. Close to the surface of the
sample, attractive forces can be quite strong, causing the tip to "snap-in" to the surface. Thus,
contact mode AFM is almost always done at a depth where the overall force is repulsive, that is, in
firm "contact" with the solid surface below any adsorbed layers.

Tapping Mode

Single polymer chains (0.4 nm thick) recorded in a tapping mode under aqueous media with different pH.[7]

In ambient conditions, most samples develop a liquid meniscus layer. Because of this, keeping the
probe tip close enough to the sample for short-range forces to become detectable while preventing
the tip from sticking to the surface presents a major problem for non-contact dynamic mode in
ambient conditions. Dynamic contact mode (also called intermittent contact, AC mode or tapping
mode) was developed to bypass this problem.[8]
In tapping mode, the cantilever is driven to oscillate up and down at or near its resonance frequency
by a small piezoelectric element mounted in the AFM tip holder similar to non-contact mode.
However, the amplitude of this oscillation is greater than 10 nm, typically 100 to 200 nm. The
interaction of forces acting on the cantilever when the tip comes close to the surface, Van der Waals
forces, dipole-dipole interactions,electrostatic forces, etc. cause the amplitude of this oscillation to
decrease as the tip gets closer to the sample. An electronic servo uses thepiezoelectric actuator to
control the height of the cantilever above the sample. The servo adjusts the height to maintain a set
cantilever oscillation amplitude as the cantilever is scanned over the sample. A tapping AFM image
is therefore produced by imaging the force of the intermittent contacts of the tip with the sample
surface.[9]
This method of "tapping" lessens the damage done to the surface and the tip compared to the
amount done in contact mode. Additionally, there are significant less lateral forces in the tip-sample
interaction in tapping mode over contact mode. Tapping mode is gentle enough even for the
visualization of supported lipid bilayers or adsorbed single polymer molecules (for instance, 0.4 nm
thick chains of synthetic polyelectrolytes) under liquid medium. With proper scanning parameters,
the conformation of single molecules can remain unchanged for hours.[7]

Non-contact mode

AFM – non-contact mode

In non-contact atomic force microscopy mode, the tip of the cantilever does not contact the sample
surface. The cantilever is instead oscillated at either its resonant frequency (frequency modulation)
or just above (amplitude modulation) where the amplitude of oscillation is typically a few nanometers
(<10 nm) down to a few picometers.[10]The van der Waals forces, which are strongest from 1 nm to
10 nm above the surface, or any other long-range force that extends above the surface acts to
decrease the resonance frequency of the cantilever. This decrease in resonant frequency combined
with the feedback loop system maintains a constant oscillation amplitude or frequency by adjusting
the average tip-to-sample distance. Measuring the tip-to-sample distance at each (x,y) data point
allows the scanning software to construct a topographic image of the sample surface.
Non-contact mode AFM does not suffer from tip or sample degradation effects that are sometimes
observed after taking numerous scans with contact AFM. This makes non-contact AFM preferable to
contact AFM for measuring soft samples, e.g. biological samples and organic thin film. In the case of
rigid samples, contact and non-contact images may look the same. However, if a few monolayers
of adsorbed fluid are lying on the surface of a rigid sample, the images may look quite different. An
AFM operating in contact mode will penetrate the liquid layer to image the underlying surface,
whereas in non-contact mode an AFM will oscillate above the adsorbed fluid layer to image both the
liquid and surface.
Schemes for dynamic mode operation include frequency modulation where a phase-locked loop is
used to track the cantilever's resonance frequency and the more common amplitude modulation with
a servo loop in place to keep the cantilever excitation to a defined amplitude. In frequency
modulation, changes in the oscillation frequency provide information about tip-sample interactions.
Frequency can be measured with very high sensitivity and thus the frequency modulation mode
allows for the use of very stiff cantilevers. Stiff cantilevers provide stability very close to the surface
and, as a result, this technique was the first AFM technique to provide true atomic resolution in ultra-
high vacuum conditions.[11]
In amplitude modulation, changes in the oscillation amplitude or phase provide the feedback signal
for imaging. In amplitude modulation, changes in the phase of oscillation can be used to discriminate
between different types of materials on the surface. Amplitude modulation can be operated either in
the non-contact or in the intermittent contact regime. In dynamic contact mode, the cantilever is
oscillated such that the separation distance between the cantilever tip and the sample surface is
modulated.
Amplitude modulation has also been used in the non-contact regime to image with atomic resolution
by using very stiff cantilevers and small amplitudes in an ultra-high vacuum environment.

Topographic Image of AFM

What is the topographic image of atomic force microscope?
Operation mode of Image forming of the AFM are generally classified into two groups from the
viewpoint whether it uses z-Feedback loop (not shown) to maintain the tip-sample distance to keep
signal intensity exported by the detector. The first one (using z-Feedback loop), said to be
“constant XX mode” (XX is something which kept by z-Feedback loop).
Topographic Image Formation Mode is based on abovementioned “constant XX mode”, z-Feedback
loop controls the relative distance between the probe and the sample through outputting control
signals to keep constant one of frequency, vibration and phase which typically corresponds to the
motion of cantilever (for instance, voltage is applied to the Z-piezoelectric element and it moves the
sample up and down towards the Z direction.
Details will be explained in the case that especially “constant df mode”(FM-AFM) among AFM as an
instance in next section.
Topographic Image of FM-AFM
When the distance between the probe and the sample is brought to the range where atomic force
may be detected, while a cantilever is excited in its natural eigen frequency (f0), a phenomenon that
the resonance frequency (f) of the cantilever shifts from the original resonance frequency (natural
eigen frequency) of the cantilever. In other words, in the range where atomic force may be detected,
the frequency shift (df=f-f0) will be observed. So, when the distance between the probe and the
sample is in the non-contact region, the frequency shift increases in negative direction as the
distance between the probe and the sample gets smaller.
When the sample has concavity and convexity, the distance between the tip-apex and the sample
varies in accordance with the concavity and convexity accompanied with a scan of the sample along
x-y direction (without height regulation in z-direction) . As a result, the frequency shift arises. The
image in which the values of the frequency obtained by a raster scan along the x-y direction of the
sample surface are plotted against the x-y coordination of each measurement point is called a
constant-height image.
On the other hand, the df may be kept constant by moving the probe upward and downward (See (3)
of FIG.5) in z-direction using a negative feedback (by using z-feedback loop) while the raster scan of
the sample surface along the x-y direction . The image in which the amounts of the negative
feedback (the moving distance of the probe upward and downward in z-direction) are plotted against
the x-y coordination of each measurement point is a topographic image. In other words, the
topographic image is a trace of the tip of the probe regulated so that the df is constant and it may
also be considered to be a plot of a constant-height surface of the df.
Therefore, the topographic image of the AFM is not the exact surface morphology itself, but actually
the image influenced by the bond-order between the probe and the sample, however, the
topographic image of the AFM is considered to reflect the geographical shape of the surface more
than the topographic image of a scanning tunnel microscope.
Force spectroscopy
Another major application of AFM (besides imaging) is force spectroscopy, the direct measurement
of tip-sample interaction forces as a function of the gap between the tip and sample (the result of this
measurement is called a force-distance curve). For this method, the AFM tip is extended towards
and retracted from the surface as the deflection of the cantilever is monitored as a function
of piezoelectric displacement. These measurements have been used to measure nanoscale
contacts, atomic bonding, Van der Waals forces, and Casimir forces, dissolution forces in liquids and
single molecule stretching and rupture forces.[12] Furthermore, AFM was used to measure, in an
aqueous environment, the dispersion force due to polymer adsorbed on the substrate.[13] Forces of
the order of a few piconewtons can now be routinely measured with a vertical distance resolution of
better than 0.1 nanometers. Force spectroscopy can be performed with either static or dynamic
modes. In dynamic modes, information about the cantilever vibration is monitored in addition to the
static deflection.[14]
Problems with the technique include no direct measurement of the tip-sample separation and the
common need for low-stiffness cantilevers, which tend to 'snap' to the surface. These problems are
not insurmountable. An AFM that directly measures the tip-sample separation has been developed.
[15]
The snap-in can be reduced by measuring in liquids or by using stiffer cantilevers, but in the latter
case a more sensitive deflection sensor is needed. By applying a small dither to the tip, the stiffness
(force gradient) of the bond can be measured as well.[16]
Biological applications and other
Force spectroscopy is used in biophysics to measure the mechanical properties of living material
(such as tissue or cells).[17] Another application was to measure the interaction forces between from
one hand a material stuck on the tip of the cantilever, and from another hand the surface of particles
either free or occupied by the same material. From the adhesion force distribution curve, a mean
value of the forces has been derived. It allowed to make a cartography of the surface of the particles,
covered or not by the material.[18]

Identification of individual surface atoms

The AFM can be used to image and manipulate atoms and structures on a variety of surfaces. The
atom at the apex of the tip "senses" individual atoms on the underlying surface when it forms
incipient chemical bonds with each atom. Because these chemical interactions subtly alter the tip's
vibration frequency, they can be detected and mapped. This principle was used to distinguish
between atoms of silicon, tin and lead on an alloy surface, by comparing these 'atomic fingerprints'
to values obtained from large-scaledensity functional theory (DFT) simulations.[19]
The trick is to first measure these forces precisely for each type of atom expected in the sample, and
then to compare with forces given by DFT simulations. The team found that the tip interacted most
strongly with silicon atoms, and interacted 24% and 41% less strongly with tin and lead atoms,
respectively. Thus, each different type of atom can be identified in the matrix as the tip is moved
across the surface.

Probe
An AFM probe has a sharp tip on the free-swinging end of a cantilever that is protruding from a
holder.[20] The dimensions of the cantilever are in the scale of micrometers. The radius of the tip is
usually on the scale of a few nanometers to a few tens of nanometers. (Specialized probes exist with
much larger end radii, for example probes for indentation of soft materials.) The cantilever holder,
also called holder chip, - often 1.6 mm by 3.4 mm in size - allows the operator to hold the AFM
cantilever/probe assembly with tweezers and fit it into the corresponding holder clips on the
scanning head of the atomic force microscope.
This device is most commonly called an "AFM probe", but other names include "AFM tip" and
"cantilever" (employing the name of a single part as the name of the whole device). An AFM probe is
a particular type of SPM (scanning probe microscopy) probe.
AFM probes are manufactured with MEMS technology. Most AFM probes used are made
from silicon (Si), but borosilicate glass and silicon nitride are also in use. AFM probes are considered
consumables as they are often replaced when the tip apex becomes dull or contaminated or when
the cantilever is broken. They can cost from a couple of tens of dollars up to hundreds of dollars per
cantilever for the most specialized cantilever/probe combinations.
Just the tip is brought very close to the surface of the object under investigation, the cantilever is
deflected by the interaction between the tip and the surface, which is what the AFM is designed to
measure. A spatial map of the interaction can be made by measuring the deflection at many points
on a 2D surface.
Several types of interaction can be detected. Depending on the interaction under investigation, the
surface of the tip of the AFM probe needs to be modified with a coating. Among the coatings used
are gold - for covalent bonding of biological molecules and the detection of their interaction with a
surface,[21] diamond for increased wear resistance[22]and magnetic coatings for detecting the magnetic
properties of the investigated surface.[23]
The surface of the cantilevers can also be modified. These coatings are mostly applied in order to
increase the reflectance of the cantilever and to improve the deflection signal.

AFM cantilever deflection measurement

Beam deflection measurement

AFM beam deflection detection

The most common method for cantilever deflection measurements is the beam deflection method. In
this method, laser light from a solid-state diode is reflected off the back of the cantilever and
collected by a position-sensitive detector (PSD) consisting of two closely spaced photodiodes whose
output signal is collected by a differential amplifier. Angular displacement of the cantilever results in
one photodiode collecting more light than the other photodiode, producing an output signal (the
difference between the photodiode signals normalized by their sum), which is proportional to the
deflection of the cantilever. It detects cantilever deflections <10 nm (thermal noise limited). A long
beam path (several centimeters) amplifies changes in beam angle.
Other deflection measurement methods
Many other methods for beam deflection measurements exist.
  Piezoelectric detection — Cantilevers made from quartz[24] (such as
the qPlus configuration), or otherpiezoelectric materials can directly
detect deflection as an electrical signal. Cantilever oscillations down
to 10pm have been detected with this method.
 Laser Doppler vibrometry — A laser Doppler vibrometer can be
used to produce very accurate deflection measurements for an
oscillating cantilever[25] (thus is only used in non-contact mode). This
method is expensive and is only used by relatively few groups.
 STM — The first atomic microscope used an STM complete with its
own feedback mechanism to measure deflection.[5] This method is
very difficult to implement, and is slow to react to deflection changes
compared to modern methods.
 Optical Interferometry — Optical interferometry can be used to
measure cantilever deflection.[26] Due to the nanometre scale
deflections measured in AFM, the interferometer is running in the
sub-fringe regime, thus, any drift in laser power or wavelength has
strong effects on the measurement. For these reasons optical
interferometer measurements must be done with great care (for
example using index matching fluids between optical fibre
junctions), with very stable lasers. For these reasons optical
interferometry is rarely used.
 Capacitive detection — Metal coated cantilevers can form
a capacitor with another contact located behind the cantilever.
[27]
Deflection changes the distance between the contacts and can
be measured as a change in capacitance.
 Piezoresistive detection — Similar to piezoelectric detection, but
uses piezoresistive cantilevers to measure the detection.[28] This is
not commonly used as the piezoresistive detection dissipates
energy from the system affecting Q of the resonance.

Piezoelectric scanners
AFM scanners are made from piezoelectric material, which expands and contracts proportionally to
an applied voltage. Whether they elongate or contract depends upon the polarity of the voltage
applied. The scanner is constructed by combining independently operated piezo electrodes for X, Y,
and Z into a single tube, forming a scanner that can manipulate samples and probes with extreme
precision in 3 dimensions. Independent stacks of piezos can be used instead of a tube, resulting in
decoupled X, Y, and Z movement.
Scanners are characterized by their sensitivity, which is the ratio of piezo movement to piezo
voltage, i.e., by how much the piezo material extends or contracts per applied volt. Because of
differences in material or size, the sensitivity varies from scanner to scanner. Sensitivity varies non-
linearly with respect to scan size. Piezo scanners exhibit more sensitivity at the end than at the
beginning of a scan. This causes the forward and reverse scans to behave differently and
display hysteresis between the two scan directions.[29]This can be corrected by applying a non-linear
voltage to the piezo electrodes to cause linear scanner movement and calibrating the scanner
accordingly.[29] One disadvantage of this approach is that it requires re-calibration because the
precise non-linear voltage needed to correct non-linear movement will change as the piezo ages
(see below). This problem can be circumvented by adding a linear sensor to the sample stage or
piezo stage to detect the true movement of the piezo. Deviations from ideal movement can be
detected by the sensor and corrections applied to the piezo drive signal to correct for non-linear
piezo movement. This design is known as a 'closed loop' AFM. Non-sensored piezo AFMs are
referred to as 'open loop' AFMs.
The sensitivity of piezoelectric materials decreases exponentially with time. This causes most of the
change in sensitivity to occur in the initial stages of the scanner’s life. Piezoelectric scanners are run
for approximately 48 hours before they are shipped from the factory so that they are past the point
where they may have large changes in sensitivity. As the scanner ages, the sensitivity will change
less with time and the scanner would seldom require recalibration,[30][31] though various manufacturer
manuals recommend monthly to semi-monthly calibration of open loop AFMs.

Advantages and disadvantages

The first atomic force microscope

Just like any other tool, an AFM's usefulness has limitations. When determining whether or not
analyzing a sample with an AFM is appropriate, there are various advantages and disadvantages
that must be considered.
Advantages[edit]
AFM has several advantages over the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Unlike the electron
microscope, which provides a two-dimensional projection or a two-dimensional image of a sample,
the AFM provides a three-dimensional surface profile. In addition, samples viewed by AFM do not
require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings) that would irreversibly change or
damage the sample, and does not typically suffer from charging artifacts in the final image. While an
electron microscope needs an expensivevacuum environment for proper operation, most AFM
modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment. This makes it possible to
study biological macromolecules and even living organisms. In principle, AFM can provide higher
resolution than SEM. It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV)
and, more recently, in liquid environments. High resolution AFM is comparable in resolution
to scanning tunneling microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. AFM can also be combined
with a variety of optical microscopy techniques such as fluorescent microscopy, further expanding its
applicability. Combined AFM-optical instruments have been applied primarily in the biological
sciences but have also found a niche in some materials applications, especially those involving
photovoltaics research.[9]
Disadvantages
A disadvantage of AFM compared with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) is the single scan
image size. In one pass, the SEM can image an area on the order of squaremillimeters with a depth
of field on the order of millimeters, whereas the AFM can only image a maximum height on the order
of 10-20 micrometers and a maximum scanning area of about 150×150 micrometers. One method of
improving the scanned area size for AFM is by using parallel probes in a fashion similar to that
of millipede data storage.
The scanning speed of an AFM is also a limitation. Traditionally, an AFM cannot scan images as fast
as a SEM, requiring several minutes for a typical scan, while a SEM is capable of scanning at near
real-time, although at relatively low quality. The relatively slow rate of scanning during AFM imaging
often leads to thermal drift in the image[32][33][34]making the AFM less suited for measuring accurate
distances between topographical features on the image. However, several fast-acting designs [35]
[36]
were suggested to increase microscope scanning productivity including what is being termed
videoAFM (reasonable quality images are being obtained with videoAFM at video rate: faster than
the average SEM). To eliminate image distortions induced by thermal drift, several methods have
been introduced.[32][33][34]
AFM images can also be affected by nonlinearity, hysteresis,[29] and creep of the piezoelectric
material and cross-talk between the x, y, z axes that may require software enhancement and
filtering. Such filtering could "flatten" out real topographical features. However, newer AFMs utilize
real-time correction software (for example, feature-oriented scanning[30][32]) or closed-loop scanners,
which practically eliminate these problems. Some AFMs also use separated orthogonal scanners (as
opposed to a single tube), which also serve to eliminate part of the cross-talk problems.

Showing an AFM artifact arising from a tip with a high radius of curvature with respect to the feature that is to
be visualized.

As with any other imaging technique, there is the possibility of image artifacts, which could be
induced by an unsuitable tip, a poor operating environment, or even by the sample itself, as depicted
on the right. These image artifacts are unavoidable; however, their occurrence and effect on results
can be reduced through various methods. Artifacts resulting from a too-coarse tip can be caused for
example by inappropriate handling or de facto collisions with the sample by either scanning too fast
or having an unreasonably rough surface, causing actual wearing of the tip.

AFM artifact, steep sample topography

Due to the nature of AFM probes, they cannot normally measure steep walls or overhangs. Specially
made cantilevers and AFMs can be used to modulate the probe sideways as well as up and down
(as with dynamic contact and non-contact modes) to measure sidewalls, at the cost of more
expensive cantilevers, lower lateral resolution and additional artifacts.