METALLURGY

4th SEMESTER

Dr Sukla Chakladar,

Associate Professor,RNLKWC(A),Midnapore

General PrInciples of metallurgy

1. Chief modes of occurrence of metals based on standard electrode potentials:

The metals are very useful to us. Earth crust is the major source of
metals.Sea water is also a source where the metals salts remain in dissolved form.
Al is the most abundant metal in the earth crust and the second abundant metal is
Fe. Metals exist in the earth crust in two forms.

Metals

Native State Or Free State Combined State

(least reactive metals e.g.Au,Pt) (exist in the form of compounds)

(Reactive metals like Na,K,Ca,Mg etc.)

[Exist as oxide,Chloride,carbonate and sulfides etc.]

*Combined as well as native state: Cu,Ag

Reactivity series of metals are arranged on the basis of standard reduction

potentials of metals. Standard reduction potential of metals at 25 0 C are shown in
the table. The table shows that from Li downwards Std Electrode potentials get
increased accordingly, which indicates the tendency of being reduced gets
increased down the series. Thus below the position of the metal in the reactivity
series , greater is the probability of the metal to exist as in the free or native state.
Thus the metals lying top in the series are most reactive and do not exist in the free
state at all and exist in the combined form. As we go down the series, probability
of finding the metal in earth crust gets increased.
Table:Standard Electrode Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25°C

Cathode (Reduction) Standard Potential

Half-Reaction E° (volts)
Li+(aq) + e- -> Li(s) -3.04
K+(aq) + e- -> K(s) -2.92
+ -
Rb (aq) + e ->Rb(s) -2.925
Cs+(aq) + e- -> Cs(s) -2.923
Ba+2(aq) +2 e- -> Ba(s) -2.90
+2 -
Sr (aq) + 2e -> Sr(s) -2.89
Ca2+(aq) + 2e- -> Ca(s) -2.76
+ -
Na (aq) + e -> Na(s) -2.71
2+ -
Mg (aq) + 2e -> Mg(s) -2.38
Al3+(aq) + 3e- -> Al(s) -1.66
2+ -
Zn (aq) + 2e -> Zn(s) -0.76
Cr3+(aq) + 3e- -> Cr(s) -0.74
Fe2+(aq) + 2e- -> Fe(s) -0.41
2+ -
Cd (aq) + 2e -> Cd(s) -0.40
Ni2+(aq) + 2e- -> Ni(s) -0.23
2+ -
Sn (aq) + 2e -> Sn(s) -0.14
2+ -
Pb (aq) + 2e -> Pb(s) -0.13
Fe3+(aq) + 3e- -> Fe(s) -0.04
+ -
2H (aq) + 2e -> H2 (g) 0.00
Sn4+(aq) + 2e- -> Sn2+(aq) 0.15
2+ - +
Cu (aq) + e -> Cu (aq) 0.16
2+ -
Cu (aq) + 2e -> Cu(s) 0.34
Cu+(aq) + e- -> Cu(s) 0.52
+2 -
Hg (aq) + 2e -> Hg(s) 0.789
Hg2+2(aq) +2 e- -> 2Hg(s) 0.789
Ag+(aq) + e- -> Ag(s) 0.80
+ -
Pd (aq) + 2e -> Pd(s) 0.987
Pt2+(aq)+2e- -> Pt(s) 1.200
+3 -
Au (aq) + 3e -> Au(s) 1.500
+ -
Au (aq) + e -> Au(s) 1.68
 2. Ellingham diagrams for reduction of metal oxides using carbon and
carbon monoxide as reducing agent

Principle of Metallurgy: Extraction of METAL from METAL OXIDE

Reduction Of metal oxide to metal Smelting

Reducing agent (C or CO)

MO M

Ellingham diagram will tell us which one will be perfect idea of reducing agent (C
or CO) to reduce a particular metal oxide.

 Some metal oxides get reduced easily while others are very difficult to
reduce.
 In any case heating is required.
Δ
MO+C M+CO (ΔH = +ve ) i.e. Endothermic

 Study of variation in temperature during thermal reduction is called

Pyrometallurgy.
 Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG =ΔH- TΔS): The energy associated with a chemical
reaction that can be used to do work. For spontaneous reaction, ΔG =-ve
So,TΔS>ΔH ,for a reaction to be spontaneous.

Role of reducing agent is to make ΔG negative.

e.g. FeO Fe+1/2O2 ΔG=+40 Not feasible
+
C+1/2O2 CO ΔG=-100 Feasible
FeO+C Fe+CO ΔG=-60 Feasibleomize your course in
30 sSome features of Ellingham diagram
An Ellingham diagram shows the relation between temperature and the stability of a
compound. It is basically a graphical representation of Gibbs Energy Flow.In
metallurgy, we make use of the Ellingham diagram to plot the reduction process
equations. This helps us to find the most suitable reducing agent when we reduce
oxides to give us pure metals.
Let us take a look at some important properties of the Ellingham Diagram

1. It is a plot of ΔG0 (KJ/Mole) of O 2 vs. temperature of formation of oxide.

The slope of the curve is the entropy and the intercept represents the enthalpy.
2. Each line of converting metals to metal oxide slope upwards because Δ G
becomes less –ve at higher temperature.(that means metal oxide formation
from metals is less easy at higher temperatures)
3. Each plot is straight line, except some change in phase(s liq or liq g)
The pt of inflection in that respective line is m.p/b.p of the metal.
The plots are straight line upto the temperature at which the metals remain in
solid state. Large change in entropy occurs on vaporization and fusion of
metals and thus there will be a change in slope of the lines. For example the
slope of the lines of Hg-HgO,Mg-MgO and Ca-CaO curves changed
appreciably at 629,1380 and 1713 k which are respectively the boiling points
of Hg.Mg and Ca.
4. With increase in temperature a situation is reached when the lines cross the
ΔG =0 line. Below the ΔG =0 line ,the ΔG is negative which means that the
heats of formation of the oxides are stable. Above these temperatures the
ΔG is positive and the oxides will be unstable and will decompose to form
M and oxygen.This is the situation for HgO and Ag2O which are unstable
and spontaneously decomposed into their constituent elements.For these
oxides no reducing agents are required to get the metal which is evident for
the self reduction in air of cinnabar to obtain mercury.

The reaction of metal with air can be generally represented as

M (s) + O2 (g) → MO (s)
Now when reducing metal oxides the ΔH is almost always negative
(exothermic) reaction. Also since in the reaction (as seen above), we are going
from the gaseous state to the solid state ΔS is also negative. Hence as the
temperature increases, the value of TΔS will also increase, and the slope of the
reaction goes upwards.( For your understanding: ΔS becomes negative; T
becomes more positive; so -T ΔS becomes more positive .In this way ΔG
becomes more and more positive i.e. less negative with the rise of temperature.
It indicates metal oxide formation from metal becomes nonspontaneous with
increase of temperature. That means reverse process i.e. reduction of metal
from metal oxide becomes easier at very high temperature. But due to large
expense of thermal energy to extract metal from metal oxide, it is essential to
 find out a suitable reducing agent so that at comparatively low temperature i.e
at low expense of thermal energy we can extract the desired metal. Industry
find out the procedure at which low cost but more production.Ellingham
diagram will tell us which reducing agent at which temperature is more
suitable for reduction of any metal oxide.)

 Metals that have curves at the bottom of the diagram reduce the metals
found more towards the top.(For your understanding: That is any metal
lying at the bottom in the diagram is better reducing agent than a metal lying
at the top. As the M lying at the bottom has more negative ΔG value (more
spontaneous) for its oxide formation reaction than that M lying at the top. So
bottom M will form MO easily by reducing the top MO (since its oxide
formation has less negative ΔG value i.e. less spontaneous).)
 There are cases when the entropy is not negative, and the slope will not
be upwards. Let us take a look at few such examples

C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g): Entropy of solids is negligible. So here one molecule
of gas is resulting in one molecule of gas. Hence there is almost no net entropy. So
there will be no slope, it is completely horizontal.

2C (s)+ O2 (g) → 2CO (g): Here one mole of gas is giving you two moles of gas
as products. So here the entropy will be positive. And as a result, this curve will go
downwards.

2CO(g)+ O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g): Here three mole of gas is giving you two moles of gas
as products. So here the entropy will be negative. And as a result, this curve will go
upwards

Uses of Ellingham Diagram

1) Alumino Thermite Process

The line of Al on the graph actually lies lower than most of the other metals such as
iron. This essentially means Aluminium can be used as a reducing agent for oxides of
all the metals that lie above it in the graph. Since aluminium oxide is more stable it is
used in the extraction of chromium by a thermite process.

Q.Which one is thermodynam,ically feasible-a)Reduction of Cr2O3 by Al or b)

reduction ofAl2O3 by Cr.
At a certain temperature say at 1773 K (Diagram) ,

2Al+3/2 O2 Al2O3 ΔG= -900KJ/mol

2Cr+3/2 O2 Cr2O3 ΔG= -500KJ/mol

Al2O3 +Cr Cr2O3+Al ΔG= -500 – (-900) KJ/mol =400 KJ/mol (+ve, not
feasible)

Cr2O3 +Al Al2O3+Cr ΔG= -900- (-500) KJ/mol = -400 KJ/mol (-ve,
feasible,spontaneous)

2.Carbon reduction process:

Q1.Out of C and CO,which is a better reducing agent for the reduction of

ZnO?
C is the better reducing agent for ZnO compared to CO.Reduction of ZnO to
Zn is carried out at a temperature of 1673 K. However, it has been observed
that above 1273 K, ΔG of formation of ZnO.Therefore,C can easily reduce
ZnO to Zn under these conditions.Also,ΔG of formation of CO 2from COis
always more than ΔG of formation of ZnO.Therefore ,CO cannot be used to
reduce ZnO.
Q2.Can C reduce ZnO to Zn a) 1000K b) 1500K?
 Answer it from the ΔG values obtained from the Ellingham diagram at
the both the temperatures for the following two reactions line
C+1/2O2 CO
ZnO Zn+1/2O2
and from that calculate the overall ΔG for the reaction,
ZnO+C Zn+CO
Find that whether overall ΔG at the respective temperatures negative or
positive and then predict your answer.
Q3.From the following graph predict the temperature above which say
carbon or carbon monoxide will reduce FeO.

Below 600K,Only CO reduces FeO.

Above 800K ,reduction by conversion of coke to carbon dioxide is spontaneous.

Above 900 K,reduction by conversion of coke to CO is spontaneous.

Thus ,for the reduction of FeO ,CO i8s the better reducing agent below 600K,but C
is the better reducing agent above 800K.
[a key point in the graph is the point where two reaction lines cross. At this point,
ΔG is the same for each reaction. On either side of the crossover point ,the reaction
represented by the lower line (the one with the more negative value of ΔG )will be
spontaneous in the forward direction, while that represented by the upper line will
be spontaneous in the reverse direction.]

Q.Applying Ellingham diagram predict whether rutile(TiO 2) will be reduced by

carbon?

Ans. In the Ellimgham diagram the curve of carbon is below the curve of
titanium at about 1900K .At this high temperature of course TiO 2 is reduced
but instead of titanium metal, titanium carbide will be formed.
TiO2 +3C TiC+2CO
In order to obviate this difficulty rutile is treated with carbon and chlorine at
this temperature whereby titanium(IV) chloride is formed in the liquid state.
TiO2 (s)+C(s) +2Cl2 TiCl4(l)+CO2(g)
Now TiCl4 is purified by fractional distillationand then reduced by molten
Mg in Ar atmosphere at 1000-11500C.
TiCl4 +2Mg Ti +2MgCl2
This is known as Kroll process for the extraction of titanium.

Limitations of Ellingham Diagram

 It does not consider the kinetics of the reactions.

 Also, it does not provide complete information about the oxides and their formations.
Say for example more than one oxide is possible. The diagram gives us no
representation of this scenario